Document oM7gDxDeMKq6qoZ25GvDE1r78

ACCIDENT PREVENTION MANUAL for Industrial Operations EDITION NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL Chicago, Illinois 60611 .A w // 4 y, i'j SCIENCE & INDUSTRY COPYRIGHT 1964 NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL All Rights Reserved No portion of this book may be reproduced by any pro cess without written permission of the National Safety Council, 425 North Michigan Avenue, Chicago, III. 60611 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 64-24124 25M106463 Printed in U.S.A. Stock No. 121.35 CONTENTS For detailed contents of any chapter, consult the title page of that chapter. Chapter The Industrial Safety Movement................................................................................................1 Safety Organization and Safety Inspection................................................................................2 Safety Committees..........................................................................................................................3 Removing the Hazard From the Job.......................................................................................... 4 Human Behavior and Industrial Safety..................................................................................... 5 Safety Training................................................................................................................................6 Maintaining Interest in Safety.....................................................................................................7 Publicizing Safety..........................................................................................................................8 Accident Records and Injury Rates.......................................................................................... 9 Accident Investigation, Analysis, and Costs.............................................................................. 10 Workmen's Compensation Insurance.........................................................................................11 Sources of Help for the Safety Man.........................................................................................12 Audio-Visual Aids........................................................................................................................ 13 Industrial Buildings and Plant Layout........................................................................................ 14 Building Construction and Maintenance................................................................................... 15 Boilers and Unfired Pressure Vessels........................................................................................ 16 Manual Handling and Storage of Materials..............................................................................17 Hoisting Apparatus and Conveyors........................................................................................ 18 Elevators and Plant Railways...................................................................................................19 Power Trucks .............................................................................................................................20 Ropes, Chains, and Slings............................................................................................................. 21 Principles of Guarding and Transmission Guards................................................................... 22 Cold Forming of Metals............................................................................................................. 23 Machine Tools . 24 Woodworking Machinery............................................................................................................. 25 Guarding Equipment in Selected Industries..............................................................................26 Hot Working of Metals.............................................................................................................27 Local Exhaust Systems, General and Comfort Ventilation................................................... 28 Welding and Cutting.................................................................................................................. 29 Hand and Portable Power Tools............................................................................................. 30 Electrical Hazards....................................................................................................................... 31 Flammable and Combustible Liquids........................................................................................32 Fire Protection............................................................................................................................ 33 Fire Extinguishment and Control............................................................................................. 34 Emergency Action Plans.............................................................................................................35 Personal Protective Equipment.................................................................................................. 