Document vy05JG0o5vx7zKKG43n4oEr5b

--------1* lie . INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE LIBRARY A MERIC A N PETROLEU M INSTfTUTF SAFEGUARDING PETROLEUM REFINERIES AND THEIR WORKERS by Roy S . BONSIB, M .A ., x . :12 . Safely Director, Standard Oil Company (N .J .) . New Yo rk Reprinted from the INDUSTRIAL SAFETY SURVEY Vol. XIX, No. 2, Apsil-June 1943 AL d '~r. PLAINTIFF'S . ~ MONTREAL -`"r'.EXNIBIT '. 1943 k~R~Il Price : 15 cents ; 8d . (~ ri '? tV ... .1 1) I 311 wz .'r.: . The International Labour Code A systematic a rrangement of the conventions and recommen datio ns adopted by th e Intertiational L abour Conference 1919. 1939 , wi th a ppendices em bodying o ther sta n da rd s o f social policy framed by the Internat i o na l Labour Organisation and notes givin g full biblio graphical references an d mate ri a l re l a tin g to the ratification, application and int e rpretation of the i nternati onal l ab o ur conventions . The Code consists of twelve books dealing respectively with : Employment and Uxemploymaet ; General Conditions of Employment (wages, hours of work, weekly rest periods, holidays with pay) ; The Employment of Children and Young Persons; The Employment of Women ; Industrial Health, Safety and Welfare; Social Insurance; Industrial Relations; The Administration of Social Legislation ; the Conditions of Work of Stamen; Standards of Colonial Labour Policy ; Migration ; and Statistics. The Appendices include : Selected Resolutions Embodying Standards of Social and Economic Policy Adopted by the International Labour Conference; Selected Standards Approved by Technical Advisory Bodies (pub li c works policy, Standard Code of Industrial H yg ien e , silicosis , safety provisions for underground work in coa l mines , facili ti es for workers' ho li da y s , scientific management , provision for persons disabled as the resu l t of war , salaried employees and professional workers, etc .) : Reports of Specia l Conferences (Worl d Textile Conference , Worl d Coal Conference, Permanent Agricultura l Committee) ; A siatic Regional Supplement ; American Regional Supplement ; Labour Clauses of League of Nations Instruments, etc . "The publication of a vol ume of th is k ind is of inestimab le valu e in furthering the objects w hich the Organisation ha s in view and cannot fail to be of considerable impcrtance in stimulating action and facilitating discussions in th e probl em s w hich lie b r(cre th e Allied nations ."-The low'nol of Conrpa.ati x Legis/ation and InUmasional Law. "The volume is much more tha n a codification ; it i s a documentation a( the interpenetration of th e I . LO. in regional and na tional social D ro t ress."-{ me^w R 1owwal of Inurnotioeai Law. " . . . an impressive record of achievement . . . an inv a lu able r eference book ."-The Can adiae Bar Rcsiso. . . . a valuable guide for the future ."-The Sorts Africox Law Journal . " A capital reminder of the continuing existence of the 1 .L.0 . and massive evidence of the value of its work."-labour (official organ o f the T . U.C . ) , London . Montreal, 1941 . Iv i + 920 pp. Pr ice : $5 .00 ; 15a. 2.' rl 3i2 Is SAFEGUARDING PETROLEUM REFINERIES AND THEIR WORKERS By Roy S . Boxsin, M . A., E.M ., Safety Director, Standard Oil Company (N . J . ), New York. Thin is the second' in a series of articles on safely work in the petroleum industry . The author wishes to express his acknowledgment of the assistance rendered him by Dr. J . M. ADAMS, Dr. W . J. MCCONNELL, Mr. F. L . NEWCOMB, Mr. D . V . STROOP, and THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE in the preparation of the article. Almost eve ry i n dustry ha s c e rt a i n ha zards pe culiar to itse lf. The inherent hazards of the petrol eum refining in dustry are d ue to the volatile nature of crude petroleums and many of the i r produc ts . Vapours from these produ cts are flammable and fires o r explosions will result if they a re permitted to escape an d be c ome ignite d . In ad d ition, a few may be tox ic, an d inhali ng the m ma y cause se rious illness or even death . The reality an d importance of these hazards h a ve been p roven by the occurre nce of serious acciden ts ; but it h as a lso bee n prove n tha t the possibility of accidents, intoxications, fires and expl osions can b e greatly reduced by taking suitable precautions. During the three-year period 1939-4 1 inclus- ive, representative oil companies hav e report ed to the American Petroleum Institute 525 refinery fires . A few o f these ha ve been costly but t h e tota l re po rted lone of $1,577,484 gives an average tom of only $3,000 .00 per fire. Because of the vital p art played by pe t role u m produc ts in the presen t global co nflict, it is necessary that every effort be mad e to safeguard petrole u m refining operations and workers. Th e production of toluene and gly cerine for exploe ivea , super motor fuels and lubricants for war planes , raw materials for synthe ti c rubber, and a ll t he normal pe t roleum pro ducts for fuellin g and l u b rica ting the veh icles and wea po ns of war and the industrial plants be hind the g un s , make th e safe operation of petrol eum re fi n eries of s upreme i mportan ce at t his time. The 1 00,000 'The fins u tkle i s this Kin ('Ptereleus . A Portrait is S .fa' N . Hu~atss). .u WElnYd is /Msuru/ SoJM7 S.nq, Yol. ZVIL N. 4 . pp. 121-129. men who man America 's petroleum refineries, as well as the hundreds of thoua ande of other workers who s upply them with ra w materials a nd distribute the finished products, must work safely in order to m aintain a constant and uninterrupted flow of essential- petroleum products . Fortunately, most of the l a rger refining companies and the more progressive of the smaller units h a ve been comb atting accidents, fires and explosions for fifteen or twenty years and records show that despite the fundamental dangers peculiar to the handling of flammable materials at extremes of temperature and pressure, the petroleum refinery is a safer place in which to work than the average industry, and refinery employees are nearly twice as s a fe on the job as off . For example, here are some real accident prevention achievements : Wood River Refinery, St andard Oil Company (Indian a) worked 6,879,296 manhours without a dis a bling injury . ' Baton Rouge Refinery, Standard Oil Company (Louisiana) worked 4,216,600 man-hours without a dis abling injury ; the mech anical division of this refinery wor ked 5,593,800 man-hours without any one being disabled . Safety instruction is a continuous, vital part of the every-day work at almost all refineries. However, war has brought a need not only for more intensive accident and fire prevention because of heightened activity at refineries but also for prot ection aga inst possible enemy atte mpts to stop their operation by s a botage a nd ,2v U ..i :iu 3i3 U 10 Q INDUSTRIAL SAFE'" S II7SPET bombing. These added d angers have been met particular temperature at which it will hog . with increa sed protective measures, including The boiling point s of the hydrocarbons in crude the training of more workers, the m a nning of oil range from about-280F or -160C (a hydroadditional fire brigades, and the establishm e nt carbon gas) to temperatures so high that the of additional first-aid stations. In an emergency, compounds brea k down or "crack" before they practically every man in a refinery will have a get a chance to boil. Many of the boiling point specific job to do. Years of training in the pro- temperatures are no clos e to gether that it is tection of their plants against norm al d angers impossible to se p a rate the hydrocarbons as pure h as engendered a mong refinery workers a spirit substances, by distillation alone. Cons equently, of loyalty and understanding that has been of the refiner s epar a tes from the crude oil groups the utmost assistance in meeting war problems. of hydrocarbon s which boil within a limited Some of the protective measures are probably tempe rature range. These groups are called not yet in operation, but the fundamental pro- "fractions"-such as the gasoline fraction and blem of obt aining employee awareness and co- kerosene fraction . operation was easily solved. Furthermore, there are different types of Safeguarding petroleum refining operations crude oil, depe nding on the number and com- and workers is becoming more and more com- position of the hydrocarbons present . To ana- plicated because the production of petroleum lyse each crude for all of the hundreds of hydro- products is rapidly becoming a chemical manu- carbons prese nt is an impossible task . Yet the facturing industry. Constantly improv ed ants refiner must know what is in hi s raw m a terial. motive equipment requires improved fuels and This he le arns by separating the crude into frac- lubricants to keep abreast with its development ; tion s and determining what hydroca rbon "fami- cons equently, the refinery of to-day is much lira" are represented in each . The grouping of more complicated than when the various petro- hydrocarbons with similar characteristics into leum products were produced by comparatively families (the Paraffin Family, the Aromatic simple fractional distillation of crude oil . While Family, the Naphthene Family, etc.) and the considerable quantities of motor fuel and lubric- relatively easy chemical determinations of these ants are still produced by primary distillation families gives a chemical picture of the raw ma- of crude petroleum, the quality and quantity terial . It also permits the refiner to classify the produced is insufficient to meet present day various crude oils that enter the refinery. Among demands and a number of new refining processes the compounds in crude oil, some make a fiasa have been developed . These new prnca-Acs have line engine start easily, while others have just not only introduced new accident and fire the opposite effect ; some ma ke the engine a h a zards but many of them make use of toxic giant of power while others turn it into a noisy materials which may affect the health and well- weakling; some make good lubricants while being of refinery workers unless precautionary others do not ; a few simply smell bad . These measures are rigidly observed . That these pro- gaseous, liquid, solid, good, bad and indifferent blems are being effectively met is indicated by compounds make up the refi n ery's complex raw the fact that the safety record of petroleum material. refineries still ranks above the average of all It is th e refiner's task to bring order out of industries engaged in the war effort . this co nfusion-to retain the g ood, eliminate the bad and convert the indifferent compounds So ya Ess x rrzini. Piuxci nZs IN PsrxoLxvx into useful products. The processes used to REFINING OPERATIONS convert all parts of the crude into useful pro- ducts are : distillation, treating, cracking, syn- In order to un ders tand petroleum refining thesis, compounding and blending . and its hazards, on e must first appreciate the By "distillation", the refiner lines up the nature of the material from which the refin e r members of the chemical families in the order makes his fi nished products. Crude oil i s com- of their various boiling points and marches them posed essentially of carbon and hydrogen. B ut off as ga soline, kerosene, etc . As the selected carbon and hydrogen have the remarkable groups or fractions leave the still, other com- ability to com bine chemically to fo rm a gre at pounds which, in the selected fraction, are useless number of di fferent "hydrocarbon " compounds, for the purpose intended tag along . "Treating" each of whic h h as i ts own ch aracter istics and a removes these undesirables. Even the bad smell vU 2 33 "J, l 3i.1 1 0 0 _ iA1IpII .UtDIN6 li R7tOL l IIlt lttlRRltiiB AND THlSlt AORLLit6 3 v removed and, as proof that the oil man never smaller molecules . Sinc e the new, light oil wastes anything that can possibly be used, this mol ecules are sma ll er, the ir A . P. I. gravities are bad smell is sometimes saved to give an odour hi gher and their bo il ing points an d me lt i ng to domestic gas so that leaking gas can be detect- points are lower th an those of the bigger mole- ed by the nose instead of being revealed by an cules use d as feed stoc k . W hen these l a rger explosion. Most of the "bad" compounds, such mo lecules are c rac k ed, solid carbon (coke) is as those removed by treating, and whole groups left behind in the c ra ck ing equipment when th e of "indifferents"-fractions too heavy for gaso- refin er permits th e li q uid and gas eous hydro- line or kerosene, too light for lubricating oil and carbon prod ucts to come out. Exce pt for the not required for fuel oil-are converted by heat coke, the to tal products of the thermal cracking and pressure, that is, "cracking", into a mixture rea ctio n are some thi ng li ke a c r ud e oil because of compounds which like the original crude has th ey in clude li gh t ,' med iu m and heavy oils an d a wide range of boiling points. Among the many some gases. Thus , in a sense, the rmal c rackin g compounds created by "clacking", a large per- may be use d by the refiner to make crude oil centage are especially suited as fuel for cars out of a ma te rial such as gas oil. Originally no (cracked gasoline) . c a talysts (substances which initihte and assist Other compounds created by cracking are the ch emic a l reactions without th emselves being starting point for the "synthesis" of rubber ch an ged) were add ed to st i m ulat e o r d i rect t h e substitutes, alcohol, additive agents for fighting crac k i ng react ion , but recent ly new meth ods grade aviation fuel, lubricants, etc . By "com- usi ng catal ysts have been found greatly to pounding" various non-petrolcurn substances i n crea se the p roduct i on of gasolines with esrx :ci- with certain treated fractions, the refinery ni ly desi ra bl e characteristics . Cat a lytic cra c king crea tes products for special purposes . For is therefore b eing used more widely . example, soaps compounded with lubricating oil make grease . By the "blending" of various finished fractions their different qualities are combined to meet exactly he special requirements of a certain product . In general it may be said that every drop of crude is converted into useful products, in spite of the variation in the chemical composition of crude from different oil fields . This ability of the modern refiner to make use of every part of the crude oil, as well as different types of cruder, is a great achievement. In the old days the character of the crude oil directly determined the kind of products that could be made . To-day this handicap has been overcome. Products of the highest quality can be made from many different etudes because refinery men know how to alter the chemical set-up of the oil and convert all compounds into useful products . The changes the refiner makes in the size and shape of the hydrocarbon molecules which make up petroleum may be classified into five groups : (1) Subdividing (Cracking) ; (2) Rearranging ; (3) Combining ; (4) Adding ; and (5) Deducting. Rearranging (Refo rming and Itomenae Lio n) The mix ture of natural and cracked gasolines mad e in th e refi nery sometimes does not meet the requireme n ts of modern a utomobiles . It m ay "knoc k " i n the engine enou g h to annoy the user . So the refi ner may have to improve the gasoline to make it knoc k less . One of the methods he uses for th is purpose is a treatment of the heavy fracti ons of natural nap h thas and is called "reforming" . Refo rm ing may be done in the same equi p me nt a s that in wh ich cracking is done, b ut at some wh at different temperatures and pressures. In reformin g t here is not so much ch an ge in the size of the m olecules bu t the a toms are re -arranged by the effects of heat to make other hydrocarbons more suita ble fo r automobile fuel a n d little, if any, coke is formed. Some- times the refiner n eeds to make additional amou nts of the breache d-c hai n hy d rocarbo n isobutane for use as o ne of t he raw materials i n the al kylation process des cribed belo w . I n ma ny c ases the re fin er has available the stra ight ch a i n hydrocarbon, butane, ei ther as a cons titue nt of the gases from the field or as one of t he ga ses produced in cra cking. Butane h as the same Subdividing (Cracking) .