Document ga9gBKRj74DjadLm34b4e6zm3

Bulletin 630 Bureau of Mines MINERAL FACTS AND PROBLEMS By Staff, Bureau of Mines 1965 edition UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Stewart L. Udall, Secretary _ BUREAU OF MINES Frank C. Memmott, Acting Director '> W . *.TV* 1 2 PLAINTIFFS | EXHIBIT ! 154 5 {2 )- $ t Created in 1849, the Department of the Interior--a Department of Conservation--is concerned with the management, conservation, and development of the Notion's water, fish, wildlilc, mineral, forest, and pane and recreational resources. It also has major responsibilities for Indian and Terri torial affairs. . As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department works to assure that nonre newable resources are developed and used wisely, that park and recreational resources are conserved for the future, and that renewable resources make their full contribution to the progress, prosperity, I and security of the United Slates--now and in the future. This publication has been cataloged as follows: U.S. Bureau of Mines. Mineral facts and problems, 10G5. ["Washington] I'.S. Dept, of llie Interior, Bureau of Mines, 19G5. 1113 p. Illus. (It* Bulletin 630) 1. Mint* nnd mineral resources--U.S. 2. Mineral Industries--U.S. I. Title. (Series) TN23.U4 no. G30 G22.0G173 U.S. Dept, of tlie Xnt. Library. II I II iI I I For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C., 20402 Price S6.75 (Cloth Sound) Foreword This edition of Mineral Facts and Problems marks the second revision of this widely used reference work. Events have shown that the 5-year interval botween editions was well chosen. For many commodities there have been significant shifts in the past 5 years in the world supply-demand position and the production-consumption pattern, resultin': both from political and social changes and from advances in science anil technology. Despite such major shifts for some commodities, much of the background information presented in tlio 1960 edition of Mineral Facts and Problems remains pertinent. Hence, substantial portions of the carefully prepared and reviewed material from the previous edition remain unchanged in this edition. The initial edition of Mineral Facts and Problems, published early in 1956, was an outgrowth of a Bureau of Mines commodity program statement series. The statements, revised periodically to reflect the rapidly changing positions of individual commodities in relation to national demands, provided broad basic and background information from which the Bureau could generate and eval uate ideas for mineral resource development and research investigations. This orderly presentation of mineral information proved useful to other Government organizations, commercial analysts, and educators and students. The Bureau hopes that this edition, Bulletin 630, also will prove as worthwhile a reference anil as helpful in understanding and attacking the problems encountered in developing world mineral resources to meet mankind's material needs. Like its predecessors, this edition represents the work of Bureau specialists--but it depends heavily on information from industry and reviews by critics in both industry and Government for which the Bureau is deeply ap preciative. Technical editing of the volume was carried out by Paul Yopes and statistical editing by ICuthleen J. D'Amico, both of the Division of Minerals. Paul Zinner Assistant Director, Mineral Resource Development 't i- -. t V ASBESTOS By Timothy C. May 1 ALTHOUGH asbestos has been known and used for at least 2,000 voars, it was not until the end of the 17th century that it began to be regarded as something other than an object of superstition. It possesses some of tho characteristics of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. Although crude asbestos is naturally a dense mineral, it can be processed into a material as light, buoyant, and feathery as thistledown, which can bo woven like cotton or wool. Asbestos is a name applied to a group of natu.lly fibrous minerals. The largest producers of asbestos are Canada and the U.S.o.R. The United States is the largest consumer but pro duces only a small part of its requirements. The major part of the U.S. supply or chrysotile is imported from Canada. Most crocidolite and all amosite used in the United States are pro duced in the Republic of South Africa. Lowiron long-fiber chrysotile and amosite are im portant in defense purposes. Crocidolite has important industrial uses that are less directly related to defense problems. During World War II and several years thereafter, most grades of good quality asbestos were in short supply. The discovery of a large deposit of suitable low-iron chrysotile in British Colum bia, Canada, relieved the short supply situation. The production and consumption of asbestos should continue to increase. The principal sup pliers of U.S. markets--Canada and the Re public of South Africa--appear to have ade quate reserves of asbestos to meet requirements for many years at current rates of consumption. An important problem in asbestos is the com plete dependence of the United States on for eign sources of supply. Other problems are the lack of a commercially satisfactory substi tute for amosite, current lack of interchange ability of the various types of asbestos, waste disposal, and biological effects of asbestos upon the industrial employee. BACKGROUND , SIZE, ORGANIZATION, AND GEO ; GRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF THE * INDUSTRY ( The United Stntes leads in manufacturing . asbestos products and consumes 23 percent of , the world asbestos production; however, do ' mcstic sources furnish only 9 percent of the raw * wbestos needed. Most of the supply is obtained - in Canada, but important quantiticSj particu larly of special kinds and grades, originate in the Republic of South Africa (4-5).1 . Tho Provinco of Quebec, Canada, has the largest mines and mills in tho world. Tho * S.S.R. rivals Canada as an important pro- ComtnAdlty tppclnltut. ii ounib**r In parenthe*** r*ffr to Ittms In tbo ut at re/erenr* at the n4 of thli chapter. ducer. The Republic of South Africa, South ern Rhodesia, Swaziland, Italy, and the United States are substantial producers, and smaller supplies originate in many countries. The va riety chrysotile constitutes about 95 percent of the world supply, and unless otherwise desig nated the data herein relate to chrysotile. Total world production in 1963 was 3.2 mil lion short tons of all grades and varieties. Of this total, Canada produced about 40 percent, the U.S.S.R. 38 percent (estimated), the Re public of South Africa 6 percent, Southern Rhodesia 4 percent, the United States 2 per cent, Italy 2 percent, and Swaziland 1 percent. Prior to 19G2, the only largo production of asbestos in tho United States was from a de posit in Eden and Lowell Townships, Vt., in what is regarded as a southern extension of the S2 MINERAL FACTS AND TROHLEMS Quebec deposits. In 19G3, deposits in tho Cop- pcropolis, Con lings., And Napa areas in Cali fornia began production, and in the next- few years their combined production is expected to exceed that of Vermont. Several operators have small chrysotile mines in an area awut 60 miles long and 25 miles wide in the Salt River and Cherry Creek basins of