36 Industrial Sanitation and Personnel Facilities........................................................................ 37 Occupational Health Services.................................................................................................. 38 Industrial Hygiene....................................................................................................................... 39 Elements of Industrial Toxicology............................................................................................. 40 Table of Chemical Hazards....................................................................................................... 41 Ionizing Radiation....................................................................................................................... 42 Industrial Noise............................................................................................................................ 43 Motorized Equipment..................................................................................................................44 Safety Engineering Tables . 45 Alphabetical Index v INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE Free silica is uncombined silicon dioxide (Si02). Silicates contain silicon and oxy gen combined with other elements in more complex molecules. The SiOj reported in chemical analyses for mineral and geological reports is the total of the silicon dioxide present, both the free silica (if present), and the silica combined in the mineral. Such analyses are not reliable indications of the silicosis potential of the material, because it is the uncombined or free silica that is most important in industrial dust exposure. So that an exposure can be properly evaluated, the percentage of uncombined silica must be determined by petrographic analysis using a polarizing microscope or, preferably, by X-ray diffraction analyses and special ana lytical chemical procedures. There has been some experimental evi dence that some dusts may tend to inhibit the action of silica on the body, but this in hibiting action is so slight and uncertain that it must be discounted in practice. In fact, there is also evidence that the nonsiliceous components of a dust mixture containing free silica may provoke a disabling condition more severe than that caused by the silica acting alone. With the exception of asbestos and some talcs, the silicate dusts do not ordinarily cause a serious disabling lung condition such as is produced by free silica. Much higher levels of silicate dusts than of free silica dust can be tolerated. In many industries, men have worked with silicate dusts that con tained no free silica without development of disability or of nodulation in the lungs. The X-ray may show shadows indicating dust deposits in the lungs, but the pneumoconiosis is essentially harmless. However, partially disabling pneumoconioses have been reported where men have worked for long periods of time in very high concentrations of certain silicate dusts. Disabling pneumoconioses from exposure to abnormally high concen trations of mica, tremolite talc, and kaolin dusts have been described in the literature. The clinical signs are not the same for these silicate dusts as for free silica, but the symp toms can be marked. The fine airborne fibers of asbestos can pass through the upper respiratory tract to the lower parts of the lungs to cause irrita tion and to form "asbestos bodies" where the fibers are encapsulated. This diffuse fibrosis probably begins as a "collar" about the terminal bronchioles. There is evidence that other minerals having a fibrous charac ter (except glass fiber) can produce a reac tion similar to that of asbestos. Following a study by the U.S. Public Health Service of the asbestos textile indus try,* it was recommended that the dust con centration be kept at less than 5 mppcf to prevent asbestosis. Evaluation of an expo sure to asbestos dust is based on the total amount of dust, since the concentration of injurious fibers will be kept within safe limits if the fine dust is kept below the suggested threshold limit. Miscellaneous pneumoconioses. Even though a dust is classified as harmless, amounts above the TLV can lead to trouble by causing a pneumoconiosis, mechanically irritating the walls of the respiratory system, or interfering with ordinary lung processes. Mica dust and kaolin dust are two good ex amples of dusts that ordinarily are consid ered benign but amounts above the TLV can cause a troublesome pneumoconiosis. Mica pneumoconiosis has been observed in grind ing operations where mica dust, but no free silica was present. There were marked changes in the X-ray pictures of the lungs and some disability. The cases occurred where the dust exposures were massive over many years. Toxic dusts and fumes Systemic reactions are caused by toxic dusts and fumes of various elements and their compounds and by certain organic com pounds. All metallic fumes arc irritating, es pecially when freshly generated. Industrially important metals and their compounds that can have a toxic effect when the dust or fumes are inhaled include arsenic, antimony, cadmium, chromium, lead, manganese, mercury, selenium, tellurium, thallium, uranium, and a few others. Asbestosis. Several minerals having a fibrous character are classed as "asbestos"-- hydrated silicates of magnesium with vari able amounts of iron, calcium, sodium, potas sium, and aluminum present as impurities. U.S. 