-If hydrocarbon mole- number of carbo n and hydrogen atoms as iso- cules are heated enough and held long enough butan e. Th e difference between them is in the at the elevated temperature they crack them- arrangeme nt of the carbon atoms in the m olecule. selves into pieces . To ma ke light oils from the When two hydro carbon s hav e the same num ber heavy oil, the big molecule is cr a cked into severa l of carbon an d hydrogen atoms but the arrange- 'i . 3. E 4 arnuaTMnr. a.rnrr eva vsr meat of those atoms differs, then the chemist says that one compound is an "i so mer" of the other. The process of making an "iso" c om poun d out of its corresponding normal com poun d is, therefore, railed "i so merisation" . The u omeriastioa of butane is on e of th ose reactions w hich needs the stimulati ng an d directing affect of a su itable catalyst to m ake it w o rk fa st en ough to be pra cticable . Co mbining (Polymerisation and .l lkytatioa) .- The word "poly m er " is used by the petroleu m chem ist to refe r to a product formed by-the union o f tw o or m ore id entical, unsaturated hydrocarbons to make one larger molecule. A g ood exam ple of "polymerization" used in the oil indus try is the process i n w hich a molecule of isobutylene is ma de to unite with an other molecule of the same m ateri a l. As successive molecules of isa butylene ar e added to the larg er molecule o f the polymer, the weight of the m olecule increases, the A .P .I . gra vi ty dec r e ases an d the boiling point and melting point incre as e. By co ntrolli n g the reaction, therefore, the refiner ca n make the prod uct either a light liq ui d for use i n gasoline manufacture or a solid for use as a pl astic . In many re a ctions in petroleum chem istry a hydro- gen atom of the saturated paraffin hydroc arbons m a y be knocked off from the molecule and some compound quickly put in place of the hydroge n before the carbon bond has a chan ce aga in to grab t he hydro gen atom. The word "alkylation" is used to define t h e process which res ults in attaching an alkyl radic al to another m olecule . In petroleum chemistry the alkyl ati on rea cti on refers to the attac hing of an' isobutyi radic al ( form e d fro m isobutane) to an unsa turated hyd roca rbon such as isobutylene to fo rm a l a rge r , more complex molecule of the par affin series . The help of a catalyst or high temp erature and pressure a re ne cessary to effect the alkylation reaction. The approved current method is to use sulphu ri c acid as the catalyst. T he product formed (calle d "alkyl a te") in ex cellent for blendi ng wi t h other m a teri a ls to make avi ation gasoline . Adding (Hydrogenation) .-The refiner someti mes wan ts to m ake a sa tur a ted hydroc a rbon out of a n unsaturated one and often wants to make light pro ducts out . of heavy ones . The first of these objects can be acco m plished by add ing one o r m ore hydroge n atoms to the unsaturated molecules. Such a p roces s is called "non -des tructive hydro gena tion" b ecau se the mo lecule is not broken up before the hydro gen atoms are adde d . The second object may be attained by a combination of cracking and adding hydrogen atoms to the res ulti ng smaller m olecules. Sinc e the mol ecules of the feed stock are firs t br oken up by c racking, this com bina tion in called "destructive hydrogenation" . By use of a suit a ble catalyst and control of the reaction, the materials produc e d may be gas oline , kerosene, and gazes on ly. All of these prod ucts are smaller in molecule size and arc more generally saturated than the feed stock . Deducting (Dehydsog at ation) . - " D ehydrogenn tio n " m eans t h e removal of hydro gen. A s atur ated hydro carbo n molecule often behaves as if it were ve ry reluct ant to p ermit a hydrogen atom to be withdrawn , so the directive influence , of a cat a lyst is necessary in the dehydrogenation reaction . A good exam ple of a "non-destructive dehydrogenation" is the production of butylen e from butane. The rea ctio n can a lso be co mbined w ith cracki ng so that the tw o or mo re un s aturated molec u les of the p roduct a re ea ch smaller than the feed mole cule an d hydrog en is evolved . T his kind i s called "destructive dehydrogenation" . The h aza rds en cou n tered in the production of petroleum products at refineries will be discussed in order of their relative seriousness or i mportance un d er two general headings : I . Fire an d Acciden t Hazards , and II. Occup ational Health Hazards. I. Flan AND ACCIDLNT HAZARDS I The ra re occurrence of extensive petroleum fires and their e$eative control today stands out in ma rked contrast to the experience of oil men twenty or more years ago, A comparison of the enormous quantities of petroleum products handled and the relatively few serious fires occurring to-dsy with the comparatively small quantities and relatively great destruction during the early years of the industry, points conclusively to the vast improvements made by refiners in recognising the hazards and employing efficient means of prevention and protection, although from time to time costly fires still occur . It will be possible in this discussion only to point out some of the principal fire hazards, the essentials of fire prevention in oil refineries, and the principles of ade quate protection . Since each refinery, owing to its loc ation, topography of the ., .. G2 V1 1 11, 0 0 E SAFEGUARDING PETROLEUM REFINERIES AND THEIR WOR iLltB 5 ground, construction, layout, ch arging stock handled, products made and org.nisstioa of pe rsonnel, presents a separate and distinct problew, it is not practicable to make specific, detailed recommendations ., making repairs to the shell of the tsak. There . fore, tests must be m ade with a reliable combustible gas indic ator jus t prior to the beginning of the work and a t intervals during the progress of the job, unless the job is of short dur a tion . Fire Hazards in Refineries P rimary Sources of r9nition . As in any other pl ant or factory, there are According to the Travelers Insur a nce C8mthree requisites for the genesis of a fire in an oil psay, e majority of oil ta nk fires (especially refinery, namely : (1) a flammable subst a nce ; wood-roofed ta nk fires) occur in summer. In one (2) the presence of air or oxygen ; and (3) a summer, for ex a mple, there were 86 oil-tank source of ignition . fires known to be due to lightning ; and as the records for a number of ye a rs indicate that many Explosive Range of Petroleum Vapours . of the oil fires are caused directly by or through Generally speaking, the various liquid petroleum products and their vapours are flammable and become explosive when mixed in certain the influence of lightning, it is import ant to consider this particul ar source of hazard with special care . proportions with air . Ordinarily, the explosive Lightning .-The great beat of a lightning flash range for gasoline and crude oil vapours is from can i gnite petrol eum vapours . Ex perie nce has 1 .0 per cent . to 8.0 per cent . by volume, with air . shown that a direct hit is unlikely to damage an The range is wider for hydrogen sulphide gas- all-steel, gas-ti ght tank , or ignite its contents . approximately from 4 .3 per cent . to 46 per cent. Secondary disch arges may be ca used by a light- Storage Tanks. ning stro k e within a radius of severa l hundred feet from where the direct hit occurs . Such As vapour hazards may exist wherever petroleum products are handled, one should assume that all petroleum storage tanks may contain explosive mixtures of vapour and air and take precautions accordingly . If a tank is sealed to the atmosphere and is provided with suitable gas vents, an explosion is unlikely . However, whether a tank is practically empty or almost full, if it is opened so that air can enter, an explosive mixture of vapour and air is likely to b e created ; and the explosion hazard may become serious if this mixture is forced out of the tank by the introduction of liquid, by the application of he a t or by an increase in temperature of the surrounding air. A tank that has been opened for the purpose of cleaning is not considered s afe from explosion until it has been properly ventilated or garfreed. Moreover, it is important to remember that even after these precautions have been taken, an explosive atmosphere m ay be crea ted within a short time by the stirring up of sediment at the bottom of the tank while cleaning; by the admission of contaminated air from adjacent t a nks or through le aking valves ; or by an increase in the temperature of the surrounding air, by sunlight striking directly on the tank, or by t h e heat from a welding fl ame used when sparks cannot ignite wood, but can set fire to explosive vapours. We cannot control either the generation or the accumulation of atmospheric electricity, and only to a limited extent can we control the discharge when it is directed towards the ea rth . We know .that when the difference in potential is great enough, there is a discharge between one cloud and another, or between a cloud and the earth . Furthermore, when clouds are near the earth, a cloud-to-cloud disch arge may be attended by an inductive disturbance on the ea rth which is hea vy enough to cause sparking between terrestrial objects. The limited control we h a ve of earth-to-cloud or cloud-to-earth discharges consists (1) in providing sharp, upwardlydirected conducting points sufficient in number and, c a p a city to dissipate terrestrial ch a rges silently, and thereby prevent them from attaining a potential high enough to make a disruptive di scharge possible ; and (2) in providing a wellgrounded metallic conductor of generous cross section, safely to take care of . any disruptive discharge that does occur. We know that electrical energy can be transmitted through a conductor harmlessly (that is, without the formation of sparks or arcs, or the development of a d angerously high temper- x .. co rk. ature a nywhere), provided th at the amount to 0 0213 _) 12 0 3i'1 .. ~ 6 aramnuwr. s. srrr .aa.sr be conducted does, not exceed the carrying will generate static electri city but the air die- capacity of the conductor-and there i s no p l aced by the injected steam generally prevents break or gap in the conductor . A gas-tight, all. any troub l e. Water flowing t hrough a rubber steel oil t ank composed of a steel shell, a steel hose will gene rate static ele ctricity. When tank roof, fitted with h a tches or other openings bottoms are being washed down by m e ans of a that are closed tightly on the appro a ch of a water hose stream through shell or roo f man- storm, and provided with a vent that is properly holes, the nozzle or play-pipe i s bonded metallic- protected by flame-arresting screens, fulfils these ally to the tank shell. Spray painting and sand conditions quite well . Such a tank his ample blasting can also deve lop stat i c e lectri ci t y and conductin g capacity to carry away the electrical care must be exercised when these operations energy in case of a direct hit ; the tightly closed are u sed around the re fi nery . Spraying insulated hatch precludes any chance of sparking or arcing ; objects is part icu la rly apt to cau se an ac cumulaand the gas-tight construction and guarded vent tion of static charges. The ground ing of the prevent the accumulation of rich and explosive n ozzle and mac h i n e w ill reduce th is h aza rd . A i r mixtures of oil-vapour and air in any way th a t and steam leaks from high pressure lines produce could result in harm. Thorough bonding together static charges whic h can accumulate on insulated of all metallic parts of the structure, adequate obj ects that are in or near the path of the j et. grounding of the electrical system, a nd the elimination of explosive vapours, are desirabl~ forms of protection against secondary lightning discha rges. Many t a nks complying with the conditions here enumerated are known to have Stray Currrnk .-Stray currents, particularly around electric railways or weld ing mach in es, rare apt to flow through the ground if wet, or thro u gh pi pe l ines or wire fences. been hit by lightning without any unfortunate consequences, and no doubt there h ave been a great m any more hits that have not been observed and which did not cause fire . This is the proof of the pudding. Static Electricity.-Static electricity is produced during the flow of air, vapour, water or oil and around moving belts, flywheels or wherever matter is in motion. It has been demonstrated that under certain conditions a spray of fa lling oil can produce extraordinary electric al diacharges-sp e rka several feet long. A good general rule for combatting static electricity is to keep everything electrically bonded and grounded. In filling operations such as of c ans, b arrels, trucks, or tank cars, the ends of the supply line are electrically connected to each other and to ground . In filling large tanks, overshot lines are avoided and fill pipes are submerged where possible. Gaugers touch their bare h a nds to hand-rail at top of stain, to discharge any static that might h a ve accumul ated on their body before opening gauge hatches . The back or blank side of the g auging tape is kept in Spontaneous Ignition.-A lmost' all crude pe t role u ms contain some su lph ur , and w h en the sulp h ur cont ent is high there is likely to be a deposit of a s ul phur compound on the i nn er exposed surf ace of s torage ta nks. Amon g other things, this deposit co n t a in s iron sulphide, which abs orbs oxygen rea dily . Unde r f a vourable conditions, this a b s orp ti on may be so rapid that the deposit becomes incandes cent and i gni tes th e oil vapours if any are present. Fortunately, only a very limited number of crude petroleums c ontains enough sul phur to cause tro uble of this k ind ; but the danger shoul d be borne i n m in d. When tanks containing high su lphur etudes are be i ng pumped out, a small amount of stea m released in the tankwill wet the su l phur deposit on the shell sad prevent its spontaneous combu stio n. Spontaneous i gnition caused by decom position is an e v er-p resent hazard , and can b e elimi na ted only by good housekeeping and proper vent il atio n . Some of the substances which arc most s u bject to s pontaneous ignition are : ve g et a ble oils , sulphides, lamp-black, iron filings', scale fro m t anks , charcoa l, coa l and co k e. contact with the edge of the gauge hatch while Welding. lowering and raising the ta pe. Steam injected into a tank can generate large Welding is always a fire hazard and is don e static charges and should be introduced through only after a thorough inspection of condition s a swing pipe or by a thoroughly grounded and then only under constant supervision . A expa nding nozzle. Even the condensate from written ' Hot Work" permit, issued after a comthe stea m injection dropping from a cold roof bustible gas test in all enclosures, i s essential. 00211'3 1 - I'll 310 0 6AIF.O VARDIN Q PF.TROLLVN 1t6ITNEip ttS AND TII LtR WORICLItB 7 Miscellaneous Sources of Ignition . The manq.hazardi around he a ting pl a nts are obvious and need not be mentioned, except to say that live steam lines will ignite wood it pl aced in direct contact and especially in a confined air space, because of the fact that when wood is he ated and allowed to cool off the flesh or ignition point is reduced . All a re familiar with the hazards of .matchm, sparks, cig a rettes, etc . so they need not be considered here . The sun's rays have also been known to start fires where they are allowed to shine for some time through water bottles, sample bottles and other glass articles. Care should be taken in the use of automobiles and trucks in locations where explosive v apours are likely to exist . There is also the hazard of illuminating systems . No open lights and none but vapour-proof globes with protection against mecha nic al injury should be used . Breaking of electric light globes or relamping can cause d angerous sparks. All electric wiring and all electric machinery and equipment should be kept in perfect condition at all times . A flashlight or electric lantern of an approved type is safer than an extension cord and lamp . Essexlials of Fire Prevention carefully selected and installed. Lighting fix- tures in rooms where petroleum product s are handled and in other locations, where combustible or explosive vapours may be present, are of the approved type . Sewers are of ample size, not only to care for surf a ce dra inage, but to carry a way quickly spills of oil in case of equip- meat failure and to handle large volumes of water necessary in case of fire. Such sewers ha ve been equipped with ad equa te separators at their outlets to prevent the discharge of oil which mi ght endanger other property . The exclusion of fire ha zards receives careful consideration in the design and specifications of each proposed structure and all equipment. Design engineers should h ave a very clear conception of the conditions of operation and the functions of each unit and its relation to surrounding equipment . The engineering department is kept informed by, particip ation in conferences and exchange of data w ith the development, operating and ins pection groups on all manuf a cturing equipment performance, especially on high pressure cracking and continuous distillation units . By this co-operative arrangement the designing engineers receive the benefit of all available knowledge on the conditions of operation of new installations . Here are some essentials of fire prevention which are considered at most oil refineries : (1) Syatcmatie Planning .