Gila County, north of Globe, Ariz. These are the only sources of chry sotile asbestos that have been developed in the United States. Chrysotile deposits are known in Montana, Wyoming, and other States, but production has been negligible. In addition, amphibole asbestos is produced sporadically in North Carolina and Georgia (6-8,16,20-21,25 27). _ ^ The largest known asbestos deposits in the free world are in ah area 75 miles long by 5 or 6 miles wide between Danville and the Chau- diere River Valley, in the Province of Quebec. Canada. Eight companies are actively engaged in mining in this area. Six of these are sub sidiaries of companies that operate large as bestos-products plants in the United States. Deposits occur elsewhere in Canada, Asbestos was mined in Munro Township, 12 miles east of Matheson, Ontario, from 1950 until the mine closed down on July 31, 19G4. Asbestos has been mined continuously in northern British Columbia since 1953. In mid-1963 a new mine began operating at Baie Verte in Newfound land. An important deposit in the northern Ungava region of Quebec is being examined and may be considered a prospective producer. Ca nadian production in 1963 was valued at Can5135 million, whereas U.S. production had a sales value of about$5 million. The Soviet deposits, situated in the Bajenova district of the Urals, are extensive. The mines and mills are large, and most of the fiber is used within the country in the manufacture of various asbest os products. Southern Rhodesia is an important producer of chrysotile asbestos, particularly in the Shabani area. The fiber from these deposits has such a low iron content that it can be made into the excellent electrical insulating material that is required in the construction of electric cables for use on shipboard. Most of tlie other deposits of the world, except the comparatively small ones in Arizona and the recently discovered large one in British Columbia, have a substan tially higher iron content, making t hem unsuit able for electrical insulation. Swaziland and the Republic of South Africa nlso produce chrysotile in substantial quantities. The Re public of South Africa produces two special types of asbestos--amosite, found commercially nowhere else, nnd crocidolite (bhto asbestos), produced also in Australia nnd Bolivia. Most of the African production is exported (24). Smaller operations are in Cyprus, Italy, Fin land, France, Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Japan, nnd several other countries. DEFINITION OF TERMS, GRADES, AND SPECIFICATIONS Asbestos is a name applied to a group of nat urally fibrous minerals. The principal variety is chrysotile, a hydrous magnesium silicate hav ing the theoretical formula 3Mg0`2Si0,`2H,0. Other commercial varieties are ainosite,a com plex iron-magnesium silicate, (FeMg)SiO,T-5 Set. H,0; and crocid-olilc, a sodium-iron hvrous silicate, NaFe(SiO,),`FcSiO,`H,0. Of minor importance are tremolite, Ca-,Mg,Si0,, (OH),, nnd anthophylliie, (MgFe) ,Si0,, (OH),(J) Chrysotile, the principal variety of com merce, is graded according to fiber length. Fi bers threc-oighths of an inch long or longer are classed as the spinning grades suitable for use in making fabrics. According to the Canadian classification, the crudes (hand-cobbed long fi bers) and spinning fibers comprise groups 1, 2, and 3. The succeeding groups are of progres sively shorter fibers. Group 4 is designated as shingle stock; group 5, paper stock; group waste stucco and plaster; and group 7, refuse or shorts. Most of these groups are divided into several subgroups. Sucn groupings comprise the commercial specifications. The consumer designates the grade desired, such as 3R or 4K. Grades may be blended to satisfy special needs. For some uses the chemical composition is important. Thus, for electric insulation an upper limit for the iron content may be specifiea. The methods of classification used in the principal producing countries are discussed in detail m a Bureau of Mines publication (4). TECHNOLOGY Most chrysotile asbestos deposits, including those of Vermont and California in the United Slates, Canada, Southern Rhodesia, Swaziland, the Republic of South Africa, and the U.S.S.R, consist of irregular cross-fiber veins (closely packed fiber set at a right angle to the faces of the rock fractures) or slip-fiber zones (shear planes in rock filled with filer mntted together parallel to the seam) in massivo serpentine. Such deposits commonly extend to unknown depths. Those of Arizona, however, consist of more or less horizontal asbestos-bearing serpen tine zones in thin-bedded limestone. Such de posits are generally less extensive and less per sistent than those in massivo serpentine. The nmosite nnd crocidolite of tho Republic of South Africa occur in banded ironstones that are so folded and contorted that the veins are very irregular (16, 24-27). In '''ennont, the fiber-bearing rock is removed from ..n open pit, which is worked on three 125-foot-high benches. Similar methods are employed in the Copperopolis district in Cali fornia- but in the Coalinga district the higldy sheared ore is simply "plowed" and allowed to air-dry, and the coarse fraction is screened out from tho millfeed. The usual practice in Ari zona is to drive a 5- to 6-foot heading in barren limestone beneath the fiber zone, which is later blasted down and hand-cobbed. The Canadian mines were originally open pits, but there has been a gradual transition to underground mines using block-caving methods. The chrysotile of Southern Rhodesia, the Republic of South Africa, and Swaziland is obtained from under ground mines. Amosite is obtained chiefly from lnrge underground workings, and blue asbestos from small open pits and shallow mines. The Soviet deposits are worked both in open pits and underground. Cyprus has large open-pit workings (5,17, 21,24). Asbestos milling is a complex operation in volving primarily the separation of fiber from rock and classification of the fiber by length. Asbestos, unlike the metals, is not a single com modity, but comprises a series of grades de- ?ehnedoinpgerautpoornhathselitltelengctohnotrfolinodveivridthueapl rfoibpeorsr. tions of tho various grades, as they are fixed in nature, but he has the important task of mini mizing fiber damage. He must mill the rock with as little fiber breakage as possible, because short fibers are worth much less than long ones. Special types of rock disintegrators have been developed, and reduction is accomplished in stages with fiber removal by air suction at each stage (14). . In Arizona the hand-cobbed rock is reduced in jaw crushers and the fiber separated by screening. Fiber which remains on a V^-incn screen is classed as No. 1; that which passes a V^-inch mesh and remains on a ^4-incn mesh, No. 2; through 14-inch mesh and on %-inch mesh, No. 3; and that which passes through the 14-inch mesh, No. 4. Nos. 1 and 2 are classed as spinning grade if the fibers are not too harsh. Some spinning fiber is obtainable from No. 3. Special milling techniques have been devel oped for the matted short fiber chrysotile of the Coalinga district of California, including grinding and wet-milling processes. In Vermont nnd Canada tho mills arc largo and complex. The fiber is ^classified in many grades, such as