'Public health Service, Washington, D.C. "A Study of Asbestosis in the Asbestos Textile Industry." Bulletin No. 241. 1938. 39-8 r fadi*r Cvaee]......... .................. Chemical Mfg* Oil Refining J Hydroquiaono............... .. .Synthetic Dye Indmstry \ x AiKm Anhydride.....................................Textile Mfg. ( ,U Aerotma ............................. ................. Chemical Mfg. I Bonayl Chloride,................... Synthetic Dye Industry 1 JButyl Alcohol..........lacfwr ond Paint Industry Omm..................... .........................Wtiding Operations Dunelhyleulfate........ CAomicoJ Mfg* Pharmucetsticol Ind. Chromium........................Chromes* Mfg* Chrome Plating Acetic Anhydride..............................................Textile Mfg. Acrolein .......................................................Chemical Mfg. Hydrogen Sullh..................................Piscose Ayoo Ind. Stuartg* Treatment Butyl Alcohol..............................Lacquer and Paint Mfg. AceUldebyde.............................Chemical Mfg* Point Mfg. Nickel.............................. Metallurgies Rtfining Processes Cry<ilb`M,Silic..................... Mining Ind^ Foundry Ind. AiUmm. ..................................Mining Ind* Weaving Ind. Beryllium....................Foundry Ind., Metallurgical Ind. Chromium ................................................... Chromate Mfg. Hydrogon Sulfide.................................. Kucm Rtyon Ind. Sewerage Treatment Ailfl Chloride................................................. PUuic Mfg. DhklMMikjl Ether.............Insecticide Mfg* Oil Refining Mka......................... Rubber Industry, Insulation Industry Talc..............................................................Mining Industry Nitrogen Dioxide................Chemical Mfg* Metal Pickling Creaol.................................... ..Chemical Mfg., Oil Rafining DimethylMilfete........ Chemice/ Mfg* Pharmaceutical Mfg. Chloroform...............................Chemical Mfg* Plastic Mfg. Carbon Tetrachloride........... Chemical Mfg* Dry Cleaning Fire Extinguisher Service Trichloroethylene..........Chemical Mfg., Metal Degreasing Perchlarelhyleoe.......... .. .Chemical Mfg* Dry Cleaning Toluene..........................................Bobber Ind* Paint Ind. Butyl Alcohol............................................... Chemical Mfg. Lacquer and Pain* Mfg. Nkkel................................ Metallurgical, Refining Processes Phenol ................................. Plastics Mfg. Trichloroethylene ........................................ Chamical Mfg. Mosel Degraesing Fig. 40-1. Industrial chemicals; their source and their effect upon the body. 4gem Benaeno....................................Rubber Industry, Chemical Mfg. Carbon Tetrachloride........................Solvent Mfg* Dry Cleaning Carbon Dieulfido................... Viscose Boyon Mfg* Bubber Mfg. Butylamino.......... ........................................... Synthetic Dye Mfg. Pharmaceutical Mfg. Hydrogen Sulfide........................................... Viscose Beyon Mfg. Setoerege Treatment Tetn Ethyl Load.......................... Chemical Mfg. Manganeeo.................................Mining, MetaUurgicsd Processing Mercury (BO different induitriee).. .Electrical Equipment Mfg. Lab Workers Lead.........................................Auto Mfg., Smelting, Battery Mfg. DimelhyUnutioc ........................... Chemical Mfg. Acetaldehyde ............ Chemical Mfg. Nitrobenaeno..................... Synthetic Dye Ind., Shoe Polish Mfg. Thallium.............. ................... ..Pesticide Mfg* Fire Work Mfg, Aniline..................................................Synthetic Dye Mfg. Point Mfg. Rubber Industry Chloroform.............................Chemical Mfg., Plastic Mfg. Mercury.....................................Electrical Equipment Mfg. Scientific Labs. Dimcihyleulfatc ........................................... Chemical Mfg. Pharmaceutical Mfg. ' !: t\. Nitrobenaeno. Axwoie (oa Arsine) Benaano................... Carbon Monoxide.. Toluene.................... ................Synthetic Dye Mfg. Shoe Polish Mfg. ........Point Mfg* Bobber Ind. ............ ............. Metal Pickling Chemical Mfg* Robber Ind. ..............Heat Treating Ind.. Automobile Services ... .Rubber Mfg* Paint Mfg. BL_Or O'c.D Flguro ol man above D by Andraaa Veaeliue (151444), madam fnibar of anatomy. Courtesy "Air Engineering" Magazine E LE M E N TS OF IN D U S T R IA L TO X IC O LO G Y 40-4 TABLE 40-B. THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES FOR 1963 Adopted at the 25th Annual Meeting of the American Conference of Govern mental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, ;Ohio, May 6-7, 1963. These values should be used as guides in the control of health hazards and should not be regarded as fine lines be tween safe and dangerous concentrations. They represent conditions under which it is believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed, day after day, without adverse effect. The values listed refer to time-weighted average concentratio rs for a normal workday. The amount by which these figures may be exceeded for short periods without in jury to health depends upon a number of factors such as the nature of the con taminant, whether very high concentra tions even for short periods produce acute poisoning, whether the effects are cumulative, the frequency with which high concentrations occur, and the dura tion of such periods. All must be taken into consideration in arriving at a deci sion as to whether a hazardous situation exists. Because it has been recognized that the threshold limits of certain acute ly acting substances may not provide a safety factor comparable to that of chronically acting substances for which a time-weighted average applies, a "C" designation or "ceiling" has been affixed to such values indicating that the Thresh old Limit Value should not be exceeded. The bases for the "C" listing are given in appendix C. Special consideration should be given to the application of these values in as sessing the health hazards which may be associated with exposure to mixtures of two or more substances. A brief discus sion of basic considerations involved in developing threshold limit values for mix tures, and methods for their develop ment, amplified by specific examples are given in appendix B. Threshold limits are based on the best available information from industrial ex perience, from experimental studies, and, when possible, from a combination of the two. These values are based on various criteria of toxic effects or on marked dis comfort; thus, they should not be used as a common denominator of toxicity, nor should they be considered as the sole criterion in proving or disproving diag nosis of suspected occupational disease. These limits are intended for use in the field of industrial hygiene and should be interpreted and applied only by per sons trained in this field. They are not intended for use, or for modification for use, (1) as a relative index of toxicity, by making a ratio of two limits, or (2) in the evaluation or control of commu nity air pollution or air pollution nui sances, or (3) in estimatii g the toxic potential of continuous uninterrupted ex posures. These values are reviewed annually by the Committee on Treshold Limits for revisions, or additions, as further infor mation becomes available. The Commit tee welcomes the suggestion of sub stances to be added to the list and also comments, references, or reports of expe rience with these materials. r ELEMENTS OF INDUSTRIAL TOXICOLOGY TABLE 40-B. THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES FOR 1963 (Continued) Mineral Dusts, Tentative Values, and Appendix A Mineral Dusts Substance mppcf! SILICA Crystalline Quartz, Threshold Limit calcu- 250 lated from the formula..............%Siot -f- 5 Cristobalite " "" Amorphous, including natural diatomaceous earth................... 20 SILICATES (less than 1% crystalline silica! Asbestos..................................... Mica ............................................ Soapstone................................... Talc.............................................. Portland Cement....................... 5 20 20 20 50 Miscellaneous (less than 1 % crystalline silica) .......... 50 Conversion factors mppcf X 35.3 = million particles per cubic meter = particles per c.c. Tentative Values Substance tert. Butyl chromate (as CrOs)--Skin ... Calcium oxide............. Camphor....................... Copper Fume............... Dusts & Mists........... DDVP (O, O-Dimethyl- 2.2-dichlorovInyl phosphate) ............. ppm* -- -- -- -- _ mg/cu m** 0.1 5 02.) 1.0 1 Tentative Values Substance ppm* Demeton (R> (Systox) Endrin (1,2,3,4,10, 10,-hexachloro-6, 7-epoxy-1,4,4a, 5,6,7,8,8a-octa hydro 1,4-endo-5, 8-dimethanonap- -- thalene--Skin .... Epichlorhydrin ...... 5 Ethanolamine........... 3 Graphite................... -- Hafnium................... Heptochlor 11,4,5,6, 7,8,8a-heptachloro- 3a, 4,7,7a-tetra- hydro-4,7-meth- anoindene)........... Methylamine .......... Methyl Methacrylate 100 C Methylene bis pheny- I isocyanate......... 0.02 Mineral Wool (Fiberglas)........... -- Napthalene............... 