-A modern petroleum refinery is systematically planned, with a zoning of the pl ant to provide for different operstiona and proper avenues of commuaic atioa. Spa cing of equipment is ca refully studied to reduce possibility of fire spread ; roadways or fire breaks are maintained between b a tteries of stills, groups of other equipment and at frequent intervals in t ank fields, to permit movement of fire-fightin g equipment and provide advantageous and safe positions to combat such fires as m ay occur. Refinery construction in g ene ral is of fire-resisting m ateri al . Vital a gencies such as power houses, w ate r and foam pumps are loc ated where least exposed to hazard . Oil piping and control valves are so arranged as to permit ready transfer of petroleum stocks in case of emergency . Equipment wherein oil is heated or which operates under pressure is equipped with suitable safety valves for relieving excess pressures and the discharges of these valves are led to safe pl aces to reduce the poeaibility of their ignition . Electrical equipment is (2) Proper Care in Operation where flammable materials are handled involves mainly the human element. The selection of men to take charge of operations and the instruction of the personnel in safe methods of oper ation a re prob a bly of greater importance in preventing fires and accidents than any other single factor . Careleasneaa invariably leads to unsafe conditions with greater chance of fires and accidents . Definite instructions are issued and no infraction of the rules is tolerated, such as the use of shortcuts, make-shifts, etc . All violations of the instructions receive suitable discipline and continued failure to comply results in disch arge . (3).I-nspTechtieon intelligent and regular inspection of refinery plant equipment by properly trained personnel is essential and an inspection group is organised. All equipment operating under high temperature and pressure, such as cracking and pipe stills, is subjected to a very rigid inspection at regular periods . The inspection consists of external and internal examination, together with drilling and measurement of all the sections where corrosion and other agencies are apt to affect the strength of 0021 ^v - I El 31 3 --- - --- -- -- - ---- 8 cxavaTntw sAFZ7r SURVEY the unit. Tube element. of furnaces on cracking unless the tanks a re in isol ated locations and and pipe stills are measured for inside diameter not subject to exposure. To avoid breaka ge and after each run by a special measuring tool. If any leakage, steel and malleable v alves are used elements are found below the standards that instead of cast iron in places where a strain is have previously been fixed as s afe, they a re apt to be thrown upon them . Brass valves melt removed. With drums or pressure vessels a down quickly if exposed to intense heat and hyd : sulic test is applied in addition to the should not be used where there is any possibility ex amination and drillings. This inspection of their being exposed to fire . Gate valves are group usually has the authority to order the provided at strategic points in all oil lines so as repairs necessary to place the unit in a safe to cut off the flow, in case of breakage . opera ting condition. (4) Good Housekeeping cannot be minimised as a necessary item in accident and fire preven- tion . Good housekeeping embraces the mainten- ance of the entire plant in a neat, clean and orderly condition and clearly indicates the extent of the management's success in impressing its force with habits of carefulness . Avoidance of waste by looking after the little things helps much towards successful operation as well as maximum safety and minimum fire risk . There is no place where good housekeeping is more necessary than in an oil refinery. (6) "Hot Work" Permits.-Many fires and explosions in oil refineries have been caused by lack of adequate precaution in performing hot work. Hot work in refineries includes oxy- acetylene cutting and welding, electric welding, heating and drivin g rivets, operations entailing the use of lead melting pots, tar kettles, etc ., and all other uses of torches or flame on mechan- ical operations . Before any open fire or game is allowed, a written hot work permit, signed by the fire chief and a department superintendent after investigation or test, is obtained by the operator. Many cases have been found where (5) Reduction of Fire Hazards .-It is possible such operations would have been dangerous had to reduce the h azards in oil refineries by avoiding they not been investigated and prohibited . all unnecessary flammables . Wood ignites at a There is also a similar fire permit arrangement lower temperature than oil or oil vapours, there- covering the use of fires or open flames on board fore all combustible structures such as wooden tankers, tugs, and barges at the docks . Special roofs, ladders, runways, fences and old shacks permission from the operating forces to do hot are eliminated where possible . Oil spills due to work usually consists of a permit in writing breakages, accident, carelessness and leaks, issued daily . The operating supervisor, having allowing a stream of oil or vapours to travel jurisdiction over the equipment on which hot 3='0considerable distances and come into contact work is to be done, may i ss ue a permit to the with open games or other sources of ignition, mechanical supervisor after he has ascertained h ave caused many serious fires. Extreme care to the best of his ability that everything is safe, is exercised to prevent such spills . Most large that all oil and gas lines to the equipment have oil fires either begin with an explosion or spread been blanked, and that the equipment is oil or from unimportant fires by vapour explosions . gas free . A combustible gas indicator is used The explosibility of vapours in closed spaces is to determine the concentration of combustible determined and measures an,tskea to keep the gas in the air and, if this concentration is greater vapours outside the explosive limits . Various than 0.2 per cent ., a permit is not issued until methods are used to accomplish this end. In the concentration is reduced below that limit . some c oca it is best to keep the vapour too rich Hot work permits are usually issued in duplito explode a nd, in others, too lean ; and sometimes cate form, one copy remaining with the op- it can best be done by introducing an inert gas erating supervisor executing it and the other that will make the mixture too deficient in oxy- given to the mechanical supervisor . This permit gen to burn. When their explosibility cannot may also be used in conjunction with a second be controlled practically, they are guarded as permit consisting of a heavy card five inches if they were dynamite. Tanks containing ex- wide and twelve inches long made up in the form plosive vapours are avoided as far as possible, of a green tag with two sections, perforated and attended only by reliable men who under- between. The sections have spaces for designa- stand the nature of the vapour. Concrete or tion of equipment and work to be done, type masonry supports are used on all elevated tanks, of fire equipment at hand and signature of both U 0 a ersavennnva rmaoc zmc aa n x=aa AND Tatta woACSna 9 A the op eratin g and mechanical supervisor. Both sections of the permit are gi ven to th e meohanicWa supervisor who attaches t he second se c t ion to the welding or hot work equ i pment . In a ctual practice the perm it tag is issued daily and is made out from the notations on the first p ermit. years foam generators employing a supp ly of dry po wder and hig h pr essure water have been de veloped ; and it appears that for certain we ll group ed risks where the distance to the farthest located risk is no t great, the y may at ti m es be used to advant age, with a saving in i nitia l cost and so me s li ght dec rease in ma i ntenance. There Fire- Fighting Facilities i s also now on the marke t an a i r fo am wh ich There are four classes of fire-fighting facilities : (a) High Pressure Water Systems ; (b) Steam Smothering Lines ; (c) Foam and Other Smother. tag Systems ; and (d) Portable Extinguishing Equipment . Effective results may be obtained from the use of plant fire-fighting organisations . requires n o che m icals other t han a stabiliser. This foa m is f ormed by agit ati ng the solutio n in the p resence of air which forms a frothy m ixture . The well established formulas and rules re garding quan tities of foam solutio n s and rates of a p p lication required, are in ten ded to comb at a dverse conditions and are safest to (a) High Pressure Water Syslema,-Distribu- follow i n designing systems . tiott of high pressure water for fire purposes is Foam acts as n smothering blanket which usually kept separate from fo%v pressure systems floa ts over th e surface of the b urning oil. The used for utility purposes. Utility supplies are foa m is prod uced by a mixture of two sol ut ions , not taken from the high pressure system except one of which conta i ns al uminium sulph a te, in special cases and then only in small quantities . while the other co nt ains sodium bicarbon a te, The source of supply should be equal to at least together with certain o th er substances such as 24 hours' maximum pumping capacity. glue, glucos e and licorice whic h form a suitable The use of booster pumps between low and fo am . The alum inium sul phate and the dilute high pressure systems where they parallel one acid combine with the s odium bicarbonate to another, should be encouraged. Pumps in fire form an incombustible gas (mainly carbon diox- service should be well distributed. Distributing ide), while the glue, glucose or licorice causes the lines are looped to minimise interruption due to mixture to froth, instea d of giving off the gas breaks ; hydrants arc placed at frequent intervals, freely i n to the air. Thus a smothering blanket and hose threads conform to the nearest city is formed, which unde r prope r conditions effec- fire department's equipment . An ample supply tively shuts off the supply of air or oxygen and of hose is essential. Use of stationary play causes the fire to die out . Other substances may nozzles for special risks, on docks or the tops of be us ed to cre a te the foam but in order to get high structures, is strongly recommended . Large g ood results, thr ee essen ti al conditio ns m ust be sized lines and an adequate number of pumps of sa tisfied : firs t, the chemical reaction that t a kes ample capacity mark a successful system . A place m ust generate an i n co mbustible gas ; fairly recent development, which is proving second, the froth-creating constituents must quite successful, i s the use of fog nozzles with yieldd bubbles of a high de gree of permanence so high pressure water . th at the froth will not easily b rea k dow n but (b) Steam Smothering Lines.-The eHective nesa of steam smothering depends upon an adequate supply of steam of fair quality . Controlled connections to oil pump rooms, gas exhauster houses, receiving or tail houses of still batteries, are good practice . Frequent steam hose connections around refinery equipment handling hot oil are essential since steam is more effective as a fire prevention agent than it is for fighting fire. will persis t for a considerable time. In particular, the froth or fo am must be persi stent enough to w ithstand a fall of several feet, as it enters the tank and se ttles down upo n the burning oil . Third, a ple ntiful quantity of the fo am must be supplied . It is neglect of the third condition which is almost invariably responsible for f ailure when it occurs. There must be a sufficient quantity of both solutions immediately available and the pipin g and pumping facilities must be adequate (c) Foam ,Systems follow the design and to ensure the placin g of at least a five-inch a pproved practice now well recognised in the blanket of foam over the entire surface of the petroleum industry and outlined by the National oil within five or six min utes. A llowing six gal- U ; ~ .,, .Board of Fire Underwriters . Within recent lons of foam for each gallon of mixed solution 0 .,~ .~~i 0 3?1 -- ------------- ------ ------ ------ jQ iNbII6TAfAL sAFLTT SUET sad knowing th e area of the oil surfa ce that is to be blanketed , i t is a simp l e mat ter to c alculate the t otal amount of so lutio n tha t will be needed ; but to this calculated amo unt a liberal additional quantity sh oul d be added as a safe ty equipment are thoroughly covered by the Regulations of the National Board of Fire Underwriters for the Installation, Maintenance and Use of First-Aid Fire Appliances . In addition, hose houses are supplied with extra spanner wrenches, hose clamps (for repairing breaks in hose), picki+, shovels, buckets, lengths of inch rope, extra hose gaskets, axes, crowbars, metal shields for pro- tecting men from heat, fire-proofed blankets, wooden troughs for protecting hose passing over hot pipe lines, extra hydrant wrenches and tapered wooden plugs of various sizes for plugging broken pipe lines . One large eastern re- fin ery has equipped its 50-car gasoline loading P:hoto St-fad Oll Co i+ PIRY f .V- J . .3ty Fig. I .-acid -type goggles must be wor n w hen working on equipme nt containing acid, caustic or other corrosive materials . Note shee t lead shield around ft ang n end valves, rack with a mono-rail on which are operated two 40-gallon foam ex- tinguishers. These can be factor and as an allowance for the partial dissipa- quickly shifted to any point on the rack by one tion of the foam from heat and other causes . mna . The provision of effective fire-fighting The foam should always be present in sufficient equipment that can be handled by a few men quantity to ensure that the oil will remain well is an important consideration in present-day covered for a considerable time after active refinery operation . combustion has ceased, to guard against a spontaneous rekindling of the fire before the tank and Organizing for Combatin g Fire the surface of the oil have become sufficiently The utmost promptness in applying whatever cooled. Finally, it should be remembered that fire-fighting facilities the refinery may possess diluted sulphuric acid does not combine with constitutes a hi ghly important elem ent in suc- sodium bicarbonate rapidly and freely at tem- cessfully fighting oi l or any oth e r fir es . H en ce, peratures in the vicinity of the freezing point ; an effective organisation is qu ite as impo rtan t and for winter protection in our northern lati- ae ade qua te eq uip m ent and w i t hout i t the e quip- tudes it is important to store the solutions in a m ent ma y be practically use l ess. However , moderately warm place . th ere are as many fe asib l e m ethods of organ is a- The new Carbon Dioxide Smothering Systems t i on as t h ere are pl an ts and the subject of such which have been developed recently for large organization must be give n in dividual s tudy for storage tanks have been found to be extremely t h e refinery concerned . LA e a c h , there should effective under certain conditions . b e a fire-fighting force under a competent head w ith efficient assistants . This force s hould be (d) Portable Extinguishing Equipment .