spinning, cement stock, and paper stock. USES The uses of asbestos fibers of all varieties are numerous and range from floor tile to rockets. The longer fibers--Canadian groups 1, 2, and 3, and their equivalents from other countries--are used for making textile products such as cloth, yarn, tape, and rovings. The asbestos is spun and woven in much the same way as cotton, silk, or wool. Asbestos fabrics are used extensively for logging cloth, brakeband linings, clutch fac ings, safety clothing, packings, gaskets, and various other appliances. Low-iron fiber is used in cable insulation (2,13). Shorter fibers such as Canadian group 4, and to some extent 5 and 6, are used widely for as bestos-cement products such os roofing shingles and flat and corrugated siding. These products consist of about SO percent portland cement and 20 percent asbestos. Canadian groups 4 and 5 and African amosite are used extensively for making S5 percent magnesia block and pipe in sulation. They consist of about S5 percent basic magnesium carbonate and 15 percent asbestos. Canadian group 5 is suitable for asbestos pa per and millboard manufacture. Such prod ucts are made on standard papermaking ma chines. An important use of asbestos paper is for making the so-called air-cell pipe covering. The shortest fibers are used for boiler and roof ing cements and as filler in asphalt floor tile and various other products. Amosite is used for felted insulation in blan ket form for high-temperature service up to 900 F. A loosely compacted form is applied as a covering for marine turbines, jet engines, and similar applications. Amosite is also used as a constituent of 85 percent magnesia insula tion and lightweight, nre-resistant marine par tition board. Long-fiber crocidolite (blue asbestos) is wov en into fabrics used for locomotive boiler lag ging (in Great Britain) and for acid-resistant packings and gaskets. The principal use of the shorter crocidolite fibers is in making as bestos-cement pipe. Bolivian crocidolite has been found useful for making gas-mask filters. Tremolite. and anthophyllite are used for chemical-resistant filters, as welding-rod coat ing, and as fillers in various products. BYPRODUCTS There are virtually no commercial byprod ucts at asbestos mines and mills. The fiber com prises a small part ranging commonly from 5 to 7 percent of the rock mined, nnd the waste rock consists of pulverized serpentine for which very littlo commercial use has been found. In 1* Af>t./ t' r. i- i \ 1 * }> . : -r ' * i4 PLAINTIFFS EXHIBIT 1545 (7) 84 MINERAL FACTS AND mODLEMS Vermont, however, an appreciable amount is used for road metal. The possibility of recov ering magnesia from it has been proposed, but no practical method has been developed. ` ` ALTERNATE MATERIALS Fiberglass is used as a substitute for asbestos in some applications, chiefly in the field of heat insulation. Fabrics woven with a plied yam having one strand each of glass and asbestos yarn are advantageous for some uses where light weight and high strength are needed. Glass filaments in submicron sizes made by highly re fined processes involving the use of platinum dies are technically satisfactory substitutes for amosite in blanket insulation, but the cost is five or six times as great as that of amosite. Fi berglass is not a satisfactory substitute for as bestos in friction materials or asbestos-cement products. ' Silicone products, organic compounds, and plastics are used as substitutes in certain lim ited applications. The use of calcium silicate, diatomite, and magnesia in some instances re duces asbestos requirements in end products. Aluminum sheets are being used ns a partial substitute for asbestos where insulation against radiant heat is required. Synthetic asbestos has not. yet been made com mercially. Its current status is covered later in the section devoted to research. New types of heat-resistant plastics are being substituted for chrysotile in some forms of electrical insula tion. _ Substantial progress has been made in substitution of Novabestos and Quinterra pa pers for electrical insulation. There is, how ever, no satisfactory complete substitute for strategic grades of chrysotile in some forms of dielectric insulation. Fibrous glass and chrysotile asbestos are sub stitutes for amosite, but they are not as resistant to steam, seawater, and alkalies under all work ing conditions. For 85 percent magnesia and calcium silicate insulation, textile grades of chrysotile may be substituted for amosite. Experimentation on materials flint, may be substituted for asbestos indicate that, fiberglass can replace asbestos for some types of heat-in- sulnting products. Cloth of good quality is made using alternate strands oi fiberglass and asbestos yarn. Such substitution extends the supply of spinning-grade asbestos. Fiberglass cannot be used successfully in frict ion materials such as brako band linings, nor in some of the highly specialized electrical insulation uses. Recent advances in the manufacture of glass fibers offer opportunities for wider substitution. Organic plastics and silicone products have lim- itea substitute applications. RESERVES In Vermont, a reserve of at. least 1 million tons of chrysotile fiber appears to be assured. A small proportion of this quantity is of spin ning grade. In California, measured and in dicated reserves totaling more than 1 million tons are reported for the Copperopolis area; these reserves consist chiefly of types and grndes similar to those in Quebec, Canada. Reserves of several hundred million tons of rock that will yield matted short-fiber chrysotile asbestos are reported for the Coalinga area in California (SO). The Arizona reserve is difficult to esti mate but is probably small. Tho world appears to have an adequate as bestos reserve for at least 25 to 30 yenrs at cur rent or moderately enlnrged rates of outputThe chief suppliers of U.S. markets--Canada and the Republic of South Africa--appear to have adequate reserves for long-range planning. It is difficult to calculate South African re serves owing to tho intensive folding encoun tered in nearly all the asbestos areas. The duplication of the asbestos bands through fold ing has resulted in large reserves (IS). The U.S.S.R. reserve is probably large enough to supply its domestic economy for many years. ' SOURCES OF STATISTICAL INFORMATION Annual data on the production and ship ments are obtained from domestic producers and consumption of strategic grades are re ported by consumers to the Bureau of Mines. IVorld production and trade data also are compiled dv the Bureau of Mines, and U.S. imports and exports nrc obtained from the U.S. Department of Commerce. Tho Bureau of Mines publishes the principal statistics annually in the "Asbestos" chapter in tho Minerals Yearbook. PRODUCTION. CONSUMPTION. AND TRADE - AYorld production of asbestos bv country of origin is given in table 1. Most o^ the asbestos production is chrysotile asbestos, but 100,000 to 200,000 tons of the world's production each year consists of amosite and crocidolite. Tablo 2 shows the production of these two varieties of asbestos by country of origin. Tho United States is tho largest consumer of asbestos in tho world. Table 3 shows U.S. asbestos consumption and iinj>orts from 1954 to 19C3. Tablo 4 shows imports of special grndes of asbestos. PLAINTIFF'S EXHIBIT 1545(8) ASBESTOS 85 From 1049 to 1053 the United States con sumed on an average about 50 percent of the total world production. Domestic consumption more than doubled from 1045 to 1951, but there after it remained fairly constant, except for 1955, while world production continued to in crease. In 1903 the United States consumed about 23 percent of the total world production. Domestic sources furnish only a small per centage of U.S. asbestos requirements. Ari zona, the only present natural source of lowiron chrysotile in the United States, has rarely Table 1.