Document g2kxope4NQawB9EEGND2YEvGN

A Rtpori frrptml by On Committee on the Assetintent of . Pulychlonnated Biphenyl* in die Environment Environment j1 Studies Board Commmion on Natural Retourcei Nitionai Reteirch Council NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Wsthmeiait ItC- 1919 J li7- ' >1 ' i he project that is the subject o( this r-f _r'. 'll by the Governing Board of the nation! .1 i 'one 11, whose members are drawn from the i'- ( the National Academy of Sciences, the i ii i ademy of Engineering and the Inetitute of in The stebeis of the Caessittee responsible for i i . i were chosen for their speciel competences snd -ii. i.;iiJ for sppropriate ba lance - ]t -|> i eport he* been reviewed by e group other than ' r>- .1.. ii according to procedures epproved by e Report 1 iwnittee consisting of ssenbere of the National .l. -i ...I Sciences, the Netionel Academy of i i. i > in' '. i ug, and the Inatituta of Nedlclne. ii.i study was supported by the Office of Research i. i in 11 (potent, U-S. Environieeete 1 Protection Agency, no. ta-01 -J42. ' i h. f> c.l Congress Cstelog Card Number 71-lSHJ . it. ii.. - lunsl Standard Rook Number 0-JO*-02BB5-I f + 11 |. f r on i ! ( i. tf Publications ii hi 1 Academy of Sciences mi i nstitution Avenue, N-W. I, : n.i. ,.o, D.C. 204 1R i - i -l in the United States of America { x n 7 h. -J t a CamiTTEE ON THE assessment or poltchlorinated biphenyls IN THE ENVIRONMENT **^*10 M. REETON IChsirsssI, University of Michigan JANES R. ALLEN, University of Wisconsin ANDERS w. ANOREH, University of Wisconsin STARLET J. CRISTOL, University of Colorado RORERT L. DURrEE, Verser, Inc. A. NYRICK rREENAN III, Rowdoln College AORERT L. METCALF, University of Illinois IAN C.T. NISRCT, Massachusetts Audubon Society JOHA I. SANDERS, Aernerd College anplms SOOERCREN, Uelverelty of Lund VLA01HIR 1ITKO, Fisher lee end Oceana Canada UELLEH N. PI RAGES, Staff Officer EHVIROMCMTAL STUDIES BOARD COSVtISSIGN ON NATURAL RESOURCES > c (AHTlOd ICIttlnun), Michigan State ltal*ri\ty i Hi H; 0 ARTY (vice chairawn), Stanford University i in i . University of Wyoming >li n iifCTON, University of Michigan > I. p HOiEHTi Univerelty of Minnesota i: i v M i MELD, Colorado State University : i i <tt r fRIEDLANDER, California Institute of : . Mi. I. ijy : i i i. LEOPOLD, University of Washington 1 i ii l HHC, JM Company ii a hi will, Exxon Research and Engineering Company ' >.i<r , i fTHAL, Columbia University School Of Law ,1 mi-u H. WELLMAN, Soyce-Thongtson Institute i i .iAf i. taspER, Executive Secretary iv i GILBERT r, WHITE (Chairman), University or Colorado JOHN E, CANTLOW, Michigan State University DAVTON H. CLEWELL, Mobil Oil Corporation, retired ELLIS I, COWLING, North Carolina State University JOHN D. 1SSACS, Scrlpps Institution of Oceanography ALLEN V. XHEESE, University of New Mexico CHARLES J. HANKIW, Oklahoma Geological Survey PEART L. McCARTV, Stanford University CHESTER O. McCOSXLF, .1*.. =i HORTON NELSON, Nsw York University Nsdicel Center WILLIAM K. REILLY, The COAServetloo Foundation ALVIN H. WE1NSERC, Oak Ridge Aesoclatsd Universities E. BRIGHT WILSON, Harverd University WALLACE 0. BOWMAN, Executive Director THEODORE M. SCHAD, Deputy Executive Director CONTINTS i'i.! i Arc J rJ i AUCTION AND RECOtRfENDATIONS I t I HUMS PONT THROUGHOUT THE ENVIRONMENT of Contamination, 12 Mj. i|>ii*ric Compartment, II n, )f . -.I'harlc Compartment, 25 i U u 5|.hric Compartment, 55 u i t, i nut Ion Model for PCI* 11 oin oomeit Ic Sources, 51 `iu*i ( Comparison of Inventory, H i .j3*ndt ions, 55 ll. t- 57 55 ri I I r ASSESSMENT i .. t|" s of Benefit-Coat Analysis, 77 I,*' l ( feet iveneas Analysts, B1 sill 1 11 77 On Hunvar. Health and the Environment. Economic Analysis Of PCB Control Strategies, I) Conclusions, fl Recommendations, 59 References, 100 B1 ) GUIDELINES FOR EVALUATING THE POTENTIAL TOIJCITT or CHEMICALS General Testing Requirements for Evaluating Toxic Substances, 10J Assessment of PCI Hazard, 11] Recommendations, 12] references, ::c 102 APPENDIXES A AREAS, VOLUMES, AND MISCELLANEOUS QUANTITIES FOR CHAPTER 1 CALCULATIONS References, 1J2 129 I COMPUTATION Or INCREMENTAL COSTS PER KILOGRAM CONTROLLED POR EXISTING AND PROPOSED SPA REGULATIONS Rafarences, 115 1J) C THE BASIS POR THE VALUE OP STATISTICAL LITE Refarancsa, 141 1J7 D CHEHICAL AND TOXICITT DATA AS REQUIRED RT FIFRA AND TSCA GUIDELINES Chemical Identity, 1< J Physical and Chemical Data, 117 Environmental Chemistry Data, ISO Hazard Evaluation, 15 1 r*'H r I7B |() . LIST or ; ILLUSTRATIONS l 4 \ LIST OF TABLES Tehlea it i1 li ;4 r1 ii l ; l tipper river detailed cora network, 1S7S-H7S, 14 sinqie cora reconnaissance of the u.idaon River, M tscaabii lay samplinq stations, SO F > B concantrat ions in sadisient sample* tikan In tha laltic Saa (pq/kq, dry welqht), SJ Evaluation schcsa for asaessinq potential iuxards to health and tha anvironaent, US riiiuaanto manufacturing process for PCB, 14t Semi-continuous activated fludqe primary Liodeqradation rates of coassarciai PCBS aa a r.metion of tha welqht percent chlorine, IS* 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.4 1.5 1* 1.7 l.B l.f 1.10 1.11 l.U J environmental Distribution of PCBs Hot In Service aa of U7S, 11 OomeatlC Uses of PCBs, 14 Reservoir of PCBs In Landfills aa of U7S, PCBs In Precipitation, If PCS Concentrations In Continental Air, 20 PC- Marine air, it Trends in ths concentrstlon of PCBs in N. Atlantic-Bermuda Air, Seasonal and Lonq-Tsrn, 21 Comparative Monthly Fallout of PCBs, 24 PCBs In the Mater of tha Great Lakes, 2f Estimatsd PCBs In Fresh Water from Four Ceoqraphica] Areas Across the U.S., 10 PCB Residue* in Sediment of Lakes and Rivers in Europe and Africa. )1 PCBs in Dottom Sedm-cnts in the Major Drainaqe Gatins of the United States .in) Puerto Rico, )? ''try of PCB 9-snInr Data for mt'.m ` ' r * " .: in i r / I 'i 7 i Jury i W ^ 1 ? is t ] , i ii; in Sediment of the Great Lake*, J* I 1 .ninety of PCB Residue Data for Bottom : . 11 merit * , 4 0 I I imated PCB Level* in Sediment from Tour i.< graphical Area* Aero** the U,S., 42 i I i > Concentration of Oceanic Hater. 44 , 1 n < i.i ent rat ion* of PCS* in Selacted from the Gulf of Mexico, 1 i '1-1975, 49 I * >-..idues of Aroclor 1254 in Sediment :,w..jile* from Cscamble Bay and Mlver, 49 . ;o Pi B Level* in Dated Sediment* from the i Santa Barbara Basin, 51 i . L fiit Concentration* In the Cental north * ra and Norwegian Depre**ion, 52 4 l i l ,1 imated PCB level* In U.S. Coastal Midi sent*, 54 : J 1 !'<' imated PCB level* in the Lithosphere, 54 . 7 4 *'< iU in Human Adipose Tissue, 59 Manned Lots factors for Production md Usage of PCB* (1920-1977), (1 lit mated Cumulative Losses of PCB* to the ti 1 i le Environmental Aeservolr a* of 1977 by PCB C.wgory (Chlorine Content) end Productlon/Use f in. t ion, 44 I ) `...ininary of Environmentel Inventory of U.S.- l;> . i ved PCBs, 44 . 1 and Quantities Controlled for EPA Pr:i)u let ions on Use and Disposal, 14 . 2 c.uti end Quentitle* Controlled for i Pi edging Hudson Aiver Sediments, B9 pinposed Uses of Polychlorinated i, iptieny Is, 1920, 102 Amounts of Chlorodibentofurans Detected in Commercial PCD Mixtures, 105 Proposed Tasting Level* for faiird Assessment, 111 I 11RA end TSCA Data Requirements tut Product Hazard Evaluation, 114 * liars of Aroclor by Type, 114 luNury of Chronic Toxic Effects of PCBs, 123 i mi'll, Volumes, and Miscellaneous i Onxntities, 120 i lirsical Abstracts Register Humber for PCBs, 144 i .".position of Chlorinated siphenyls, 144 Approximate Percent Composition of Sow imrvnerciel PCB Products, 144 I x C. 4 0.5 D-4 D. 7 D.B D.9 D.10 D.ll 0,12 0.12 0.14 D.15 0.14 0.17 D.1B 0,19 0.20 0.21 0.22 D.21 0.24 0.25 D.24 D. 27 Properties of Selected Atoclors. 152 Melting Points ITI for Some PCB Isocers, 15) Solubility of Chlorobtpheny1 Isomers and Aroclora in Hater, 154 Electrical Properties of Some Arociors, 154 Photochemical Data for Selected PCBs in Aqueous Acetonitrile, 157 Microbial Species Used in Degradation Experiments, 157 Chloroblphcnyla Primary Biodegradation Bate, 157 Prisiary Biodegradation Rate, 15B Effects of PCB* on Selscted Microorganisms, 159 Equilibrium PCB Concentrations and Distribution Coefficients (Ad) for Aroclor 1254, 159 Octanol /Hater 7-iriPics rn,f*i<-ients a-d Ecological Magnification Value* for Selected PCBs, 140 PCB Accumulation Coefficients in Selscted Aninali, 140 Accumulation Coefficient of Aroclor 1254 by Aquatic Invertebrates, 141 Ecological Magnification (CHI and Olodegradsbility Index (Bl) Compared with Hater Solubility and Partition Coefficients. 142 Toxicity of PCB* and DOT in Continuous Flow Test*. 144 Toxicity or PCB* and DOT to Invertebrates, 145 Toxicity of PCB* to Bat* and Babbits, LD,,, 144 Acute Oral and normal Toxicity Effects of PCB Exposure, 147 LC,, Comparisons of Arociors in Diets (mg PCB/kg Diet) of 2-Meek-Old Birds, 14B Spawning and Egg Production of Fathead Minnow* Exposed to PCBs, 170 Incubation Tims* and Bntchabilitle* or Coho Selmon Eggs, end Survival and Sixes of Alev ins 4 Meek* After Hstchlng, After Exposure to Aroclor 1254 for 4 and 2 Meets at 12-14* c. 17 1 Lifa Cycla Effects of Aroclor 1254, 172 Metabolism of Polychlorinated Biphenyl Isomers, 173 Besults of Chronic Feeding Studies Using Various PCB Mixtures, 174 PREFACE i Recoqnixing the htitidt posed to huun health and the environment by polychlorinated biphenyls (Pciil, the Office of Research and Devalopaient of :r.e U.S. Envlronaiental Protection Agency (tPAI requested that an assesmawnt of the problea be conducted by the Rational Research Council. The Environmental Studies Board, given responsibility for the study, appointed the Coswlttee on the Assessment of Polychlorinated Bint---' an the anvlronnent early In 1171. The charts to the Coaaaittee was to provide EPA with a detailed tsseisrent of the nature of the problea and of alternatives for reducing the current substantial lavel of environmental contamination from pCRs. Instsad of contributing yet another extensile review of the fate of PCBs and the risks to haalth associated with them, the Coaaaitte* set itself three objectives: 11) to develop a modal of PCB distribution throughout the environment with stisatet of current reservoir burdens, (2) to enalyre the economic impact of various control options, and ID using PCB data as the test ' to assess ths effectiveness of the proposed EPA '' ' lr'l guidelines for evaluating toxic iub^tanres. l'>* CCHpittte benefited greatly from discussion* -'ll' individuals fro* icidesia, industry, and 9overiuasnt i in. We are particularly grateful to Frank ' .!' n of Versar, Inc., for developing the node 1 of i< > .it n i but Ion. We also appreciate the assistance of ... i it other parsons at various stages of tha ('"i union of the report: Oavid Downer, Arthur Stern, i- iirt lags (Office of Tonic Substaacasl, Phltl Taylor, . - i -ier (EPA Watar Quality Analysis ranch-STOMET), . < ' . -lar (EPA Scientific Advisory RoerdI, Steven t. iih.iion (EPA Offica of Planning and Management), riMiif.. Kerch (council on Env 1 ronnanta 1 Quality), Harisaa t< it: tfi.S. Geological Survey), and Frsd Puts (EPA 'ili.r of Pesticides Prograa). on t-ehalf of the Coasslttas, I would like to thank Ik'ii Pirages and Elisabeth Pane* of the National ) i-iith Council for their contributIona In preparing 1 fi'Ott. Other staff ataberi providing aaslatanca i i 1<1 Judith Cummings, Nancy Fairfas, Raphael Kasper, "ii ' ns Olson, Connie Rages, Milllae Robertson, and li it i Rooney, t.ually, I with to exprass ey gratitude to each "" `'J of tha Coniaittea for hi* afforts towards tha i,'iL i u ,1.1ul completion of the study. ^ Alfred N. Bee ton Chaireen, Cossittat on the Assessment of Polychlorinated Riphenyle in the Environaeat INTRODUCTION Thirty-ala year* after the introduction of polychlorinated biphenyls tPCDs) into the world market, scientists discovered that the conpound was accumulating la tissues of fish taken from tha Raltic Sea. Monitoring afforts within several countria* subsequently disclosed eatenslve global environmental contamination from thia group of organics, which comprises theoretically sore ta,i 260 Imliriiiuil lscmers of chlorinated biphenyls. Tha problem of environmental contamination by PCRe baa now bean well documented. Comprahenaiva ravlawa have reported the existence of significant quantities of PCRe in atmosphere, soil, watar, sedimsnt, fish, wlldltfa, and even in samples of human blood and tissue (MIENS l)J2, Hutztnger tt ul. 1*74, Kimbrough 1974, Durfsa at al. 1974, Kornreirn rt al. 1974, Niabet 1974, U.S. EPA 1974, WII9 1974. Roberts St al. 19741. Tha term polychlorinated biphenyls refers to a class of organics produced by chlorination of a bifhe.-i,l and CC-pewd of 10 possible forms. These forms arise f-on a : 'I 'iH OLmbcr of chlorine r.ubst 11 ul inrs on th" ' `"'-/I molecule, and cormpniil to the rhinn it - ' ! i ' rr a-iuiuc h I or oti 11 h* n / I , d 11 h | nt .ti 11 t.- n . . . 2 lit I.! tobiphenyl, etc. Several Isomers for each PCI i .. I. . -1 are possible) the number depending on available t-. > iiution site* on each biphenyl portion (2-1, 2' ` i However, not all posaibla tscmers ara likely to be r. . ... 1 during the manufacturing processes. In general, v ..lit common ones ara those that have either an equal - of chlorine atoms on both rings or a difference I one chlorine atom between rings. Nora comp late i i oclon on chaaiical identity and the manetacturing i n.. r> Is presented In Append 1 x 0. commercial PCS nlsturea are manufactured under a . >i uiy of trade names 1 Append1X 0). the chlorine ,11. iii of any product may vary from II to 79 percent i iJ li|.-ndi on the estent of chlorination during tha H u I . turing process or on the amount of isosieric .... ..., engaged in by individual producers. Each company i n specific system for identifying the chlorine intent of its product. For exampla, Aroclor124B, i * t ,,,i<I 1140 indtesta 41 percant, 94 percant and 41 i 11 i-nt chlorine, respectively; Clophan A40, Phe nock lor . ij and Kaneclor 400 designate that these products nij.n mixtures of hexachl orobipheny Is. Tnr only important U.S- producer of PCBa sat i1 n mto Industrial Chemicals Co., tdiich had plants at ..i.ii.iinn, Alabama, where production of PCBa ended In i ' i . and Sauget, Illinois, where production ceased in . l> > Sold under Monsanto** registered tradesiark of . i t, i ns, elstures of PCBs had been used originally as a .> ii -,ii/dialectric for transformers and capacitora, as ii it transfer fluids, and as protective coatings for when low I Isnmtabi I it y was essential or desirable, i i l...cts and users alike, apparently unaware of any ,. ii.,t ul haraids from exposure to PCBs, initially i i i-J In accordance with earlier results of toxicity it, that indicated no effects (Penning 14J0). Tha i .. .it.iun of open ended applications between 1910 and i ".i1, incorporating PCBs into such commodities as ,.t,i - . inks, dedusting agents, and pesticides, led to I,, l , i<-spread dissemination of which we are now aware, i, I.,;, toxic effects were noted in occupationally 1 , - a workers and threshold limit values were ,r posed - >nuf icturing sites. The general pattern of release of PCOs to the environment changed significantly during the early 1970s. Until then, essentially no restrictions were imposed either on the use or on the disposal of PCBs. After evidence became available in 1949 and 14JQ that chronic exposure could result in hazards to human health and tha envlronaient, Monsanto voluntarily banned sales of PCBs for 'open ended" and 'nominally closed" applications (sea Chapter 1, Tables 1.1 and 1.2), and the loss rate from industrial use was reduced through stringent control measures. However, significant resarvoirs of aiobila PCBs (those availsbla for transport among environmental media and biota] still exist along with oven iatgwr, currently immobile reservoirs. The latter lncluda those materials containing pens that are still In service and those depositt-d in landfills ar.d dumps. The major factor affecting future release of PCBa from these sources will be regulatory action govarning storage and disposal of tha chemical. Tha new Toxic Substances Control Act 1TSCA), Public law 94-449, specifically prohibits production of PCSs within tha United States, regulates disposal of matariala contaminated by PCBs, and restricts the use of any such materials alraady in service. The effect of thee* measures should be to aliminete further releases Into tha environment and, eventually, to reduce quantities axiating In tha environment. However, because of th* extreme stability of PCBa, environmental levels will not be reduced substantially for many years, *rv! the pre-Mr-- of dejll-g with exiitirvj :::r: - mobile PCBs will ream in. Cleanup efforts have been initiated in those environments that are heavily contaminated, but complete removal may not be either technically or economically feasible. For this reason, the U.S. Environment a 1 Protection Agency (EPA) commissioned the National Research Council to review the current dimensions of the FCB probleai and to recommend future action. The intent of this report Is to provide EPA .irn an isn*s--.n-nt of 111 the current state of tte ?CB fr itilex, ' I the cost-e f f ec 11 vent s 5 of selected options fer '"'rolling continued cnvironrcntul pollut .n, a r i ' ] i '' i \ ' l nr of | n pom ) |U 1 (? 1 : r - for 1 ' ' ' ' ` - p- ' i-i.t : ,: i : ( an! pc n. - - e ,, f i ' t , -. I | ; >- r.l . ; f . 1 .,t 4 ; . i I s. To accompl ish its purpose this study has i. i. | ( nary component s. , itinent i n format ion on environmental aspects of i ireviewed and iunmarlted with emphasis on i i | ii processes and distribution among environmental . . <i lent*. A model of tha distribution of PCBs in 4 1... <-n i ronment was constructed. A<> economic analysis was performed to determine, ; i tin. extent possible, th economic costs and , .i i, ., mental and health bone fits that might be derived ii. i implementing various options for controlling i ii I,., i PCS release and for reducing the present level : ini .imination. It should be noted that this analysis i) i lie 117| EPA published regulations for use and i : , 4 ..ii of PCBs (U.S. ZPA 1978a,b). Mew ragulotiona 1 |` t>e published in 1*79 that may reflect different il requirements. -i. tng EPA draft guidelines for testing potent is I i i iiy of new chenicels, en etiestment of PCB toxicity .a mi l* , An approach that might be used for i ( hi .(/mg potential haiards prior to extensive . .uni iLiure and use of new chemicals was daveletted. 1 iIk- study has s generic aspect in that the model of < is Jim lbution, the approach to quantifying , i, truce and toxicity, and the anelysle of control .> u..i are applicable to studias of other persistant . , i i onmental pollutants. i'i ft HIKES ii.ii |,, R.L., C. Contos, F.C. Whitansre, J O. Barden, t L Hackman III, and M.A. West in 11*71) PCB* In the u .itrd States--Industrial Use and Envlronmantal n i I t ibut ion . Report Mo. EPA SiOli-li-ODS. !.pi ingfleld, Va.: Versar, Inc. ii.i i.i-7*r, 0-, S. Safe, and V. Zitko 11*71) The I l.rmstry of PCBs. Cleveland, Ohio: CRC Press, i i i.t>i ...iijh. R.o. <197*1 The toxicity of polychlorinated, polycyclic compounds and related chemicals. Pages if'i **t, CRC Critical Reviews in Toxicology. Cleveland, Ohio: CRC Press. i i.i, ii h, H. , I. Fuller, J. Ooriqan, p. Walker, and L. Itioii.as (1976) Environmental Impact of 9 Polychlorinated Biphenyls. McLean, Va.: The Mitre Corporation. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences ( 1972 ) Conference on PCBs. Environ. Health Perspect . 1:1 -(5. Hisbet, I.C.T. (1976) Criteria Document for PCBs. Report Ho. PB-22S 197. Hashington, D.C.: US. Department of Comma rca. Panning, C.H. (19)0) physical characteristics and commercial possibility of chlorinated diphenyl. Ind. Eng. Chem. 22:1180 -1181. Roberta, J,R., O.W. Rodgers. J.R. Ballsy, and H.A. Rorke (1978) polychlorinated Biphenyls: Biological Criteria for an Assessment of Their Effects on Environmental Quality. Associate Committee on CCeCuta* 6u vi' i cC 1 1 u Iw* u>| la til m'iii. ucUi A it JT . Ottawa, Canada: Rational Research Council of Canada. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (19761 Proceedings of Rational Conference on Polychlorinated Biphenyls, November 19-2), 1979, Chicago, Illinois. Report No. EPA-S60/6-7S-00*. Washington, O.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agcrcy. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (l*7(a) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): Oisposal and marking. Federal Register * 31)*):71**-716* . U.S. Environmental Protection Agency I 1978b) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): Manufacturing, processing, distribution in commerce, and use bans, raderal Rag i a ter 41(110>t2*(02-2*(i(. World Health Organisation (19761 Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Terpheayle. Environmental Health Criteria 7. C**vns th'17 (*e-,lt*i *t Icn . 