-All fo rm ed of the reg u la r employees and sho u ld be of the approved hand fire extinguishing equip- subject to d ril l . In wn a ll n:an ts where the work- ment on the markst has its place in the protec- e rs live close by, the fire-fghting for c e m ay be tion of oil refineries and is an essential adjunct subj e ct to ca l l night and day an d be so di v id ed to the larger central high pressure water, steam that a par t is always on du ty in th e plant. In smothering and foam systems. These items of larger plants or th ose re m ote from w orkers' uU ' , G . 0 9 C. I. SAFEGUARDING PETROLEUM RSfINLRIL6 AND THrJR WORKERS homes, it may be necessary to-have a sep a rate orQania stion for each shift . In some large refineries it v advisable to zone a plant, with an or_eanination complete for each shift in each zone . Here is a brief outline of an actual organisation in art eastern refinery : A fire chief and one or more assistants ha ve been appointed. Trained plant operators have been `rouged into fire companies in all sections of the plant and re spond when there is a C a t Alarm Fire, with the nearest hose carriage to the scene of the fin, when the fire is in their zone . Fire companies have been assigned to fire trucks, which they drive to the fire on all First Alarm Fires, ra se nlhn. of the location. For Second .Harm Fires, additional Yard Fire Companies with how earnaacs respond together with the City Equipment if available. If occasion requires, a selected group of m e ch uucs is called in for moving line s or pumps and for transferring stored pnxlucu . Certain individuals from the fire organization have definite assignments during serious fire. , such as care of oil separators, fire and foam pumps . In extreme emergencies at ni g ht , on holidays, and Sundays, a siren is blown, which summons addition al selected mechanics rind operators . Combating .S'liU Fires Next to tank fires, the most frequent are those i n stills. Usually these are smal l fi res caused by small oil or v a pou r leaks. Th ey are genera lly ex tin g u is hed with han d e xting uis hers, steam j ets, wat er h ose, or by "pumping out" th e s till, w it h negligible loss. Oc cas io na l l y, however, something lets go and a st il l cracks open, a hi gh pressure dru m ex p l od es or an oil line breaks and a fire is s tarted . T h at s uch fires are so few in n umbe r is l a rge ly d u e t o expert e ngineering and continuous inspection . The l eas t leak, defect or wearing out of any part is almos t certain to cause a fire. Only cont inuo us inspection and expert operation will pre vent st il l fires . H owever , a great d eal has been accomplished by providi ng facilities to prevent t h e spread of such fires and means for controlling the m quickly under the most severe conditions . Controuing Spread of Slip Fires . Combating Tank Fires After a tank fire starts, th ere arc t wo metho ds of fighting it : with ste am and w ith ioam . Steam as normally applie d is not e ffec tive unless the roof rema i n s on the tank , whic h is se l do m t he case. Tank fires usual ly st art with an ex plosion which blows off th e roof. In such cases , ste am i s ineffective but i s of value in preve nt i ng the ignition of ex pose d tan ks nearby . The most efficient method of exti ngu ishing a serious tank fire is to cover the burning area w ith foam. Other metho ds of handling these fires have been de v elope d such as water spray, carbon dioxide, carbon tetrachloride ; however, no records are avai l able of actual fires exti ng ui she d to prove their mer i t . They appear to work under certain condit i ons but a " test" tank fire is a very unsatisfactory way of proving what wil l happen in a real fire in a dri v i ng storm. Many refineries provide a fire wall 12 to 18 in ches (30 t o 4 5 c m) hi gb a round every b a ttery of stills where pr a cticable . Other refineries do Boil-Ouera . Boil-avers are always a menace i n crude oil ta n k fires an d as a res ul t of experiments made by the Standard Oil Compan y of Cal i fornia, i t h as b ee n found that addi tional b arr iers of corrua_nt ed iron sheets greatly reduc e the area covered by burning oil . Therefo r e, a traile r equ ipped wi th corrugated sheets and stakes for their erection is desirable . Th i s same trai ler should carry po rtable shields to prot ect hose men from the i ntense heat of the tank fire . Fig . S .-Steel ladder and platform for overhead valves . Uv' JVJ 3?3 0 12 ur a vK ai As. asrarr Smevtr not install such fire walls but it is us ually p os aibi e to util ise the rear wa ll support i ng the con. denser box es as part o f this s urro u nd i ng fire wall . It is desirable t o b reak up t he fir e areas as far as practic able by me ans of fire wa if among the units of any battery of st ill s so t hat a flood of hot oil pouring fr om a b reak will endanger as few adjoi n ing stil ls as possible. Particul ar a tte n tion should be paid t o the method of su ppo rtin g a ll oil a nd vapour li n es. Mos t frequently these p ipe lines are ca rried o verhead on un protected st r u ctural steel work. be lessened by preven ti ng the accum ulation of comm un icati v e mediu ms such as ho veri ng gases or vapours. Such accum ul a tions c an be reduced by p ai n ti ng the t anks a lig ht col o u r , which reta rds evaporation. However, i n the final an alys is , fire pr even tio n and fi re protection are problems of admin is tration and organ isa tion. This important w or k h as , on t h e whole, been properly organised, thoroughly studied, conscientiously ex e cuted a nd, last but not least, inspired by attention from t h e manag ement, and h as achieved notab le success. Any seve re fire will brin g them down in short Accident Causes and )feasurea for order, often before effect ive fire-fi gh ti ng can be Combating Them started . T hese oil li n es may drain other stills and the ad d i tional f uel a dded to the bl aze may ca use it to become un controllable . All supports for s uch lines in the most critic al areas are usually p rotected with a fire-resistant materi al . Readers should not conclude from the foregoing discussion that fires are the only source of fatalities and property damage in refineries. They are, however, the principal potential source and have, therefore, been given major consider- Handling Still Fires. ation. A general idea of the part played by other sources may be obtained from the following A great many still fires are the result of carelessness and are caused by pumping over when charging or permitting eater to get into a charging stock causing immediate opening of safety classification of causes of 205 fatal injuries reported over a period of eleven years for refining departments to the American Petroleum Institute : releases or equipment failure . One of the simplest Cauan Pa ttnt . and most effective ways of handling a serious still fire is to pump out the burning still and those menaced as quickly as possible . The importance of having large pumps and large pumping-out lines is apparent. It is also essential that the pumping-out valves be equipped with remote controls so that they can be operated safely and surely, usually from back of the con- Fires andexplosi ona . ...... .. ......... . Falls and falling objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Burns by acid, caustic, hot water and steam . . Electrocution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Striking objects , or axing struck or caught in moving equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AAsphyxiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trafficaccidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heat prostration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equipment Drowning failure . . . . .. . . . . . ... .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i5 19 6 6 v 4 2 1 I 1 densers. As with tank fires, one of the most effective means of extinguishing a serious still fire is foam applied through hose streams . Exper- ience has shown that water improperly used in extinguishing burning oil acts as a vehicle for spreading the fire . However, it is of advantage in keeping nearby structural steel work cool . For this reason the cautious use of water ip Since there is nothing in the foregoing list of accident causes peculiar to petroleum refineries and the methods for preventing such accidents are similar in every respect to those universally used in other industrial operations, a mere outline of some of the chief measures being employed to combat them will be given . keeping the area cooled until the foam system can be brought into action is advisable . The water should then be discontinued and the foam Mea sures in General Use in Present-Day Petroleum Refineries for Sofeguarding Employees. hose streams used, as the simultaneous applica- The se m e as ures include mec han ical safeguards tion of water and foam will result in the water of neat and accessib l e des i gn on flywheels, shaft- breaking down the foam. ing, c ouplings , gea rs , z aid belts. Suitable plat- The protection of refineries which ec :er large forms for oil ing overhead machinery . Where areas, by insulated steam lines or fire foam equip- pos s ible , machinery i s shut down duri ng oiling ment, is expensive but worthwhile. Danger periods . Safe belt-shifters on all belt-driven spots are boiler house, acid plant, stills and equipment re quiring t he s h i fting o f b elts for electrical equipment. The lightning hazard can "idleness" or change of speed. 1~ 9 IL--1 6A lC6VARDINO P L TROLEIII[ RSliNERILB AND THL IE WO1tLL83 13 Safe and secure piling of bulk material such Close attention is given to the operating con- as cartons, drums, boxes and miscellaneous dition of safety valves and automatic controls on p ackages so that a bump or jar will not cause boilers, air systems, pressure vessels of cracking them to topple over. Clear alleyways and walk- plants, de-waxing plants, refrigerating equip- ways free from debris with flooring that is in ment, gas-recovery systems, fuel systems, posigood condition and free from oil, grease, wetness tive displacement pumping systems, and any or chuck-holes . Use of non-skid floor covering system depending on safety valves or controls in wet and slippery locations, open grating on for safety . Continuous flushing with water, if outdoor operating platforms and stair treads to necessary, and blocking off with suitable fire eliminate snow and ice hazards . Clean, well- walls and traps of all trenches leading to and lighted, well-ventilated buildings with enclosed from buildings and process areas to prevent elevators and stairways in suitable design and injury due to fire or explosion. number to allow safe exit in case of fire or emer- Gas masks are located at strategic points, gency. Portable ladders of suit able design, free canister types for use in locations not entirely from fl a ws and defects, equipped with s afety deficient in oxygen, for ammonia, gasoline shoes. Goggles for use in grinding, chippin g and vapour, hydrogen sulphide, tetmethyl lead, and handling chemicals, coloured for welding and chlorine. Fresh-air positive pressure type masks furnace observations (see fig. 1) . for use in entering buildings, vessels or tanks in Tools in first class condition . Wrenches with which a deficiency of oxygen exists (see fig . 5) . clean, sharp jaws . Hammcis, chisels, sledges, and Impro'vemeata in processes, engineering revi- punches free from burred or 'mushroomed' heads sion and equipment modernisation, continue and with flawless wood handles . Rigid inspec- to be made daily, with the objective of manu- tion of tools before checking out and after check- facturing safely, both to personnel and public, ing in . Non-sparking tools for hazardous loca- the products which are so vital under present tions . Safe portable tools and lamp cords. conditions. Modern petroleum refining equip- Safety railings in front of doorways leading ment is scientifically designed and built of corro- directly to driveways from which a view of an sion-resisting metals in stills and furnaces, so approaching vehicle is obstructed. Railings controlled with precision instruments that the around open pits . Stairways with railings to cross control room personnel of a distillation unit, over conveyor belts and conveyors (see fig. 2) . for example, is able to ascertain readily just Safety extension cords and lamps for entering what is occurring at any point of the process . tanks, vessels and boilers. Temperatures, pressures, crude charge and pro- Protective clothing, such as rubber boots, ducts by type and quantity in every part of the aprons, gloves- and respirators and helmets for equipment are seen at a glance . use in working with chemicals, electricity, sand Employees are encouraged to correct all blasting, dusty atmospheres, coke removal and unsafe conditions and to report those beyond tank cleaning operations (see fig . 3) . Asbestos their control . Good housekeeping is essential suits, hoods, gloves and shoes for use in case of to every safety programme and the co-operation fire . Block-off blanks to be installed in nozzle of every employee must be obtained if accidents flanges for isolating vessels when it is necessary are to be eliminated . Safety suggestion systems to enter them for inspection, repa irs, or cleaning, of one sort or another are very helpful in this Warning signs at hazardous locations (see fig . 4) . regard and every suggestion made in good faith Wherever cars are loaded or unloaded, stand- should be acknowledged . ard car movers are generally used instead of the Bulletin boards in every department, changed finger and toe-smashing pinch bars formerly regularly with timely and interesting posters, employed . There are also provided safety type have been found valuable in maintaining emtools and gadgets for opening and closing doors ployees' interest in safety and represent, to the on box cars, as well as s a fety tools for opening workers, in some degree the interest of manage- and closing pockets on coal cars . ment in accident prevention . Well chosen payroll Areas in which chemicals are used and handled inserts, used occasionally, create interest, partare equipped with eye-wash fountains and icularly if seasonal and not overdone . General shower heads located in close proximity to the safety meetings of employees, held at regular hazards. Suitable rubber clothing and apparel intervals and never allowed to drab or become are available and located as conditions dictate . boring, with one or two i~~.~g,spkakers, 63 :2 c .l Ll 14 INDDBTRlJI. SAFZ7r SURVEY sa fety movies, a comedy or ether light entertainment, are used with great success at many refinries for combating accidents. Dolng a Job Sa fely means Qi.ln q Proper Attention to the D. ta ll. ! II . OCCUPATIONAL HEALT H HAZARDS According to Dr. William J . McCoxxEt.t, of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, the health hazards of petroleum refineries vary widely in extent and severity, depending upon the composition of the oil being handled, the location of the plant and the personnel employed, the concentration of the toxic substance and the dura tion of exposure. They include not only those potential health hazards incidental to the processes used from the time the crude petroleum arrives at the refinery until it leaves, but those rel a ted to the introduction of improved refinery operations and maintenance of equipment . The worker in a small refinery is perhaps exposed to a greater number of hazards than the worker in a large refinery, because in the former instance the duties are more general and less specialised than in the latter. Different refineries have equipment of various designs and use v arious processes which are not standardised . It must be remembered a lso th a t the volatility and toxicity of the products increase with rises. in temperature . A h a zard which exists in one type of refining plant may not exist in another plant . For example, hydrogen sulphide is a most serious and deadly hazard . Fortunately, this ga s is present in only a few crudesand is very probably due to contamination of the oil by sulphur deposits in the earth . Furthermore, thre toxicity of the products of the petroleum refining industry varies with their sources of origin and is often due to the impurities which they contain. Consequently, in speaking of any health hazard in the refining industry one must qualify his statement by saying that the hazard in question may exis t if a certain substance is encountered or if a certain impurity is present . Skin A,ffeelions Prosser WHITE classifies skin affections caused by oil and its products, according to the substance encountered, as follows : (1) Benzine-minerai oil, gasoline or naphtha, causing superficial dermatitis, dry scaly skin, eczema, pimples and pustules . (2) Burning oils or oils for lighting, causing papular and pustulous eczema, folliculitis with or without acne and abscess . (3) Residues, causing erythema, senile kerntoais, warts, ulcers and skin cancer . Many other observers have found and reported similar skin lesions among workers in refineries. All agree that cleanliness is an important factor in preventing the high incidence of these affections. ScawAart believes that the pigmented papillomata could in a large measure be prevented by the compulsory wearing of gloves and cleansing hands with soap and water before eating lunch and immediately after stopping work for the day. Oil acne and wax warts, he suggests, can also be prevented by having the men take shower baths, using plenty of soap, immediately after stopping work for the day, and changing to clean clothes . The gas or vapour of crude petroleum may be irritating to the skin and respiratory tract . lAtla Xi.r S#197 AIXyw+CawM.7. PiL~i ~li . F.ig 1 .