--World `production of asbestos, un manufactured, by principal countries (Thousand short tons! Country 1934-63 1930 1960 1961 1963 1903 (arera^e) Australia............................... Canada (saks).................. China (estlmatr)......... ........ Finland........... . Franco................ ................. Italy...................................... Japan............................. South Africa, Republic of.. Southern Rhodesia.............. Swatlland.......................... . U.S.S R. (estimate)............ Unitad States (sale*)........... Other countries (estimate)1. Total (estimate)......... 10 18 16 17 U 904 1,030 1, IIS 1,174 1,216 33 BO 90 100 100 IS 14 3 16 22 9 10 11 10 11 IS a 29 31 29 r 33 61 63 61 10 U 17 19 13 140 is: 176 193 21 113 19 134 162 142 30 a r 31 33 473 sou fed 880 1.100 44 43 4S 33 33 IS 16 3 19 33 l, M0 2,90 2,440 2.770 3.0U 16 1,273 110 a 10 20 63 16 206 142 33 LWO 67 16 S.200 t Includes small production In about 20 countries. Table 2.--World production of amosite and crocidolite (Thousand short tons! 1934-38 1939 I960 1961 106} IK! (average) Amoalta: South Africa, Re public of.................. CroadoUte: South Africa, Republic of....................... ......... A tu trill,........................ BollrU........................... u n 60 TV 683 C) 81 16 0) 7S 14 0) 04 16 w 116 17 pi 00 13 0) * Lass than 90 tons. Table 3.--UJS. consumption and imports of asbestos (Thousand short tons! 1934-38 1939 I960 1961 106} 19(13 (average) Apparent consumption....... ports: " Australia........................ Canada.......................... Southern Rhodrsiu ... South Africa, Itepul'tlo of................................. Othor countries............. Total........................... 729 r1 4 637 10 33 4 6H7 7M 709 666 T _ _ " " 1 l_ " ~ 9* 3 3 i 633 617 370 6!4 8 aa6 39 41 13 13 6473 713 6fiU 617 676 TH P) 610 4 n 6 668 them than 100 tons. Table 4.--Special grades of asbestos imported for consumption [Thousand abort tau] 1934-3$ 1939 1960 1961 1962 1963 (average) Low.lroa ehrpatll, (iptn- Hlcb-iroo chrysotile (spin- A madtA .. 377 33 17 16 13 13 10 14 17 30 13 30 30 13 30 u 17 8 11 23 U produced more than 600 tons per year of the spinning grades, and the output usually has been considerably lower than that figure. A large part of the production of crudes No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 since 1053 was purchased by the U.S. Government for stockpiling. The pur chase program terminated at the end of 1962. Vermont and the Copperopolis district of California are the only consistent U.S. produc ers of Quebec-tvpe asbestos. Both are pre dominantly producers of short fiber, but the Vermont asbestos mines produce about 500 to 700 tons per jear of spinning length fiber. Most of it is applied to nonspitmmg uses. On a tonnage basis Canada furnished 90 per cent of the U.S. imports (1959-63), but most of this material (97 percent) was of the shorter grades. The comparatively small quantities received from Africa are more important than would appear on a tonnage basis, Decause they consist largely of special kinds and qualities unobtainable elsewhere. Under emergency con ditions imports of spinning fibers are of pri mary importance. Imports of spinning fibers from Canada average about 17,000 tons per year. The longer fibers of chrysotile suitable for spinning purposes represent a small frac tion of the total production. Shortages of spin ning-grade fibers have previously occurred. ' The spinning grades of asbestos produced in Southern Rhodesia were of great importance during World War II and the early postwar years, because they constituted the principal source of low-iron chrysotile suitable for ship board electric-cable construction. Production began from the new source of supply of low- iron chrysotile in northern British Columbia in 1953, and in 1962 over 5,000 tons of spinning fibers was imported from that source. Production of amosite in the Republic of South Africa has increased from an average of 20,000 tons per year during the 1940's to 78.000 tons in 1963. Imports of amosite into the United States from 1959 to 1963 averaged about 19,000 tons Sceornypelaarc.edPinarttheofnathtioonimalpsotroteckdpimlea; theerniacle has in dustrial consumption has been somewhat lower than the aforementioned figures. Probably i i j. t \; l i. i y * r *. V i.. >r ;r %, * )' 1 86 MINERAL FACTS AND PROBLEMS larger quantities would have been used had they moved by cxccut7vir^>nTC^^!^^^ramber 10 been obtainable, because there has been and 1945. During the Korean war the supply situa still is a stringency of supply. _ _ tion nguin became acute, and in 1950 and 195] Most crocidolite originates in the Republic controls were invoked thnt required licenses foi of South Africa, but substantial tonnages are export of all grndes of nsbestos. The license received from Australia and small quantities requirement was removed for tho nonspinning from Bolivia. The commercial demand for Bo grades in 1953, and for the spinning nbers ir livian blue is very small. African production 1954; however, export licenses nre required foi of crocidolite has increased from an annual shipments to Communist nations. _ average of 10,000 tons during the 1940's to al The allocation of nsbestos supplies effected most 100,000 tons in 1963. Imports of croci during World War II has been deemed unneces dolite advanced from 12,000 tons in 1954 to sary since the Korean war, but the National 18,000 tons in 1959 and dropped to 11,000 tons Production Authority (NPA) issued an ordei in 1963. (M-96 dated Jnnuarv 17, 1952) that gave pri About 10,000 tons of unmanufactured asbes ority to military and. essential civilian uses oi tos was exported from the United States in the limited supply of spinning grndes of chry 1963. The exports consist chiefly of Canadian sotile asbestos. It prohibited tho use of certain fibers blended and prepared in various wnys to grades of spinning fiber for other than certain suit the needs of Latin American and European specified end uses. As supplies of spinning- buyers. _ grade chrysotile hnd become adequate for all Unmanufactured asbestos enters the United commercial and military needs early in 1953. States duty free. order M-96 was revoked by the NPA May 12. 