7 I. Environmental load estimates for the llnn-i States and the Atlantic Ocean are presented for the following compartment s; Amount Atmosphere I.OII Hydrosphere Fresh watar 0.012 - 0.015 FINDI DCS MID RECOMfENDATIOMS Freshwater sediment Freehwater biota Marina sediment 1.000 - 7.103 0.030 0.060 - 2.700 Marine water 6.000 - 66.00 Marine biota 0.010 f 1 Lithosphere 0.140 - 2.000 5. Biodegradation has been a minor factor in PCB dest ruction for those isomers of tetra- through dccachlorobiphenyIs. , .. L, pea Transport Throughout the Environment t a model of tha distribution of PCBs throughout 1 I,' i. \ environment estimates the total cumulative PCa < i ina domestic sources through 197$ as (.1 a 10* kg, 'L ill percent representing anno-, di-, a*)d : i, ul hi obiphanylt 21 percent, tetrschlorobiphenyl; and ,< t i.Fnt, penta- through decachlotobiphenyl. j from production and use data, losaas of PCEs from , i i ,,i . t tun-usa functions and the esnunts entering the i ,;,i environmental reservoir total a.2 a 10* kg, i, ji , n.uiad as follows: amounts la 10' kal a .no , di-, trich lor obi phenyl: 1.1 " l i* 11 itchl o r ob iphenyl: l.l |icnU- through decachlorobiphenyl: 1.1 i i rhe North Atlantic Ocean appears to be the ' i .iii sink for PCBs, accounting for 50 to (0 percent i ! bt in the environment, and freshwater sediment is a ` ` . . .. . continental reservoir . Recommendations 1. Because the North Atlantic Ocean appears to be the ultimate sink, further studies ara needed to firmly esteblish PCB concantrations and distribution in the merine environment. 2. Although modeling was useful in assessing large- scale distribution and fata of tonic substances, more adaguata data bases are needed to develop transport models of environmental pollutants. For example, f ris sn^ eh Ip *k^ ^ _* transfer between the anvlroassente 1 compartments. 1. EPA should continue to develop better analytical techniques, particularly those enabling assessment of the estaat of PCB fract1onetion. Because of continuing analytical problans it is difficult to deternine tie extant of ecosystem contamination. For aquatic systems, the most effactive indicator of both tha degree of PCB pollution and the potential hazards to huir.ans and ildlifc is tha PCI content of fish. To use this -`licator effactivaly, factors such a* age, species, and ' 'r.tional habits of the fish must be tai.rn into ' " Detailed inf orm.it ion on individual isopm-is - : i!-.o be reported together with the specific ' ! . i in.! t ion. e < freshwater sediment is an important continental i'-i PCBs, and special attention should be given to 'ting programs and to studies of PCB cycling fron -t.t through human food chains. i i ei 2. Policy Assessment I Substantial differences exist in the coeta of .l options for the control of PCBs. Among the 11 < r <ir I ves analyied -which included EPA proposed i"g iaiione on disposal and uae, option# for dredging ->' > .itiposel of contaminated river sediment, and U.5. 1 ! <' 1 Prug Administration (FDA) ragulatioma limiting : -titible residues la fish destined for human 1 ' '"Tl ion--average coats varied by as nuch as five if i & nf magnitude. i ixistinq EPA regulations on dispoeel and use era . ,rinil to result in the control of 2(0 x 10* kg of i >.ith average costa of up to $ll/hg of PCBa ' ii'r llfd. Proposed EPA regulatloea mould lncraaaa the ` >1 vantity of PCBa controlled by about 0,1 percent 1 l thoaa controlled by existing regulatlone) with 'i . ,< costa becoming aa high as $1)3,00O/kg. , J a esse study of the Hudson River indicated that , - i. 'll Ives for dredging sediment could remove e total * i o.-'"i\ no 10' kg of PCBs from potentially mobile ' n sediment at coats ranging from $110/kg to 1. 1. k g - t. It la estimated that up to 0.2% percent of the .1 ifBi released to the environment inttr tha human i. at least 400 kg of PCOs would have to be removed > i ne mobile environmental reservoir in order to . wva a reduction of l kg of PCBs in food- This (00 kg) is derived uaing data from tha Great '<. a closed eyatem, and may be too low for sort open lie."a. IDA limitations on PCD concentrations in 'I'lri. tally distributed fish could reduce PCV input to ninriicin diet by about 64 kg at a cost of laaa than : ',<jf)0/kg. IA reduction of an additional 14 kg would t (rtft than $243,000/kg.) - Based on the figures used in the snslysie in this I < i . IDA regulation of PCD limits in fish destined i t"-' an consumption sppesrs a more cost-effective m.i,i of controlling dietary intake and human health ' i than some of the aKiet costly EPA proposed -i/ tc preferable to either IZPA or rr.A rr j jl <: in: i . b. It is difficult to assess the bene tils of centrol1ing exposure to PCBs with currently d-ailible information. The analysis in this report conservatively estimates the benefits as 530/fcg to $)O0/kg of PCBs removed from the enviroruaent or withheld from discharge, but notes that even these figures could bo high or low by a factor of 100 or aK>re. kacomanndat ions 1, Policyamkers should use available data to calculate the Incremental or average coats of FCB control options in conducting economic analyses of proposed regulations. 2. Aa greater control of PCBs is sought, regulatory afforts should be concentrated on those options which are most cost effective, that is those with tha lowest average or Incremental costs per comparable effect or benefit. J. Economic analyses should include cost data on all optiona--not Just those under a single agency's regulatory authority. These analyses could then show-aa dona tha analysis presented in this report--that some options beyond a particular agency's authority are substantially more cost affective then some that lie within tha agency's Jurladictioa. A comprehensive, coordinated government policy toward control of pollutants should reflect such findings. Chapter J. Guidelines for Eveloatlng the Potentisl Toxicity of Chemicsls 1- Based on tha original uaea of PCBs, this chemical might have passed toxic aebntancn evaluation as proposed under the Federsl Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodanticide Act IFIFRAI, thus allowing ita use on e large acaie. Acuta toxicity la ninimsi for all species except eoaie aquatic invertebrates, and intended use patterns nay not have warranted additional chronic *-csta. 2. Results from the proposed TSCA Reference Set '"Sts would require continued testing with the Ha j Aril 10 > il I'lOn Studies leading to detection of gome KB l >i. t tfeet s. hint health hssards resulting from PCS exposure I'l.r, itnn in occupational settings are subtle le.g., ,- .i reproductive capabilities, changes In behavioral i r.n) end would not be detected with either the l 11 n* ji TSCA scheme. . CwMn laboratory animals do not alweya respond !' i b exposure In a manner similar to humans. Ho one ir . ' speclee exhibits 'typical* hueten aymptoma of PCS |1 l ing. Thua, choice of test species becomes on --it factor in evaluating the potential toxicity of a lltaUIIICC. i ' mHendationa I whenever chemical, physical, end environmental < try date Indicate that a substance is both _ l -i > r,lent and lipophilic, ita deveiopaient for large -- ni i.st should be reaaaeaaed and alternativee - in; . l'*ied. l resting idwaes should include models of 3.i ic lasted release and movement through the environment i ir 1.1. f y ir>g potential reservoirs, and testa should be j i r r. ..ted within these specified environnentel , .. > s I pas, l. Test guidelines should etrsss sseeesment of ) . tl health hsrsrda, auch aa reproductive elteretlone i ) t o,evioral-learning lapsirment. t i 1 PCB TRAPS PCHtT THROUGHOUT THE ENVIRONMENT In considering FCB sources, *:hinijins of transport through the environment, end aKibile or limobile reservoir#. It ie often useful to consider global cycles (Nisbet eed Saroflm 111}). Models of these cycles can provide insights Into the general behavior of compounds and cea establish a framework for subsequent research, This chapter presents a review of PCS distribution in the sijor environmental compartment* f?r the United States (l.e., stmosphsrs, hydrosphere, lithosphere) and the esani of transport among and within than. In any attempt to design a distribution model basel on results from a number of different studies, several possible sources of error must be recognized. Lack of uniformity in sampling end analytical techniques is the major problem encountered. Sampling difficulties occur for measurements in air, water, and sadiaient. In air, the amount of PCBa in the vapor phase relative to that attached to particles still is uncertain, mainly because of problems in sampling techniques. Similar difficulties are encountered in efforts to distinguish i't.'rcn dissolved vs. particle-bound PcBs in wuier. irement of PCBa in sediment also presents prop lens ' ' studies have not used existing, proven techniques 12 i it > . ilectinq scdiMnt cores, but instasd hiva analysad ,i <1 samples. Crab sample analyses can ratult in ------ mates or undereatimatea of PC# level* depending ' u depth of sample taken, and may not reflect t- 'iely the concentration of the aediiaent column, iix comparisons of measurement* of PC#* in i ..omental sample* have alao been complicated by a i a l uniformity in anelytlcel technique*. Bacaus* ! i < uneerclal mixture contains a number of PC# isaawra .- i-.' (.tu.a exhibits a wide range of vapor pressure* and t .i t.t. i l ity characteristic*, the most common approach to |. n> ii tying PC# concentration* is to compare qee i i-n.it ^graphic recorda of the sample with recorde of ||.n I . Clophen, Phenoclor or Renechlor standard*. But 'Mi iit'totch i* not entirely appropriate, uateee both in ..umber of peak* recorded end the Interpeak height i it .i s are identical for the sample end standard being .i.n-, ii.-il |Webb and McCall 1#?), Murphy and Kiaaiutko :'-i1 - ! Analytical fractionation technique* make it ` ...i iMMitt to Identify adequately all peak* on tha qaa in i t.,graphic record, end it ia quite poeeible that . .1 l..! mt imatei of the quantitiaa of mono- end tit it <ibiphenyls have reaulted. Becauae of ttfeie ' . ; oM.-ms in Identifying the chemical component* of a n en mixture, PC# concentration* are often reported ee ' 'nisi closely resembling' or calculated ea 'similar to" ci linn known Aroclor standard. Thus, it becomes i (t ii ult to discern whether or to whet extent . i ll - Iiljal ccxaponent fractionations actually occur . iin in the environment. rli- ability to understand and asaeas PCB movament i Ui.jut the environaient can only remain speculative i . ihe samplinq end analytical problems are rseolved; uc i ,(lowing interpretations of data were made with ilu*;. e limitationa in mind. uu tS OF COWTAMINATIOH i i ciiiifi of General PC# Distribution Within 11 ,i ili.ited Statesi i ...) the period from 19J0 to 1975, U.S. commercial .I., cf PCBs totalled nearly 570 x 10* kq from domestic .1. o and about 1.4 x 10' kg from imports IDurfee et 1 |.)|). As of 1975, more than half of this aaount, .i .in i 10' kg, waa estimated to be in service. 1J ; . -;it ition of the reminder was estimated using 195 S I7>4 production and sales figures supplied by ":n:jnto, information supplied by other industrial concerns, and analysis of PC8 us* patterns with respect to losses, waste disposal, and other aspects of environmental entry, The emount end locetion of PCBs are praaented in Table l.l. Bout** of Entry into the environment There Is no substantial evidence suqqestinq that PCBs are produced in the environment, either from natural sources or from chemical transformation of other compounds. Therefore, ell environmental contamination Ay ace- i- iwfcrr-- 1 ,ii i,w,i cue production and use of materiel* and equipment containing Peas. It also can be inferred, with acne certainty, that PCBs entering the United Sutts through corrsercial imports or via trjmmt;onsl atrospheric transport have been inconsequent ill -hen iri-far'l to the n-eounts entering the U-S. environment vi-i iocit ic rcutcr. Major domestic uses of PCS* are indicated in Table 1-2. The voluntary limitation of PC# production imposed by Monsanto in 1971 restricted sales to applications in closed electrical system. The 1971 estimated inports of PCBs to the United States totalled only 1.0 percent of Monsanto's production for that year, suggesting further voluntary elimination of uaaa other than for closed system*. Th* m*)or applications of imported PCBS at that time were for pattarn wax** (dccachlorobiphenyl ) and replacement cedar.t fluids fur mining machines. Further evidence of the decreeee in PCB use lies in the TABtE i.l Environmental Distribution of PCBs dot in Service as of 1975 Mult PCB ft in tht Environment AMOunt ( 10* kg OC9 reded or Incinerated In Landfill* nr tqmpftcnc Ou-J.s 2S \ IQ fnim n.irl^r ct 4 f . It j., 111 r 1.2 Domestic Uses of PCBs i f *<y Type of Product percent of Me* Total Use M . .: : 117 2 * -c .* "1" i ? , T t. r. t : t_ frcu.'il i`. i n in . ir.Jfills by 19TB can be estimated as ISO 10` . .^ver, this total may be an overestimate as disposal c-i lard may have declined with the passage ol Till and . i /,.| metrical IfNl Tfwiifomdr, capacitor*j other IftiftQr) tl*Ctflc*l ImuI Atinf/coolUi| rpplicctldfti 41 until 1*71. 101 after i*71 the attention given this aspect of the Kl problem. Some obsolete equipatent his been stored instead of dumped in landfills, but the M)Or reduction of PCBs deposited In land sites has resulted through e decrease ,i ., , .1 ly Closed Hydraulic fluids* best ii until 1*7].' in production wastes due to diminished dostestic T 1, . 4 .Al transfer fluid*. iubricMtt B after 1*71 manufacture and use of PCBs. In the future, the primary source of PCB entry to j 1 <1 1 Mil PUit leisures eurfecu It until t*7li on-lind diapoul site! ii likely to be the obioleicenci A, . i f i dt ion* costings* Ink **d 4yt after 1*71 of electrical egulpamnt, because no regulations sre * cArrieii* edhusieus* puetlcidu iHtlKdtlli anticipated that could change this situation. Thus, it 4 crbonli<l copy pspuSp is not unressonsble to suggest s maximum entry rate of dyes about J.J x 10* kg/yr to landfill! for at least 10 years and perhaps as mnnv as 20, althouoh by the wear 2000 the rate should have decreased aomevhat. PCBs newly deposited in landfills should be much inr Luat although Monsanto ceiled all PCS production In ill/ large-scale increase! in import! of these 11, . 'mill did not occur. two important routes of entry into the environment imv i.-tn losses during the process of manufacture and from electrical equipment and other products * . ii<.a .<iing PCBs. Loises freer open-end and nominally Tint systems in service undoubtedly have been large less ;bil than th-w* in old landfill sites, beesuse of the frjo'ir Conservation ind Pcco-.-ery Act (RCRAI requircr-ents for t-:-ter d-sigri") lrndfills and tighter controls on monitoring site deterioration and chemical leakage, w.uch of the r.ew deposits will be contained sufficient!^ to prevent leakage or volatillist ion and new eitee must be designed to reduce awibil list ion of toxic materials by leaching. .1/1.1 l.ave contributed to contamination of toil, water, ii. I atmosphere. Mobilisation of PCBs located in landfills and Sources of PCfy tiruhuater sediment offers significant additional ' Mtt/niial for contsmination, but feu data ara available r si mating current or future rates of dispetsion. In at..dies of New fork landfills some volatilisation of Recent estimates of industrial and municipal PCB discharges Into equatic systems have been determined through monitoring programs n.8r is eotsd, but movement of PCBs from these sources ini.i groundwater reservoirs is negligibla (Lais and fi. tr/ Itll, Netting et al . 1JII . Disposal of materials TABLE 1.3 Reservoir of PCBs in Landfills as of 1915 containing PCBs-as for example, through municipal ii- inerat ion--appears to be ona of many minor routes of Estimated Amount __________________ lx IS* k*l -..iiy, and application of PCB - contaminated oils as dci-ist ing agents may mobilire relatively large l/ianiitiss of PCBs formerly in service. i summary estimate of the quantity of PCBe in i,/.-:lills as ol H7i is shown in table l.J. The ei.-inated rate of PCB entry into on-land dispose! sites Frodtiction Ntatti Obsolete Equipment other Tout 1* n m t.-./i all sources in ISIS was 5.i s 10* kg/yr IDurfee et a ; 1 SI*I * Assuming that this estimate is vilid for the >***"r: Modelled fro* Our tee et el. Iltltt. 16 ........; ,ii rd by ETA. The results indicate that the aversqe , ............ of industrial effluents (five Categories! is i t.i. i 10' kg/yr. and the fCB content of discharges frost l i i , if owned wastewater treatment works IfOWI is 110 .. lu' l |/yr I Versa I, lnc. igtl). xi- sampling efforts producing the industrial I i v h.irge data, on which thesa estimates were based, i :*,-n far from comprehensive, but they may provide . -s ills representative of the five industrial segments . . .i-itil li.e., timber processing, nonferrous metals, ore ..... 11). pulp and paper manufacturing, and machinery end 1.. .i n.if. i ai products). Tha astimata of PCS discharge t. lOrw is high by perhaps a factor of three and . I- 11 a nonrandom sampling of U t re stalest plantsi - . if these were in the vicinity of known PC* I- ' ! ions Iversar, Inc. 1!7I). fn .1 if tha estimated polk discharge rete is high, it.' municipal sector apparently releases e significant of PCBs into the aguatic environment. The major . .i.-r it believed to be the mobile environmental - ,-i.i.iiir, because the municipal wastes art presumed to : m |used from a use cycia to tha environsient before . u>g a wastewater strsam. Leakage from equipment in ' i. oi being serviced accounts for the remalndar of PCBs ,i> Ii.iu discharges. _ il it is assumed that approximately 40 x 10* kg/yr* f ii-t.tl PCBs are discharged from municipal sewage- i .it plants, tha release rats of PCBs in sewage - 1 i ,i! that is released to the environment should total ,1. i.t 140 x 10> kg/yr based on an approxiswta til ratio r. < iw t it toning of PCBs between sludge and water c i : 1 Lient. I Sargent et ai. i 077 I , Approximately *5 to 90 I . .. i ..i of PCBs in the portion of sludga that is 11.. imitated Ion the order of IS percent of total aludgel L.e destroyed via combustion (Mhitmore 1975 ),* the -.-hi iumg PCOs in sludge represent a potential threat to l.e I'nvlronwnt as well as a substantial but perhaps < i-m|i >1 ary sink for PCOs that were previously f >,\ it unmental 1 y mobile. I i| i> i Hecycl ing The use of PCOs in carbonless copy in , from 1957 thxough 1971 has resulted in the i , uinltion of paper products and foods by recycling ii.. tires and entry of contaminated effluents into tha .......... via paper-recyc1ing facilities. Projections i,,,e! <>n available data have indicated that both averaqe > . t ui rat Iona and occurrence of ~hot spots* are now 1I -i : MCill1/ a -vi - i I i - onr . m.** in -I - r li ls'*-- t i - r - *.. l'*77|. Some fraction of the PCBs in caiti.nle,] - : piper and recycled paper is also released to th? ! -.ft.vf* through incineration under conditions that do destroy PCBs completely. Pcleaso of PCBs to Soil In light of the diminishing use of PCDs in industry, the major routes of future entry into soil apparsntiy will be from disposal sites, in service equipment, and atmospheric transport. Disposal sitas represant a siiabie reservoir of POs, but tittle It known about tha lifetime of these compounds in a sits I for exeaiple, a landfill) or their affective rate of release. A recent study of tho Hudson Rlvar area Indicates that negligible groundwater contamination by PCBs has occurrsd in ares* surrounding old landfills (Lets and Metry 1979, Hetling ct el. 197(1, but extrapolation iron tne local to tne necioaai scale is no*. r~.= mtlc. r.tt .1* V, it art*. *. 1 \ tor **.e rc.viin pore a potential threat of r*. s * I-e cont a." i n it ion , but only lccally. C inni shed irdur.tris) should result in s reduction in the nerter of spill*. It is also hoped that application c f r~Ds or ICB - cor. tars mated oils for dust control will-be reduced throe71 public awareness and regulatory actions; bet if it is not, such applications Will continue to have local impact on concentrations of PCSs in soil. Incineration The PCS regulations proposed by CPA suggest that ultimately incineration will be the required method of disposal, but et thie tine it is not clear whether the neceseary facilities will be . . iilrbfr, or -l-.tt ccr.iitiin* of I.-.,. u..J temperature are needed to incinerate large quantities of contaminated wastes IU.S, CPA 197(). Pesearch is in proqress on the incineration conditions required to destroy PCBs, but the investigation is not yet complete. One problem needing immediate resolution concerns the effect of applying 'combustion afficlency* criteria 1 xsed strictly on combustion conditions ICO/CO, in * in.iust) rather than on destruction of PCBs by the numeration process. I The situation is also unclear availability and adequacy of chemical w*st*> for disposing of PCBs. At present, four ijch IB -.ii eist in the United States and more ere planned i i title information is available about the potential 1 i ) is of PCBs from landfills through long period* of i tidrnce. Another problem, affecting both incineration ! i.epoiaf In landfills, is hew to aaeign ! . nsibllity for splits or other accidental losses ini' 1-ay occur during transport of contaminated waste it . s state lines . ilN iPHEBIC COMPARTMENT |i tfenlly availabla data Indicate that ataioepherlc t i ..,!|ioit ia an important factor in Kl distribution on i local and globsl sea lea (Rarvay and Stelnhauer * '' j. Risebrough at al. 1974, fuller at al. 1177, and ni'li'iBian at ai . 117*1, Quant it las of the compound d i. i ted in s variety of saaiples collected at remote *.