-A pro per ly protected tank 6eu ger--full- view face piece, canister muk, ha rd hat, sale cy shoes . Note guard nil on edge of tank, back of gauging hatches. Toxic Gases and Vavours Hydrogen Sulphide. Hydrogen sulphide, when present, is not only the principal cause of corrosion of expensive equipment, but is also a serious health hazard . nUU .;.J ~ i v~ 0 0 eJ lL6IIARDQtd P tTROL F 4Y RLfINEAIL6 AND TRDIB Won LLAa is This gas is heavier than a ir and is soluble in p urity o f the pt .~duct and the percentage of water and oil. It is characterized by an offensive hydrocarbons boiling at hig h or low tcmperaturm . odour resembling tha t of rot te n eggs, al though in high concentrations of the gas the sense of smell is quickly d eadened so th at i t cannot always be relied on as a Expo sure to these vapours in small wnrkro nma, tanks, boilers and l o catio ns wher e there i s an insufficient supp ly o f oxygen may cause loss of warni ng s i gn . Even in very sma ll concentrations, th e gas c au s es a respiratory paralysis that i s followed by heart fa ilure a nd dea th . Sub-scute poisoning may b e p r od uced by long exposu re s to co n ce n ti a- ti oaa as low as 0 .005 per a(~~ cent. by volu me . The gas i s irrita ti ng to the eyes and m u cous me m- branes . Conj unctivitis, pharyn git u , and bron - chitis may res ult from exposure to low concen- trations . A ch r onic form of hydro g en sulphide poisoning, characterised by di g estive disturban ces, PAd.: .it.+4r[ 0~7 Co.M~7 0l Nn Jaa.f Fig . ,- .A. properly guarded loc ation where dangerous game may be premat . headaches, lassitude, cold sweats, and local irritation to the eyes and consciousness and even death unless the victims the respiratory tract, is generally believed to are rapidly removed into the open air. Inhala- result from prolonged exposures to low concen- tion of small quantities of the vapours gives rise trations of hydrogen sulphide . to headache, dizziness and intoxication resem- Complete protection against th e inhalation of bling that of a drunken mac . Inhalation of ..ta hydro gen sulphide is essential . The degree of moderate quantities of the volatile hydrocarprotection afforded by the use of canister-type bona for long periods of time, even when suffi- gas masks, ho s e masks, and self-contained oxygen-breathing a pp aratus aga i n st thi s gas , as well as against petroleum va pours, is reviewed in detail in Bulletin No. 231, United States cient oxygen is present, causes buzzing in the ears, feeling of heaviness in the head, m arked intoxication and sometimes amnesia and uaconsciousne:r . In some cases, according to Bur eau of Mines ( 1 9 25) . Additional protective KOEL4 C H , there is a state of excitement progressme asur es consist of desig ni ng equi p men t pro- ing to a maniacal condition with delirium, hallu- perly to eliminate pl aces of exposure, instructing cinations, muscular tremor, clonic spasms, some- workmen to avoid expo sur e by using respiratory times neuritis, paraesthesia, difficult deglutition protective equi pment when working in con- and speech, shooting pains in the neck and chest, taminated places, and by tra ining them in fall in body temperature, especially in the peri- methods of emergency treatment. Adequate pheral parts, with cyanosis and sensation of cold protection aga inst petroleum vapours which and diminution in the respiratory rate and pulse . h ave anaesthetic effects when inhaled, i s also By means of experimencb carried out on prison- afforded by weari ng breathin g equipm e nt. ers in a penitentiary at Bucharest, Fs ;.tx sound VoLvdle Hydrocarbons . that in most of the cases five to fifteen grams of volatile gas per litre of air inhaled for seven to Inh al ation of vol a tile hydrocarbon products twelve minutes caused dizziness, nausea, vomit- of pe t role um produces affections of a general ing and sleepiness, as well as congestion of the nature , dependin g upon- the origin, degree of conjunctiva and a sensation of burning in the uU2 3 r .'. 11 3 '' 'i E 16 ntaoaTIu.t, SAFLIrr SURVEY chest. Aaaed thuis and sleep w ere produced by ated hydroc a rbons vary from 500 p a rts per inhaling 20 to 40 g per litre of air for eight million parts of air (methyl chloride) to 10 to twelve minutes, with individual variations pacts per million parts of air (tetrachlomthane) . from a marked susceptibility to a considerable Although their action on the nervous system is resistance. less specific than that of most anaesthetic hydro- The inhal a tion of 45 mg of light benziae carbons, their injurious effects involve a larger (naphtha) vapour per litre of air causes death number of tissues . Certain of the higher mem- of such animals as dogs and cats at the end of bers have a depressing action on the heart and two hours, but 60 mg per litre of air, or e :cceQ degenerative changes in the heart, liver, and tionally even 80 mg per litre, could, in some kidneys have been frequently observed. Death cases, be home for 20 minutes without any may result from degenerative changes after inconvenience. HAGGARD found in his experi- recovery from the anaesthetic action is complete . mental work on the effect of gasoline vapours Light, heat and oxygen tend to decompose the on dogs that the first disturbances occur with a chlorinated hydrocarbons to varying degrees and concentration of 85 volumes per 10,000 volumes such compounds m ay form phosgene and hydro- of a ir. When the concentration reached 156, gen chloride under certain conditions . Both of the animal was not able to keep upright ; with these gases are highly irritating . Since phosgene 102 volumes per 10,000 volumes of air muscular i s about 100 times as toxic as any of these com- spasms are c a used, and with 162, epileptiform pounds, even slight decomposition may increase convulsions occur. Another animal lost con- their toxic effect several times . sciousness with a concentr ation of 238 volumes There is a huge amount of information avail- per 10,000 volumes of air, and death occurred able on the toxic properties and physiological after two minutes with 243 volumes . effect of some of the more widely used chlorinat- The effect on the blood of exposure to the ed hydrocarbons, Much of the data is not, distillates, naphtha and gasoline, remains a however, of a critical nature. Nevertheless, the controversial subject. Some investigators have literature does present some generalised des- found that solvents marketed under the name of criptions and correlations of their toxicological "gasoline" or "benzine" actually contain enough properties which are very helpful. coal tar benzol to give rise to symptoms typical When the hydrocarbons are chlorinated, four of benaol poisoning . Benzine, which is a constituents may ordinarily be present : the mixture of hydrocarbons obtained exclusively paraffin hydrocarbon, chlorine, hydrogen chlor- from the second portion of the fractional distilla- ide resulting from the inaction, and the chlorinat- tion of crude petroleum, is too frequently con- ed hydrocarbon or a mixture of these . The fused with "benzene", a product resulting from toxicity of such a system is determined by the the destructive distillation of coal . Benzine most toxic element which is chlorine . When belongs to the aliphatic series of hydrocarbons, chlorine in the system has been substantially which have comp aratively little effect on the reduced through reaction, the toxicity will be blood, where as benzene is a member of the determined by other factors such as the amount aromatic series which are toxic and very definit- of hydrogen chloride and the nature and quan- ely affect the blood and the blood-forming tity of the chlorinated hydrocarbons present . organs . Consequently, consideration must be given to Chlorinated Hydrocarbons . the toxicity of all possible chlorination products which might be obtained from a particular Chlorinated hydrocarbons are more or less hydrocarbon . extensively used in refineries for improving Information on the toxicity and mechanism lubric ants, in the preparation of various specialty the action of the various chlorinated hydro- products a nd in fire-extinguishing equipment. carbons is considerably muddled . For exam- Dr. W. F. von OETrtxcsx, Principal Toxicolo- ple, some investigators say that trichloroethyl- gist, National Health Institute, states that ene is considerably less harmful than carbon chlorinated hydroc a rbons cause industrial poi- tetrachloride ; but in the opinion of many it is soning by the inhal ation of their vapours, occa- not as much less harmful as is usually stated . sionally by absorption through th e skin, and Some investigators say that certain groups of rarely by ingestion . Safe maximum permissible chlorinated hydrocarbons cause fatty degenera- concentrations for extended exposures of chlorin- tion in the liver and that other groups have an 4,.] ~~~ e .naow snxxa rrrnor nux asnx sniaa AND Tssrn woR sae 17 action primarily on the nerve tissue or function . None of these theories are too well worked out a t the present, a lthough both types of action a re evident. All that we can conclude at the present is that all chlorinated hydrocarbons are potential hazards and should be 'reated accordingly . The chlorinated hydrocarbons usually referred Aside from the resp iratory hazard from the chlorinated hydrocarbons ano t her factor to be co nsidered is dermatiti s. Protective creams , safety cl o thi ng, p erso nal cleanliness and careful workman s hip s hould a id i n cont rolli ng this risk. S ulph ur Dioxide, to are the volatile substances or those that give off enough vapours to contaminate the air . There are, however, some chlorinated hydrocarbons that have very low or no appreciable vapour pressure. "Halowax" or chlorinated naphthalene is an example of such a substance . Halowax, however, has given serious trouble when heated . When the chlorinated substance also contains fluorine in the molecule, such as S ul phur diox i de is en co untered in cer tain oil refining ope rations, but d oes no t as a rule cause ac ute poisoning, because the gas is so ir rita ting to t he eyes and mucous membranes in s ma ll concentrations that it serves as a warning signal to leave befo re an y poisonous effects are experienced . Other Gases and Vapours. (' `' dichlor-difluormethane, they appear to become Other gases and vapours which may be en . stabilised and are rendered less harmful. This countered in petroleum refining operations are might not hold true for all compounds containing chlorine, ammonia and chemica ls used in fighting chlorine and fluorine . fires. Acids and alkalies are used in large quan- The saturated paraffin hydrocarbons are only moderately toxic . Methane and ethane under normal conditions act as simple diluents and have no serious physiological effects . The higher members of the series show a narcotic effect that increases with increase in molecular weight .However, the actual practical hazard tends to decrease with the high molecular products owing tities and may c ause injuries from chemical burns. In addition to chlorin ated hydrocarbons, certain complex amines and ketouesure employed in lubricants to produce a better quality and every precaution should be taken to avoid exposure to these highly toxic compounds . Tetra-Llhy1 Lead to the decrease in vapour pressure. Whenever chlorine has completely reacted in the molecule, there will be a ntoichiometrical a serious refinery he alth hazard that must be guarded against is tetr a-ethyl lead which is added to gasoline for the purpose of increasing equivalent quantity of hydrogen chloride so that its efficiency. Most of the gasoline produced and ( there will always be acid gases present of strong sold in the United States is treated with this i warning properties . It is doubtful that sufficient compound which is necessary for the smooth hydrogen chloride will be present to cause much operation of the later models of automobiles, discomfort, but repeated exposure of consider- nearly all of which h ave stepped up their comable duration daily to small but irritating pression ratios. Experience has shown that the amounts might possibly cause severe irritation careless and improper h andling of ethyl fluid of the nose and might even produce perforation leads to very serious consequences but that no of the nasal septum similar to that produced by chromic acid mist. The strong penetrating odour of hydrogen chloride is easily detected trouble whatsoever results when a few simple instructions are followed . Tetra-ethyl lead, which is the principal constituent of ethyl fluid, and should serve as an ample warning of leaks . If respiratory protection against acid gases (chlorine and hydrogen chloride) and organic is an oily liquid which shows a decided tendency to creep through the seams or joints of containers and pipe lines, thereby supplying abundant vapours (chlorinated hydrocarbons) is provided, opportunities for leakage . Moreover, it is a workers will be reasonably safeguarded . Com- heavy material of almost twice the weight of bination acid and organic vapour canisters, approved by the United States Bureau of Mines, are available for a total concentration of two per cent . With the gaseous or highly volatile water, so that containers of suitable size for the operation of mixing gasoline are handled with difficulty and with ever present danger of physic a l injury to the worker, as well as with the hydrocarbons and chlorinated products in con- likelihood of bursting if dropped or subjected fined spaces, there is danger of oxygen deficiency to unusual violence . Tetra-ethyl lead has an and an approved hose mask should be used . appreciable v a pour pressure at ordinary tem- 0 0 2 37" 0D,3 is 0 is uaav arniwn e .rZTr ao a v cr peratures and if exposed to heat, the vaporisa- clea ned in a dry s tate, finely divided dust con- tion of the flu i d develops cons id er a ble pressure taining tri-ethyl le ad salts may be suspended within containers ; under extreme con ditio ns in the air sad may be inhaled by unprotected (conflagration) this may resul t in burst i ng the wor k men who m a y enter the tank . The inhalacontainer with igni tion o f its con te n ts , and in tion of these compounds, according to Dr . IianoE, c a uses irritation of the re s pir atory mucous membranes and the skin, accompanied by violent sneezing, weeping, and burning of the skin. If this sharp warning be ignored, further exposure may result in rapid ab- sorption and "acute in- toxication". Recently, Dr. Sxseaxs of the Bos- ton Psychopathic Hos- p ital reported a case of encephalitis due to tetra- ethyl lend or tri-ethyl lead in a man who was e ngaged in cleaning gasoline storage tanks, Not- Jr.M.rg fJY Ca.M.7 1.V- Jstry Fig. 5:Whe n necessary to enter