1953. STRATEGIC CONSIDERATIONS The discovery and development of new as bestos deposits have always been a most, urgent Asbestos kinds and grades of greatest stra necessity. To assist in discoveries the Office of tegic importance are Being stockpiled. The Minerals Exploration (OME), and the Defense national stockpile items are spinning-grade Minerals Exploration Administration which chrysotile and amosite. Bolivian blue crocido was abolished in 195S and whoso functions were lite is no longer considered strategic. On June assumed by OME approved 19 asbestos explora 30, 1964, the maximum stockpile objective for tion contracts as ot December 1963. Onfv five chrysotile was 13,700 short tons. Government contracts led to certification of discoverv and inventories totaled 9,2S7 tons, of which 6,224 none of these were significant to the overall sup was in the national (strategic) stockpile, 724 ply situation. 1 in Commodity Credit Corp. (CCC) stocks, and A government depot, in Globe, Ariz., was 2,339 tons in the supplemental stockpile. The opened for the purchase of domestically pro stockpile objective for amosite was 40,000 short duced nsbestos meeting certain specifications. tons, and inventories totaled 65,S3S tons, of Under Public Lnw 733 (1956), a government which 11,705 was in the national (strategic) purchase program at premium prices for do stockpile, 23,196 in CCC stocks, and 30,937 in mestic low-iron chrysotile nsbestos was estab the supplemental stockpile. lished which wns terminated on December 31, The United States is dependent upon foreign 1958. In 1959 the stockpile objectives for low- sources for 90 to 93 percent of its requirements iron chrysotile were raised, and a barter pro for all grades of asbestos. The principal source gram was established to acquire the additional of low-iron spinning grade chrysotile asbestos fiber needed through exchange of ngricultural is British Columbia, Canada. The former surpluses. The U.S. Department of the Inte chief source was Southern Rhodesia, from rior recommended purchase of 500 tons of low- which our essential needs were supplied until iron chrysotile from domestic mines to assist the end of the Korean wnr. A.small amount of the domestic, industry and to establish a domes low-iron long-fiber chrysotile is available from tic mobilization base for production. Arizona. The only source of commercial grndes Amosite and chrysotile have l>oon acquired and quantities of amosite is a limited nrea in for the stockpile by purchase and barter, and Transvaal, Republic of South Africa. The crocidolite has been acquired by bnrter. United States is also completely dependent on foreign sources for crocidolite. PRICES GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS During "World Wnr II controls were in effect to restrict exports of asbestos needed in the military program. These controls wore re Although asbestos hns had an erratic price history, prices during the past 5 years have re mained relatively stable. Quebec chrysotile fiber prices in 1963, f.o.b. mine, ranged from Can$40 per short ton for 7T, which is the short- ASBESTOS 87 est of the regular fiber grades generally pro duced, to Can$S75 for the longest of the milled fibers. Crudo No. 1 sold for Can$l,410 or more per ton. British Columbia fibers sold from Can$142 for AX to Can$l,522 per ton for crudo No. 1. . Vermont chrysotilo is produced in. grades similar to those of Canada and ranged in price in 19G3 from $40 for group 7 to $402 for group 3, f.o.b. mine. Arizona fibers ranged in price from $5S for group 7 to $1,650 for crude 1, f.o.b.' Globe, Ariz. (I).. . As sales of African and Australian asbestos are negotiated separately, market quotations are not available. TAXES There are no special taxes on the asbestos in dustry. Producers are granted a depletion al lowance of 23 percent on domestic production and 10 percent on foreign production. TRANSPORTATION The Quebec and Vermont deposits are within easy rail haul to most of the plants manufac turing asbestos products in the industrial areas of the Eastern United States. The African de posits are remote from tho principal markets and hare high transportation expenses. Trans portation from British Columbia is difficult and costly, but a shorter route is in prospect. The Arizona miners have difficult transportation Srloobblee,mths.e The mines are nearest railhead, in at the vicinity of distances rang ing from a few miles to 104 miles, with an aver age haul to the railroad of about 50 miles. The major consumption centers are in the North eastern United States, and are much closer to Quebec, Canada; than to Arizona. Consump tion of asbestos is growing along the west coast of the United States. Comparable growth of the industry has taken place in other areas where fiber from California would be competi tive, in terms of freight rates, with that from Quebec. RESEARCH Research on production has been conducted by companies operating mines in Canada. Sub stantial research has been conducted on utili zation of the more plentiful shorter grades in applications where longor grades are preferred. For instance, it has been found that more com plete fiberization, permitting bettor contact of cement and fiber, will allow groups 5 and 6 to bo blended in increasing proportions with group 4 in making asbostos-ccmeiit products. Two companies have developed processes for reducing the iron content of Quebec asbestos to make it suitable for electrical uses. The Johns-Manville Corp. manufactures Quinterra paper from such fibers. Raybestos-Manhattan, Inc., has developed a process for making a lowiron product known as Novabestos. Both Quinterra and Novabestos papers may be interlaminated with a fiberglass fabric or grid to give additional strength. These products are now manufactured commercially and are used ex tensively in cable construction and for other nonferrous applications. The Cape Asbestos Company Ltd., London, has investigated tensile testing of crocidolite and amosite, their chemical resistance, and their behavior in solutions of various chemicals and surface active agents. The only laboratory in the world devoted entirely to fundamental re search on asbestos fibers was recently con structed by Turner and Newall Ltd., Manches ter, England. New types of equipment were developed to sort asbestos fibers according to diameter and length (19). In this country, the Naval Research Labora tory has conducted experimental work on the possible use of a papermaker's Vortrap to re move iron minerals from Canadian chrysotile. The Bureau of Mines conducted similar experi mental work with its own equipment. The tests indicated that the magnetic iron content of or dinary Quebec asbestos can be reduced to satisfy the requirements of 2 percent or less stipulated in the national stockpile specification for nonferrous chrysotile. The Naval Research Laboratory has devel oped a fiberglass gas mask filter said to be su perior to those made of Bolivian blue asbestos. Bolivian crocidolite is, therefore, no longer re garded as essential. Much work has been done on the synthesis of asbestos, but limited progress has been made. The Bureau has synthesized amphibole asbes tos, but the fibers made are wealc and brittle. The Bureau also has synthesized asbestiform compounds not found in nature that have some of tne properties of asbestos. Chrysotile, the type of asbestos most in demand, is difficult to synthesize. Fibers of submicroscopic length only have been made (9-12, 16, 22-23). The Bureau has performed core drill tests on var ious properties to determine the occurrence of asbestos, and the Geological Survey has studied the geology of asbestos deposits in various parts of the