* (e.g., in water, snow, and solll provide strong ' If I- a for this conclusion, even though the details of c< ' ii-ftieric transport sra not well understood. Currant 'i'H do not permit accurate characterisation of such ("i ll as vapor/particulmte partitioning, individual i 'l" -if at fractionation, spatial and tempora 1 varlationa m .1. | "Sition, volatilisation or degradation rates, or i Vnt itication of ultimata sinks. Accurate measurement i. is l... en hampered, aa stated sarlier, mainly by t, i-.mal problema in sampling and analytical i ' in e! nas. But despits the problems, it has bean i i.t.iitile to reach several important conclusions oi.earning atmospheric transport of PCBs. '! f.? 1 l and Chemical forms of Atmospheric PCBs i tiivut information about PCS vapor pressures suggests t,..it i CBs ahould exist both in the vapor form and mi Bound to particles in the atmosphere. Determination t pu levels in air has Indicated that more than 99 ,'o.eni of the total atmospheric burden of PCBs esn pass i n a glass-fiber filter and thus must be collected . in Kins adsorbent traps (a,g., silicons oil coated 1'jn.li- chips, polyurethane foam, or XAD-2 rasln 'u lltmn et al. 197BI1. However, it cannot be HtiMiitd whether PCBs ara associated with particles I',, i .all to be captured by the glasa-fiber filter or i:. *9 percent of the total burden of PCBs actually . - , a i , tpKT - . v 1 1 l n '! ;'i' t h-i' l |i . . - 1 t ' 'n . -ly be further h-rmp-'rrd by layrru iti:i o? .."is r. ited with particulates during the collation -r-ccss. Kovevrr, Harvey and Steinhauer 119741 state: ...the observation that only 1 percent or less of the total chlorinated hydrocarbon concentration in the sampled air is on the filter argues strongly against significant particle transport, Murphy and Bzestutko 11977 1 triad to resolve this phese-partitioning question by measuring individual Aroclors In both air and precipitation (Tables 1.4 and 1.51. Two assumptions were nude. The first ns that sll A roc lor Hid detected in air Is associated with ; .i.. "-Is-, is i it ., in.- 1, cmc inis ;s a valid i.i nsr r" iar, b'Cijse the vapor prrsj'jr- r,ini" for Aroclor 1297 s sn the order of 10* r.* Hj to 10' r ~i If. tf.' r^c-. n! iTi-.ij.-f l ion, bis'-i upon th- risnjtuJ' of an !f'Vti-.e !:-r,ry*:i It. Const irr fer Arorlor 1240, contended thit all TC?'n in run result fre-* particulate scavenging. This : itn eight be in crior because of the uncertainties involved ir, ctlcclating and meaeuring Henry's Law Constant. The value of the partition coafficiant calculated from Henry's Law Constant indlcatas that the concentrations of scavenged vapor in precipitation should be negligible (Packs/ and Wolkoff 19731. Uaing their measured Aroclor partitioning and the above assumptions, Murphy and TABLE 1.4 PCBs in PmclpltitiC!! tOC*tiol 1KO6f Of Concentration Norway* Nam ISI* 4.7 (1,1 - 7.tl Norwaya Snow (111 4.1 (1.9 - 7.01 Uli Michi^ah, flain; HO* (1*0 ( 140| * Micht^uiy Snow Ml no t Percent Dusol ve<J 44 4* *4 n .-'i-lhiod mu concentration. ' it liner tc awsfi. - : ' (row Lgndr et al. IlStl) . ' 1 Iron Murphy and Ricilutko 1147T|. 20 2 1 C a lc u la te * aa A ro c lo r 12S , ,1 ko ii.*: driiuJIiL 0 4 t o O S OH pirlltui Jt*S - f t ^ 2) percent of the total atmospheric burden - Calculations based on another Method (or est>mstinq . iror/particulate partitioning indicate that less than 5 p-feent ot Fell sampled in oceanic air could be associated with particulates fJunge 1177). Similar caiculations for continental urban air indicate that 10 to IS percent of Aroclor 1251 and 1260 and less than S percant of Aroclor 1212 could be associated with particulate matter. These estimates remain speculative because adsorption depends not only on tha vapor prasaura of individual mixtures, but also on the nature and amount of available surface area of the adsorbent, factors not known for siost air eaues. vaporpressura data support the expectation that the store volatile isomers should preferentially accumulate in thw ii?dir4fcd.i T*~n -k 1 ' r:' _ t. above a iMn-Iird Aroclor 1D16 mixture (greater than II percent cMorinel have been shovn to contain r.ore of the loss cMctir.iti'd ard thus core volatile isox-ers, lor ex.i-plo th* nno-, dt- and t r icfclorcbipheny 1 s IRieure et al. 11)5), This finding suggests that an atnosphenc sampla may bear only a slight resemblance to the composition of tha original PCS product composition (Niaura et al. 1*75). 'm^-- ov ee~ x-.s ^oC m9 V~l -- - m * -- ht* 24 e*- n C K -4 c e 4*- 3 2 >* ^ >< 40f3b0d okbcO kOihOikf0 * M kl b lh a * ** The currant stata of knowledge about the atmospheric cycle of PCOs is reflected in the summary of data on continental and marine air lavals presented in Tsbles i-S, 1.6, and 1.7. Relatively faw ma*'ir***-rt Dean mada of large-scala, gaographically representative reas, comparing changaa through tima. Atmospheric PC* coacantrat Ions for oceanic and rural continental areas range from 0.002 ng/n> to 1.6 ng/m*, with store than 1) percent reported at existing in the vapor phase. Data obtained from atmospheric samples ' ti.en in the North Atlantic indicate an order of r`initude decrease in PCO level* between 1*71 and 1177 I Neman, Department of Chemistry, University of South 'r-ima, personal communication, 1*701. But ' ircientl designed to Investigate long-tern trends _n r locations do not exist, and thus it is impossible 1 '"-'in whether the'e data reflect a global 1 r f id -'1 ration of 0.05 ng/ir.' is used for caKulatini 21 ; . " 7 r rJs in the Concentrat ion ci FC3s :n r::ic-i'R:u(!i Air, Seasonal and Lo.nq'Tetm r of Samples) . . : .i1 Period PCM - 114* HO'1 e/a1) : it it)I - Sept. ISIS 0.7* t 0.44 14), 4 wera 0.1) ;:t. 1471 - March I44 0.41 0.4) 17). 4 mere < 0.14 April 14)e - Sept. 14)4 0.10 i 0.04 114) April 14)4 - Sept. 1474 0.07* 0.0*) 4*| i April 147* - Sept. 147* 0.07) t 0.0)4 (III* Oct. 147* - March 1417 0.0)4 i 0.044 <111* i *Tbese leapt** patched Monsanto* Aroclor 1144 mature pore classly. SOONCC: Coppiled froe kidlcun, Oepartpcnt of Chamistry. University of Sooth Carolina, perianal comunicatran (I41SI. SOURCE: M o d ifie d f r o * lid ie p a n a t a l. ( 1 71) .) the etmosphirlc PC* burden for oceanic and rural area* because the date converge around this value. Measurements fro* urban/awtropol itan area* also are quite variable, but data indicate concentrations ranging from 0.5 ny/a1 to It ng/e*. The average ia about 0 ng/p> or S nf/a'. Data on long-term trends do not currently exist for thaie areal. Evin leu information exists about PCS levels in rain end inou, and it Is difficult at present to predict levels for varioui geographically representative areas. I The published data are presented in Table i.0. Two data sets indlcsts thst large variations can mist , h->"tempordlly end spatially. Nhethar tha Lake Michigan measurements rsprasent typical urban/me tropol it an levels and whether the values awssured et Norwegian sites reprsssnt thoss of renota rag loss is not cartain. Based on the above discussion the PCS burden in the atmosphere ie conservatively estimated to be It x 10 1 kg using the following data,- Area of U-$. Atmosphere) 'tght of Assumed Affected Air Column: ' -til and Oceanic Area: '/Suburban Area: 2,500 km X *,500 km 2 km 90 percent of affected *>pa: 0.05 ng/*1 concentration 10 percent of affected area: 5.0 ng/' conrentration 24 r JPCB* t r 05 t Atmosphere t #-. ice removed fro*" the atmosphere vie vet end dr/ ! t sit ion. The relative importance of each haa not t < ,i i*>solvedr eainly because of difficulties in iif-19 dry deposition on var ious cur f4ccs. the post work on wet deposition hap been conducted in * ll ' Michigan I Murphy and Keep Put ho 1977 1, The 'li I.' ability o( thepp findings to other geographically ''I .csentative regions hap yat to be confirmed, but r> '.1 important obpervationa can be Ndi at this ties. " <J e Michigan, calculated yearly PCS deposition was I * to be relatively unifona, although a large degree Hi nieblility wop obaerved in rain and snow samples, 1,1 weighted mean concentration of TCIi in rain was 120 i><) ' 1 , which indicate* a gross flue to the lake of 0,01 x la v/m*-yr (4,000 kg/yrl. Trie relationship between PCE concentrations In air a..i iiin wap studied using the concept of washout i< if relents ISlirtn et al. 19701, The waakout * 1. Mrcient (or vapor depends upon tke partitioning of it. . tie tween vapor and water, which is essentially iJ"'(' Law Constant (HI, whereas that for a particulata upon the collision efficisncy of raindrop and t 'ii 1 - le, which is a function of the processes of , II 1 t hi ion, interception, and impaction. Dacausa the t 1 -r- r pi tat ion-espt urc processes for the two phases are 1 ilcii'nt, it is important to know the vapor/particulate i n < n toning (see diicucsion above). Tl> following relationship has been used to ' ai. n 1 ate vapor scavenging by rain; M np.C, where 1 it (lui of PCBs, * washout coefficient ..............ion in rain divided by concentration in air, <o density correction!, p. > annual amount of rainfall, oil1 " average PCS concentration in air (Hurphy and 'iioiiillo 1977 1 . Inspection of the Lake Michigan 'll* revealed a to be 4.2 x 10' and 2.5 1 10' for " 1ms 1242 and 1254. respectively. A value of 7,0 a i'-r as a, for total PCOs, has been obtained using data l< i uicldrin and DOT (Oidlen.an et al . 197b|. Washout coefficients also can be derived frocc 1 I*", where - the universal gas constant (0.2 a 10* .is , -/mol -deg*K I , T absolute temperature, and H v's Law Constant (Sllnn et al. 19701. This would "n1' v that H represents the effective Henry's Law ',1 ,nt (because PCOs are mixtures! with values of 4 x 25 . . - -| | lor Aroclor 1 24 2 and ( 10' iti-n'/r-): . r 125a. ,: - (! results ate two to threa orders of - lower than those obtained if t!/ effectiv-:Law Constant for various Aroclors is calcuiited r.g both solubility and vapor - pressure data IMackay ,-d Leinotien 19751. In order to determne II, however, he vapor pressure and aqueous solubility must rsfer to ntcrlal under similar physical conditions IMackay, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Toronto, Csnada, personal communication, 19791. Most individual chlorinated biphenyl isomers are solid at room temperature whereas Aroclors, which are complex isomeric mixtures, are viscous fluids. These mixtures will be partitioned into individual components when present in air or water, and therefore, must be treated accordingly ibosxey 191MI. Thus published Aroclor H values may be In error by two or three orders of magnitude (Mackey, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Toronoto, Canada, personal communication, 1979). The calculated coefficients from rain data (Murphy and Rceszutko 19771 and volatilization rate experirents IDoskty 19741 seem to bear this out, but more extensive data are required. Nevertheless, it appears that the equation W = np.C gives a reasonable approximat ion for the wet deposition of PCD* (Murphy and Mtasiutko 19771, Data on dry deposition fluxes, either to water or land surfaces, ars not currently available. Measurements of PCD fallout have been made using glass platas covered with mineral oil sad nylon or silicon screams coated with oil (Table l.tl. The data obtained u;i:.; tivccc tcchr.iq.ie* stcuiw an be considered representative of fallout ratas, becausa the collection media do not reflact soil, vegatation, or water surfaces. However, such measurements can be useful in determining distributional patterns for various geographical locations. HYDROSPIIEAIC COMPARTMENT | ''ft contamination in the aquat ic environment originates * ' several sources including precipitation, land " ( ', indust rial and municipal waste discharges, and ' s'li spills. Atmospher ic t r anspor tat ion r. / bn a ' ' ii' factor in the global distribution ol PiBs to It . nil. I H Comparative Monthly Fallout of PCBs - - -.of iiuoiH-.ndcd sol ill anl the sutiv 7 .^.1 - ,r ition of these particles into lhrt sHirent n t . Bl*it D*l 1 IP9/1R*-BD(lth| Co*F*nt . 1* systems is considered a major wans for -cbi l uing PCBs (Oloffs et al. 197}, Haque et al. lt*S-7l 1 - JH9HH A* Clophco Hoe in 197k, Hoe in et al. 1976, and Hetlinq et al. 11)7-7}' ad. Itll-tl1 UH - 19-- HD - less Aa Clophtn ASH Limit ol Dtttction - U 19 7 B 1 , Hechanical and biological processes in aquatic systems may result in some recycling of PCBs. -miia, 1977- 71* til - )* A* Cloptwii AM Degradation of material in the sediment nay change its organic composition and rslease PCBs to the water tall . Sanya. 1971-71* MO - *0 A* Clophth ASH column, Radistribution may also occur through srosion 1. tvga, 1911-7 7* * HD HO 11 (Olsson et al. 197B). PCBs may be transported to the water column and surface film by the ao*eieni of sediment-generated bubbles, for example, hydrogen kfil.* 1 la. ( alif .. 1911* MO t*0 Aa Arocltr IIM sulfide bubbles (Sodergren end Larnoa 1979 1. It has been observed that a substantial portion (greater thin 50 percent) of PCBs in pelagic carnivorous fishes * . cd t if f Bi*ht, <i ' >0HH Ah Arocior 1194 ^ apparently has been recycled thro-iqh hntt.cn sediment at least once (Heiniger 197BI. Marine pclych-ictes are also able to accumulate PCDl from contaminated acdi.-ents -im not dtucttd. I Courtney and Langstnnc 177BI, Despite major decreases in the influx of PCDs to .i.< i I r**m Sadr r9 re p> (IST)f. J io Soder^ren IhML i < i f if tioa hrrtfiiion end Sodvrqftn f rum McClure end Leyrenf* : i)..j I [on Toun^ l |I. j-iinl Ico* Soder|rcA liftlSf, < *s coastal marine sites, only minor decreases in TCB Concentrations can be observed in bottom sedirent ar.! flatfish fVoung et al. 1977); this observation suggest* continued recycling. During periods when contamination of the sediment becomes sufficiently high, PCBs nay be released to the water column (Veith and Comstock 1975!. - i..s !i.<1 lake*, but coastal tones and estuaries near If these releases were significantly greater than the I i.it ' i neat probably receive the aajor portion of PCB ; 'i . i iition from sources other than air fYoung et el - rate of deposition, long-term pollution problems ray result with the sediment acting as a source of PCB it'>I PCBs initially deposited on land 90 through residues rather than a sink. fiiivt cycles of evaporation, deposition, and Data on deposition rates eia scarce, and the basis : . r|.i ion, until eventually these chemicals are carried for making astiaiatas coacs either from sample* o! -.n j r runoff to lake and ocean sediments, the layered sediment or from actuel measurements of PCBs cn 11 1 <i.it r sinks settling perticies. Hore studies are required becau'e .iI.lH PCBs are introduced into the aquatic the available information is too scattered r.d . iMjiuirnt, they are dissolved in the water, adsorbed incomplete to ellow accurate determination of d^posu ion -i .1 mi ids suspended in the water, or accumulated in rates. !(ri-nt trophic levels ISodcrqren 1971, Haque et al. Analysis of sandy, aerated marine sediment indicates ' ' u *, ltr and Colwell 1171, and Halter and Johnson that the less chlorinated isomers of a particular PCB i 1 ' 1 i PCBS have low water solubility and high 'turr were not present, although this class of isoneis ' il waier partition coefficients,' thus, these `'1 be found in anaerobic sediment samples IHrr ,' hinds are adsorbed readily onto suspended solids, * Since it is unlikely that the !ess chlorinate} < it- .siiy those high in organic carbon (Haaielink et at. ' would be retained differently in sediments, the 1.1. Hague and Schmedding 1975, and Dexter and Pavlou is suggest preferential decomposition. 1 -ai adsorption of PCB residues on the organic ' ' ' *n sore Wisconsin rivers indicated th.it 79 i ' .m isomers o( less chlorinated Aroclors disappeared ii-.ii' .im from the paint source end that the proportion - . .`1/ chlorinated PCB compounds increased at the (veilh 1972 1. This observation Hy also indicate . . !noitial volatilization of the lighter Aroclor i . i ..us . r. 1 can be degraded In activated sludge and it has .1 -.it own that certain bacteria can metabolize l..I .biphenyls (Ahmed and Focht 1T73, Tucker et al, ' ,lp et al. 19TB, and Furukawa et al. H7i), . -.<>-(, the highly chlorinated isomers are degraded . . f .ouly than the less chlorinated forms. Thus, ;, ...j , i ion of chi orobiphenyl isomers below penta- may ... in bottom sediment primarily as a result of . .........i.,ai metabolism. Verification of thle hypotheaia ... i . ., ult, because field data are fragmentary and . ,i 1 it.oratory studies have been conducted under n il' ...is widely different froa those of the natural . ,..n it environment. Available results do suggest, i. .((, that degradation of aost pentachlorobiphenyla . e , i .emely slow and that of hesa- and anre subatitutad : .t i (, iphany 1 s is practically aagliqible. the ....... l., ..on is that degradation is an insignificant ! .. i ,,i in eliminating the highly chlorinated biphenyls _ . icdnent. * ' i ns ! n Fresh Water ,i... concentration of FOBS in fresh water I including -. ,s|hl-<> ted particlesl is generally low. Even if the i. , nt contains appreciable quantities, the n. c ill rat ion in the overlying water nay be below limits .1 .If Lection using available analytical procedures. . ii.ni residue levels in the major drainage basins (or rivers) of the United States range from 0,1 pg/1 j 10 eg/l Imeatured between 1971 and 197Bi saa Dennis i ....I Freshwater concentrat ions of PCRs in large lake .,ni s have been observed to be much Ineri probably .,( . . their greater distances from point sources of .,ii. lor the Great Lakes, the highest value reported ... n .-.i waters has been for Lake Michigan; J1 ng/1 ; i, 1.91, The low values'reported for Lake Superior .1 i iir Ontario were used as conservative estimates for i.i.in levels of FCBs because the Great Lakes . I'.runl 9B percent of the total freshwater volume in .1. in,iied States. The low and high estimates for Like Superior |i Aroc or us> 1414 Like Michigan Ontario taka Huron Likt Crit r ;/l 0 f S .0 * II *' 9.0* i .0'j a* 17. O' 'vaith et al. Il9n. jSwrtn (in prctiJ. 'hail* ||477|. edit, HOAA-Craat Lakes Cnvironmenta! Nirrch Ltbor<toryf Ann Atborp ilichifin (unpublithcJ datal. !dc Lapp* ft al. Un prc*^. SwiAf Laryc Lika Acrcarch Station, Cro>e lt, Hictitqair (unpublished datai . fClooschcnko at a), 119741. fraahwater lavela in ths four geographical areas used in this report are 1 ng/1 and J ng/l (Table 1.101. FCs In Fraahwater Sediment Results obtainad from monitoring sediment concentrations in European and African lakes and rivers are presented in Table 1,11, All PCB levels ars reported on a dry weight basis. The lakes are divided into two groups: those subjected only to airborne contamination, and those contaminated with industrial and municipal wastes as well as fallout. The sediment concentration ranged :ro* 4 eg/kg to 310 eg/kg for lakes receiving ptBs Iron; >11 sources and 2 ,.9/kg to 20 eg/kg for thosa ~gr.t aminated by atmospheric pollution only. Sediment from the major drainage basins of the ! Stares has been surveyed extensively for chemical ' mutton. From 1971 through 1979, median residue -! pros in bottom sedincnt of 17 aa )or rivers (.(lows: 12 n'l/kg to 69.5 Mq/kq IllJli, 2.0 5.1 ,,.j/hg I1972(. 5.0 j,g/kg to 50.0 Hg/k.r ' - 1 wd/kg to 160 .) eg/kg ( 19 79 I . The )0 i .! i 110 Estimated PCOs in Fresh Water f rota Four i.':i .liical Areas Across the U.S. , 1 i."tl klWAtAl *, it it.#n 4. . ,1.4 ^ t l * P ft* * 1 . - i"f l* 1 .. M al Mi * tee m.o vaiuM Jtii->i 27 !>.)/ 1 J* PCS iC4BCBIlUtiOB 'M/U Id* MjH AamdI ot1 rci <h*J low Me* 14 It tl 1i t#* 1 1 Cl,)2 >).* >J lit It* Tkl tttSti H,7l# residue levels wire detected In the eastern i-'i lion u( the United stat.es (Table 1.12). ti atom sedleent from 26 (treses discharging into the `.ii) honciico Bay had been collected and analysed (Law ii`'J i n liti 1974 1 , pci residues were (found in all the i>- surveyed with values ranging from 1 |>g/fcg to i "1:0 M')/tg, The values found in two streaed' not i hkj near industrial or commercial developments we^e i| iviri than would be expected: 110 pg/kg and 611 No significant differences were found between -.ii.. At.-,age residues of streams discharging into the n... ti in or southern sections of the Bey, hi 1150 to 1*77, the Hudson liver in Hew York - i. I. icrceived wastewater from two plants that used PCBs in | i ilncing transformers and capacitors. The plants i. ii 11 to have been ata jor contributors to contamination i tl. rivers PCB concentrations in the sedisient near lit . . (all from these plants ranged from 6.6 mg/kg to I- i.iiOo mg/kg (Nadeau and Davie* 1174, netting et el. . fist The aawiunt o( PCI* stored in the sediment of the .' !*..>> River is est mated to be approximately 100 x 10* I I ( jllelmire and Quinn, Hew Dork State Department of ' incurvation, personal communication, 1)71), >i Figures 1,1 and 1.2 indicate, distribution of i 1 Hi cithin the Hudson River sediment is not uniform. t'iin. I. concentrations occur et depths of b cm to 10 cm int i than at the plane where water and sedisient meet, in i . the samples were collected from areas of high D 1 i "> accumulation, the observed depth distribution II '/ i-'llect the reduction (beginning in 19741 and i . ,.i .,*1 cessation (in 1177) o( PCB discharges from tlv li ------ 1.11 PCS Jest Jues in Scdi rent of La5'.*'- and - in Europe and Africa (No Sanplctl - - tj^nc Source* W4 / 1 df y w* i r;M Mavaard** )on HOI Swcdvh to *1 II l.ile i.yngsjo ( )l SMdcfi s' Lake Wotrjon (!) Sweden 70 1 Lake Rinariochf (!) Scot lend 7* All Sourcti l*k VtL*rn 1201 Sweden Lake Malaren <111 Sweden Mhv*r V|ki lit! Sweden lake Trim** 1*51 Sweden L*k OfesjO 131 Sweden ftiver Kvlifwic (51 Sweden Lake NcilwriM (l#l Rhode*ta Harttoeespoort Bam 1141 South Mr ice Voelvlel Dam 11*1 South llrlct Lake Hakaru (101 Kenya 1 JO 1 4*7 4S7 4* 1 17 1 10* I/o' i/o' J0 70' SOUMCE: 'modified from sakansaon (19771. 