enclosed wrens where gas m ay be present a fresh-air hose mask must be worn. Blower Must be loc a ted so that fresh air u obtained, although it is reported he wore an asbestos suit and a gas mask connected with a pipe line to a case of containers having been exposed to the fresh air supply Repeated exposure to small hot sun's rays a sudden escape of vapour will amounts may lead to chronic lead poisoning . It is occur when the container is opened . Dr. R. A. a simple matter to prevent lead poisoning of this KEHOE, Medical Director of the Ethyl Corpora- type either by cleaning the tanks in a wet st a te or tion, states that the oily (fat soluble) and some- by the use of air line masks during cleaning . what volatile character of the material gives it a Actually a combination of these two safety peculiarly hazardous quality among lead com- measures is employed in routine cleaning at pounds in that absorption takes place in the refineries in general . This work should be done human body both by way of the unbroken skin exclusively by experienced men who have been through contact and by way of the lungs through instructed in handling ethyl fluid and who have inhalation. Since all refiners rigidly observe the been certified in writing by the company doctor instructions issued by the manufacturer of this within the previous six months as authorised to product, both in blending it with gasoline and clean ethyl gasoline teaks . in cleaning storage tanks, serious difficulties are So much has been written regarding the dan- no longer encountered in the handling and blend- gers of ethyl fluid and the safe method of hand- ing of tetra-ethyl lead . ling the product that a further review of the Cleaning Storage Tanks for Ethyl Gasoline. subject is unnecessary here . The hazard tin ; been minimised where proper mixing equipment Tetra-ethyl lead, alone or dissolved in gaso- and adequate storage are provided . As a further line, slowly decomposes to yield crystalline tri- precaution, all those engaged in handling the ethyl lead compounds. Under normal storage product are periodically examined for signs and conditions this decomproitinn is almost last symptoms of lead poisoning . pnciable but over a period of years variable amounts of such deposits can be found in the Sandblasting Operations scale on the sides and at the bottom of storage A hazard which has bee n introduced by im- tanks. If the sides or bottom of such a tank are proved refinery operations is the possibility of 0 0 .23 -"J 3 JU 0 SAFEGUARDING PETROLEUM REFINERIES AND THEIR WORKERS 19 contracting silicosis by men doing Sandblasting work, unless speci al precautions are rigidly observed . Sandblasting is largely employed as posure duration of workmen to them. While there may be h ealth hazards when welding is done in t h e open, they are definitely pro d uced an economy and efficiency measure and is used by cut ting an d welding operations in closely to clea n storage tanks, drums, towers and other confi ned spaces . These hazard s may be mini- refinery process equipment to remove runt and mised by the use of proper person al pro tective prevent corrosion . This operation generates equip ment and ad equate ventilation. Si n ce f u ll considerable dust of a high silica content, which and complete information on welding an d cutti ng when inhaled over a period of time, causes a ope ra tions is so readily a v a il a ble, furt h er dis- fibrosis of the lungs known a!s silicosis and pro- cu aaion is unnecessary . disposes the individual to tuberculosis and other respiratory diseases . There is now a voluminous Metallising Operations literature on the subject of silicosis . Effective Like welding, metallising operations (the protection against inhalation of the dust is spraying of molten metal on objects) are of afforded the operators by providing efficient importance to the petroleum industry and are positive pressure helmets . All men doing this used rather extensively at certain refineries . The work should be physically sound . Abundant hazards due to exposure to metallic fumes and ventilation should be provided at all times and dusts depend upon the toxic properties of the the helmets worn by the operators should be metals involved, the concentr a tion of fumes and supplied with adequate filtered air . There is a dusts in the working atmosphere and the dura- definite danger of men working in the vicinity of tion of the exposure . The most harmful fumes sandblasting operations and near exhausts from and dusts are usually those produced by metal- areas being sandblasted ; therefore work in such Using with chromium, lead, cadmium, copper areas should be reduced to a minimum and con- and their various compounds . Adequate res- ducted, insofar as practical ; on the windward piratory protection that covers the body will side . prevent skin absorption of toxic metallic fumes Welding and dusts. Persons engaged in metallising operations may incur accidental injuries due to (a) Welding is an operation of ever-increasing fire or explosion ; (b) excess metallic fumes and importance in the petroleum industry, especially dust ; (c) oxygen deficiency ; and (d) other in construction, maintenance and repair of hazards coincident with the operation. , L plants and equipment. Reports show that many accidents have resulted from inadequate precautions in gas and electric welding and flame cutting operations. The growing use of coated or shielded welding electrodes has introduced further health complications . Certain groups of workers are exposed to heat, variations in tem- Medical Supervision .-Employees engaged in metallising operations should have a physical examination periodically at least once a year to ensure that the precautionary measures which have been provided are giving the necessary protection . perature, dampness, and to the ultra-violet and Personal Proleetion.-When spraying metals infra-red rays and the gases and fumes incident in closed vessels or confined areas, or when to welding and cutting operations. It is evident spraying lead, chromium, zinc, copper and from the extensive use of the oxy-acetylene flame cadmium and their various compounds in open and the electric arc with only an occasional areas, an approved hose mask supplied with report of injury, that the health hazards are in air from an uncontamin a ted source should be general not widespread . However, theory, worn . Where compressed air is used, an efficient scientific investigations and practice indicate filter should be installed in the air line to the that harmful air contaminants may be either mask to remove impurities and offensive odours . produced or encountered under some conditions When spraying copper bronzes, steels and similar of use and that cases of injuries have been hard metals in open areas, an approved cartridge reported. The amounts of the harmful air con- type respirator should be used . In open areas, tamiuaats depend oa the procedures used, size the operator should take full advantage of wind of the Same or arc and metal or rods used . The currents, taking a position so that the wind is hazards to health vary with the quantity of at his back and blows the fumes and dusts away deleterious substances produced and the ex- from him . Adequate body protection such as 0 2V J r ~ 1 0 3v l '. ~ 20 aroosTalAr, ew rs Ir svuvs r gloves w ith long gauntlets and cover-a lly that vapours to places where they can be safely disfit tightly at the wrists, neck and ankles should charged are in gene ral us e. Csref ul plant inspec- be worn . In general, only the operator should be allowed in the vessel or confined space when metallising is being done . Other persons in a vasel or confined area where metallining operations are being performed should be provided with protective equipment similar to th at of the operator . When metallising is frequently performed in shops or buildings, booths equipped with hoods and exhausters should be provided . tions are made and the workm en are instructed to a void b re a thing th e gases and vapours and to keep o ut o f p l a ces whe re gases ma y collect. Tanks that must be entered are steam cleaned and ventilated and men are provi ded wi th protectiv e equ ipment. Most of the em ploy ees are instructed in rescu e methods and firs t aid. Protective and rescue d evices are well m a i n t a in ed and are available at all times . G enerally speaking, pet role um refinery man- When metallising in a closed vessel or confined agements, through thei r medical a nd safety area, a man should be stationed outside the d epart m en ts, have been ale rt to their he a lth manhole or opening to render assistance if ne- hazards and have spen t considerable money a n d cessary . Goggles with lenses in accordance with e f for t in find i ng pra cticel s olu tions to their pro- the United States Bureau of Standards density blems . formulas should be worn by operators and others whose eyes may b e exposed to the flame . After metallising with the more harmful PROTLClIVS AND PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES metals, operators should wash their hands and In order to combat properly the hazard of face and clean their finger nails before eating. toxic and flamma ble gases and vapours, it is At the end of the shift they should bathe, change necessary that certain available protective mea- to fresh clothing and again clean their finger sures be remembered . There is probably no nails. The teeth should be brushed twice daily . substitute for adequate ventilation . Natural Comparative Health of Petroleum Refinery Workers ventilation is often inadequate and general or local exhaust ventilation must be used ., The substitution of less hazardous materials, the Despite the health hazards discussed in the isolation of operations involving the use of toxic foregoing p a ragraphs and perhaps other possibi- materials to separate rooms, exhaust hoods and lities of occupational disease in the petroleum adequate ventilation arc frequent means of industry, statistical da ta on the frequency and combatting these hazards. distribution of diseases and affections peculiar Nowhere in industry can one say that man's to petroleum refineries are very limited . The life depends more on the dependability of a gas m ore acute poisonings are perhaps reported as detecting instrument than in the petroleum accidents rather than occupational diseases, and industry . Many organisations use one of the chronic dise ases or secondary complications may very oldest instruments for the detection of be of insufficient severity to attract special noxious gases, the human nose. While the sense atten tion. The affections most frequently asso- of smell was used first and in many places is still ciated with the industry are the various diseases in use, it cannot be classified as the ideal means of the eyes, skin diseases, and gastro-intestinal of detecting toxic or explosive gases. When con- disorders . tinually used to detect odorous gases or v a pours, According to Dr. McCoxxar r., the chief rea- the sense of smell becomes dulled . This does son for the low incidence of occupational affec- not occur overnight but is a gradual lessening tions among petroleum workers may be credited in efficiency of this faculty . Several very deadly to the enforcement of the industry's progressive gases are odourless . Therefore, the sense of smell measures for the prevention of exposure to toxic cannot safely be used to detect the presence of gases and v a pours, and any exposure that does dangerous gases. occur is usu a lly the result of accidents and irre- Satisfactory protective measures cannot be gularities in the operations . Mechanical safe- applied until the hazard has been evaluated . guards to lessen the hazards have been installed . For these reasons some other means of gas Th e general practice is to confine gases and detection must be used to determine when toxic v apours in a closed system at all times . Vents gases are present in dangerous concentrations specially designed to remove toxic gases and and, in the case of petroleum vapours, when iv J ." ~32 1.._ ..d 6 Ali6IIARptita !L'TltOLLIIY RL1I2t ERIL6 A ND TAL IR WO1t LZAp 21 such gases and vapours approach explosive concentrations. Petroleum refiners are coming to depend more and more on instruments for the protection of their equipment and the lives of their employees . a bove will not indicate the a mount of flammable ga s present if there is an oxygen deficiency or if there is a concentration of the gas in the atmosphere above the upper flammable limit. In the latter case, a dilution valve must be used to Combustible Gas Indicators In the last few years, combustible gas indicators have been developed "pecially for the use of refiners . These have been adopted and are widely used to-day by most progressive refineries with unusual success and have resulted in definite savings in life and property as well as in the elimination of excessive steaming of tanks and equipment during gas-freeing operations . Since steam is costly, the use of combustible gas indic- secure readings . A combustible gas indicator fitted with a special adaptor m a y be used for indicating the presence of benzol in air samples . Where there is a constant hazard of the concentration of combustible gases reaching the lower explosive limit, an instrument which continuously indica te s the conc entration of these gases should be provided . Several such instruments are available on the market. Carbon Monoxide Detectors ators results in reduced operating expenses . The principle of operation in most of these indicators is to pass the air under test over a wire which is heated to a temperature that will ignite the gas present. At the same time, the change in resistance of the wire produced by the increase in temperature from this ignition is measured . The Wheatstone Bridge principle is employed to measure this change in resistance. The in- crease in resistance is proportional to the amount of heat generated by the sample. Since the petroleum gases encountered all generate ap- proximately the same amount of heat per unit a number of instruments h a ve been developed which do what man's nose could never do- detect the presence of carbon monoxide and in some cases sound a warning when the concentra- tion reaches the lower toxic limit . It has been found that 0.02 per cent . of carbon monoxide is toxic when breathed continuously over long periods of time. Only recently a portable instrument has been developed that will detect these concentrations in various pa rts of the refinery, in garages and in the cabs and bodies of motor trucks. A more recent development is an alarm which will sound when the lower danger limit volume at the lower explosive limit, the scale of the instrument can be calibrated to give direct readings in per cent. of the lower explosive limit. Moat of the indicators are designed for use in concentrations below the lower flammable limits of 0.02 per cent. is exceeded. This alarm is being applied in certain phenol purifying rooms where carbon monoxide is employed . Instruments for determining Dual Concentrations .14, of the gases or vapours to be tested, although The,Zciaa Konimeler and the Bausch & Lomb they can be used to show whether the concentra- Kor+oscope are ex amples of commonly used grab tion of a flammable vapour is within the lower sample collectors. With both these types, a or upper limits or under the upper limit. For microscope is included in the instrument so that greatest accuracy, these ins truments must be samples, usually about thirty in number, can calibrated against the gases which are to be be read in any convenient da rkened room. It tested . General purpose instruments are avail- should be emph asised that these instruments able that will show with a fair degree of accuracy give comp ara tive results only and that more the percentage of any flamm able vapour or gas conclusive and accurate determin ations of dust th a t may be present in the air being tested if the contaminants should be made by means of an amount is below the flammable limit . Instru- impinger or an electrostatic precipit ator. Lead ments of this type are also available that will fumes or welding fumes and mercury should be show toxic concentrations of gases, such as collected with the electrostatic precipitator, for carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulphide and other collecting methods are not efficient when oxygen deficiency, as well as the concentration of combustible games that may be present . Pocket-sized indicators are also on the market and these arc found to be of great convenience particles of this size range are encountered . Estimation of Haiogenated .Iydroearbon Vapours in Air to the safety engineer in making field tests . The Vapours of halogenated hydrocarbons can be combustible gas indicators of the type described determined by the various physical methods ~l r; V] 0 ..1 l) ( Ej 06 0 0 22 ~ aravariu .u, s erzrr svu.ar used for the general estima tion of organic eol- directly. When one considers that the greatest veaq in sir. These methods include absorption concentration to which a human being can be on activated ch a rco al or on silica gel, condense,. exposed safely for a fifteen minute period is 0.03 tion and measurement of the v a pour tension of per cent., it will be read ily apprec iated that this the re-ev a porated halogenated hydroc arbon, use instrument is extreme l y help ful for fiel d use of the interferometer, absorption of ultra-violet where workers are l ikely to be exposed to this light, and other non-specific methods . Since hazard . Much lower concentrations are definit- these methods are non-specific, they c annot be ely indicated on the tubes and sca l e of th is used in the presence of other solvent va pours detector. Whil e hyd r oge n s ulphide has an un- unless only a total vapour concentration is m is takable odour i n small quantities, the longer required . the exposure is continued and the more fre- Oxygen Deficiency Ndicator quently a person is exposed to i t , the less effect it will have on the olfactory nerves . Whenever the flame of a miner's flame safety lamp will burn, there is more than 16 per cent . oxygen in the atmosphere surrounding the lamp . Personal Protective Equipment against Gases, Vapours and Dusk This is sufficient to support life . For this reason Of the various personal protective de vices the flame safety lamp has had a very wide use wh ich may be used, the hose mask, the sell- as an oxygen deficiency indicator . Owing to contained oxygen-breathing unit, the supplied- limitations in the protection afforded against air respirator or gas mask, canister gas masks, propagation of flame by the screens or gauzes, and t he vari ous types of c hemic al-cartri dg e and the use of this device in a suspected atmosphere, filter respirators are t h e mos t commo nly u sed where there is any possibility of the existence of at petro l eu m refi n eries . hydrogen, acetylene or other flammable or explosive gas, must be prohibited. However, is Hose Masks. the past few years, the Wolf Oxygen Deficiency Hose masks afford a supply of fresh air to the Indicator has been developed . It consists of a wearer either by having pure air pumped to a modified miner's flame safety lamp in which a tight-fitting face-piece from a small hand operat- sample of the suspected air is drawn by means ed blower, or by permitting the breathing of of an aspirator bulb and passed directly into the fresh air through a hose whose open end is placed combustion chamber of the lamp. If the flame outside of the zone of contamination . They are dims, the oxygen is lower than normal. If it especially useful not only in contaminated atmos . goes out, the oxygen content of the s a mple is phena but also where a deficiency of oxygen below 16 per cent . The instrument is protected may be found. Their use is somewhat limited by a very efficient flashback arrester, and since because they require an additional man for it is always operated in the clean air, sampling a operation of th e blower type except where combustible or otherwise dangerous mixture is motor-driven blowers may be used safely and a safe operation . the length of hose which can be used in the fresh- Hydrogen Sulphide Indicator air brea thing type is limited. If the hose exceeds 25 feet in length a blower should be provided ; A ve ry handy portable indicator for hydro gen otherwise. the free end of the hose should be sulphid e, one of the most deadly genes met equipped with a funnel screened to prevent the ar ound refineries , h as b een develope d recently entrance of foreign substances . Life lines are by the U nited States Bureau of Mines . It con- necess ary to permit the removal of the wearer sists of an as pi rator bulb wh ich drawn a sample from contaminated atmosphere if he should be of air to be te sted th rou g h a g l ass tube containing accidentally overcome. The construction of silver cyanide which c h an ges colour in the pre- later models is such that the hose line may be sence of hyd rogen sulphide . A' unit volume utilised as a life line when men are working sample is d rawn by giving the bulb te n full through a side manhole of a tank . squeezes an d the amount of hydrog en sulphide is i ndic ate d by the length of the stain i n a Self-Contained Braath:ny Apparatus . replaceable d e tector tube. This length is mea- Self-contained oxygen-breathing units afford sured against a scale on the instrument so that the we a rer an adequate supply of respirable air the percentage of hydrogen sulphide can be read by supplying oxygen from a small tank carried J O ~~'r'J " .' .~ vu 0 a .nov.a ntxa rerRoLZvx nsrnU aMs AND aa= w onuna 23 on hi s back. The y are mad e in several sizes and than the acute type of exposure . They are weights depending upon the leng t h of protec ti on intended for use on l y in tox ic atmospheres from desired . Their chie f use is found in atmosphere deficient in oxygen, such as manholes and enclosed tanks. wh i ch the wearer c an esc ape w i thout resp i ra tor. Fille r Type Respirato rs . Supplied-Air Respirators . These are intend ed for use in ope r ations wher e Filter type respirators are d evic es affording prote ction against tox ic dusts and are si m i lar t o th e chem ic al cartridge types i n construction pro tection from dust, vapo urs, or gas e s is re- an d use with t he exception that the cartridge is quired but from whic h the we a rer can esc a p e with- replaced by a s ui ta ble fil te r and hol der . ou t the use of the resp irator. They co nsist o f either T he Unite d States Bure au of Mines has set up a half or full face cove ri ng to wh ich fresh air is sched u l es and speci fi cat ions fo r all o f th e above constantly su pp lied fro m a compressed air line, types of protective devices except che m ical in an amo unt always i n excess of-that required c artrid ge res pi rators. This enables refiners for brea th i ng. T he ex cess a i r flows out throu g h and safety men to selec t t hose dev i ces which are the exha lat io n valve , or about th e face-piece . manufacture d to the h i gh de gre e o f perfection On ope rat io ns such as welding, paint sp rayin g req uired fo r meeting these specifications . and o t h ers, they are especia lly pre ferred . Orpaaiaation for Accident Prevention Canister Type Gas Masks. Success in any programme or operation will Masks of this type are used where the concen- be assured only if the work is well organised, trationof the contaminating gasorvapour iebelow system atised and continuously maintained . the maximum for which they are intended, either There must be centr alised control and leader- 1, 2, or 3 per cent., depending upon the type of ship. With these principles in force, co-opera- gas and the c a nister . An adequ a te supply of tion is bound to result ; and 66-operative efforts oxygen is an imperative necessity and under no in any line of endeavour can mean but one circumstances should canister type masks be thing-Success . Organised safety work has a used unless the atmosphere is definitely known powerful influence on the loyalty of employees to contain a minimum of 16 per cent. oxygen . and on the morale of the whole organisation . The neglect of this requirement has resulted in Employees come to regard safety activities as a many fatal accidents. In operation, the con- measure of company interest in their welfare taminated air enters the canister, passes through and any let-up in such activities is sure to be the sorbent which removes the contaminate followed by a falling-off of the men's efforts in either by absorption (as in the case of gases such other directions and by lowered morale all along as sulphur dioxide) ; adsorption (such as the the line . removal of organic vapours) ; by the combina- A s afety organis ation is prima rily a planning tion of both absorption and adsorption ; or by and service agency authorised to see that its catalysis (such as the removal of carbon monox- plans, accepted as company policy, are carried ide). The purified air then passes to the tight- through to successful conclusion . It is the essence fitting face-piece of the we a rer. Ca nister type of successful planning that motives are formulaU masks, using a special neutralising a gent, usually ed as little as possible on the basis of tradition, afford sufficient protection for tank puger3, hunch or guess and as largely as possible on the pipe-line inspectors, and others who work in basin of objective research, inspection, investiga- unconfined places ; but hose masks should always tion and experience . Any organised programme be used by workers in tanks and in other res- must be designed, pl anned and executed to tricted places where the air may contain ineuf5- inculcate into the minds of all employees a cient oxygen to sustain life or the poisonous- constant feeling of safety consciousness . All vapour concentration may be great . foremen and workmen must be trained to think CharricaLCnrlridpc Respirators. and must, before attempting to perform any :ask, be trained to ask themselves whether they These are devices affording protection against h ave outlined the safe pro :zdure, whether the toxic gases and vapours of comparatively low necessary safeguards are being provided and concentrations . They are used for prolonged whether all necess ary precautions are being we ar in atmospheres offering the chronic rather followed . When this achievement becomes a ~...~ 0 .~. . .n~r: ~ 0 ~~J 0 0 24 INDUSTRIAL 6AlLTY S IIR YLT reality, i t may be truly s aid that the organi sed they are assigned s very wile range of duties . safety programme has become effective. Su ch As an illustration, the work assigned six Sub- a safety program m e depe n d s to a great degre e up on co-ordination with other departments. Mr. J . L . RISINOER , Safety D irec to r , S o co n y Vacuum O il Company, tells us it is fundamentally imperativ e t h at : (1) Company executives recognise the im- Committees at one of the large refineries is as follows : Laboratory or Chemical Department . Mechanical-which takes in the various shops of the plant . Shipping-which covers the safety of lond- portance and vital necessity of a definite and effective organisation of a safety department ; that its objectives are well defined and that its channels of procedure are kept open . (2) That the safety supervisor be big enough that his ideas merit the consideration of senior executives in their planning ; that he be tactful enough to effect the correction of hazards and adherence to stand- ards of safe practices without friction ; that he be thorough enough to be correct in detail and not lose his sense of propor- tion to the extent of over-emphasuiag non-essentials. The value of the programme is greatly depreciated when the leaders of the programme itself spend ing racks, barrel house, cooper shop, etc . Pressure Stills . Construction and Maintenance-which covers the safety of the various crafts engaged in general construction and maintenance work. Manufacturing-which ta kes in various pl a nt opera tions on stills, agitators, wax plant, etc. The personnel of the Sub-Committees is very important. At .tho larger points each Sub-Committee consists of six or seven members . At smaller points, from three to five members . These men, as a rule, are foremen or sub-foremen appointed by the local chairman . It will be seen that at a large refinery the total number of com- most of their time overboard. mittee members whose duty it is to carry out the (3) That the safety organisation function safety programme is from 50 to 75 men . effectively with service departments, planning agencies and operating departments, so that safety links its way into and through every activity of the company from the chief executive, not only to the newest and lowest paid workman, but beyond the gates to the prospective workman and to the homes and recreation centres of employees' families . Work of Sub-Commillees .-Each Sub-Committee makes a monthly inspection of the areas and departments assigned and holds a meeting in which it discusses and reports all the unsafe conditions or practices which they have unearthed . Its suggestions and recommendations form the subject matter of the General Plant Safety Committee which likewise meets each month . The Sub-Committees' recommend- Varyin g conditions at different units affect ations or suggestions are a rranged in numerical ea ch loca l sa fety orga nis at ion but insofa r as order and are continued on future minutes of possible safety work should be organized uni- meetings until properly disposed of. The General formly. The pra ctice of one l a r ge petroleum Pl a nt Committee's minutes are in turn sent to c ompan y having refi n eries in various parts of the the Sub-Committee members so that they may United State s is described below: know the disposition of each item . Many items For Planla having beCweenoOQ and 5,000 Employ ees . that are brought up by the Sub-Committee are of such a nature that they can be immediately The most effe ctive organisation i s to have a taken care of without any help from the General G ener al P l an t Safety C omm ittee consis ting of Plant Committee . the heads of the l arg e r dep artments. The si ze The chairman or secretary of the General of th is Ge n eral Plant Committ ee vari es from Plant Committee keeps the Sub-Committees about ten to fifteen me mbers. I t is heade d by functioning and attends as many of their meet- the assi stant superintendent of the pmat . Under ings as possible . One of the most important pro- this Committe e 's d irect io n are a n umber o f visions of the plan is that this chairman or secre- s tanding Sub-Committees, arranged to inspect ta ry should see that action is taken on the Sub- definite departments , although in some cases Committees' recommendations and send out zp v 02 J 3 1 33 6 -,.