country (6-3, 16, 25-27). ; ''!i ;i i! " i ` I. .! |l ft,, l i ! ! ii 1 PLAINTIFF'S 88 MINERAL FACTS AND PRODLEMS EXHIBIT 1545(11) OUTLOOK The trends in the consumption of asbestos will follow those of industrial production and build ing construction. Asbestos will continue to find wide industrial use in friction materials, pipe insulation, packings, gaskets, plastics, ana many other products. Also, largo quantities of asbestos will be used for asbestos-cement pine, roofing and siding products, floor tile, insula tion, moulding compounds, and millboards. The demand in the United Slates for all types and grades of asbestos should increase 3 to 5 percent annually. Annual consumption of as bestos should reach 000,000 tons in 1965-70, and may exceed 1 million tons by 1975 in the absence of an industrial recession. Domestic produc tion should increase annually and attain 95,000 tons per year during 1965-70; consequently, domestic mines will supply 10 percent of the Nation's overall requirements. Most of the supply, however, will consist of nonspinning, low-unit-value fiber. As new markets come into being and old mar kets grow, world production of asbestos fibers will rise. As worldwide demand for asbestos in creases, there is much interest in exploring new areas. New occurrences in Ireland, Australia, and Mexico hare boon examined. Additional mills in Quebec, and others in prospect, assure rising availability of supplies. Newly discov ered deposits undergoing exploration and devel opment, in northern Newfoundland, Quebec, Ontario, and British Columbia, promise further expansion and output. Expansions have also taken place in the U.S.S.R., Southern Rhode sia, ana the Republic of South Africa where all tvpes of asbestos are produced. Utilization of snort-fiber grades is growing throughout the world. Deposits rich m short-fiber chrysotile, being developed in California, will add substan tially to domestic production as markets arefound. No spinning-grade fiber is expected from these deposits. Imports are expected to increase from Canada, Southern Rhodesia, and the Republic of South Africa. Supplies of asbestos apparently will be adequate for both short-term (5-ye.tr) and long-term (10-year) requirements. "World production has doubled over the past 10 years to the present 3.2 million tons. World demand is expected to require world output of 4 to 5 million tons within the next decade. U.S. requirements for low-iron chrysotilo of spinning-grade quality have been greatly re duced because of the decline in military usage and the substitution of other electrical insula tion materials, such as fibrous glass, plastics, and silicone rubber. Some Qucliec fibers are now processed in such a manner that their iron content is reduced suflicicnlly to make tl suitable for some electrical insulation. II ever, the United Stales still needs about 2. tons per year of low-iron fiber. Beneficin chrvsotile imported from Quebec is being u in tlie manufacture of low-iron fibers. Imp< of low-iron chrysotile from British Colurr will be adequate to meet special needs and p vide a surplus for general-purpose uses. L* iron tapes and papers using bcneficinted cluy tile imported from Quebec are suitable for sc electrical insulation, thereby relieving part the demand for low-iron fibers. Arizona mi will remain a small factor in industrial supj High-iron spinning-grnde chrysotile requ: ments for the short-term are estimated at most 20,000 tons per year, increasing over a year period to 25,000 tons. Most or the sup comes from Canada, with small amounts r duccd in Vermont and imported from Air and other overseas sources. Information fr the Canadian Department of Mines and Tech cal Surveys indicate that Canadian product of spinning grades is about 30,000 tons per ye The industry could produce about double t quanitity if the market so required. Appro nintely 50 percent of the supply is curren exported to the United States. From this appears that Canada is an adequate source all foreseeable requirements. Araosite requirements of the United Sta nre increasing steadily. Imports reached ne: ly 22,000 tons in 1963 and will probably incre.to 30,000 tons per year within the next years. Mining and milling facilities are bei expanded in the Republic of South Africa a nre expected to remain above the short-term a long-term requirements. Amosite is partic larly suitable for uso in hcat-insulati materials. Crocidolite requirements have increased su stantially during the past 5 years. The Ion filler grades are in relatively small demand, b use or the shorter filters in asbestos-cement pi manufacture is increasing rapidly. With e lianding facilities for pipe manufacture in t United States, demand for crocidolite may rea 30,000 tons per year within 10 years. Lar deposits of crocidolite are known only in t Republic of South Africa and Australia. Af; can production facilities are Iving expanded new fiber-bearing zones are discovered and d velojied. Production of cixvidolite in Austr lia increased 30 percent during 1953-62. R serves are said to be extensive. The outlook for successful synthesis of cot mercial asbestos remains uncertain. ASBESTOS PROBLEMS ' The complcto dependence of the United for scarce types and grades or asbestos fiber is States on foreign sources for some types of as a difficult problem because of the superiority of ' bestos is an important problem that concerns asbestos to other materials for special use. : ; : ! ' < i the national economy and defense needs. Ex port duties and other controls W producing countries could increase costs to U.o. consumers. The disposal of surplus inventories of os bestos in tne Government stockpiles is of con cem to the producing industry. The absence of any clearly defined and predictable long term disposal program has heightened tins concern. More data are needed on the fundamental characteristics of asbestos to serve both os a The biological effects of asbestos are a serious health problem in the industry. The hazards are recognized, however, and adequate filtering and ventilation are provided in processing plants. The extensive use of asbestos in a va riety of industrial applications has drawn at tention to the medical problems associated with this use. These problems include pulmonary asbestosis and neoplasia associated with occu pational exposure to asbestos. foundation for future research on synthesis and Other problems include occasional shortages as a guide to new and improved usage of all of spinning-grade fiber, utilization of waste varieties of fiber. from asbestos plants, and the development of Information is needed on the interchange potential large-scale uses for the widespread ability of the many types of asbestos in manu resources of actinolite, anthophyllite, and trem- factured products. Development of substitutes olite varieties that are in little demand. REFERENCES 1. Asbestos. (A magazine devoted to the asbestos trade. Published monthly since July 1019, SOS Western Saving Fund Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa.). 2. Asbestos Textile Institute. Handbook of As bestos Textiles. Philadelphia, Pa., 1953, 73 pp. 3. Badollet., M. S. Asbestos, A mineral of Unparal leled Properties. Trans. Canadian Inst. Min. and .Met., v. 54,1031, pp. 151-160. 