'modified foa Oden and Ekatedt (197*1. : r ..a !.(, riirtn (unoubl tahedt , `modified from creichua et al. (1977). ^modified from Gtcichus et al, lISJBhl, `itodified (tom wells. Department of Agriculture a4 Fisheries gt Scotland, personal coaaaunication, modified from Grctchus et al. |l97Sai. General Electric plants et Hudson Tails and Tort Edward, so, new, less contaminated sediment must have cumulated over older deposits The values reconf'il undoubtedly affected by erosion during end by the ' _t of backfilling that occurs after floods. Other ' rr. ;n PCB deposition may he miqrat ion from sednent ' ~ 1j r ] water coluains and redistribution by ` * r it .on of PCBs has occurred where cimtilj : i- i ir. I thr* rate of r ede pos l t i on has ta'en TABLE 1.12 PCBa in Bottom Sediments in the Major Drainage Baaina of the United States and Puerto Rico (Semple Size) 9fm44a *44l MK MlmtU (lH i+*in Atiteoc l lofa i.i* la*trn Cell af *!( c.na imr mi *t*ian at Nftuva OatMiim in **/M 44 iIt taMt at Paattiwa 0*iacuR ` 1* * IN 4 un i * i*i 1111 194IN *1 Niuiia OatWtiNi m h4/aa 10 (111 an*a a( N*m* OatacuoAi ib *a/*a 1 * 100 la mu 1 ' 4*0 mi <Mim ( Nitiive OatKdm m .*/* m< Noaitiva datactian* ia */* 10 (in l a INI 11 t kill 4 - *00 m* **ain < Pat Kivi Oa(ciia"i * Jl I *01 e-i* ei Pi! itr. Oatte*. .g-* 1 - -i n 1 - ISO J 1 I 1 Ui 1-110 i ui i 10 HI 10 14 (41 1n :-** i*r *** ia*r >U(|ik a^r * * . *. uff * ......... i (it ii i *i *. j i 11 * M o 1)1 i un i 1141 NO 1 1 * 1400 NO <l> 0 MU io tin NO NO 10 NO <141 NO (41 11.4 1*1* NO ia * i W* 1 1*0 . i . * it* .N* \e s ^*r - J Pir*f *1 p :i * - - i-' - 'v i t*' ;#*. nl mKtMr it9* Oamiia IHHL 4 (441 1 Hi 1 Hi 10 !4> 1 1*1 HO (11 1 (11 NO 1 1J 1 ` 140 t 1 1 ' 11* 1 HO 1 *0 - 4* (111) 0 1*1 NO (11 M* <m SO (in NO ru ` NO NO ui 1 ' 4' 14 * II* UO NO NO NO HO 1? *a i it NO 1*1 1 Hj NO Hi NO Ha <ii NO * MO 4 itO ui j NO :a 10 4 C N 5 L'. *'.0 34 j > .r il S 30 Cir./ y r I F Ifjur* t Albany F a 5 I n . i )n from ih t upper Hu4km itundui m know- : n!o-n, ind New York Harbor). Short cor* -,.i -plv, in < i and marginal shallow water areas Iron Kingston to r rndry Cove reflect sediment accumulation in areas not dredged. During the period 1971 to 1972, the Chester Fiver in the Upper Chesapeake Day was monitored. PCS residues were found with sediment concentrations ranging from nondetectsble to 100 pg/kg. The level detected at any c l l 4shr one time depended on river flow rates IClark and Murdock 1972). During 1974, bottom sediment was Sampled from r[ i varioue lekee end rivers in Connecticut. The data it Indicated widespread contamination, particularly in rwk oufnv highly davalopad areas. Levels up to ),90Q eg/kg were i 4 recorded (U.S. EPA 197k). Table 1.1) aummani*s the widespread contamination fw 4 im M U tft pmcn of freshwater bottom sediment throughout the United *. 4 States (Crump-Wiesncr st al. 197)). Samples were taken i from lakes snd streams remote from industrial centers to iumlvutn repreaent regional conditions. Twenty percent of the sediment samples taken across the nation contained FCBs of 471 P C ts dnpchanatl with levels ranging from % wl/kg to 2,400 ,,g/k<-|. The occurrence and distribution o! PCD3 in sedin*nt from the Greet Lakes have been studied extensively IVsith 1979, Clooschenfco al al. 1974, llaile 1977, Voith Summery thailowi. sot trod) at al . 1977, PLUARG 197S, Swain 1979, Eisenrcich et al. 19791. Tabla 1.14 illustrates the concentrations detected in specific Iske systems. These data seem consistent with sediment data from other sections of the country. i An evaluation of tha degrea of PCD contamination throughout the United States indicates regional r n>tt s m u ts cam ssiw art. a m taken from rm r k in k i Kid variation. In Table 1.IS residua data from the United Stataa Caoiogical Survey IUSCS) era summarized for 1972 through 1974. Thssa date show an Increase in the geographical dispersion of KM. In 1972, 9 states measured PCBs in bottom sedimenti in 197), S stales, and m 1974, 1) states reported contamination with th* c r< "pounds 1U.S. EPA 1974). Those still as report in-r fro T imin.it ion during this period continue |o )*: f 'i of the chemical today. Data from U.S. monitcring I lpr tvnptci ' and from reports in the literature thri.u.h I 9 )f i * * t h it the highest level of Pi ns in ft'-s'ij.-. ; ' i". found in hoivily nrl uitri.iliied, popii . c : t Can i - ' i - . 1 a r I y in I ho c r.inrn pa i t of the i.uai : /. ` an- |'.,|,.,j i ,i rural area lrr..y ft 6 . DM AO* 04lktnft W IU*CfcS 1 I . h... i m 1w| Iim (ONCENlMnONKB Jt> Cfimwtpwt (r`,rr':IAiliOf( K4 I ; -- o to m CK CO^CI > ' IIO^ *C0 (^l H *- twl CQfKI \ mallei p< H i.-uncf SM4ttn*7ti I . UKF 12 SaAfk ii>K icrnnnM^itic o> ih* Un^o* Kiwi Swwhii aJ *CB '/tki Iroal i{M tii^h <oit iwipki (tom a i(tin(iiua(c Miki k(Hu Iawi ii .. if|MtfloaAlbj^ io Nc Vak Hutwr Uh bii ir^cMnb tQ wilrtfv ,j* tuh of iw* 4i||icai KB iumii |Aioil 1242 iwt 12W) O latCM CWCEMlAArKM ret IPMI 0 70 ?a i CONCENf IMHO* PC9 im* I 0 70 40 ID f lawKy Cow COMCftMAAIION PCB ImwI 70 * Q lam iCm COM|tro*rHM FCB M 38 Hi <1 11 Sissury of PCB Residue Data for Bottom i.j.h s January 1911 - June 1972 1Number of ,,n; i i! > 1 ,b> b f J 1 09/M) ... nedi in Concent ritIon fB9/l9l -- -a-saP mi 3% - 2g40** 4* vj . i .fill . H i\ in. ; i ikit III H-4II *1 ll - IN *a ... OS ... -- < . j.B tW) 10-1,100 )O0 1 ar'i (III la - igioa ja i mi.ipi ist Sti no -- - jp.ht-r - 2*0 20 -.on i) Id! HO -- .11.a. i *nli U4I 10 - 20 5 T |b < J j ol me 111) n - 300 so c.-a, U>)1 7.9 - 290 0 Cjir.i Ll) ist it iinn 10) d i vn^ima 12) 9-40 ... 10 40 -- ... ' f 'tod11 pad i row C r iMp-Humr r( *1 I H HI mi U 1.1b presents estimates of total PCI burdens ... tfJitoent for particular regions throughout the United i .1.. the pacific Coast to the Continental Divide, i A|jt-alachian Mountain Range to the Atlantic Coast, i i = si Lawrence drainage system including the north- ' iimaI and Crest Lakes region, and the Gulf of heaico i i .i'i<- system including the south-central region of iwd States, when calculating a total PCI burden i- l i.aent, it is necessary to consider possible m^mj activity of bottom-1 r vj ng organisms. This > i inly may carry PCB residues deeper into the eedisient '"'ll would be otherwise anticipated. Tor that raaaon, a > in I. ill IS cm haa been used for potential PCB v. 1.14 n :-> ,n i . "it '.! t Like") Ido. Samples I Lake Superior HI fill Lake flickiyin (II g/i-i jo.0* 1 010.s . tr - 40.0 18.0* 12.0-41,0* L*fca Huron L*k n (SI s o- n o' tr - 40.0* 14.0-440.0* Like Ontario in ii.o-os.o' J.0-440.0* tr indicate! trace. SOURCE: ruiasr. IlSJSl. >veith et a|. 11SIII. 'ciooschenko et al. 11 SHI. `(tails figill. contamination. Kith an average sedimentation rate of I.) sua/yr la conservative estimete based on values obtained in the Great Lakes I, IS cm represents the average amount of sediment accumulated during the last 50 years (Edgington and Robbins ISTb). The area from the Pacific Coast to the Conline-nfal Divide eeema to have the lowest PCB level in sd;n*rt. Host recorded values are below 10 pg/kg; therefore 2 f>g/kg to 20 pg/lcq are choaan as low and high estimates - 5 rci level; lr, ;cdi=4;nt fro= this region. i i.v calculated PCB burden in eediaient for the region from the Pacific Coast to the Continental Divide is fro.-i s * I0> kg to bS * 10* kg I Table 1.1b). The Appalachian Hountain-Atlentic Coast region ini the St, Lawrence drainage basin represent areas where fontistently. high levels of PCBs hsve been recorded in Clous components of the aquatic ecoaysten. The Hudson :. vr is the moat contaminated water system in the '' i-tic Coast area: approKimately 100 x 10` kg of PCBs f'l'n deposited in the river sedmint (Toffelmire . :rn, {lew york State Department of Conservation. ' i. -uni cat ion, 1018 ) . Low and high esl n u-s ' ?:> sti.-.iter s*d inent for the App^Urhi^n - table 1.15 Ln ug/kg) Summary of PCB Residue Data for Bottom Sediments (Means and Ranges Mean 1972 NO. Of Stations Mean 1973 No. of Stations Mean 1974 NO. Of Stations Arkansas 0 6 0 6 12.B 15 (*2-29) Cali forma 0 1 0 15 33.5 18 (*2-65) Connecticut 127.5 (<5-EB00) 16 14.1 ( *5-40) 16 71.5 (*3-350) 40 Tlorida Georgia Illinois Indiana 93.6 {*5-400) --- -- ... 27 ... 35.B (*2-600) 0 2 0* ... 64 1 1 ... 43.3 ( *2-530) 13.6 (*1-51) ... 35 68 9 --- 4 Michigan 2 1 17.6 (*4-60) 13 : ri - .li- rsey * York --- (*5,*10) -- ... 2 -- I'ennsy ivama Texas Wisconsin I'ucrto Rico 50.7 (* 5-E100) 61.7 (<4-120) -- 9 41 ... 01 230.2* (*3-4000) 519* (*2-1300) 11.7 (<5-20) 17.6 ( 3-45) 10 0 20 17 5 58 9 6 16.4 ( 3-56) 'U 172.2 (<l-800) 15 95. B (< 2-4 50) 17 105. 6 (*6-700) 23 45.5 ( *1*153) 58 0 21 242 16 (*10-640) --- indicate* no sample*. K indicates estimated. * indicate* mean figure docs not include anomalous values. dOimCE: Modified from Nisbet 11976). i i 16 Est imated PCB Leue 1 S in Sediment from Tour I. -ui'ii ical Areas Across the U. S. Sdiant Vol ut PC* Conccntr**. im low high taotnt of {M 10* I9} low hi^h 1 lOlltfv,.! ant. - ). I V* 1 1*0 10 5 io* isf 11 no m TJicV if 11. 1 10 ISO TOO )KI r Hrnico 4 t9* lie) 10 IS too too tif following uiiwpliont Ac* acOc - tM leilacrl Is [ o.^cno^cnic with * HCLtr content of appro*!Sit*!? 9S .i the PCS reiituci oca stored within tM upptc II c* '* leUlmrnl llfff. ' . : u.lic Coast area are 100 pg/kg and 500 pg/kg, I'ci ively with the associsted PCB burden ranging fro i i0` kg to 2,000 x 10* kg (Table 1.1*1. _ i<c Great Lakes are not only the dominant water 1 the St. Lawrence drainage systeai, but they ale .i 11 ute approximately 90 percent of the total . i . - ter volume of the United States. Based on the . i < ^ presented in Table 1.14, 14 pg/kg to ISO pg/kg 0 i (mien as low and high estiaiates for PCBs in I milt. The estimated range of PCB burden in the .ti.-oj't of the St. Lawrence drainage area amounts to 1 . imately 700 a 10* kg to 3,500 * 14* kg, thus lie renting the greatest PCB reservoir in the r.tiuuntal United States. The drainage area of the Gulf of Mexico contains lin.nt with concentrations that range from nonutuble to 530 pg/kg. excluding samples taken In the .n.iy of heavy industrial contamination. Samples i :.iw 10 pg/kg were in the major Llyj thus 10 *g/kg and cl kg are considered reasonable low and hiqh it. lies, indicating a PCB load o( 100 a 10* kg to 500 l(i >g stored in the bottom sediments. .. r. ion of PCBs in (resh.itnr f.sh has b*>nn of .il concern because fish are a jujor source of PCB urination in the diet of humans. Concent ra t icns in rtirn fish species high in fat content have been in imsi of the FDA tolerance level of 5 mg/kg. The occurrence of PCBe in fish differs among species, ae would be expected, due to differences in food gathering habits, behavior patterns, and In content of body fat. Even when fish samples are taken from the same environment, PCB concentrations in species with lsrge amounts of fat tissue, such as carp, catfish, lake trout, or coho and Chinook salmon, are greater than those In low-fat species, such as yellow perch, walleye, or northern pike. In a 1975 study using fish samples from Green Bay, Lake Michigan, PCB concentrations ir the edible tissues ranged from 10,0 mg/kg to 20.0 x.g/kg in lake trout, 5.1 aug/kg to 51.6 mg/kg In carp, and 1.2 mg/kg to 5.0 mg/kg In yellow perch IKleinert 19761. The lake trout and carp had a fat content in excess of 17 percent of body weight, whereas the yellow perch fat content was less than 4 percent. Large differences in concentrations of PCBs have been reported in fish taken from the Hudson River. For example, yellow perch had PCB levels of 16.0 ng/kg to 3B.0 mg/kg and ths content in goldfish ranged from 45 mg/kg to 90S mg/kg (New Tork State Department of Environmental Conservation 197B1. Elsewhere in various fresh waters of Mew York State, the PCB content of fish ranged generally from 0.2 mg/kg to 2.1 mg/kg, although a few species had as much as 14 mg/kg, FCw rvm.iciii.i*l,uiii within species Can vai / geographically. For example, coho salmon samples taxen from the Wisconsin portion of Lake Michigan had PCB levels of 0,02 mg/kq to 26.4 mg/kg IKleinert 19761, those from the New York watsrs of Lake Erie had 0.9 ~ `/kg to 5.7 mg/kq of PCSsj 1.7 mq/kq to 7.I mq/kq o' F Tt were detected in samples taken from Mew York wa**rs ' lake Ontario (New York State Department of ir-'nirnotal Conservation 1973). M from various sources indicate that rh" pc.'i s'rations for species in certain mvimr-'r'-,, h 1'1 '*i chig in , the upper reg ron of t he r 1 L - nr Riser in Vi sccn-i i n, .n-l lh- .r ' ' rr. I H' f.M lh" K.'i loc r . . I - , ; - i' r S u* > re .. n *. o he *, : * - . or  i ( PCBs from mdus:f Hi u.ist-'x in tt- j -. - nt In fish in the u|i"'r :i i s-. i xs-rpi r . . r i l, but no such trend is evident in fish Ircr m , mes (Xleinert 19761. 1 ii- I on < maximum standinq fish crop in the i uf 5 k 10* kg and a Mean PCS level of ] mg/kg. tr.~ . -i'--nt of freshwater fish in the United States is - X- 1 to be IS * >0* kg (Veith 1975, Crahaai 1976, 1 III (t al 1977 1 . It seema reasonable that the . i t of the Great Lakes biota would carry an amount - itely equal to thia, giving a high eatlmate of i 11'- kg. Other U.5. freshwater biota and aaaociated :i .cdi are negligible in comparison. i - !* i > he Oceans ' . . ,i. some data exist on samples taken from the || tii Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, moat measurements' i ii i<i, in marine waters have used samples collected In n nh Atlantic Ocean. A summary of most of the i - iii.nt.I data is presented in Table 1.17. olcrtr cut explanations of the observed spmtial and il 'ial trends remains elusive. It is especially i - r f i. i. It to explain measurements which suggest that PCS ii.ci.t, t ions in North Atlantic surface waters dropped , in tor of more than 40 between the summers of 1977 ..I i.M lHarvey et al. 1974). The data have generated i iy debates, but a satisfactory explanation of them | c > to emerge (Ouce and Duursma 1977 ). i.ic.e-cntly, it is fair to say that we have a poor . - <f i m nndinq of historical trends in marine levels of . i'i- This limitation is unfortunate because it i- -cni s accurate predictions of residence times and ' v.iai* fates of PCBs in an important environmental , -1 - i irvlew of the data presented in Table 1.17, : - - it-1 , does indicate generally higher levels of PCSs .. u.e North Atlantic than in the Pacific Ocean and the .[ i i Mexico. A ii borne pens may enter the North -< i.io II Ocean mainly between latitudes 40' and 4S*N as - a.-.. 11uence of the southwesterly winds prevailing from t in. i led states (Harvey and Steinhauer 1976b! i .nlit ions have been made on the relative importance - 1 'in several ways to distribute PCBs within the oceans 1 i - ; and Steinhaue r 19 76a I. These 1nclude: (11 iit'-i ions ol PCBs by vertical and hornontal advection , i:' ci - ::in of 7 CB s wiv d- - - i .. ' } - (if v if sr it i e t-in* i! I l` r-i : ,r l uc waters In low- and r-id 111 iljlit; a; d . "i nical degradation of PCBs in the mixed . . currently, however, no quantitative information -. r;:, the relative importance of each process, l :- id- removal ia probably the stoat important pathway ; : -ouinq PCBs from the mixed layer to bottom sediment. ; t few measurements of PCB accumulation rates have been j.blished lHarvey and Steinhauer i97ial. for purpose# of calculating the oceanic PCB load, an average concentration of 2.6 ng/l was used for estimating the amount of PCBs in the upper 200 m of the Horth Atlantic Ocean (see Tabls 1.17: surface values are 7.6 ng/l and mixed layer values are reported as 1.6 nq/1 and l.B no/11. A conservative estimate of 1 ng/l was used se the amount of PCBs in water deptha below 2C0 m (Table 1.17 Indicates reported values of 2 ng/l and 1.7 ng/l). The area of the North American Basin was taken as 10 x 10" m* with a depth of 4,200 m lHarvey and Steinhauer 1976a). Calculations using these data suggest that (forth American Basin waters contain in upper limit of 6.6 x 10* kg of PCBs. Cilculations b/ other investigators suggest a burden of 4.2 x 10* kg (Harvey and Steinhauer 1976a). However, it has been suggested that all messurer.ents of PCBs in oceans have been biased upwards by sampling contamination, and that reported measurements may be too high by at least one order of sugnitude (Bisebrough et al . )976|. Accordingly, we have adopted as a lower limit of PCB content the value of * x 10* kg. PCBs in Narine Sediment PCBs are transported to ocean waters adsorbed on suspended organic particles In river water, sewage sludge dumped alonq coastal areas also contributes to the concentration as does deposition of polluted d r -d 'polls. It is estimated that approximately 4 s 10* kg ( sewage sludge and 11 x 19* kg of dredged spoils are <! .mpod off the Atlantic and Gulf Coast annually (Cou'cil r" environmental Quality 10701. If an average PCE - -'i-n*r.ition of 400 ,g/kq wet weight is assumed ia- j : "lies 1977!, approx t n-a Ir ly 7 x 10* kg c! B ' -lie transferred to the coastal w.iiers lr- i| TABLE 1.17 PCB Concentration ot Oceanic Mater fng/1) DAt* Loc.tj.on nd Typs Sinqs 1/7) StrtqttlO S.. (iur(ieil '.9 - J.t */j > S.r.q.lio S*. - H.Y. ilulflClj 9/7) Axorss-bsrbsdos (turtles) l*7)/74 Gulf ot Mexico fourfacej 1974 rltith Co.it.1 1surt.es) *.1S - .si 9/7S (cil.nd-Nsw England iiurt.es) 1-7 9/7S South Atlantic (11* S - IS* SI iturf.esl 0.3 - i.7 197] North Cintr.l Pacific Cyr. liurt.es) * 197) , "l Cslit. currsne (turtle.) New England Continental (tueface) 0.1 - .s * H.in `l.S .1 1 1.* 0.11 4 0.9 S 0.1 R* feronce idlim.n .nd Olnsy (1974) Hsrvsy ft .1. (1974) Msrvoy t Si. (1*74) Gl* St si. U*9*| Deweofi and Riley (19771 H.rvsy and Stsinhsusr (1971.40) H.rvsy .nd Stsinhsusr (1974S40) Wllliana .nd NobSrtson (197SI Younq (199SI Hsrv.y st .1. (1974) 1 ' ?J 5/T J l/V> 9/75 1/79 9/75 v`v^rcnoist Trodee 1 -Hi t.lCOj S'orth Atlantic (surface) (lurt.c.) western boundary of Southern Calif, luqftt (surface) Cilit. cental wit.ri (lurf.ei) Atlantic North...t Tr.d.i Inix.d l.y.rl* North Atlantic Inut l.y.r) Atl.ntlc North..*t Tr.dsi (deep *atsr)c North Atlantic (drop water) l.S - s 0.1 1.0 NO* 0.39 - 0.4* 1.1 - S.9 0. - 1.7 1.9 - 1.1 0.1 * 4.1 0,7 1,4 'Limit of detection r.mqcd from 0.03 - 0.3 nq/l. *Mmcd layer ii taken ai the upper 200 motors. "Coop water is t.iben as below * dvpth ot 200 motors* l.S 0.4 1.1 l.S 1.1 1.0 1.1 iiirv*y i ( 11 tU 9*1, 1 . Hervey jdJ Uft'tatbj lssorouqh ft l! . (199*1 Aii.brouqh at il. (1*9*) ftisebrouqh ot at . um> H.rvsy and Stsinh.ucr (1996.4b) Harvey and Steinhaucr {l?fr*4b) Hirv.y and Stsinnaudr (19 961401 H.rv.y .nd Stsinhjuur (t99fii4b) , ii T i rt i',pot t f rom II - S. rivals lo t l,e urea ns 1 ........... d it ? r 10* kq IKinh** and Sarotim Hill. r it * on PCB levels in narim sediment are available j . 111.1. 1 I f lor coastal areas, estuaries, and harbors. i" mi.nirnti tn sediment deposited on the continental 'I '-s seem to be lacking. whereas most of the PCBs 1 . --ini to the open oceen remain in solution or era 1 . 1 ltd onto suspended solide, It ie likely that most t tb i tBs delivered to the coastal regions ere i' I'.iiitd in the sediment. The greeter abundance of < . I - 1. J orqanic solids in coastel waters (10S tiaies 1' din.Kint in the open oceen I plus e more rapid rate of ,1 1. 1 ion contribute to the removal of e lerger :t "i hi ion of PCBs from the water column in these erase, .i.-trioie, it is inferred but not yet proven that moat t ik. itbs deposited in siarine sediment will be found in. in (lie continental terraces. : '-nit of Mexico Because the Gulf of Mexico receives .I.miut runoff from about two-thirds of the U.S. lend ' -I. * 1 mi one-half the area of Mexico, the content of ' 1 ns in sediment of the Cult ia representative of the 1 u;if t situation for e large area of the continent 1 i < lit). PCB levels from 0.1 mg/kg to 39 pg/kg . s- 1..und in sediment sampled In coastal areas of Texes "i'>: 1' iiisiana (U.S. EPA 11711. In Escambia Say, 1 I '. 'ii. where sediment has been sampled since 11(1, it i :s leu established that an industrial outfall is 1 . i[ m.s 1 ble for part of the PCB contamination in that Sediment sampled nssr ths outfall reached a PCB >1 ! iit Ilf mg/kg in MH, but the contamination li i 'K to have decreased since then (Table 1. It and I 1 gun 1.1). .niih Atlantic Ocean In a preliminary survey in lilt in St. Margaret's Bay, Nova Scotia, investigators re uiidble to detect any PCB residues (limit of 1 in ion 1 eg/kg) in sediment samples taken from water nf 5 m to 20 m and (0 m to 75 m (Hargrave and II iliips 1)15). In surface sediment oft Long Island and id Jl.tey, PCB levels were found at 10 pg/kg and SO , |. respectively (West and Hatcher, Atlantic fin ijiaphic Research Laboratory, NOAA, personal ' ii,i.u. 11 at ion, If 7*1. In a dump site in the inigiiensen Basin, at the head of Hudson Shelf Valley 1 1 i1 'W; (0'17'H, ESE of harbor light entrance to the id V'. 1 . Harbor I , one core sample revealed 2,000 |i(|/ki| ' ; 'tJ Sediment M(r At r .I r 1 "-/ico ' 1 1 1 1 .if 0? s i-fi 1 *.<) j1 J97 i- m J-75 I'WJ-T* 1971-75 of Sul ion* 44 74 It 14 nr;/ij 54 0 74.0 0, I 1.0 0.4 souncci Taken (roa Glm* at al. U*7f) . TABLE 1.19 Residues of Aroclor 12^4 in Sediment Sample* from EBcambia Bay and River (mg/kq> (Sea Figure 1.1 for Station Locations) lac him 1 1 * t 12 1) 14 15 If 17 IS If 20 21 22 11 Depth 0 5 cr5 e 10 c10 - 15 CM 15 ~ 20 CM * 5 cm 5 - 10 c-- 10 15 c* 15 - 10 CM 70 25 CM 75 - )0 CM 0 - 5 es* 5 - 10 CM 10 - 15 cm 15 - 20 cm l*ts 1*7 ( l*tl NO 1. 