~ .. Ee TtOIIAE DINO lLTEOLE III I ]t!llNiEtld AND TSL IE ROR LLBS 25 word as promptly as possible as to the disposi- to have in the forces a substantial number of tion of each recommendation. There is no workmen who have become familiar with many greater stimulus tha n for the Sub-Committee- of the plant's safety problems and had intimate men to know that their work is viewed as im- contact with that part of the supervisory force portant and their recommendations acted on on whom falls the responsibility for safety . This promptly by the management. practice brings the safety work home to the The minutes of the Sub-Committees naturally workmen better than any other method and reflect the work which is required to advance reduction in accidents has been largely due to sa fety but in order that some record of individual the conscientious work of the plant Sub-Com- work accomplished may be secured, each Sub- mittees, Committeeman distributes among the various foremen a blank form on which each foreman's monthly accomplishments can be reported . It reads : Special Sub-Commitkea . -At various times there are special Sub-Committees at work on such matters as safety campaigns, standardisation or investigation of safety equipment, During the past month I hove personally corrected or h a d corrected ua ufe physical conditions and have cautioned employees against unatfe practices as follows. first-aid teams, etc . The secretary of the General Plant Safety Committee is the one on whom falls the responsibility of keeping the safety After this sentence a space is left for the Various items to be listed . The blank form then continues : It you cannot personally correct as unsafe condition or practice a dvise the Committee either by letter or in person . Wh en cautioning a fellow-employee against an unsate practice or condition, be sure to speak with courtesy and work going . He is the key man of the safety organisation and the effectiveness or success of the safety work depends upon his efforts . He arranges the Sub-Committee meetings, instructs new employees in safety, investigates causes of accidents and arranges-for the investigation and determination of action on those suggestions or consideration . recommendations which require executive ap- I n Smaller Pla nts . proval . It 'u necessary for him to arrange special campaigns , gang meetings , etc . to keep up the The most effective method of safety organisation in plants of between 100 and 500 employees is practically the same as in the l a rger plants. The General Plant Committee is naturally smaller but as in the ca se of the larger plants interest . No matter how effective the safety organisation may be, old subjects must be revived and given a new interesting turn, and personal interest must be quickened wherever it may be found to lag. 16 the local superintendent and his staff officers a re the members. The assistant superintendent Safety Guards . and the employment supervisor are chairman A large refinery in New Jersey, in addition and secretary respectively . The standing Sub- to the members of the local safety committee, Committees are three in number. Instead of has appointed "Safety Guards", one for every lining up their work by departments it is more 100 men working in the department . The duties s.peFcioarliseexdample, three Sub-Committees of these guards are to check any unsafe condition function in the follo wing manner . One, a Sub- or practice and report them to their foreman . Committee on plant ins pection ; another a Sub- Numerous instances of unsafe conditions and Committee on sa fety equipment ; and third, a practices have been reported by the safety Sub-Committee on fire orga nis a tion and equip- guards to the safety department . A safety ment. As is the practice at the larger plants, guard was appointed as inspector of ropes, each Sub-Committee meets separately and not cables, cranes and all hoisting tackle used in the with the General Plant Committee . The same plant. It is his duty to maintain in first class method of numbering recommendations is fol- condition all ropes used on fire equipment, lowed and found very satisfactory . safety boxes containing life rings at the piers One important matter of organisation at the and those on top of conden :;cr box platforms . sm all plants is the appointment of several work- Gas masks are also maintained in first class con- men to each of the Sub-Committees. These dition . All face-pieces of masks are turned in to workmen serve for three to six months, which the safety department every three months for makes it possible in the course of a ye a r or two sterilisation and cleaning in hot water, which 0 0 2 13 8 12 26 taraverntAi, aenrr saR.Zs keeps the rubber pliable and prevents h ardening and cracking. It is a rule that face-pieces should be turned in for sterilisation and washing immediately after being used . This pro-vents the promiscuous use of the masks by different persons and each employee wearing one knows that it is clean and sterile . Another safety guard was appointed as tool inspector . He covers the entire yard once every three months, checking the tools used by each individual employee . The work of this inspector or safety guard reduced accidents due to unsafe tools 90 per cent . and the results from increased production and satisfied employees is beyond computation .' Maintaining Employee's Active Interest in Solely After all is said and done, accidents, fires and explosions will continue to occur in refineries unless every employee's active interest in accident prevention is maintained. Maintaining interest in safety is a perplexing problem of management and from past experience it would seem logical to assume that, where a ccidents a re on the increase, attention should be given to re-enthusing the foremen and workmen with the safety idea through such means as safety talks, circulation of safety literature, meetings, competitions, the use of effective posters, special accident score boards and other proven means of presenting the subject which will catch the attention and make the right impression . However, in order to maintain consistent interest in the prevention of industrial injuries in any operation, the employees must be convinced that the management is actively and aggressively interested in safety work . . For rYnne W m.i;o. - s .tnr anni..two .ee a.n,,,-, eau w r-w.. published by %be n-can revati,m mug . Coxcs,vaioxa Petroleum refining operation s involve the h a ndling of crude oils h aving variable compoaitiona, under wide variations in temperatures and pressures, in more or lena,elaborate equipment consisting of a m a ze of pipe lines, tanks, vessels of a ll sorts, steam, gas, and electrical apparatus . Vapours and ga ses from petroleum and its products are flammable a nd may cause fires, explosions and, in a few cases, serious illness or death through inh al ation . Nevertheless, these dangers have been greatly reduced and in many instances wholly eliminated by complying faithfully with known precautionary measures and by the employment o[ suitable means such as have been described and others th at have proved effective. More constructive s afety work is now being done in most modem refineries, starting in the early engineering phases of a job and carried through into the construction, even to the extent of complete opera ting rules, and a training period for the opera tin g personnel prior to the startingup of the operation . Many new pieces of equipment have had a development of this type and have operated with surprisingly good experience with respect to the absence of fires and accidents . All this has resulted in a profitable reduction in operating costs and disability compensation claims, as well as in raising the morale of the personnel and increasing the efficiency of the workers . In closing, it may be added that the monetary loss is no longer a true gauge of the fire and accident cost in refineries ; it is the interruption they cause in the continuous supply of vital petroleum products to our armed farces which is of prime importance to-day . 00233 v vV 0 SOME RECENT i . L . 0 . STUDIES Joint Production Committees in Great Britain Describes the system of joint production committees in individual factories, mines, ,shipyards and other establishments that has been developed in Great Britain in order to secure full labour-management co-operation in war production . CONTENTS CHAPTER I . Historical Background: Labour-Management Co-operation in the First World War-The Inter- War Period-Developments during the Present War . CHAPTER 11 . Methods of Conttilnliort: Voluntary Character-Attitude of the Government-Attitude of Industrial Organisations-Scope and Influence of the Aareementa-Procedure for Setting up Committees . CHAPTER lll . Composition and Meetings: Whitley Works Committees-EntinrinQ Committees (1922 Works Councils-Size of Present Committees-Eligibility of Workers' MembecrhlanaQement Reprc- .enntivn-Caopcion of Consultative Member-Vaaneia, Officers . etc.-Marinas-Procedure. CHAPTER IV. Functions: Inter-War Committee-Joint Production Committees-Yard Committees-Site Committees-Pit Production Committees . CHAPTER V . Relationship of Laboun,Vanagnnen! Committees, Trade Union Sfackinery, and Official Production Organisation : Co-ordination at the Plant Level-Trade Union Co-ordination of Production Commictea- KNauuna with Official I'riKluctiun Machinery . CHAPTER VI . Ezamplea of .4ctinilies and Raula-Morale Problems-Technical SRuesgugletss:tiWoonrs-kPsrCoobmlmeimtsteReesqu(iIr9i2n2g)-OPurtosdiudcetiCoonopCeormamtiitotne-eDsi:ffGiecneurlal ties in Operation-Procedures Adopted-Recent Evaluations . CunrTUt VII . Sammurv . Appendix Appendix !. Model Constitution for Works Committees suggested by the Ministry !J. Model Constitution for a Joint Production Committee . 1942 . of Labour . 1918 . Appendix Appendix Appendix Ill IV. V. . Selected Items from the Agenda of Production Committees in Various Establishments . Minutes of a Meeting of a Joint Production Consultative and Advisory Committee . Relationship between joint Production Committees and the National War Production and Labour Supply Organisation (Chart) . Montreal, 1943 . 74 pp . Price : 50 cents ; 2s . Life Saving Measures for Merchant Seamen in Time of War The safety of me rchant seame n was one of th e prin cipal subj ect s ot'di scuasion at the Twelfth Session of the Joint Maritime Commi s sion of the International Labour Office, w hich was held i n London fro m 26 to 30 June 1942 . The Commission had before it . as a basis for its discussion on safety at sea, a survey prepared by the International Labour Office which gave a comparative summary of the ru les on life-saving applianc es applica b le to foreign- goin g cargo vessels of the merchant nsBaurvriivteeisyshodfeMaiGlnrtiesawttirtyBhroitfthaeiWnar,rultTehrseanUosnfpiottrehtde,sSewthacitoceuhsntaorftieAtsmheearistciatm,heetythheestNCoooemdtmhiaestrsliaaonbndousmtaentAdphraNidolra1wl9am4oy2s.t.")(cToThmhi-es pleted a revision and consolidation of its wartime safety appliance rule, made available to t he Commission full issue. In the light in of form all a tion con ce rnin g th e n this information, the eCwommainsdsiaomneanddoepdterduluensaintimwoausslaybotuhtreteo res olu t io ns on safety at sea, the text s of w hich are re prod uced in th e present report. In one of these resolutions the Commission r equested the Office to "communicate to Governments as s oon as po ss ible . . . a summary statement of the life-saving measures best calculated to protect merchant seamen in time of war" . This booklet has been com- piled in compliance with the Commission's request . The statement presents-it is believed for the first time in such a form-a concise exposition of the latest rules for the protection of the lives o . merchant seamen in time of war, which will no doubt also serve as a basi s for any revision of such rules, nationally and int ernationally, which may take place when p eace i s restores . i P ub Seamen: li s h ed in the International Labour Renew, 11-Life-Saving Appliances", an d availa ble Vol . :CLV, No. 6 . Ju u an offprint, price S n e 1 9< : : cents or "The 3d . Wa r and Merch a. . : Montreal, 1 942 59 pp. Price : 35 cen t s ; is . 6d. 0 0 ? 3 8,1 3 3 ;J 0 .,i_ STUDIES IN WAR ECONOMICS Six essays on war finance, wages , housing, food prices , etc. war . . . Its wealth renders chis of examples taken from the book extremely valuable . .ex. p"er-iJeonucrenaolf orftu!ahya cRoouynatlriSeta.t, ibsottihcalinSotchieetlya.st and in the present Montreal, 1941 . 199 pp . Price : SI ; 4s . LABOUR CONDITIONS IN WAR CONTRACTS An analysis of the labour clauses and similar regulations applying to war work in Canada, the L' .S ., and Great Britain, and a brief discussion of some of the problems involved . "As an introduction to th e st udy of l a bour leg i sl at io n in wa rtime , t he book i s admirable . . . "-Ixdusnial Canada . Seco n d Edition, Mo n treal, 1943. 5 9 pp . Price : 25 cen ts ; is. WARTIME TRANSFERENCE OF LABOUR IN GREAT BRITAIN Describe s i n detail the metho d s adopted for the transfer of labour to war work up to July 1942 . " . . .The most complete and well integrated study to date i n this field . . .Pwblic Policy Divert . Montreal , 1942 . 163 pp . Price : paper, =1 ; 4a. - -cloth, $1 .50 ; 5s . FOOD CONTROL IN GREAT B RITAIN An analysis of the problems of production, distribution and con sumption of food in Great Britain during the present war, and an account of the measures taken to solve them . " does muc h to ill um in ate the road towards a pos itive nut rit ion po l icy, and a knowledgeable progra mme for th e poseua r reconstruction of agricul tu re. ' - .NancluJta Guardian. Montreal, 1942 . 272 pp. Price : paper, $1 .25 ; 5s .-clot h , $2 ; 7s. 6d . THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARDISATION OF LABOUR STATISTICS This report reviews the work of the International Labour Office and the international conferences of labour statisticians in the standardising of labour statistics and gives a picture of the steady progress in the different fields in the last twenty-five years . A r6sumd of work in each field is presented in Part f while Part [I reproduces the texts of the resolutions of the different conferences which embody the recommendations of labour statisticians on each topic . The subjects covered are indicated by the list of topics in Part I : Classification of Industries and Occupations : the Gainfully Occupied ; Employment and Unemployment ; Wages and Hours of Work ; Cost of Living; International Comparisons of Real Wages and Cost of Living : Family Living Studies ; Industrial Accidents ; Housing; Collective Agree- ments, Industrial Disputes ; Emigration and Immigration ; the Yeas Book ofLabousStatistics. Montreal, 1943 . 169 pp . Price : $1 .00 ; 4s . INDUSTRIAL EYESIGHT IN WAR-IN PEACE by Charles P . TotMnx, New York. Consulting Engineer for the National Society for the Prevention of Blindness, Inc. A reprint of an article published in the Industrial Safety Survey, Vol . YVII1, No . 4, October-December 1942 . Montreal, 1943. 12 pp . Price : 10 cents ; 6d . PETROLEUM, a Portrait in Safety by H . N . BLA KES LEE, Director of Accident Prevention, Amcrican Petroleum Institute, New York . A reprint of an article published in the Industrial Safely Survey, Voi. XV:I, No . 4, October-December 1941 . Montreal, 1941 . 9 pp. Price : 10 cents ; 6d . IN"- Pisa Lir irtq M orrts.t, Gx... a J 0 9 International Labour Review . , (Monthly, English, F renc h, an d Span i sh ed i ti ons) The International Labour Review has been published monthly by the Int e rnational L a bou r Office for ove r twen ty years . Rece n t i ssues printe d in M ontre al include th e follow- in g arti c les : " Chinese Economic Policy in Wartime, by General Ho YaoTaa.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ma 1943 Soviet Workers in Germany : Methods of Recruitment and Conditions of Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 1943 Social Security Planning in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 1943 Men' s and Women ' s Wages in the United States, by Z . Clark DtcxtNSOx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 1943 Economic Mobilisat ion and Man-Powe r Problems in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . June 1943 The Planning of Medical Services in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . June 1943 Industrial and Labour Information, formerly published weekly, is now included in the monthly Review. It contains up-to-date and comprehensive news under the headings International Labour Organisation, Social and Economic Policy, Industrial Relations, Employment, Conditions of Work, Social Insurance and Assistance, Co-operation, Workers' and Employers' Organisations . This is drawn from official and unofficial publications in every country, the International Labour Office's own correspondents, other collaborators, and direct communications from Governments. An increasing amount of space is being devoted to reconstruction policies in various countries . The s ection devoted to Statistics of wages, unemployment, co st of living, hours of work, etc., constitutes a unique source of information, since only the Office is in a position to secure all the relevant data : ' . one turns to i ts sober pale s w ith eagerness, findin g renewed hope in prosaic accounts of the progress of international convent ion . , the report o[ undramatic ga ins i n soci al insurance and prote c tive legislation in Turke y, Uru gu a y, Aus tralia, Cuba .' -Survey dfidm muily, New York - A specimen copy of the Review and a Catalogue of recent publications, which include studies on wartime labour and employment problems, food control a nd recent developments in the fi eld of social security, will b e sent on application to the INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OPPICB, 3480 University Street, Montreal, Canada . Th e In ternatio n al Labour Review may also be obtained from th e p ublis h ers in th e United Kingdom, Messrs . George Allen & Unwin Ltd ., Ruskin House, 40 Museum Str eet, London, W.C. 1 . Price : 60 cents ; 2s . 6d . Annual subscription $6 .00 ; 24a . `J GO `' J BtJ 0 nw ~