4. Bowles, Olive*. The Asbestos Industry. BuMlnes Bull. 502. 1055.122 pp. 5. --------- . Asbestos, A Material Surrey. BuMlnes Inf. CIrc. 7SS0.1950, 94 pp. 6. Bcrueister, H. L, and I. E. Matthews. Mining and Milling Methods and Costs, Vermont Aabestos Mines, The Ruberold Co., Hyde Park, Vt. BuMlnes Inf. Clrc.606S, 1962,43 pp. 7. Oadt, W. M.t A. L. Alsex aho A. H. Chxdestex. Bedrock Geology and Asbestos Deposits of the Upper Mlsslsquol Valley and Vicinity, Vermont. Geol. Surrey Bull. 1122-B. 1063,78 pp. 8. Chidester, A. H.. and A. F. Shride. Asbestos In the United States (Exclusive of Alaska and Ha waii). Geol. Survey Mineral Inv. Res. Map MR-17,1902. 9. Cometoro, J. E. and J. A. Horn. Synthetic As bestos Investigations. I. Study of Synthetic Fluor-Tremollte. Am. Mineral., . 39, Noa. 7 and 8, July-August 1954, pp. S37-54S. 10. Ginas. G. V., I. L. Turner and F. D. Blobs. Struc tural and Optical Data on Synthetic Asbestlform Materials: Potassium-Lead Silicate and Lend- Aluminum Silicate. BuMlnes Rept. of Inv. 5935, 1062,11 pp. 11. nuonir*a. C. W. Electron Micrographs of Some Unusual Inorgnnlc Fibers. BuMlnes Rept. of Inv. 0020.1002. 27 pp. . "2. Huooiss, 0. W.. M. V. Denijt, and H. R. Smell. Properties of rnlygoraklte. An Asbestlforiu Min eral. BuMlnes Rept. of Inv. 0071, 1002, 17 pp. 13. Jenkins, 0. F. Asbestos. Ch. In Industrial Ameri can Institute of Mining and Metallurgical En gineers, Minerals and Rocks, 2d ed., 1949, pp. 55-70. 14. Kelleher, J. C. Milling Asbestos. Asbestos, r. 27, No. 3, 1945, pp. 2-10; No. 4, pp. 3-10; No. 5, pp. 6-12. 15. Kohn, J. A., and J. E. Cometoro. Synthetic As bestos Investigations. II. X-Ray and Other Data ou Synthetic Fluor-Rlchterite, Edenlte, and Boron Edenlte. Am. Mineral., v. 40, Nos. 5 and 6, Mny-Juue 1955, pp. 410-421. 16. Malone, K., W. T. Benson, and A. L. Enoel. Mount Eddy and Shasta View Asbestos Deposits, Siskiyou County, Calif. BuMlnes Rept. of Inv. 594S, 1962.29 pp. 17. Mesbel. Michael J. Examination and Valuation of Cbrysotlle Asbestos Deposits Occurring la Massive Serpentine. Trans. AIME, r. 173, 1947, pp. 70-84. 18. Mineral Resources or the Union or South Ar ' rica. South African Department of Mines, Geol. Survey. 4th ed., 1959. p. 365. 19. Minino Journal (London). New Asbestos Fiber Laboratory--Unique Research Facilities. V. 260, No. 6050, Mar. 15. 1963, pp. 249, 253, 255. 20. Rice, S. J. California Asbestos Industry, Cali fornia Dlv. Mines and Geol. Miner. Inf. Service, . 16. No. 9.1963, pp. 4, 8. 21. Rosa, J. G. Cbrysotlle Asbestos In Canada, Ca nadian Dept, of Mines, Mines Branch, No. 707, 1931,140 pp. 22. Shei.i, H. R., J. E. OottEroRO and W. Ettel. Syn thetic Asbestos Investigations: Synthesis of Fluoramphlboles From Melts. BuMlnes Rept. of Inv. 5417.1953,35 pp. 23. Shell, II. R., R. A. Hatcti and D. L. Brown. Syn thetic Asbestos Investigations. III. Synthesis and ProiH-rtles of Fibrous Potnsnluni-Lend Sili cate. BuMlnes RepL of Inv. 6293, 1957, 20 pp. 90 MINERAL FACTS AND PROBLEMS 24. Sincuu*. W. E. Asbestos, Its Origin, Production, and Utilization. Mining Publications, Ltd., Lon don, 1PM, S65 pp. ,. _ 25 Sttwabt, Lincoln A. CbrrsoUle-Aabostoa Deposits of Arizona. BuMlnes Inf. Clrc. 7700. 1855, 124 pp. 2d. --------- , Cbrysotlle-Asbestoa Deposits f Arizona (Supplement to Information Circular 7706). ltuMInrs Inf. Clrc. 7745.1850. 41 pp. 27. lVirmxT, F. J., and M. Claib Smith. A Recon naissance of Asbestos Deposits In the Serpentine Pelt of Northern California. BuMInce inf. Clrc. 78G0,1950, 52 pp. 1 I tk <*m * t i i > m ) ............. ito W a U jin ItofclHail nt it* iM *i id i l l i t 4 H 4 l* * 4mM* * * * l ^ * * * I i I' :.:-rysXv. *? V*-4j4r.^ .T J* ............ ' 622.0973 1 XT* S. Bureau of Mines 1 Mineral Facts and Problems Bulletin 630 k DATS j ' (<qfcS) 1SSUCO TO X '*'-^1 * : ^fjl^M 'A rfMI'Z J- 5 lot At 1 WvLkJ-ALXV-ha\'-- . ia/3W --Gr-i--. V/V^t --<r. -i y3fzx*]\ol vj*. \uaL^A>Uid " - -4 J Jti-- iX "1 > s' V . *: * .. i # i- . ^. ' . - 'J .. _ . ___ *C. C_ UMO m. ubh.i[U4 ________ .-- ________ < r NJruRC. VOL 217. JANUARY 13. 1963 improved". It appears that if the regulations are more ' widely and more stringently applied than at present, the number of cases should inevitably fall. The panel indicates that crocidolite has a special .nifieauee in relation to mcsothelial tumours. It recommends that other types of fibre should be sub stituted for crocidolite wherever possible, and, where this is impossible, special precautions should be taken to reduce the risks of inhaling the material. The panel admits that at the moment the level of exposure below' which the risk may be negligible is not known. The quantity of crocidolite (blue asbestos) imported into the countr}' is much less than the other varieties of asbestos, and it has remained at about 7,000 tons per year for the last few years. But time may show that other fibres are also implicated in the development of mcsothelial tumours. Finally, the report suggests that action should be taken to control the discharge of dust-laden air from asbestos factories and the dispersal of dust from waste dumps. It emphasizes, however, that the problem of mesothelioma in association with asbestos exposure should be kept in a proper perspective. Even though the incidence is increasing, the total number of cases of mesothelioma in Britain over several years is very small when compared with the annual total of deaths from cancers of the trachea, bronchus and lung. 121 i PLAINTIFF EXHIBIT 1552 (2 Recording Weather Ay automatic weather recording station which can operate unmanned for at least three months has been produced by the Plesscy Company Ltd. This station, binary code on standard quarter-inch magnetic tape. It samples at intervals of 5, 10, 20, 30 or 60 minutes and is accurate to within 0-1 per cent. 'hich can make and record more than 82,500 measure- ents in a three month period, is available from the Discomforts of Space . Marine Systems Division of the Plessey Electronics Group at Ilford. The value of automatic weather by Angela Croome stations was recognized by a recent report from the The next moves in manned spaceflight may be uncer World Meteorological Organization (Nature, 215, 1324: tain, but in both the United States and the USSR, 1967). They are important because modern develop background experiments for the longer flights of the ments in weather forecasting require information about future arc going ahead. This month the McDonnell climate from all over the world--sometimes from un Douglas Corporation of California, contractors to the inhabited areas--and it is becoming increasingly Office of Advanced Research and Technology of NASA hard to persuade amateur meteorologists to provide (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), is accurate data day by day. Professionals cost money, to start on a two-month-long test of a closed system and so there should be a real market for automatic space chamber. The Soviet Union has recently com stations which can do the job reliably for long periods pleted a 70-day confinement experiment involving without attention. three men. American and Soviet trials have relevance The Plessey station is virtually Belf-contained and both for survival in space and for the operation of can monitor parameters such as rainfall, humidity, manned submersihlcs under