1 1.4 10.1 4. 2 2. I 4.5 0.4 2.5 1.4 71.1 J0.0 4.1 0.4 10.0 11. 15.0 20.0 JO.a 1. 2 0. 15 0.00 0.42 MO 0.1 0. 17 NO NO 0.91 NO MD NO NO ND 0.14 NO NO NO 0 97 S0 -- -- on NO ND .-_-. -- -- .- . -- 111 4 out (Irt.'Cfn!. ' k - : i in u. s, I TA ( I * . i < | i in ml lijMlNalllinilfHI Ui.I'M I) l umbu (ay wincing: hiiwm I I 1 111 iik upper 4 cm and 4 00 xg/kg in t lone 4 cm to 2) cm iti w i he sediment surface. in coastal sediments off u iw.i otia. New Brunswick and in the Northumberland `..it, PCBs were near or below the detection limit of S r Leonard 19/71. However, in a 19/* survey of four ' I harbors in the Atlantic Provinces of Canada, . of pCBs ranged from 10 xg/kg to 2,900 eg/kg i , ii. . ' 17 ! . I -. m. [; i : . : V ` f r i l-i, nc r'"F:.i-r? (r, .. i-i V - : , . - * o'. r.` t r Baffin Biy a -.arcr dey*. r.a ' - '. .. . . n, Lar.ca star Sound at depths of SI' r t97'. .-, '- r smth Sound at ill m f Pock 1 inqt-un, B*'-tfmd t : tuts, Halifax, nova Scotia, personal c-rvur i ca i on , il/9 I . pacific Ocean The coastal waters of southern California have been extensively sampled for evidence of PCB residues. Osted sediment from the Santa t&rhara Basin indicate that deposition of PCBs began about 1949 (li.-i at al. 1974). Through 1942, the levels of PCBs detected were increasing continuously ITable 1.101. Order anaerobic condition* burrowing orgsnisn activity is negligible so that PCBs can remain undisturbed .n sediment for at least 10 years. Oaspite major decreases in PCS emissions o ,-er a 1 year period by a dominant discharger to a coastal mini' site In Los Angeles, California, only minor d^creams in PCB levels were observed in the bottom sediment l/nury t el. 19771 . In arc-id near the outfall, levels varied froe 7 mg/kg in the top 9> cm in .972 to about 4 m/i") in 1979. In areas 12 kai from the o.tfall, the corresponding values were 0.9 mg/kg in both 1972 ad 1979. Sediment samples taken off the Peruvian Coast at depths of 910 m and 919 m did not have detectable P.J residues; the limit of detection was 9 xl/k? fPockl ington, Bedford Institute, Halifax, Neva Scotia, personal communication, 197*). That PCBa can be transported to con*iderab:e water depths is indicated by their presence in the TABLE 1.20 PCS Levels in Dated Sediments from th Santa Barbara Basin (wgA9f dry weight) 1140 - It4' r4 3 a. 14)2 1 ` a - s*40 . 1 . _ * 194 1 U 49 44 100 * rt r. ! H w i r py tT'il if Jl i '. t kill * .( * ; ; < ! 1 f ` l I I, (( r> . W , P -4 Pi t-r . * , , .* - . * .. i -i i ; h . - : j . - it 11 * - J f .' >2 ; >1-. i...cers.il fish. Ant innrc rcUrili, a porrdnr^t i -............ of the lower continental slope in Pacific - I - I H t sebrough et el. 1)111. These tish suia slc-1. I i e bottom, crop benthic epifiuni, end root in the for infauna. The PCI rilidots found in tissue ! ' taken from these fish ere believed to originate i , , -j- i Me sed inert . < . .`i < h See Sediment from the central North Sea and if1, n iiegian Depression has bean sampled (Edar 1)1*1 at depths of abcut SO and ISO m, respectively. In i liter 20 cm of the sedietent, PCS levels averaged 20 .. , >'i in the North Sea; in the anaerobic sediment of the t -iw'iiin Depress ion. levels of SC ng/kg were noted ' i l.- i.2i|. The sampling sitas in the North Sea ara . , . ' .tiitly remote from any point sources of direct , It'ion suggesting that atmospheric transport of PCS mii iini must have been the source. It also was i i i.i Med that the percentage of less chlorinated PCBs . ..! I.'ther in the anaerobic sediment of the Norwegian i'|i(i i,sion than in tha well-aerated sand sites in the ..Mi; :ei. If the ratios of high to low chlorine were identical for both areaa at the t^me of iipmiion, this observation would suggest that i., i iicil degradation may have occurred in the sand i 1)1 f 1.21 PCB Concentrations in the Central North .a mil Norwegian Depression `i.t|.e I t it j Jf I <. 1 ^ ( -d* .1 |. T li bf|)W t m I l J5* JO'M 04* 10 * II tvio** e n* 111 01^10'C 410 IV 57*44*11 orivc 501 m ^ai>-f\t f|p Homo^b^vu* gilty (rt# #A(| fin# to nedrn# lint) U*y #nd Jilt Vi icoui c)*y *ml skit i6 i l.r#nV t - i j*.i ii spr<jt. ^3/^3 drjL_*f_Ji l 14 0, ...t 1* m 4 n ^M I4.0`M VO Wl.l /1.0: 11.4 40 111*4 1 10 1*4-1 ` d'Prj fteprintcd Jwilh w>di I irt <on|> with p*r"HIIOA (ion 1 !.*. 1 |.rp 1 : li>l - I 04 . (del . C . Bf and Ci2yOkifTd Oi thf DOT "I, k sed'iM-mt il ih* (pntril r.urlh Sr* and lh* (orwcmin i- * 1 >ii y<i|, Copy r i #ht | l 0 14 | , Priq jmn f*r e_* , t.t d. *iys ;c.iS factors related to sol\:t:l it,- a-. 2 . - ' >y be irpoit.int also and could rcsii- ;fca ; - it * rc.v sed.vert. - filtiC_Sea from 1TT2 through 19)1, sedixent taken various areas and depths in the Baltic Sea was .-.pied and analyzed for PCB residues loden and Ekttedt 19)*. Only turfaca sediments were studied (0 to 2 or | In the northern part of the Baltic Ses, the Pcb content was fairly low (about 20 1.9/kg) and without large geographicel variation (Figure (.41. Similarly low 1 *) I < IT H : . 1.11 nr Uls,r.. 1, ,, J.n. . ,,,,riL . , (> v hi-.; b*-.'n o^S'T.cd in f >r I i-r Ft : 1: v s llr.lrc r >. i'f4l. Th** h l<lh coo ' miriilion I jl-- j'. VIC v ; > : ) I 'I in the central and southern portions was rro'*t il l il ly the result of waste disposal practices. tte marine sediment data presented in the above i i'tlonj were used to estimate the quantity of PCD* t -i ll in coastal areas of the United States. He have . iied that most PCB* ara accumulated in sediment - J ' .Ji JO km from the coast (within 2 km on the Pacific i I- i-.t). Tha pcB burdenm lndicatad in Tabla 1.22 were i 11' .lated for the upper 5 cm of the sediment layer. 1'ih-. in Marine Biota I'l-i mass of marine biota over the eastern continental 'It of north America is taken to be 10 percent of the j s, i .* 1 marine biota, or about l.S a 10'* kg (National , Hi- . inch Council 1077). Using a concentration of 0.2 i"l 1-1 iRisebrouqh et ai. 1972, Graham 1976), a plausible nn-.i ibound estimate of PCBs in North Atlantic marina i nil j i a 3 10* kq. ii m.ival from the Hydrosphere i > i lie course of deteraininq the mass distribution of l'i !)o in the Lake Michigan ecosystem, transport hi. 1.22 Estimated PCB Levels in U.S. Coastal t'il invents 1 *< 1 t 1C COHt M iknUC C04t i ol i >i Hra ico Scdiant Vol u*e ikm't la 10 fCB Concent rat ion low bi^h Jliaount of rca Ii 10 * 9) low high 10 SO 24 110 10 40 5*0 3400 S lb TO 90 Total 4 H Hll '`ill th* followin'} mnf *ce n*<Je - the <ic4ipnt h*t i <> . i dentitf of l. Th* Klls *rp stored m ihp up^r b cm i). irttikfnt Ijycr within a doMncc > t 10 hn f roA the -1 t - i i t.e I o i Atlantic and Gut I o| nriicii and I (i- t i > < Coa* ( . 1t>r th* . . .: : mi i t*t .i itm. li;H' m n sn t s ( lite : q 7 7 1 . A frirtionstion of t h- rC9 . .r 1 he waver indic.iied that nearly tO percent . i je.t.vted with heavy particles. The mean settlin') ; r vis estimated to be O.Zi * 10 q/m* /r . Dated *i fimnt samples from the Santa Barbara Basin in California, showed that deposition of PCBs began about 1919 (Horn et el. 1974). The rate of deposition in this study was calculated to be 1.2 a 10* q/m'-yr. Pea deposition rates in sediment from the northwestern Mediterranean reqion had been estiaiatad also (Elder and rowler 1977). These calculation* were based on Pea contents in a series of core* taken at a water depth of about 4011 m. The values ranged from 0.B > 10* q/m' /r to 1.2 X 10* q/m'-yr over a period of IS to 20 years. Fecal pellats from Cupausiids wera found to contain PCB rst 1 **'-" r ir. the r -- r.,c r* .. -- - -- 3-,-.. m * j - * / weight, and it was suggested that sinking lonplank.ion fecal pellets could have contributed to deposition cf PCB Compounds in deep ocean sediment. Tha results of these studies arc in remarkably close agreement, considering the different techniques employed. The findings suggest that PCB deposition rates ara similar in both takes and marine coastal areaa. Based on these data, a mean deposition rate of 1.0 x 10* q/m'-yr is proposed. Bate of Beiease of PCP| Several studies indicate that PCBs may be released from the site of deposition in the sedlment by biotic or abiotic processes. After such release, PCBs can be Incorporated in the food web o.reintroduced into the water column (Vetth and Cotstock I97t, Tcung c; : 1. 2977, Courtney ai,J Langston-.! 17 73 , Olsaon et al. I97B, Sodergren and Larssom 1979, and Melniqer I97B). However, the results reported are only qualitative and do not provide estimates of the quantity being released. 11THCSPHERIC COHrAIJTKtNT Tho estimated distribution and amount of PCBs in the llthosphere are lumuriicd in Table 1.2). Tho data used to derive the estimates are d;scussed in the lol lo.in-| subsections. The uncertainty involved in ittinj *, in i tu estimate the distribution and amount of PCBs it (he 5h ` 21 tst iTVJ ted PCti Lovr!v in the L i tii'isf-Se re i 1 ., Wile ,l .k 1 oeeva* i9< 1 . IS - lo" 4 IS I.1* IS IS* . IS IS** 1. l*** ret t*- (ou Oil u hi Ih J * IS ' > 10'1 I B is . . IS 1 } B IS-7 S a IS'1 2 m 14'* IS 1 IS I4_l Tot*k Ar-TOtfAl or rf ' ki lo** Vi 19*1 t . * A ) 1. IP' 1 . I A is' M li4 l . ) It1 l. ] H i.i A 141 1.1 W|) t,1 - 10* B is' .t A 14* i.t A |al '>i be noted, particulsrly In the two largest H-i.t.ints, toil end plant*. 1-. noil itlt n loriution it available on the concentration of i i >. -nil. Thete compound* generally are not <iti>i le in agricultural soil. Although many "hot . s' with high PCB level* eaut in aoma Industrie 11 led iiiui.i, the estimated average soil concentration for i i i i 'ii(an areas in the United States is about 0,442 , 'i I'aiey and Coven Hit). [n Japan, the average ,i h i ut ion is 4.44 mg/kg (fu)iwiri 147S). 1.1,l ira* the pattern of PCB pollution in lakes j , * a, a to be controlled by atmospheric fallout, results o nationwide network of sampling stations indicate i > fib concentrations in stream sediment are the ,,it ,r accimulat ion downstream from known point "-I,,* of PCB discharge or from industrialized urban ii'iu I TOPET-U.S. EPA Water Quality Analysis Branch, . , t . i ng and Data Support Division). The contrast in t, , i,s suggest* that PCBs in rainfall make negligible ,.i nations to sediment in streams. A possible ,<ion for this is that the primary source of water in mi. an flow is water that seeps out of the ground i t,* I 1 as the base flow ot streams!. Only rural I,,Cutions to streams come via rain that falls on the ' i , Ml the channel. [Appendix A, Table A.l, shows i i lip aggregate surface area of streams is only one ......... - that of lakes and large reservoirs I The .. i .......i lack of PCBs from groundwater discharge is : - - > r. I - : ; c . i ". . r - ;- , ' i` r. : i . : I ble 1 CS i' j iron i nr. ! ! i i; ;a ,'nd :>`.ry 1171, Het mg e t a 1 . I 77 8 I . 3 ;*_ i : i : . ; i;e widely dispersed in rainfall yet virtual)/ `r;i ground water, one aust conclude that PCBs are accumulating in the soil and near-surface sedim-ot underlying the soil. As already noted, data are scarce, therefore it appears to be important to monitor PCB levels In soil to find out how much enters fron rainfall end whet their fate is after entering. The cosipertmentel biomass and estimated PCB conceatrat ions are presented in Table 1.2 3. Using these values plus a land area of 9 * 14* km*, soil depth of 1 cm and soil density of l .i g/cn>, the range of PC9 burden wee calculated as 2-74 14 kg to 2.7 x 10' kg. An average PCB concentration in vegetation has been reported only for remote areas of Germany 100? eg,kg, from Klein end Meisgerber 19761. The high ar.d low estimates in Table 1.2) were based on ranges given in the German study and represent mg/kg fresh weight. Toe biomass for plants was estimated in retailor to livestock biomass 16.IS x 10" kg, from Robinson 1975). and the PCB burden was calculated ea 1.) < 10* kg to 2.5 10* kg. Hi Idlife Host of the ilwte on PCB twcenirations found in birds deal with predators. The level in tissue sample* generally depends on ths type of diet for each species studied. Avian specie* feeding mini/ on ,r , , ( birds end rarcals have PCB concentrat icas in li [ samples that rang.; from r.ondetectable to 50 r g/k-j fr* sn weight; those fending r*n fish have concent r ' i on i ranging from nundetectabie to 400 mg/kg fre*.s i-.. . (Prestt et ol . 1470 1. The if.la indicate Lhit li r concentrations are appro-ina le 1 y 1 . 5 to 2 ` r*s t,, concentrations found in whole body s triples. Has id. i m birds that feed on worms and n.are co'.si f r i*: , lower compared to the above 'lines STB tissue >-if of 0.55 mg/kg fresh weight have been ref n ti`l (,.r tirlmgs fSoderyron and ulfstiand 15721, .ml 0 I n;,i; `.5 , i, ii .j kq Iresfi weight repotted (or robins iw*iite t r mi levels in tissue of herbivorous birds , i ,-- 0.7 mg/kg (resh vciijht Icalculited for mourning . t . 1 i e 11 zer 19M I . i information is tvoilibl* on PC> levels in . ) i-iimiIs. nice in Iceland contained tissue levels I t q/kq fresh weight IBengtsson and Sodergren - i . i ) lipid samples from loses end polar bears In . hi an i t ontained 2.0 mq/kg and 21 mq/kq of PCBe, , * . i iwIy (Clausen and Berg 1(751. i o if' el* in wildlife were investiqated durinq an : . ... Mivt study of the Hudson River. Huscle and liver ; . ; ii '. (rum anappinq turtias in the Hudson Estuary had i ri.ii iiioni ranqinq from 0.05 pg/kg to 174 pg/kg ; , i,ini el al. 1(711 . Samples of liver tissue of 4 . :1 nrnmals indicated PCS ranqes of nondetectabla ' . , t /i. ,, i/kq in raccoons, 0.10 eq/kq to 0.40 pq/kq in . > *, i o.(4 pq/kq to 1,70 pq/kq in otters CNew York I.- (.apartment of Environmental Conservation 1470). H in difficult to derive an averaqe PCS . ni.ii.li jos for wildlife. For the purpose of Table , i, luu and hiqh PCS concsntrat ions are estimated as i i j and 0.4 mq/kq frsah weight, and the bioeiase v . i I, was estimated in relation to livestock biomaes i . 10* kq, Robinson 15751. The ranqe for PCH . I tel . r. wildlife la calculated to be 1.1 I 10' kq to l i 101 kq. J r :> t k : mi .../ ICBs in livestock may be derived from dste on i .i r,., f.itrttion in meat. In Japan, averaqa . . i, i i .i t ions In wet weiqht are 0.02 mq/kq in beef, : .i kq In pork, 0.004 mq/kq in mutton, and 0.04 ii- , - , n> chicken (Tujiuara 14751. Because similar k ..nes hrvi been reported from other countries, a f . .... , .i r,i ion ranqe of 0.002 mq/kq to 0.1 mq/kq was used ' I . i.it.ir 1.2). The bioarass was eetiaiated usinq USDA .1,l . Jisl Statistics 117J jnd 1574 for the number and ( init weiqht of livestock on U.S. farms. Ths l . ,. ,i. I burden for this compartment ranqes from 1.1 n " ! , k,| to 4.) s 1C* kq- . L. I- ( T '71 _i n liu~ ms tr,"cls o( PCBs in human adipose tissue ha e t"pr .f| 1 documented. A summary of the data is preser.nd ,n Table 1,24. In those cases ;n which the oriqinal data were not presented in aq/kq of lipid, the values were recalculated assuming that adipose tissue contains 76 percent lipid. The concentrations detected in adipose tissue can be converted into whole body levels, assuminq that lipid constitutas 10 percent of body weight. Accordingly, a PCH concentration of 0.)5 mq/kq body weight has been suggested. A population site of 2 * 10* with an average weiqht of 70 kg per person was used for calculating biomass (1.4 * 10" kgl in Tabla 1.2). The PCH burden associated with husiana it 4.4 x 10* kq. Lithosphere and Atmosphere Volatilisation rates for PCBs appear to depend cn experimental conditions. A loss of 40 to 50 percent w*s obesrved for Arodlor 1254 in either dry or wet sc-vl. at 24*C over a period of 4 weeks. In contrast, loss of Aroclor 1254 from a soil containing ).l percent organic TABLE 1.24 PCBs In Human Adipose Tissue Country Pet* Co.icc^luUon |a?/kqf C*2ft**{h* Host J AultiU* U.H,! Norv-iyl Ctritfla* C4t Ccraany* Iftmel* JuAUnd* !>. 5.A. * V0 4.7 l.f 44 1,* 0.0 |,| 4.4 ).4 0.9 1.3 SOUPCC ,Modif ied (ton 9caul *ir(fl 94 r Ioij <19141 . *l9Ddi fiad fro* I19JSI. Modified (fc Acker <jn1 Sthulte II97U . `nodtfied (rO* ni`i i t ol 11 9 * 11 . Will ltd fro* M.mrinjnfi m r| UtMl *N-dtf 1*1 frr> Solly jnJ 1 19 >41 f ied tftm |uti *nd Slf I J *> 7 * >  : . t . r " :ardc-| -IS n*;ql PCI'S In ot h" r toils h . - *- r rn-mic content f-.ry undergo some .i ihntjqn. when 1 lo*-ince is made for differences ... .,' ii'fniil conditions, the rate of vaporisation of 1 i l.'SI from sand appears to be of the Same order i i it -.le as the volati 1 isstion loss of Aroclor 1284 i it:,rlf which is 2.0 10* g/em'-day et 26*C (Hague I- .i , t.ll, If a linear relationship is assumed , i ,, i hi concentration in the top 1 cm of soil snd . i <ie nf vaporiistion, the expected vaporisation rate i. <,pical sandy soil concentration of 2 eg/kg i ... , and Gowen 1*76) would be 4 pg/m*-dy, or on the .. cider a* the atmospheric deposition rats in the - i lairs ares iHurphy and Bsessetko 1*77). i ll*, i r suits indicata that PCBs deposited by i . . j ii?i ic fallout onto sand, and presumably other : , i-|.i ue materials I such as rock or concrete), will not . .. Vat'? but will reenter the atmosphere vis l.tilirition at a rapid rate I 2. pg/cm*'day). PCBs . , . I - -1 onto high-organic soils will resnter the ....... ,',!? at a slower rate. However, the low i.t i ions observed in soils ICarey snd Gowen 1*76) iii...: -nth the estimated rate of dapoaition (Table i l initiate that the residence time would be On the , i .,( line month or less. it: 11. organic soils in the Unltsd States are . ,i . .It, covered--at least partial 1 y--with vegetation, i i- . and grasses may be efficient collector# of thoee a jciated with cither particulate matter or iiH iiat ion fallout, and the vegetation probably would i i emir release PCBs via volatilization; this . .n*i r 11 n is supported by data from a study in Haw i .> i-i u levals were measured in or on foliage samples , a?, control sitss, upwind of facilities that i i..*-,|y used PCBs. Ranges of 0.2 pg/kg to 0.B pg/kg i. , , it#d (Lei* and Hetry 1*781. PCBS would be ..ii .ii ,.i*ii to the upper soil layer through leaf litter i. i :*i|..il it ion processes, but the average concentration , could be diluted by the additional presence of , i-.i t ininated plant materials. I" Us deposited on aqricultura) lands may never . . il.iie in the top layer of soil if the food crop is . i. i-i .i total ty. Lands supporting row crops, grains, i .,u.ti similar plants are typically turned under I,, so that the PCBs are spread throughout a greater i, i 1 ii i i..Mi the i cm mentioned above. Crop foliage and 61 ; re growth typically ire renewed and used as food or ; lirg for livestock. Until more experiments are conduct-<3 studying processes of transfer between the atmosphere and the lithosphere, many questions regarding the net flux between these major environmental compartments cannot be answered. DISTRIBUTION MODEL TOR PCBs FROH DOMESTIC SOURCES This section of the report uses estimates of domestic PCS usage from 1*10 to 1*77 to derive a Mobile Environmental Reservoir IKCRI. The HER is defined as that portion of PCRa axisting in a form that can be including amounts detected in a;r, water, sediment, upper levels of soil, and biota trophic levels. Material in landfills is specifically excluded as "CDs within theca cites are considered generally to be immobile - The composition of the HER derived from data or domestic production and unt, is categorized by chlorine content of the biphenyl molecule. These categories are described below in descending order of biodegtadabi1ity: Category Ii Category lit Category 111 PCBs containing One to three chlorine atom* per molecule (mo-io-, di , ;ti isomers). PCBs containing four chlorine atens per molecule ttatra-isomers). rC3* Containing I, / or more chlorine atoms per molecule Ipenta- throe ih decs-1 corners). Maqnitude and Composition of the HER Data on PCB production and sains, including .nforni* . or on domestic sales by category of uoe ,vl Aroclor designation, were ouuimO for the period 1*)*_7 m i i; (Ourfee St al- 1*76|. Using these da** and known distributions of chlorine atoms per mclrcule (cr *> Aroclor I Hut linger et a). 1974 1 the y*ar!y dr-esti `lies can be calculate! for each of ttirn* cat .*gcr i - a * cr the specified period hi i (able data wre extended to cover tht entire j r.j 197? by deriving best-fit enptrical tun. ftOffi Categories I* II end III ot PCBi u*d in m tcel equipment (doted tyterns) and -il applications (open-end end nosinelly i The resulting equations era; t (ectricol pplicitiw (utU era M/yr) ;i r/ 1 Usage* >2.4 x ie*a*-MH u . t itioi , iy I & Ueaga 1.14 It 0 tt Itlll iy 111 Usage * 2.24 iai,a.i2t |t . q ti i*iti `in order to titibllih Ml* bJM l*.*. (tart jf production), subtract I It* by. 1 nonelectric*) Applies'iwu lln/nl ,i.<r I Usaqe i-'k I) Usage i-1 r It) Hi*** 2.l x isj* O.HJt It . ,t lyyoi 1.21 10'* t.ISJt it . 0 at i***) ).)) io's 0.10*1 It . *t ItJO) in these equations, tine It) i* Matured in years i, i '.e initial d*tes of production It " 0) aa tii.l for each equation, nonelectrical applIcationa i ,ut significant around IfSO and corralataa . i .1* !,.icely with comcrcial isat ion of Aroclor 1211. i i r 1 v M , tale* for nonelectrical applications iii i < .i-1 y became tero. n.i,i)*| described above results in a total . . . i ,r.: I..: use of PCOs f roe domestic sources through i i.i tie 10* kg, 7 percent higher than the value of - > x in* g previously estimated IDurfee at al. 107*1. I ...i ji i ion percentages, extended through 1*77 for . .. n ot the three PC* categories, are: Category 1: 3# percent Category it: 23 percent , Category III: 3* percent - I\,,. assumed loss factors for production and use of . i i ti.xvnarited in Table 1. 