10 Oil (mineral).......... -- 0-Propiolactone .... -- Silver......................... -- Tantalum ................. -- 1,1,1,2,-Tetrachloro- 2,2,-difluoroethane 1000 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloro- 1,2-difluoroethane 500 Tetraethyl lead--Skin -- Tin (Inorganic compounds) ... (organic compounds as Sn--Skin . mg/cu m** 0.1 0.1 19 6 15 mppcf 0.5 410 0.2 2 50 5 A-5 0.05 5 8340 4170 0.075 2 0.1 Noth: The word "Skin" following a substance indicates that the substance can penetrate the skin to contribute to the exposure and TLV should be reduced accordingly. Parts of vapor or gas per million parts of air by volume at 25 C and 760 mm Hg pressure. Approximate mg of particulate per cu m of air. {Millions of particles per cu ft of air, based on impinger samples counted by light-field technics. $The percentage of crystalline silica in the formula is the mount determined from airborne samples, except in those instances in which other methods have been shown to be applicable. A numbers, see specific number in Appendix A. C substances, see Appendix C. Appendix A A-l Benzidine. Because of high incidence of bladder tumors in man, any exposure, including skin, is extremely hazardous. A-2 (5-Naphthylamlne. Because of the ex tremely high incidence of bladder tu mors in workers handling this compound, and the inability to control exposures, P-naphthylamine has been prohibited from manufacture, use and other activi ties that involve human contact by the State of Pennsylvania. A-3 N-Nltrosodimethylamine. Because of ex tremely high toxicity and presumed car cinogenic potential of this compound. contact by any route should not be per mitted. A-4 Teflon decomposition products. At least one identified component of Teflon de composition products is extremely toxic, but in the absence of more complete toxicity information and suitable analy tic methods, a definite threshold limit value is not recommended at this time; but air concentrations should be minimal. A-5 fl-Propiolactone. Because of high acute toxicity and demonstrated skin tumor production in animals, contact by any route should be avoided. 40-8 ELEMENTS OF INDUSTRIAL TOXICOLOGY TABLE 40-C. MAXIMAL ACCEPTABLE CONCENTRATIONS Meaning4 It is generally recognized that there are levels of concentration of atmospheric contaminants to which a person may be exposed without known ill effects or dis comfort. Since it is not practical to main tain completely uncontaminated air in most industrial situations, it is necessary to establish maximal acceptable concen trations of atmospheric contaminants en countered in industrial operations. These concentrations in themselves do not rep resent a scale of relative toxicity; they represent the concentrations of contami nants below which ill effects are unlikely to be experienced by any but hypersusceptible individuals. These concentrations are usually based upon data obtained by one or more of the following procedures: (1) Laboratory tests on animals (2) Laboratory tests using human sub jects (3) Environmental and medical investi gations in plants. A common feature of these procedures is that the experimental exposure shall correspond to the normal work pattern. This should be taken into consideration also in the application of maximal accept able concentration values. Three criteria have governed the es tablishment of these concentrations: (1) Organic or other tissue changes (2) Functional reactions that have no discernible untoward effects on health but cause impairments, such as in-cocrdinations and increased proneness to accidents (3) Discomfort or adverse sensory effects. In those cases in which the concen trations have been established on the basis of organic changes, it is logical to assume that repeated exposure to con centrations significantly in excess of the acceptable concentration probably would produce injury. When the level has been established on the basis of a functional change or discomfort, it is logical to as sume'that exposure to concentrations not greatly exceeding the acceptable concen tration would not produce materially in jurious effects. Hence it is important to understand the criteria upon which any* such maximal acceptable concentration has been established. Though the purpose of the acceptable concentration is to minimize health haz ards, its immediate use is for guidance in establishing engineering procedures to prevent objectionable concentrations of toxic or noxious materials from being present in the air of work places. Com parison of the results of air analyses with maximal acceptable concentrations indi cates acceptable conditions or otherwise the need, extent, and urgency of control measures. Sampling and analysis should be performed by competent personnel using an acceptable method that will pro vide a reliable measure of actual expo sure. Air analyses in conjunction with ac ceptable concentrations of such atmos pheric contaminants as are encountered in industrial operations serve as a mea sure of exposure, but not as a means of diagnosis of occupational disease. Diag nosis should be based on a consideration of all factors, including results from clinical and physical examination, as well as from air analyses, from means of as sessing amounts of materials in the body, and a knowledge of toxicological effects of the materials under consideration. In the application of the standards, it should be kept in mind that: (1) The acceptable concentrations serve as standards for good industrial hy giene practice. (2) They serve as engineering guides. Design and operation should aim at maintaining all concentrations below the acceptable maximum. (3) They should be applied and inter preted by competent individuals with a full understanding of the basis and limitations of the informa tion from which the standard has been developed. (4) It is advised that these standards are considered to be guides toward good industrial hygiene and are not in tended as legal requirements. (5) The levels are applicable only for exposure to a single substance. In the case of exposure to mixtures, the effect may be increased or decreased, and controls should be based on the specific situation. *From American Standard Z37.23-1962. 