the sea. . wind speed and direction, air, soil and water tempera In the case of the American closed life-support trial, tures, barometric pressure, pH, solar radiation and four college students of the University of the City of water level and flow. The basic design was evolved in Los Angeles arc acting as experimental subjects. For co-operation with the British Water Resources Board, a period of 60 days, they will exist on reclaimed water the Meteorological Office and the. National Physical and oxygen from their own metabolic wastes. The Laboratory. By adding various instruments to the test is believed to be the longest so far attempted under basic design, it has been possible to produce a family flight conditions using a closed water-oxygen loop. of stations including hydrometeorological, climnto. The closed water system consists of an evaporation logical, water level, water quality and recording rainfall unit, a charcoal filter and a condenser that reclaims stations. Each can be arranged for automatic opera moisture directly from the crew and from the air in tion, and the recorded data can be sent by telemetry the cabin. Oxygen will be reclaimed through a process to a control centre on demand. of mixing hydrogen and carbon dioxide and then Each station is supplied as a complete system with converting them to water and methane gas. The "nsors, recorder, power supply, `Stevenson' screens oxygen is recovered from the water by electrolysis id a stayed aluminium mast which supports the sen and tbo methane gas is expelled. Atmospheric pressure sors. The memory of the station samples up to eight within the cabin will be at 7 p.s i. (half that at sea- sensors in turn, recording their outputs in ten-bit level) and will consist of 31 p.s i./oxygen and 3-9 : I 1 | ' PLAINTIFF'S EXHIBIT 1552(3) 1 22 NATUIvi . rjt. .'17. -IANs-AI.Y 13. i9C' p.s.i./nitrogen. The simulation of space conditions min 1 -1 IV It. r.!-... . t 1 \ tie |...i,-,),,|it \ f,,r tl will not, of course, bo complete, for the trin! will take On! h Ore. N i. i \ iu \<..- P .1' . d 1i. .in i In W..i ( itliee t jilaco on tin* ground where both men and system will operate under normal gravity. tl,.- Mmol. i ( ib.., >ip 1 1. - . 11 * > - I Ml. ; lit ( > VC ;ill . 1 \ | lid i* ufr dill i 11 'll i \. . i , - t 0.7 1.'. ti. ii i a In it The Soviet experiment- lias already taken place Oil' Thii.l ! \ liieb 11 l 1 d h\ In i 11lie frul and lasted the full jsriod of 70 days during which a s;i I< '- of III. ml ti- : M 1 It i. s ( In t1.. -,i hole, hou medical doctor, an engineer and a journalist, remained r\ rf . 11ll 11 m ;i s a lull'-i if in d. le ilnl I. 1 l > i . ps. VI hid shut up together under cramped and uncomfortable tlm report > 11 ./ *: ests. i- >.! it dy dlle to tli. . 1.Tel llient C conditions. The exact dimensions of the isolation iin < -t Mil Ut ill 1 lev, [. -! K: . ot . h> lie's ill 1 r: ,11V parts < chamber are not given, but it is described as small. tin- count i y as a resit!tl I .c Ml.' (iou IIIIIII ut .S e. Ilmtui All three subjects were thoroughly instrumented for lllr.'l.suras. logollier '< itl i a M iiiiie.ise in tin- price n the measurement of their physical condition during mat IS at Cl rtuini Seale4 . ( 'ii M. iieli itl. the total numhe the test. Their regime was to fulfil a daily routine of of >;(a If w a -1,,()9(i m !) im In' trial and 2 iudustria work, eating, sleep and medical examination up till coinipnivd with l.ons 1 o U' ; i \a ar earlier a vigorou [about the halfway stage when they switched to a "free" n*i*r nit ing pi og IMIMMle !* i in V i r1 g ill s..me -W new staff [routine, doing as they pleased. The journalist of the Survev of tl) c jirim it:ml Id'u n an as on the scale o roup recorded reactions in his log at the end of the 1 : 11,250 i-; said in the n ' U 1Tl to be ii.-aring e. .tnpletior rst three weeks: "Wntch-keeping, dinner, medical and revision of the <)<! 1 2..VH) plans covering mine: xamination, sleep--our life has acquired a feverish towns and rural an a4 lias be en speeded up. largeh hough monotonous rhythm. There is almost no free through the iuereasod use of aerial photographs ime left. But we are already beginning to feel Instead of the five-year re-levelling programme which xhausted. Stanislav [the doctor] is getting tliinner, Mas originally aimed at. subsidence areas will be levelled here is a stubble of beard on his cheeka and dark on n twenty-year cycle as in normal area*. 'rings under his eyes. Leonard's eyes have become red and anxious. I cannot escape the feeling that some pungent fog is creeping into our tiny room. While New Physics Symbol gradually poisoning our brains, it makes us more intolerant towards one another". But during the later period when there was no set routine, things seemed even worse. There was no longer a work schedule, but the men could pass the time as they chose--playing chess, reading or presumably sleeping. (Food preparation did not amount to much of a task as their diet was a typical space diet of dehydrates, concentrates, and tinned foods.) Now, they reported, time passed more slowly and nervous tension increased. Sleep was troubled and they had hallucinations of sound. They dreamt of music, singing and the noise of aircraft. None the less, no member of the group "deviated from the programme or complained"--complaint presumably being defined as a request for release from the experiment. The experi-. menter in charge comments that the trial was above all a test of character and willpower, but much useful information was gleaned. Mapping in Metric Units One organization faced with a formidable task in changing to metric units is the Ordnance Survey. Among proposals which have so'far been endorsed by the Joint Standing Committee in accomplishing this task are that heights will be shown in metres instead of feet on new and revised maps at 1 : 1,250 and 1 : 2,500 scales. Areas will be shown in hectares instead of acres on maps at 1 : 2,500 scale. Heights will be given in metres instead of feet on bench mark lists prepared from new levelling. Contours will be shown at a metric interval on new six-inch maps. Finally, the problems of changing the six-inch and one-inch maps to "rational" scales such as 1 : 10,000 and 1 : 50,000 will be reviewed. These proposals were circulated to 180 interested bodies, representing all classes of map users. According to the annual report of the Survey for 1900-07 (HMSO,* 7s. 6d.), in which these facts are published, the past year was marked by a change of The Institute of Physics and the Physical Society hojH-s that this symbol, when eorreetlv placed on a red ground, will soon 1-ecoinr lamiliur to anvone who has any acquaintance with phy-ies. The ></mhol has been designed to accompany all kinds o|'information produced in eonm-xi.. with the four-day Phvsica Exhibition opening at the Alexandra Palace on March 11. It is based on the w ighl diagram for tbe irreducible representation h'* (1.1) of the swum.-try which has been surre--fnl in bringing order to tin- !..< jUfv- tion of sub atomic particles. .Mr It. Walter, who is organizing tin* exhibition, lir-st thought of h i-ing the symbol on St (It) syin' i, try and, alb r advice from Imperial t'ollege, the 'red i rpre-i nt.it j. ,u was drawn b\ Mr M l! Pre-loo i! the v,.|,Mm<uiu \