25 are based on engineering : , i applied to the available information (Ourfee at i .l i i i i. The factors are assumed to apply to all i' .< t as noted, through the cessation of domestic , | > i.i. _ on in 1*77. u ir i . 71 'summarizes the cumulative losses to the i I. .i .lated by applying loss factors from Table I.IS t... i . uluction use model above, for category I I.I..I , v losses in electrical use, the basic equation I 'i.ifLE 1.25 Assumed Lobs factors for Piodhr t ion *v ! .snqc of PCBs (19)0- 1977) f UftCt LOA PciMiy Production Tr*nport/H*ndL109 Icictot of 0vcc*ll Vo%% Factor 2* 0.5* Pricin', of fIdC$ ion Inter *iq t ?. SO loo rust Tier Usage 2* so In-Servica Clsctdcai (g.lpmant 0 1 or MtnL l<i , MtvKi ptr year ItottiliL in HonJictncl Applicet Ions 10 of Mttfirl in service per y*rd 100 100 applicable to total Smut ic production. applicable to material used tn each of two general applications electrical and nonelectcicaii. cUae(ul service life of *0 year*. useful service life af I years. without tero correction was used, and the result corrected by subtracting 0.2 10' kg. A similar zero correction, by subtracting 0.0* 10* kg, is required for Category 11 losses from electrical service. These corrections sre required because of the extrapolations made for the period from 1*10 to 1**7; however, the factor* are small whan compared to the total cumulative amounts in the HEX for each category. The results in Table 1.2C indicate that, as of 1977, a total of zbv.l C.l' a )0' kg of rCai had entered the HEX. The amounts by PC* category were: Amouate La W fcq) Category I: Category II: Category 111: J.)2 1. S J 3.30 The estimate of 8.25 x 10' kg is diri'tl/ "viubl* with the 1*72 estimate ol 8.2 x 10` ii iriir-b - and Sarofim 1*721, as well as the valie d'-riir: ,n .<,), fo al 1 PC*s ava 11 able to r t p b:oia l ign .r i *vj .i i r- i I r^-.scsl of 7.8 x 10' kg irurt". d al 1 f, r, | "I ' .TOdnl suggest s that the ruiwl-it . .r j-i- . ot 1 n 1 t i, J ( r t i L4i O O d Pf k/l r- r v r O t- O...O....O.....Q.....^. P pv o 4 4J C CO "4 c *u* oc M (Pii > c* UM "v HC o J3 h *s II 0. o *J u c H o k: u c ou c no u X Mir r~ r~ 9,->e d o m 4 * U X *J 0 M m 3* Vft. 3S V. o > H *J U 8-8 8M-8 u>e o O' *1 H rts8rt<-irp 4 u o...o....o....o.....r..t.Lhr tom 8-4 u>. o O' 42 innoh HoHHrfP 4 <J a...a....o....o.....h..Ph 8-8 >. u o O' 42 on *> f** Hv H4 Ukn a . P .1 * o oooorth if U O' * 4J U DQ H U u o. M vp r r~ (T> m c o,*4 c 0s 42 o c-8 WaUi -d 3 -* o t> qr~* c0 c4 u aa. Is* 4-12 \x *(Ml. < CJ C 4 3 O ** -- 4 .D o J w u X c Ob 8* 4 u t *u+ o CL 42 d 42 b -4 H (J 42 >* 0 !* > i* a k* a 4 M 42 ul E C 4 ui t oc b k H4 c o a. ft. 3S Z ero-corrected te x t). in Ui* ncbil* en. ironr*nl as of 1*172 tr.j ! *) J 5 *<::c a isr. l f leant ly lens than previously fs`.iri`td Removal of PCJj fro the Mf.P The mjor identified process for removal of PCEs ircn the HER las defined above) is land disposal of seja*;* sludge. tisinf the estimate of 2.4 a 10* kg/yr of PCBs in sewage sludge (see the subsection on 'industrial and Municipal Effluents* above I, and applying this vake over a 28-yesr period, it is estimated that about a. 8 k 10* kg of PCDs have been resoved from the HER via sewage treetatent and aubseguent sludge disposal. SUM4ART COMPARISON OF IHVENTORY The environmental inventory is sumisariied in Table I.7T. The total estimated range of dnrestica11y derived prBs in or rewved fioai the environment is between 1.3 / in' kg and 8.4 s 10' kg. These valuer, con pare favorably to the estimated HER of 8.25 * 10' kg. The major portion of the env> tonsienta 11 y a/a.latle PCRa is contained in marine waters, accounting ! .r 50 to 00 percent of the total inventory. The total arount cf PCRs in the north American Basin is estimated to t- 0.6 M 10' kg to t.t m 10' kg. In comparison to these values, water concentrations from the Pacific Scaur and Culf of Mexico ettnbutable to domestical ly pr.: r-M PC0s can be considered negligible. It should t- ncted that the values in Table 1.77 are based cr ru-as-;eter . s referring mainly to PCBa in Category III and that the high estimate is greeter than the estimate of environmental releases of Category 111 materials. it is possible that some of the oceanic PCBs original-' Iron European as well as Horth American sources. :r ; compartment appears to be a dominant re-er-mr ' p e; even if the oceanic Inventory is high by a t i- "ir nr two. The rate at which PCOs will eventual), r- vh i tnj perhaps becoma bour.-l to I deep ocean sells- ni , n r. cannot be estimated on the basis of current krn-Sedf-. The close agreement between env , ronn -> a I `Ms-ire.Tents and tlie results of the modal uhtnr-l in t : analysis should not be interpreted a; an iilu t n,n 1 ' -' hiv-f'-gr-iiat ion and other p r o-e, i e s cf de-.-r. ri-.n ' . !*r -!n r n occur in tie env l ; nnm-nt . <J i c- , r > | n i. n be i i . 1 Summary of Environmental Inventory of i v r i ved PCBs Lit * U9I .. Low Hi^h i. * 10* *<** i. rr SdlMnt h Wi(f|| I I * 10* I I I 10* l.i . 10* I.1 a lo4 J.l a 104 1.* a lo4 i. Ha * k LOU .: I C `j I I Lnt I i 1 10* J. a 04 i.J * 104 . tail r 1.0 II 10* . .' H IOL4 if l Al)f 1.0 a 104 _____________ 4.1 a 10* - i 111 lO1 1.4 107 -II 4 ,* of Totftl * mi', wjicit 101 7* ; one en imte ws 4c it pieced between the low - jiuMiSj only two significant digits ere need for the ><* > _ t A/d totals. ' > h> in this crtiMtt My be derived from European sources - it the ultiMtc fete of the PCBs now in the HEM. if ,.its( however# do indicate that biodegradation wj*ei processes resulting in chemical alteration of n: Jrculttl has not dcst.ro/ed a major fraction of . i ..rental PCBs at this tise. urmi JDATJONS H,-r,>u$e the North Atlantic Ocean appears to be i,i( t'niie sink, futther studies are needed to <-ih.Lr<:r PCB concentrations and distribution in the ti.t ciiv ironaent , ! At though modeling was useful in assessing large , 1 distribution and fate of tome substances, more i ' * data bases are needed to develop transport i i. m environmental pollutants. For example. : jrihur research is to <iet;r .. rr-- tr^7' ;r ** transfer between the environmental co~; 3. EPA should continue to develop butler techniques* particularly those enablin') al-?ssrer- of the extent of PCB fractionation. Because ol con' ir-jinq analytical problems it is dilficjit to determine "h* extent of ecosystem contamination. Tor aquatic 5(i'rri( the most effective indicator of both the degree of ,JtB pollution and the potential hazards to humans and wildlife is the PCB content of fish. To effectively u;e this indicator, factors such as age, species, and nutritional habits of fish must be considered. Detailed information on the individual PCB isomers should also be reported together with the specific Aroclor destination. 4. Freshwater sediments are important continental r* 'K? for f*C?t 3*.? 1' *1 ;'-r lu^ -- - n. - ~ monitoring programs and studies of PCB cycling f r on sediment through human food chains. REFERENCES Acker, L. and E. Schulte <19741 Chiorkohl^n'nasse r stol fe is Henschlichen fett, Naturwi&senschaften Cl 12. Muned, H. and 0.0. Focht I 14T]I 0e7rad.it ion cf fCCs by two species of Achromobacter. Can. J. iicrobiol. I9;47~S2. Bengtsson, S.A. and A, Sodergren <1974 ) DOT and ?(8 m airborne fallout and animals in Iceland. Arbio J<31414'B6. Berg# A,R and It.S. Peoples <1977) Oistnbiticn o! tIBs in a v'istewater trc::trvnt pUi'. And environs. Sci. Total Environ. D;I17-2C1 . Bidlesian, T.F. and C.C. Olncy <197; I Chlorinat'd hydrocarbons in the Saragasso Sea atn-^phcre and surface water. Science ll):`l* hi?. B idleman, T. F. , C. P. Rice# and C. E. 'Jln^y '!<*?' * l gh molecular weight chlorinated h.dfC'-.irh t ; ir. 17* 1 , r and sea: Hite4# and rr^han 1 f?m*# vf l u - f'-r. Pages Narine follut-in* lr n*,f^r. I lj H.L. Wmdom and n.A On':*', Lor mgr * "r/-. : f C. Heath and Company. C-ircy A ,E . ar.d J . A . c W4 n ( t rj 7 6 I PC*is ir " . ,j r # I and urtan soil. Puges |9Br Pr^cec dr. j s <: N'lticnal Conference on Poiychlor ir.i4'd r . f * . I-,. November 19 21, I 7s , ( h 1 rago, I I I 1 ro 1 s . r | jt : ' i nt'vt- Ji-004 . liashl n )tmi . n.C. : I'.S. I I. ir-icntal Fro'cctl'^ iVjcn' . , * . C . . Centos, R I.. Durlce, V.C. Fong. And I ,, 'll K*y [I 11977 1 Involvement ol PtDs in the Pulp i. 1 `i*f Industry. Office ol Tone Substances. Task Report No. EFA 540/4-77-005, Contract No. i. ti t IT5T, Washington, O.C.: U.S. Environmental I t.i lion Agency. - , n and L.C. burdock (1972 1 Cheater River Study: v >. nit Investigation by the State of Maryland i . i Ailment of Natural Resources and Mestinghouse i in uic Corporation. Vol, I. Annapolis, Md.; :.i<)house electric Oceanic Division. i n i, and O. Rerg (1*751 The content of i nl j i 1.1 nr mated hydrocarbons in Artie ecosystems. Ii.tr Afipl . Chen. 42: 227. i I Environmental Quality (1*701 Environmental ,, . 1 11y . The First Annual Report. Washington, D.C.i u . i.over nment Printing Office. Iin-y. w.A.M. and N.J. Langstons 11*71) Uptske of PCI iAi .lor 1254 ) from sediment and from sea water in i u, iitertidal polychaeles- Environ. Pollut, 15:)U- 107. 1' I.i.ntr, N.J., H.R. Felts, and M.L. rates (1*71) A 1 i ly of the distribution of polychlorinatsd j. i, | `- .y)s in the aguetic environment. J. Res. USGS l l 0 1-407 . I. and J.P. Riley 1 1977) Chlorine-containing . u tilts and polychlorinated biphenyls in Rritish i ...tvl.il watars. Estuarine Coestal Mar. Sci. 5:55-4*. tf.e. B:W,, R.M. Risebrough, A M. Springer, T.T. ^t i.I, nit, J.C. Sharopshire, E.F. Letterman, end J.R. r.t, .I In press) Sampling and measursment of it, i.ivirbom in natural waters, proceedings of lmi 11nations1 Symposium on Analysis of Hydrocarbons. r ; . ) by R.F. Afghan and D. Hackay. > >i S. (1*74) Polychlorinated biphenyls in the s , lace waters and bottom sediments of the major .1. , nage basins of the United States. Pages 101-1*4, in. tvdings of National Conference on i i, t hlor mated Biphenyls. November 1*-21, 1*75, tiiit.itio, fllinoia. Report No. EPA-540/4-75-004. M.itl.ington, D C.. U-S. Environmental Protection f- .i 11- y. h N. and S.P. PavLoti ( 19761 Mass solubility and v-ttous activity coetficients of stable organic '|| : Kills :r t - " 1 I . I c: ` l Is * : C) ''A. 4 : 4 : - 7 1 . iosVcy, P.V. (1*78) Transport Of Airborne PCBs to Lake Michigan. M.S. Thesis, Water Chemistry Prosr Madison, Wis.: University of tiscorsin. Ouce, R.A. and E.k. Ouurstra 11977) Inputs of organic matter to the ocean. Mar. Chem. 5:119 )19. Durfee, R.L., G. Contos, F.C. Lhititore, J O. Ear.len, -. Hackman III, and R.A. Westin (1974) PCBs in the United States--Industrial Use and Environmental Distribution. Report No. EPA 54014-14-005. Springfield, Va.; Versar, Inc. Eder, C. (1*74) PCBs and compounds of the ODT group in sediments of tho central north Sea and the Norwegian Depression, Chemosphere 2:101-104. Crtninaton. D.H. end .7. A. Bobbins '1*741 Reco-d' r' .`oat deposition In Lake Michigan sediments since 1000. Environ. Scl. Techroi. 10:244-27). Cisenreich, S.J., G.J. Mol Tod and T.C. Johnson 1197*) Accumulation of PCRs in Surficial Lake Sup-tior Sediments: Atmospheric Deposition A report of the Limnological Research Center, University of Hinneaots, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Elder, OL. and S.V. Fowler 119771 PCBs: Penetration into the deep ocean by looplenh.tcn fecal pellets transport. Science 197:459-441. Fujlwara, K. 11*75) Environmental and food contamination with PCRs in Japan. Sci. Total Environ. 4:219. Tullsr, i., J. Cordon, and M- Komreich 11*77) Environmentsl Assessment of ?CBs in the Atmosphere. EPA Report No. EPA-450/J-7t-04 5 . Hcl-ean, Va . : 'he Mitre Cnmorat ion. Furukawa, K., K. Tonomura, and A. Eamibayashi (1*78) Effect of chlorine substitution on the biodegradubi1lty of polychlorinated bipnenyls. Appl. Environ, llicrobiol. )5i22)-227. Cl am, C.S., N.S. Chan, and C.S. licit 11*761 Concentrations and flumes of phthalates, CDTs and PCBs to the Gulf of Mexico. In, M:iin- PoliMlant Transfer. Edited by H. windom and R. Duo. Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Death and Compar., . Clooschenko, M.A., N.M.J. Strachan, and R .C. S^iposon 11976) Distribution of pesticides and n.'Ls in , sedimeiits, And sector* of tUpper Gr^t L-.y-s Pcitic. Hon 11 . J. it): 61-67. CrjhiiB, J-H. (19761 Levels of PCBs in Gmedian ccnutrciet fish sp-'r ies. Pacj^s lVj-!b0, PfLf - ' l.r. ,-v JO t i' 00*1 Conference on Fol yc hi or i na t ed Biphenyls, : i r I- r 197 5, Ch ic<i9o, Illinois. Report Ho. I . . ' r,o '6 75 004 . ii'.ishi ft^Ion, 0 . C. : U , S , i ii nn>"nlil Protection Agency. I.-. J A. , A. Creichus, B . A. Aasmn, 0 .J. Call, i ( .1'. Il.iiwin, and R.N. Pott 11977) Insecticides, 1 1) '1,1 or inated biphenyls and atetals in African Lake i . ',icis. I. Hartbeespoort Dam, Transvaal and i lf i Dan, Cape Province, Republic of Sooth Fill'.!. Arch. Environ. Contain. Toxicol. 4:171-111. t'.. r A. Creichus, B.O. Anaiann, and J. i. i ijft < 197Ba) Insecticides, polychlorinated i ............ Is and aetals in African Lake ecosyatems. ill Lake Nakuru, Kenya. Bull. Environ. Contam, I il . 7:454-441. !' Y.A., A. Creichus, N.A. Oraayer, and B. . '. >,ll 11971b) Insecticides, PCBs and matala in At, ii hi Lake ecosystems. II. Lake Hellwaine, i i.' .h iid. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 7i444-4Sl. .. c t 11977) chlorinated Hydrocarbons in the Leke iini ii io and Lake Michigan Ecosystems. Thesia. Kilijun, wis.; University of Wisconsin, i .vi'i, L. < 19771 Sediaients aa indicators of , . i i.i i net ion - invest Igations In tha four largest -e.liii! Lakes. Report No. SNV PH 119. Environmental liiiiertion Board of Sveden. . , n.T. and H.C. Johnson 11977) A model system to i uly the desorption and biological availability of II ii in hydrosoils. Pages 171-195, Aquatic Toxicology ah.I Hazard Evaluation, ASTM STP 4)4. Edited by P.L. riA; *,r and J.L. Ilamcl ink. Philadelphia: American To, id/ for Testing and Materials. ii. i. J.L., R.C. liay brant, and R.C. Ball 11971) A i i al: exchange equilibria control the degree 11. So, i nated hydrocarbons are biologically magnified in lentic environments. Trans. Am. Fish Soc. I In:. 707 . V. H . D.W. Schmcdd i ng, and V.H. Freed (19)4) A.|n(am solubility, adsorption, and vapor behavior "! cotychlorinated biphenyl Aroclor 1754. Environ. i , Techno 1 . : 1 )9 - 14 7 . | . and D.W. Schmedding 1 ) 975) The method of :i i-. ..oi ing the water solubility of hydrophobic t i i)i: solubility of five polychlorinated ii'i'i-iyli. Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol. 14:11-11. . B.T. and C.A. Phillips < 19751 The lack of ........nil* I at ion of DDT residue by benthic invertebrate* 71 :.i rsa l fisn in St. Margaret's Bi/, No n Scotia. Int. Counc. Expl . Sea, CM -E: 3 2. Harvey, C.P. and W.C. Steinhauer ( 1974 1 Atmospheric transport of polychlorobiphenyIs to the North Atlantic. AtroS- Environ. 8:777 762. Harvey, C.R. and W.C. Steinhauer ( 1976a) Biogeocher, is t r / of PCB and DDT in the North Atlantic, Vo). I Pages 201-221. Environmental Biageochemistry. Edited by J.0. Nriagu. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc. Harvey, C.R. and W.C. Steinhauer |1974bl Transport pathways of polychlorinated biphenyls tn Atlantic water. J. Mar. Res. 14:541-575. Harvey, C.R., W.C. Steinhauer, and H.P. Hikles <19741 Decline of PCR concentrations in North Atlantic surface water. Nature 252:II7-188. Netting, L., E. Norn, and T.J. Tofflexure 1 1978 1 Sunr.ar/ of Budson River PCB Study Results. Technical Report No, 51. Albany, N.Y.j Lew York State Department of Environmental Conservation. Horn, W., R.W. Risebrough, A. Soutac, and D.R. Young (1974) Oepositioa of CCE and PCB in dated tedirents of the Sente Barbara Basin. Science 114:1)97 1199. Hut linger,*0., S. Safe, and V. Zitko ( 1974 ) The Chemistry of PCBs. Cleveland, Ohio: CRC Press. Junge, C.E. (1977) Basic considerations about trace constituents in the atmosphere as related to the fete of global pollutants. Pages 7-25, Part 1 -The Mechanisms of Interaction between Environments and Mathematical Modeling end the Physical Fete of Pollutants. edited by I.N. Suffet. Hew York- iJiley Interscience. Klein, w. and 1. Weisgvrber 119741 PCBs and environmental contamination. Environ. Oual. Saf. 5;237. Kleinert, S.J. 11974) The PCB Problcn in Wisconsin. Report for the Joint Hearing of the Asserbl/ of Environmental Quality Committee and Senate nr J Assembly of Natural Resources Committees on i>a 2|2 Administrative Rules, Madison, iiittcn .in, Stj ;ubei 21. Kreul, 1. and o. Karim) (1976) Persistent organochlor mated compounds in human organs collected m Denmark 1 9 7 2 - 7 1 . Acta fhirracol Toxicol. 18:18. treitzer, J.F. <19)4 1 Residues of or ijano'- h I or ir.v pesticides, mercury .in.) pens in mourning don- , I rum 72 I inn Lmted States - 1 97 0 - 7 1 . Fettle- Homt. J. i -M. and S.C. Stmsnian (1970) 7cjidiws of , I chlorinated biphenyls in the general population . . i On United States. Page 139, Proceedings of . n-nil Conference on Polychlorinated Biphenyl*. '."Iwr 19-21, 1975, Chicago, Illinois. Report Ho. li A S4D/4 - 75- 004 . Washington, D.C.S U.S. ironMntil Protection Agency, i . in. and D.F. Goerlici (1974) Selected chlorinated ii jcarbons in botton material* froai streae* ii lijtary to San Francisco Bay. Pastlc. Honit. J. b ) I 36. b. and A. Me try (1970) Study of Migration of i nr from Landfill* and Dredge Spoil Site* and i I ned to the Hudson River. Final Report submitted Weston Environmental Consultants-De*igner*, Nest i iwsier, Pennsylvania to Heu York State Department (i I Environmental Conservation, Albany, Hew fork. .(I, J. ( 1977 ) Organoh* logen* in Coastal Sediment* ( i i:-. the Maritime Provinces, Canada. Bedford li nt itute of Oceanography Report Series, Juae. ml,fax, Nova Scotia.- Bedford Institute of. Oceanography. L.iiM, it R. , p. Fantsmaki, and K. Urpo (1974) PCB i .iiues in plankton and sediment* in the outhweatern coast of Finland, Bull. Environ. (' mam, Toxicol, 12:7)J-73(. ........Ip r., J. Gather, N. Gjos, and N.S. Land* (1977 ) in <|rnic micro- poi lut ant a in precipitat ion in Horway. Ai . t. Environ. 1 1:1007 -1014. :.t key. D. and P.J. Leinonen (1975) Rout* of evaporation of iow-solubi 1 ity contaminant* from water bodies to tl.r atmosphere. Environ. Sci. Technol, 9: 1178-11 Bl. r-.i.iiy, D. and A.W. Molkoff ( 197 3 ) Rat* of evaporation low-solubility contaminants from water bodies to ni u.niphere. Environ. Sci. Technol. 7:411-414. . i.i.F, E-V. end J. Lagrange ( 1977 1 Deposition of heavy . blur inated hydrocarbons from the atsnsphere. Bull, luviron. Contam. Toxicol. 17( 2 1 : 219-224. : . I , 0 S. Campbell, R M. Robinson, and D.J.A. Davies I i v<7 | polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine ,1-iiicide residue-, in adipose tissue of Canadians. li.i I . Environ. Contain. Toxicol. 17:194. I . HV J.P., O. Sicks, RC- Raley, B.w, Sanger (19751 , 1 i, ict e r i rat ion o( po I yrhlor irutid b i ph-i ny l s . 7 , b. '.I, Proceedings of :-ationa| Confon-rir. vn Pel ;.ch 1 c r i nj te-l & ip l-.-.-r. j 1 s , iloverber I 7 1 , i ' 7 ? , Chicago, Illinois. R-port No. EPA 54E/4-) 4 - 0 Z I . Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environrenta 1 Protection Agency. Hoein, G.J. ( 1974) Study of Distribution and Fate of PCBs end Benzenes After Spill of Transformer Fluid. Report Ho. EPA 904/9-74-014. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Hoein, G.J., A.J. Smith, and P.L. Stewart (1974) Follow up study of the distribution and fate of PCBs a.nd bemenea In soil and ground water samples after an accidental spill of trensformer fluid. Pages 348 172, Proceedings of 1974 National Conference on Control of Hazardous Malarial* Spills. Rockville, Md.: information Transfer, Inc. Murphy, T.t. r A rest i`le (1*77) Precipitation Inputs of PCB* to Lake Michigan. J. Great Likes Res. 3(3-41:305-312. Nadeau, R.J. and R.P. Davies ( 1974 1 Investigation of PCB in the Hudson River. Washington, D.C.: U.S Environswntal Protection Agency. National Research Council (19771 An Assessment of Mercury in the Environment. Ccnmittee for Scientific nd Technical Atssisarnti of Environmental Pollutants, Environw.r-r.tai Studies Board, Corausion On Natural Resources. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, New York Slate Department of Environmental Conservation (197(1 Toxic Substances Impacting on rish and Wildlife. Division Fish and Wildlife I'ontnly Report 12, Kerch 20. Albany, H.T.: Hew '/ore. State Department of Cnvitonswtnta 1 Conservation. Misbet, 1-C-T. (1974) Criteria Document for PCBs . Report Ho. PB-225 397. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Departner.t of Commerce, Misbet, l.C.T. and A.F. Serofim 1 )972 ) Rales sr.d routes of transport of PCBa in the enviromgnt. Environ. Health Perspect. 1:21-38. Oden, S. and J. Ekstedt (1974) PCB and ODF in Baltic sediment*. Ambio Special Report 4:125 129. Oloffs, P.C., L-J- Albright, S.7. Szcto, and J Liu (1973) Factor affecting the behavior of five chlorinated hydrocarbons in two naturi? "r`-r". anl thir sediments. I. Fish. Rm . Be. Can 14 !1 9 1L7 ). . S. Jensen, and I.. Reut-irgard ( 1 9 ) (I I u-,,, i., i *i i - . -n. r. f l-cil I -- ,* i : i - I fish An : vg.-.r 1 mi 74 i * tor in planning momtorin] programs. Ambio 1 ;ift- 'i 1 M-L. International Reference Croup on Great Lakes i t ut ion f rLand t$c Act ivtt irs ( 1978k i irv i ronmental Management Strategy for the Great ` '>fs System. Pinal Report to the International -'t int Commission. Windsor, Ontario, Canada. 