40-12 ELEMENTS OF INDUSTRIAL TOXICOLOGY in the handling of wet dross from a light metals plant, in the cleaning of tank cars which have held sulfuric and hydrochloric acids, in the cleaning of pipes with an acid contaminated with arsenic, in the precipita tion of cadmium with metallic zinc, and in other operations. Barium, in the form of its soluble salts, is toxic on both ingestion and inhalation and highly caustic when applied to the skin. The carbonate and sulfide are sufficiently soluble to be toxic, although not very caustic. The sulfate, which is used as a contrast medium in X-ray work, is too insoluble to show any Arsine rapidly destroys the red cells. toxicity, and soluble sulfates are specific After it has been inhaled, the first signs are antidotes for ingested barium salts. those of lack of oxygen. After some time the body begins to excrete the damaged red cells, which appear as a dark or bloody urine. The kidneys may then become too clogged to operate at all. Arsine, in very small amounts, is also capable of producing a chronic type of poisoning, but it is more typically a source of acute episodes. Since these salts produce violent stimula tion of all muscle, upon ingestion they pro duce severe disturbances of the digestive system. After absorption, the barium salts increase blood pressure by constriction of the arterial muscle, slow down heart beat by an action similar to that of digitalis, and first excite and then paralyze the central The possibility of arsine formation should nervous system. In spite of the high inher always be considered when there is freshly ent toxicity, there are few cases of indus formed hydrogen around ores of the heavy trial poisoning with barium. metals, since arsenic is widely distributed in small amounts and only a trace of it is re quired to produce enough arsine to be trou blesome. Barium is a heavy metal, and the dust of the insoluble salts will collect in the lungs and give rise to the condition known as baritosis. Its nodular appearance on X-ray One of the more common sources of arsine film may be mistaken for that of silicosis. incidents in recent years has been the han Men showing the sign of baritosis are ap dling of dross from the aluminum refining parently not disabled or inconvenienced in of metals. Probably the most significant ob any way. servation about these cases, aside from the fact that the moisture in the atmosphere is See Hygienic Guide. enough to form arsine, is the fact that the people involved in them have not been aware of the garlic-like odor which is supposed to be a warning of the presence of arsine. Benzene (benzol) is a colorless, flamma ble, volatile liquid with a rather pleasant aromatic odor. Its fire hazard is between ethyl alcohol and ethyl ether. The greatest See Hygienic Guide. hazard is that of chronic poisoning by in halation of comparatively small amounts Asbestos is a hydrated magnesium silicate over a long period of time. It is one of the found in the minerals chrysotile, amianthus, two or three most dangerous organic sol actinolite, and tremolite. Practically all the vents in commercial use, and acts primarily commercial asbestos is either chrysotile or on the blood-forming organs, producing se amianthus, and about 90 per cent of that vere anemia, bleeding under the skin, and used in this country is chrysotile. It is used great reduction in the ability of the blood to almost exclusively for heat insulation or for clot. textiles which must resist high temperature, The most convenient measurement of such as heat-resistant clothing and brake damage is given by a blood count. People linings. who may be exposed to benzene vapor Inhalation of excessive quantities of as should have blood counts at regular inter bestos fiber can produce a fibrosis in the vals and significant changes in the count lungs similar to that found in silicosis but should be closely investigated. j. somewhat milder and usually not so rapidly Headaches, dizziness, fatigue, loss of ap* progressive. Like silicosis, the condition de petite, irritability, nervousness, nosebleed, velops and advances slowly and is equally and other signs of abnormalities of the resistant to treatment. There is also good blood may or may not be present in chronic evidence that inhaled asbestos causes lung poisoning. cancer. A single heavy exposure to benzene vapor See Hygienic Guide. may produce a serious acute effect, similar 40-18