1 * * 1 * 1 0.j. Jeffries, and M.w. Moore ( 1970) i\Jychlor mated biphenyls in wild birds in Britain nd their avian toxicity. Environ. Pollut. 1:3. 1 mugh, R.H., B-W. de Lapp#, and W. Walker II (1974) Ttinsfer of higher molecular weight chlorinated t. i trocarbons to the marine environment. Pages 241- --'t. Marine Pollutant Transfer. Edited by H.L- nidoa and R.A. Duce. Leulngton, Mass.: D.C. Heath m-l Company. h > i-iiugh, R.M., V. Freeland, G-R. Harvey, M.P. Mikles, ` I* C M. Carmigan ( 1972) PCS residues In Atlantic rtvjpl ankton. Sull. Environ. Contarn. Toxicol. 8:345' >*>5 . i(. ill. n.son, J. I 1975) Mathematical model* In ecochemistry. I ^e Appl. Chem. 42:1)9-153- J.E. ( 1979) Sedimentologic Aspects of*the PCS Pollution of the Hudson River. (Manuscript In | i **parat ion ) D.H., R.A. Carr, and G.A. Vogel (1977) PCS* lu-moval In Publicly-Ovned Treatment Works, final JW'port, Contract Wo. 48~01-3273, Task 13, Criteria and Standards Division. Washington, D.C.; (|.S. ( nvironmental Protection Agency. Jy)*r. G.S. and R.R. Colveil (1974) Partitioning of n*ercury and PCB by oil, water, and luipendH sediment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 10;1142-1195. H.C.N., L. Hissc, R.e. (licks, A.W. llogan, D. Lai, ^ Liss, R.O. Munmch, G.A. Sehmel, and O. Vittori Some aspects ol the transfer of atmospheric U4C constituents past the air/sea interface. M.*os- Environ. 1 2l I I ): 2055 2087 . ' -i i jii*n, A. ()972t Chlorinated hydrocarbons residues i .i .itrborne fallout. Mature 2 it; 395 - 3*7 . ' i> A, (1973) Tr an sport, d i st r i but ion and degradation of organochlorine residues in a South ^wt>dish lake ecosystem. Vatten 2:90-108. i ijrin, a. (19751 Monitoring DDT and PCB in airborne l O 1 out . Envuon. Qua!. Sa f . 3:603-810. 7 *. So Jr rgrer., A. and P - t > 7 ? J Tr <~ r' r" f P ~Bs from Lake Sedirents to the M^Tsrn**:** /u r f Aquatic Surface :4. ic to! a (e r . (?i !:* f jol ii Sodergren, A. and P, Utfstrand (i972> ULT ar P'B relocate when caged robins use fat reserves. Mbio 1: 34 -40. Solly, S.R.8. and V. Shanks (19)41 Polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in human fat in Kew Zealand. K.Z. J. Sci. 17:5 35 . Swain, M.R. (1979) Chlorinated organic residues in fish, water, and precipitation from the vicinity of isle Royale, Lake Superior. J. Great Lakes Res. (In press) Travers, I.C. and R.C.H. Wilson (1977) pCBs in the Atlantic Provinces. Surveillance Report No. EPS-5- AR-77-13. - f-i-, !'3Vi S;:4.::: Ir/iror.^ntai Protection Service. Tucker, E.S,, V.w. Saeger, and O. Hick* (1975) ictivat*d sludge primary biodegradation of PCB. Bull. fn/irsn. Contam. Toxicol. 14:705-713. Tulp, M.Th-M., R. Schmitz, and 0. Hutzinger (1976) Tr* bacterial metabolism of 1,4* dichiorobipher.y! ar.d its suppression by alternative carbon sources. Chemosphere 7:103-100. If.S. Environmental Protection 7gency ( 1978 ) Polychlorinatod biphenyls (PCBs): Disposal ar-rf marking. Federal Register 43( 31 ):7 149- 7144. U,S. Environmental Protection Agenr/ (17741 Review of PC0 Levels In the Environment. Report No. t?,`.-545/7- 74-G01. 'Washington, D.C.: U.5. Environmental Protection Agency. Vaith. G-D. (1972) Recent fIurtuat:ops of pens ir the Green Bay Wisconsin region. En iron. Health Perspect. 1:51-52. Veith, C-D. (1975) Baseline concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls in L-e Michigan fish. 1971. Pestic. Monit. J. 9:21 2). Veith, G-D. and V.M. Comstock (1975) App.udtu-j for continuously saturating water with hyir^fh /t.r organic rh^mcols. J. Fnh. Ren. lid. Ca-. ) J ! ; ) 1851. Ve i th, G . D. , D . W. Kueh I, F.A. PU7I1S1, G. Gi is,( a J. G. Eaton ( 197 7 ) R s dn's of PCBs an ? DDT . : he * r t,' r n L-l ke Supc nor ecosystem. Arcli. Lnv.r i. C-c*.n. TohicoI. S:4o7 495. i !rr I 1 9 J R ) Cr.zri /-r-ni.il r: :ch<irrp fo * *- tz*>- , ' ?3. , h lor if "il Hi jIm fi/ls. Mmi 11 r, - f A 76 I,,; . Support Uj MS ion, Revised Report Ho* U, Tlsk ;l funluct Ho. 68-01-3852. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Ii.iionncntal Protection Agency. mn, N. , L. Tonne 1*, and 0. Wassermann 11974) i j.je maps of organochlor me compound* (OCC) in MS. In Epidemiological Deduction* for Further .........turini). CEC-CPA-witO International Symposiumi uvLionmental and Health, Parle ItJI, Paper *115. and a L. McCall f 197 3) Ouentitetiv* PCB bi. n.dardi for electron capture gas chromatography. i.nroaatoqr . Sc i. lliJ6*-373. m . r, D. (19711 Accumulation of PCBs by Lake Trout M Iikt Michigan. Theai*. Madieon, His. i University Wisconsin. i n il. (19741 Nationwide residues of orqenochlorlne in starlings, 1974. Pestic. Honit. J. 10;10. in, F.C. (19751 A Study of Pesticide Disposal in a - lije Sludge Incinerator. Office of Solid Hast* hn.agement Programs, Final Report, Contract Ho. *(II 1587, NTIS PB - 253 485. Washington, D.C.: O.S. t. ironmental Protection Agency. li.ni.s, P.M. and K.J. Robertson ( 19751 Chlorinated h) h atirbsns in sea-surface films and sub-surface u.iiers at nearshore stations in the North Centrel h.i. ific Gyre. Fish. Re*. Bull. 73:445-447. Li.R, ( 1975) Inputs end Distributions of i Moi mated Hydrocarbons in Three Southern iililornli Harbors. Report TH 214. El Segundo, (alif.i Southern California Coastal Water Research noject. .(< 17.R,, D. McDermott-Erhlich, and T.C. Heesen (1175) PCB Limits to the Southern California Biuht. I L Segundo, Calif.: Southern California Coastal ...Hfi Research project. i |. D.R., D. HcDermot t-Eh.rl ich , and T.C. Neasan i 1-777) Sediments as source of DDT end PCB. Mar. i>*l(ut. Bull. 8:254- 251. 2 POLICY ASSESSMENT The data presented in Chapter 1 indicate the extens i ve environmental distribution of PCBs and the existence of several localised hot spots for which removal or cleanup action nay be justified. State and federal officials have been coordinating efforts to reduce PCB levels at the hot spots and to prevent future conta.i>:nat ion IL'.S. EPA 1978a,b: Hetling et al. 1978). This chapter -ill and cleanup pci idee and the potential benefits to human health and the environment. CONCCPTS OF BENEFIT-COST ANALYSIS D-ne f it-cost, analysis evaluates b-nef irul and v! .r.e effects of a proposed action in terms of a co.t.i- n i-inetary unit, like dollars. (For detailed diii .-,,ons ` ! tcr.e f 11 -cost analysis and Its rotation-snip to the : r!/:ng principles of welfare evaluation, see .`rest 1 : C,r-. " 1965, and Havoir in anti '.leishrod 1975.1 ' - r.-. ions arc rank' d according to net ` . 7 is, benefits minus costs Social ,.->nd n ' : : of trie mcm.t.iry v.,lug of rut f.-n fin. 7B ' without regard to whom the benefits see rue . : the practice of benefit-cost analysis , . i i he development and implementation of rules for .. i or inferring monetary values for beneficial se effects where these are not directly i iilc. ` - Benefits i. i t'cnefita are a measure of changes In utilities - ne of individuals. It has been said that to i *, 'Man is the measure of all (economic) I tnus, human preferences provide the baeis for .1 i and measuring economic benefits. Only those il.rit individuals use either directly or :iy can be included in e measure of benefits. - -ns that acme effects cannot be meeeured in .i. terms, e.g., certain ecological effects, such i. . .lions in tha size of species populations, or < li.inges that affect freshwater or marine trophic i . However, where such ecological changes sffect . 1 ,11y exploitable resources, such as fisheries or f >f ecological systems for outdoor recreation, i r in. is can be expressed in economic meaeures of i i s. i: i Irene fits of controlling chemicals such ss PCBs i ine to individuals and society eithar directly in i .> hi of increases in the availability of goods and n (e.g., improved health or improved recreation t iMtiesl, or indirectly through increases in iion efficiency. Assigning monetary values to resulting from chemical control policies i thrae distinct stages, each of which must be . , i ooJ if the benefits are to be measured. i. i.mf Reduction in the quantities of chemicals i into the environment leads to reduction in the i ..I i it ion found in various environmental reservoirs, i ,.<) the functional relationships between changes in i il releases and changes in ambient chemical level* . <.i[ l< matter, yet these processes must be . .loud before the benefits of chemical regulation : - * t mated . . r*- c^-ingcs in anhiont cti ni.'il ror''n'i i' . . r ! ;* i in human ulc o! 11 h **n . r . ; i i' i t i . ' - l ,, . r i " . : ' , . . *. e*frtcts on h.insn aclivi' is i: ' '-r.-. .i, - r* / estimation process and should ce -- a . process to distinguish ;t from the process o'. vi, discussed in ths next stage. . t.. ' Stage Three The effects of changes in e.-bient qn! it/ have their counterpart in changes in an aggregate willingness to pay for uses of the environment. Here the economic concepts of demand and value ere central to the enalysls. However, the successful implementation of the valuation process of Stsge ) must often await the development of a better knowledge of the physical, .ecological, iM g'*'cr 2 geverning Stages 1 and CPiLS The coats of s regulatory action are defined and measured by determining which utility or benefit opportunities arc foreclosed by the action. The control of chemical contamination involves the use of scarce resources that might otherwise have t-er put into different activities. Costs associated with these 'new' usee ere called 'opportunity costs' and can be me ,s ired In monetary terns by society's or the aggregate willingness to pay for those iter.s that must be given up. How can the oeoortumty coat of r' vilif in- bmeasured? chen regulation requires producers to use real resources r.uch as labor, capital, and ratetials for the installation of treatment and control equipment, special handling of materials, or dcvitprent o( special disposal methods, the market values of those r-soir-es can be taken as measures of opportunity cost. For eunrplc, und^r certain Conditions v-iq^; are a nea'._rc of ncqiMl productivity of 1 ibor in the economy art) ' r' fore reflect the value of other goods fc.-egore when : .t diverted from one sector of the ccorv.j/ to " ` ' "' io cont ro1 chcmicaIs. ..ivory oc-ions may also reduce the avu i |at 11 11 y ` -Tvices to consumers in a more direct . - `-.Ole, regulation may take the form of a 1 i r itifiUr chem.cal or the 61 . - im, of particular aood^ using th* ci.e-icsl as an '. lit, or it may involve restriction* on allowable tolerance* ir, food Ce.g., the FOA maximcm PCS .nation* in frshl. Such policies do not absorb -V directly, but they do impose coats in the form .19 in consumer welfare. In some cesea, the cost iiiutinq alternative qoods for those banned by i' ion provides a basis for an estimate of true cost. A well developed economic methodology . i >i staking estimates of thie sort. 1,onomic Impacts i ; i*s of economic iiepact associated with , ioiy decisions can be deecrlbed and quantlfiad in ,.i) terms, but they are not commensurate with the o efficiency benefits and costs described The incommensurability arises becausa tha i . of impact are usuelly baaed on chanqee in tha i volume of a particular class of aconomic co i i *>n rather than on chanqes in the quantities of oid services available to consumere. Tha' iion is similar to the one often aad* in the .i cost literature between real and pecuniary i (Haveman and Ueisbrod 191%). . .I lustrate the point, consider the cese of a ui plant that closes because of regulatory action, 11. mating an annual million-dollar payroll. This ( mi economic iaipact on a region, but it le not i.u ily a real cost in the tense of a reduction in . ie qoods and services. Tha relationship between nijri of impact and the measure of coet depend# on i ility of the labor force and other resourcee end .. ipeedily adjustments can be made. These factor# v.ny widely from case to case, where a firm or an i.y induces output because of governmental ...i ii.mt, there is a cost in economic efficiency oniy (intent that, for a time, resources remain . .ui or underemployed. l-ost output Is an , . .te measure ot cost in this rase. The cost of . . absorbed in relocation or other activities ,i..l to S[H>i'd the adjustment process le g-, labor . .ii| progrs 1 should be taken into account. If -. .ii rs laid off 1 rom a plant find alternative i I immediately and a I the sane wage, there i r. - ' i t other thin the cup- tv.'- of i e lor ittr.':. II " 9L -f * '-e laber force can find alternative e-T.plo.v-.ert , b rr is a cost in the form of lost output, and the Inst piyroll ciay be used as a measure of this cost. COST-EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS A cost-effectiveness analysis can be used in circumstances where a desired level of beneficial effect has been established and where the policy has been set to achieve that level at minimum cost. A cost, effectiveness criterion ranks alternative policies in terms of the cost required to echieve the qiven levei. Because all the policies being evaluated achieve the same level, the beneficial effect will be the same and the various '>f*-!'?rs -- tM differ c.-.!/ in terc,s of their coats. One advantage of cost-effectivenee* analysis is that problems created by the noncowensurab: 1 ity cf benefits and costs are avoided. It should be noted, however, that wnereas this type of aneiysis can be useful in evalueting alternative options for achieving a iptclfic goal, it cannot be used to determine the choice of the goal itself. EFFECTS ON IIUMAH KEALTII AND T1IE ENVIBOMKE.TT Ae tha data prasented in Chapter ) and Appendix o Indicate, the major effects on human health and the environment resulting from exposure to PCBs take the form of subtle Impairments rether than qrots mornholooical or patholoolcal chii'i'-i Ar-u- i-p-; ,.. of elthsr humans or wildlife rarely occurs, and those ffect* that have been observed are the resuit of cumulative contacts over long periods of time. The section entitled `Assessment of PCB Hazard" in Chapter presents the scientific evidence relating to pen toxicity and illustrates some adverse effects of unintentional release of the chemical to the environment. 1 ?ffects on Human Heal th 'f osure of humans to PCUs r mi occur through a nun let of -itforcnt routes--occupation.il exposure, ingest ion of " `: naird foods or fish, exposure to c unt ,imr r.it --.1 02 < - .i >j<itpr, And transmission from mot her to child ' ' tmst feeding. The level* of corUfflineCion tie . < Y low, except where occupational exposure or j. i u.mct occurs. Beciuie of the low i i.i at ion* end the subtl* nsture of the tonic 1 >t is extremely difficult to assess precisely ' li licet ions thet siey heve arisen in the health i i.iii.ui end animal populations es * result of . !: ..... ulel exposure to PCS* (see Table 1.1, Chapter i. W" > 1 documented cases of PC# Intoxication in the in ,1'iiletion have been limited to industrial : is involving workers directly responsible for PC# : ...n, excessive exposure to menufectursd products `.I... ng Pels, and consumption of edible products .rated with PCBs during processing (Matthews et . i - > 61 . ;. tu? of the nonspecific effects on heslth thet may i. *it. iibuted to low-level exposure to PCBs ere abnormal i i nic, abdominal pain, numbness of lisfes, swelling of i fvi t , chronic cough, menstrual irregularity, and >. ft Abnormal tooth development, i /1 igmentat ion, end low weight In newborn children !;< be complicetions resulting from PC# exposure. .....i n if il (ties in blood lipids, anemia, lymphocytosis, i > A.l< * nocort ica 1 hypofunct ron have besn recorded in a 'ic-i of chronic ditaeset associated with PC# 'iimi ition. In addition to dermatological i >.< j iii.il ities, such as sene and hyperpigmentation, thare "/( lien suggestions of increased incidence of cancer in of the Japanese who were exposed to PC# through . hi ...filiation of cooking oil iUrabe 1977, lined* et *1. i 7h i . cil.tr potential nonspecific abnorsta 1 ities that stay . i es a result of chronic axposure to PC#* have bean ^ j.t .ied by controlled experiment* u*ing nonhuman i i lintel. In Addition to alteration* in the MMtruil !* and birth* of abnormally small infant*# nonhuman , ' i^.-jieg experienced a greater frequency of early t following low-level exposure to PCBs (see i 'i l- l Chapter 3). Infants born to mothers exposed i Siduring gestation and lactation also show some f immunologic*t competence es well a* learning and i in. mi jl deficiencies. These abnormalitie* persist M * > t e 1 y ; t ^'n though a laigr |.or contage of the hur.in i j .; I-1 ion h.i. been exposed to varying amounts o i p<- %. . i. 1 hi ijvii|li i lie Inod Ui.iiii li.e., conti.'.iri*.'' ; : , li.es iso, -o;o t .i * ; or., anil h j- , n r . i w j , n . 1 1 jronl*-il r ises of hta'.tn probltrs ass1;, n'.- i -.1, si. inviranT-'dial exposures er i;t . Thus, a du t .1 11 >_>d evaluation of the effects on human health in the general population IS not currently available, although there are indications that aven limited exposure to PC9s may produce injurious effect* that will be difficult to detect even with close scrutiny. Assessment of effects on the environment is even less clear-cut than analyses of problems associated with health. The data in Chapter 1 suggest that PCBs are found in many places. However, as the results in cnapter J indicate, the toxic effects are subtle arJ difficult to detect, deduced reproductive capabili ty is the most common result o! exposure to PCBs aror.g riny species. But other swrpho 1 ogiCa 1 and functional changes are noted as well, particularly in the livers of test animals. PCBs accumulate rr adipose tissue, and .t has been suggested that severe effects could arise when the aniaal ie under sufficient stress to rsbiliie the FCBcoataining lipids, Esciu.k PCB coicon* rat inns are signified a* the cox.pound moves through fooj chains (see Appendix D, Bloaccumulation), the most pronounced toxic effects are noted in the upper trophic levels. Excessive eccuouletlon* may lead to reduction in the alia of populations and to consequent alterations in the composition of communities end, ultimately, o( the acosystam. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PCB CONTROL STRATEGIES in principle there ere three categories of options (or controlling or reducing potentially adverse effects of PCBs on health and the environment. They .ire: * -educing the flow of -additional Pens into i he rnvironaent (reducing or e I mi nit 1 ng direct diich.w je of PCBs a* ar> industrial wastr product or controlling ie jro and disposal of materials currently ir service r-ijr contaminated with PCLsJ; * controlling the enposure of popi>Ut uir,s - -ulitor y measures, sucri as I tmitin j ran '.u*-.pt i on I. . I, icour ag < mj the practic" ol breast (ccdin:, or I I strict luutt on pttnissible levels of PCS* in ; : ,11'd . . lucing stock* of PCB* in environmental ir. IS (dredging river sediment, cleaning or ,, ..i.i.i) existing landfills previously used for y<` l of products containing Kll, or enhancing <t |. station rates). js possible to atseai, if only approriwtely, the * , d effect ivenei* of specific control strategies Il.m one or all of these three categories. I ; t iectiveness of Control Strateolee . following specific control options have been ns i lii ed for this report. I c,qyernnenta 1 Regulations on Disposal of PCM a i.as published final regulations on the dispoaal of i i siues containing PCOs lll.S. EPA 111!*) and is .i.mly considering revisions and additions to the l .lai ion* 10.S. EPA 197Bb). 2. Pledging and Disposal o f Contan jn^tts^Jlj vex liKiii.t. The Department of Environmental Conservation .,j iorh State ha* evaluated proposal* to dradge 1 < ..i contaminated with PCB* from the upper Hudaon .is a* a mean* of controlling further flow of PCB* in i he e*tuary- Analyses are underway to determine . t !>. huelogical feasibility of effectivaly reducing u lu'cle in various localised "hot spots" (Hetling at ills). l \ imitations of Permissible Residues in fOA mi <ttd Products. The rDA has implemented a temporary l hi tolerances for PCB residues in several classes of .1 csi. 1 currently has under consideration s proposal , i n (her reductions <U-S. FOA 1977b). These limits I iy to milk and dairy products (current limitation** L> .nj/ktj, proposed level--1.5 mg/kg fat basis), poultry I. I !.| I imitat ion--5.0 mg/kg, proposed level--!.0 .i . l it basis], eggs (current Iimitation*-0.5 mg/kg, I ft level- O.J mg/kg), and fish and shellfish hi , .m limitation--5.0 mg/kg, proposed level-*2.0 ! The FOA reports that in all categories, except .si .i.l shellfish, the observed cont.iam.it ion levels e ill below the proposed limits. Therefore, the on-/ as - pif.icn o: 'n" proposed reguls'ion -ou|! t-t . . e'd with cocjrerc la 1 distribution of f . sh ai d 1 " . i i i Sh . Tor each option we assess effectiveness in tern of the quantities of PCBs removed from the environment and destroyed or immobilized, or as in the case of the FDA regulatione, the quantity of PCB* prevented from entering the hueian diet. Ir. each case, we assure perfect compliance with the regulations, we also provida estimates of the cost-per*kg affected for each option. These estimates do not include administrative costs or the Cost* of inspection, policing and other enforcement activities. Controlling Use end Disposal Table 2.1 summarizes the available information on costs of existing and proposed regulations governing use and disposal of PCPs. Tlv values were derived from two reports coT.misstoned b/ EPA (Varsar, Inc. 1977, t.'cstin et s'.. 19781 , and from additional information provided by the Agency's Office of Tonic Substances. The dm upo-i which the costs ire based are presented in Appendix B. The first column of Table 2.1 presents the quantities of PCBs that wculd be prevented from reacting the environment, either through destruction or iseeobiliration, for aach policy option. The second column gives the total cost of each policy option. The third colissn provides the average cost of each option in dollare per kilogram of PCB controlled. If within each option there were no variation in the cost-per kg removed under different circumstances, then this figure wu*m ikeM aa ie|MwiKin^ Uiv i n-*: f erren * a i or marginal cost of removal for that option. Tsole 2.1 doe* not address all the EPA regulations, because sene data on costs are not available. Also the propose ! CPA regulations would impose no special requirem-nts on disposal of small appliance capacitors or high int-rsity and fluorescent lighting ballasts, although estinat>s indicate that nearly 11.8 x 10* kg of fZZ~. ,u" coni a i nod in these items and are cut rent ly in service ,n er al. 197BJ. Tha Committee lo-s not at present have estimates of the cost of controls on these PCS 'torlals . The ranking of optio:c, in Table 2.1 is bo ,cd on t he c'htio.n that PCB releases prevented by pj.:h ' : i`.ion would have resulted in equivalent .me 7.1 cost and Ouantiti.s Controlled for CPA Regulations on Use end Disposal policy K. Incinerate ( !>"* (row PC tren*formera [required) Quantity Controlled Ikq) 113,000,000 Control Coiti* S 75,000,000 Average Cost P*r *g 5 .61 n. snred end inemirm hiqh v/oitaqe capacitor* [required) 0,*00,000 (350,000.000 ( 1.15 C. snred end incinerate low voltaqe capacitor. irequire) 11,000,000 $141,000,000 ( 1.19 0. rluin end drain tranaforraer* after A. [required) 12,100.000 (105,000,000 1 (.50 E. need transformer. in chemical ".at. land fill (required)* 1,1*0,000 t 45,100,000 ( 31.16 r. Replace RCS-contaimnq elactrocaqnet* and incinarete fluid (proposed) 100.000-110,000 $ too.ooo-i.aoo,ooo ( 11.67-34.00 \. Replace PCB-containing in i-i. mg equip>-nt (propor-edl ll) Loader* (2) Continuous Miner* n. Dram and incinerate mineral oil tr*n(ormer fluid* if contaminated by more than SO ppm PC8e (propoied)c 1. riuth and replace con taminated hydraulic fluid* in did csoting (proposed) 11,000 1,11* 10,too late incomplete* ( 2,000,0(0 ( 640,0C0-2,240,000 (612,000,0(0-76$,000,000 S 155.30 5 56 3.03- . . (70.000.03--. . : data incomplete* 113 5.000 `'tt is assumed that tr anafortto ?a *111 bp disposed of in chemical watts landfills ratnar than uv inciner,u ion. ^Opti^nn * through C will bs undertafcdn as PCR-contu n inq oquipitunt is taken out of sirukct. Kgr tOJne PCB-containirtg tr-maformers may remain m service tqr up to forty years. Tht* conticl costs hero will b incurred over the unuful lifv of the rqmpment in question. Thr<,e costs have not boon discounted to the present. Discounting would reduce computed control cost, and would ftJve the greatest afreet on control options effecting transformers And transformer ` fluids. Discountuhj would luvr relatively little effect on options r tftrouaft I. since these options would ft.ive to be iu:dcn ikcrt snortly alter tho effective Jato of tne proposed requl.it .ons. k fluids iin m-jirr than 500 i p ere covered by Policy ft. * ^lucmmcntal costs .ire cstim.itid from average costs per Jic^castmq machine. ftqqreqatn coses nd quantity controlled jrc no known because Of lack of Jata on tho nuafcer of affeeted maer.: nc*. SUUilCC: Modified from Versar (1^771, ivewtiti ut k\ i * (1771*. ` - . -ental and risKs. !' -<?vr, F'T"'" #cr .-- oOft i i', < ooH b** pot*i_ t * i 1 / for* f h r*- *. en ; nc then i f .. especially in health. for ?continued - . I i C&s in n-inirw eg-i t pn-nt {option Cl could subject i'its to s gn f ic^nt risk of severe cootami net ion . .< - . t h this quAli(i:tion, the date of Table 2. I ! 't * a classic pattern of increasing marginal costs i'ioI, rising to extremely high levels for the last *-nts of material controlled. The options listed >l<i, if implemented, control a total of 2(0 * 10* kg i ns. Virtually all control is accomplished with ' i' ru A through E at average costs of $JJ/kg or less. {<raining option* listed (f through 11 would . . ihiite less than 0.1 percent to further control KBi jIq add significantly to tha total coat; Marginal ^ of the last option rise to More than $100,000/kg il b*. !n- 1 ;ing Hudson River Sediment The New fork State . ' j i. w ont of Environmental Conservation haa examined i-:-. , l options for dredging contaminated sediment in iw* K-er Hudson River and encapsulating it in special > <01:111 sites. Information on these options is t '!int.ed in Table 2.2. Maintenance dredging refers to i uiii*s maintenance of river channels. Although some i i' r w ,uld be removed by this dredging, tha onLy portion t t'.t* cost that can be properly attributed to FCI - ;.j<* roi is that associated with encapsulation of tha Junf./e spoils. During the summer of *970, tha state . .-novel portions of the remnant deposits and stabilised m* remainder. This appears as option B in Table 2.2. :*< !. of the remaining policy options 1C through E) i ni/i.i, .es more comprehensive and extensive dredging t<r^fions than option A, and thus greater costs. incremental costs and quantities of PCBs removed : i f. been calculated from data presented by the New York i l1 - Department o! Environmental Conservation (Hetling ri (i * 19791. These control costs art computed on the it.it of .encapsulation of the dredge spoils rather than -''.nu-tive incineration of sediment contaminated with i'i If incineration were employed, costs would be I . /in The data show increasing incremental costs as I -, ,-t quantities of PCBs efe removed. These dredging are higher than the least costly use and disposal z i<*l t ions of PA (options A through E, Table 2.11, bwt `-il the most cost,/ rrA proposed regu la 11 orr:. : <'< *i t - c f f cc t l vfac s * measures for the Hudson Pr **r ?ol1If A. inS^unct P*rt4l rfovil Of tnO s 143; + i iitio* of riniinln tper <juring iVrw of C. Wsov* rimming tbtlu| (onlnt deposits 0. Net Spot died't + rt'i t. lAo*t at) riwsr itdiseui Cwaliti^ Total . n * . * . <- /n * i > 1 i * ; Ur'i i r i<io '. no IS,130 *7,00 1>t.4C0 " ' "* * ' k . ( J-. ; : s " ^ i. t o t .. i in i S J . J00, 300 i .Ml i;. *), q-.o sivrn.o.i is.ooi.oni % l l 1 V0 ^Quantity cotn>U*i i or. r*v*c4 d.**# r'-re: v-'i f.--*.- 1>I fcc* />?*' Stale of cor *r/:ian, pcc.^nii It/I. f'.'trfA ti sediment espnsrd by reno/al nf ih* lor. C :,ifd is the simmer ot HO. t Df SOUPCr; Modi'itd fro* Sew fork Conservation '!**> O^pirtTp^*. of hmo'" *t*i dredging options are based on the astL^p^ion tha* dredging and disposal of spoils do not of themsA. es pose significant environmental hazards ifte^hn? '-z al. 19701. ?Ca C * tm ot luh *or Hurprt Cr-is i"pt :c n If \ limit on the Orient of PCBS in fich the economic productivity of fisheries would be red-j'-ed. Fish with PCD content encetdin; the li-tt woo id r t ? to be do*. t royod, and it is likely that fishing !or cr* t.^a: specie* in contaminated areas would ce*s*. The cost of imposing a maxima limit on ! i . tt,i TC?; in fv*'h would to th^ value of th\- r,,1ur: :on .n r h* 'conowic productivity of fi'/hories. Precis* <p**.is r**n*n" c! this loss is difficult in practice. For nrpi j- t *, : r in be ar.suired that the effect of the 1 n or. * ' 'ctil outpjt of fisheries would be so sriti *' * ' ' -- l -J if*' no change in the price of f : n . F"t, *. : *77 ii t:on'r*,ic cirdi sis <s Ijs^iJ on t:i. . , * vor*, pi iJSibl*. AA ' c--..ee ee *mt rr * . t ** . i i >-i wou ! d be t h* t f ; . rr: a - ` : .. * y con* mur $ at .11 level, but that catrhes centonjn^tod PTEs in . the limit would fee confiscated and destroyed. 1 = jliinq reduction in sales revenue at the dock > ! > ' 1 value) r.irv be taken M measure of the economic . .! the limitation. Ife'ha* been estimated that the i * ') 2 mg/kg temporary ^ieit for fiah would result t 1 `.s in landed value of fl million for marine ci p-iies and S'? million for freshwater fisheries, the Li t* i located primarily in the Great Lakes region IU.S. it a However, landed values are likely to >'i. i stimate real net losses because et leest some of < L.ri r \p*tal and labor, whose productivity is impeired, <-ui.? \>e deployed elsewhere* 'ifte assumption at the other extreme would be that titular fishing activities are decreased, but that V'- j) and labor in this fishery would be abie to isove - t i.- ut productivity losses to other activities, such as ' r.ii: j for other species or moving to other waters. In i 4 * >r,e( the loss in output of fisheries would be * < ' i \f offset by the increase in output of other areas * it- .' arces would be diverted from one use to another. N>*it.hcr extreme is likely to be an accurate - i.k t *.*>ntat ion of the real world. There will be change* i r. |* f)s of activity and movements of resources in it-sj-udse to any limitation on PCS*, hut capital and i <' >r in fisheries are specialised resources and not r 1 11 y mobile. Shifts in resources will occur, but `U; with a time lag and some reduction in productivity. < <<-;# estinates of cost associated with limiting PCS >h-. r nt rat ions in fish would require better data and cAtefui analysis than we are able to provide, i ';*. t* \ ii re, for purposes of this study* $6 million is ' iL-n as an upper-bound estimate of the economic cost to . iciaJ fisheries resulting from the FOA limit on FC0 i (!v<` la in f ish . Ttm economic impart can be translated into a crude ',i :te of the cost-per-kg of PCBs avoided in the human ii.i as a result of the regulation. If, as a first 'i j i > * urat ion. it is assumed that the average landed \ > v> t PCB-coot aminatrd fish is SO.44/kg e an St ij. i loss in landed value is equivalent to a t ki>n of lfl.2 x 10* kg in the catch- Since the FDA i itjji <nl would lower the allowable PCB content from b ' ' -i 11 2 mq/kg, we assume *hat the average luatton in affected fish would be 3.5 mg/kg. 'he limitation would reduce total PCB input to -- ` - . , *; . rr *i ri: M '.T. h *: * l _ r: :i I : a * ' - i- landed v j 1 e !r?- lo.r nq the tolefa".'*; f r . ~ *." r t" z / k 7 on Id fce $ 1 d nil ion 3 y s : * : ! : c j . c'-iint icris, the cost fer avoiding .in additic-.l -i of ?Cus in the human diet would be S293,CQC/~ The FDA 1 imitation applies only to fish entering interstate commerce. If individual states also v.-p-s effective limitations on PCB content of fish cajofct a consumed by sportsmen, the total cost of cone re* 1 ir<j intake of PCBs fron fish would be higher but no: necessarily the cost - per-. The cost of regulating sports fisheries ec-jld tak two forms. If the regjlation applied only to consumption of fish and not to the fiehi--i itself, the utility and value of tir* spont fixf;ng would be reduced. Even w;th no change in toMl sport fishing activity, this reduction in value would constitute a regulatory coit. Tc the extert t-ik recreational fishing activities w?re reduced, th"r** would be a further lo^j equal to their v-iue per day multiplied by the number of days of lost activity. Quantitative ostinate': of trtn cragnitude of the*" cor-: ate not available. Total spending on sports fishim activities < for such items as food and lctqirq : rri trips, gear, boats, or bait) is nut a risi:e ci the potential economic cost of a sports fishir;^ b*n, beca-. reduced spending on fishing probably would be offset : increases in other categories of expenditure. Frcductive resources would be reallocated, and :f resources were perfectly mobile, there would he no ret iui$ in tne output of the national economy in goods ar. services. The preceding sections provide cst iratoa c; effectiveness for three* different cat*? *cr ;* s of policy, u^ir.g "! l f re n t of f f *. . ~ ellovinc for a rarkinq cf "jpt v^.'.s vithi^ ?v'n c -trc:. category. The cos t-e f "<"ne s s reisurec -cu. -f rr r: useful, however* if they nuld be t> c-'v-s v ii' ) rr.'i categories. IF <* kilo-rim of r* * ' ' r i.'ih un regulated - r r j i - ,.i 1 nt ' . r' rr--? * J mt'd-r T to a k : l t r * * cl c - ir <* 1 ' X ,f` r i i r s*din-*nt, the cost c f f*ct 1 v*n*s of .^- Asur*t ` ` st royina FCBs end for dr da mg vocld be - surebie. if that ass ;-pt ion w- r e to hold. the : .. . ?A reg-j L a * i on$ loptioni A through F* in Table i jM be more cost effective than any of the : . , . g options. But if epa were to approve all the ii * .<! regulations (options F though I, Table 2.1|, . i inq those dealing with contaminated transformers > i J.e-castinq fluids, removal of all Hudson River --i'in!!-rnt also would be economically justified. Dredging t- ' f ies wou'.d produce equivalent results in terms of i; <ntro) at costs considerably below these expected 1 11 i* most expensive epA regulation. However, the control of PCBs through dredging i ns may not be fully equivalent to regulating PCS ' ! disposal. The hew York State Department of *. . i /ation estimates that about one-third of the mast 1 iis in sediment in the Upper Hudson is subject to fi.*. i-*n by river currents (Hetling et el. 1971). Given M i-, intimate and assuming that dredging could not be -* Ipirively applied to the most mobile sediment v< n\lining PC&s, it would be necessary to remove perhaps .) i ) of sediment for an effect equivalent to ,destroying 1 k-j of pcBs presently in service. To make the costs of loi.i'iing comparable to values in Table 2.1* incremental yk .lures of cost for complete dredging would be t( t vised by perhaps a factor of J. Removal of remnants 'O > hot spot dredging are no re selective operations, and .lo res of cost effectiveness for these options are i titly closely comparable to those for regulation of \t.,v and disposal. To make the measures of cost-effectiveness for Wr-lging and regulations of disposal commensurable with tiit- food tolerance proposals, it is necessary to t1!.! iimU what fraction of PC9s released to the e f /1 t Dnment would eventually accumulate in fish and i:.rlifi*h destined for human consumption. The following < jt ulation was used to estimate this fraction. In the tt Lakes, the total quantity of PCBs in sediment is <, 1order cf 3,5 * 10* kg (Table 1.16; St. Lawrence *1 wpr^r toi-Tii Fishing removes about 2 1 k lO' k'j/yr l About 9 . Q x 10' kg coniominatRd at *r j i >i k PCB levels of about 3 mg/kd 1 . Assuming that if levels will b* maintained for 30 years be ford PCBs t r < innoil or d i i f> i r r >1 , About 0 x 10' ho of PCBs would 1" ir,i:oipot.U<'d i r. a" l c<" *i iumcr-I hy hu-nan*. iJ^riO0. I i ci-, nat i ng 1 kg of lTr > f o-' the himnn d i t wuu.d . . - _ ; r- ` . - j /1L z*. area* < k - r*i * - *. r " i ~ l: - j r e ? r. c . d oe r; . i ! - . . dopes . t s ~ t l . V*? I y :n cor.'te c r 5 . d f;sr t^.ld be removed I*: *,:* litison Ri--.ec. ?Jy( as disc-'sed a., e On tie basis of these admittedly rough ciilcula*. i:r.s, a conservative estimate is made that 0.25 per'i^r.t c? a . I PCBs released to the envi:onn*n* enter the die*. ?~;s figure wa# derived from data or. the Great La-es, a relatively closed system; similar ca ic _! st: or. s tj: tLe Hudson River biota indicates ro-chly 0.39 percet*; of PCBs released into the environment night en:er t:* Jiet fHetling et al. 197BI. It ray be expected that ir open areas, such as estuaries and oceans, a sseller fraction of PCBs would enter the human diet. Thjs, t.-.e measures o' coet **-- -, - - - : regulating PCS use and dnlqjr.o can be r>c^-.rate with the FDA food tolerance proposals by ra:sir ; the.- h - 400 or more. In other words, removing 1 kg frc~ t'-e human diet at a coit of is egiji.aie-." to removing 4 00 kg or frore from the environecot at -i cost of $J12/kg, (!t ehoold he noted thit this aiy, : implies that there are nc beneficial effects of cred:.r.g and regulation other than impacts on the huran d."- . I On the basis of these cc^putattons, either cf *we FDA food tolerances (2 mg/kg or 1 nj/kg) is rjri ccst effective in protecting humans against exposure to PCSs in the diet than the more costly of lit SPA ptr.- -fed regulations for use and disposal. Mo-c-er, het ict dredging may be a preferred opt;on both tKci:rr cf slightly lower estimated costs-per-k? rer:-/ef <t~-i because of the possibility of prevent i*v "-L"' in addition to those to human hea'tk. This i ; rot f o say thit the FDA regulations should be at: ro/ed or incinorat.ng contaminated transformer fij: .*> *oo costly for policy consideration. Coit-e f -: r.ess data do not constitute an adequate bisis fc^r - . ^ policy dreisions about control cp* icns. -Y'i b ^ ranking o! options by ef fee* iv< no. " pr<r ,f resource con.-nitted is possible, tk' * ;a: d * n' -Ali ;s how far out and up a lor; th*> irct'^'r: i; ' o - c ,r -t should go. To make s if h deterTin *t tons , *t ;ilcrr`.icn s needed on tlj< l*%r.y i i-;; ,i 1 ;* 1 irq p^fls - * i'lv t r * *. s * . - > ' .. * <- ' r r s t: . w . - . . i,r mi r,'l':i5?s of i'C3 r. f Tab 3 e d . I ! or of 1 .. ing FCPS already re I ex i-e d (Table 2.2), Ksjor is of benefits derived from control options i ' : rtd'iced nsVs to hur>rr health* rnbrnctd ic benefits to commerical end recreational fishing . .'ms, and reduction in pollution damage to the ii ment. We are not able to make any quantitative ' ."Tits of the last two categories, and even a > is estimate of benefits to human health is "I 'i-'te and subject to uncertainty. H.my of the risks to human health resulting from fCI "ie are perceived as subtle physical and behavioral i i Recently it has also been suggested that i-..>>e to PCBs poses a threat of cancer to humans ii et al. 1979, Urnbe 1977), Numerical estimates nil liable for the latter type of risk only, ii." National Academy of Sciences' Safe Drinking i i limn 11 tee (National Research Council 1977) ,'rd that the lifetime carcinogenic risk to a II ingesting p micrograms of PCD* daily (in drinking . > would b? approximately 3 i 10` p. The estimate '.ived by linear extrapolation of results from a :. .1/ for carcinogenesis using rats exposed,to . 1 1 1260 at 1Q0 mg/kg in the diet. This estintste i high degree of uncertainty, for three reasons. i The estimate was derived by extrapolating over an utlly wide range of exposures (9 orders of magnitude i I i highly exposed persons); i. No scaling factors were incorporated for .' tation from potential risks of cancer for rats I to low doses to expected risks of cancer for M , exposed to corresponding levels of PCBs; and i The estimate wts derived only for pure grade lm 1260, without detectable impurities? ii'.iiuiental residues of technical grade PCBs may be p .ii less hazardous. (See the discussion of PCB iiilies in Appendix D.l 7h<- daily ingestion of p microgmms of PCBS would ,ilt in a lifetime intake of about 2.5 x 1C* p i ..|[ wi Using the above relationship between ivj ..if and risk, the incremental cancer risk per i,. ir.im of PCBs is approx invite 1 y 1.2 x 10'V If the . .ir tisk relat lonrhip is assumed to be linear `.at i.i >t the margin', the es".tn'.c of :nd.virtual risk l I,1 extended to a population. Neither the > . ; i , o..' arte ;in r 11 teetr ca-.e - o . . j" result from an incremental it's Vs cf 2 X 1 :* ,, however this intake may be distribj*. d a >J.S . population. We assume that the economic benefits to society of reducing a general risk of cancer range fren SK1.Q13 to $1,000,000 per cancer death avoided. (The basis for this is discussed in Appendix C.) Given this assumption, the benefits assigned to the reduction of PCB intake are in the range of $12/g to $!23/g ($12 x lOVkg to $123 x lO'/kg). To reduce human intake by 1 g, a larger quan-ity of PCBs must be removed from the enviror.-ent or withheld free d_ccr.tr,c . ,tc iwuqiiiy xuu c or moie of PCBs must be withheld to reduce dietary intake by 1 g. Thus, the nargina! benefits to be qnn*: from removing PCBs from the environment would be in the range of SJO/h.g to SjOO/kg. In addition to the major qualifications slated above, several uncertainties about this estimate stoild bo emphasited. * The estimate refers only to carcinogenic risks, although other types of risks to health and othe- forTs of benefits may be mors irpoctani (see Huard Evaluation, Appendix D for PCB toxicity). . The costs of PCB removal are cc-pared ur' ao putative benefits that night not be real;r-d i ~~ 87 years- If it is considered aporopriate to h-no f r , ---w, - ,^1- 1 **''v,' ptTCfit ' ` I _ J _ the amount discounted might be In the order of i tir->r of 100 or more, The assumption is made that PCBs rt>isf i , -y enviro.nccnt now will continue to accumulate n f i ih - approx matel y 30 years (potential residence in sediment 7 Chapter i). !f S i j r- - 5; pea-, I - * 1^ loncj, resultin'] from control o^* .or r* Correspondingly ovtr-rsti.ntt^, if ` i^ shorty ihe c-ilcuU'.^d t. r.'-i *.s h* r ruir* , primarily by the discount rate an-i rot hy p* r s .< * t .wr PCOSx r5r lr.*<e r-?a son s , t f *l\* ; o . J-? ov*.'r*rS* . " i* tr<l or u:,:,,tAau , 1 ' " r Accmi!., 11 ntrjh ` o: ; i 4t Vs .`i i* SIO/kq to S)?o/ki f -- r derived from : cf peas, it is neV possible "o s'.ii? with . J vee that l hes~ costs are not ouch higher or much i f ns id*r i.*9 the err eat uncertainties in these health benefits of $)0/kg to S300/ka of PCBs - l would economically justify only the least costly t-i"' l.-.posal regal at i ons on strict ber.e f it-ccst grounds f ' .v 2.U. The F0\ proposed food tolerance limit may -i 1- justified at this benefit level because the cost i '.i !>. f>d, adjusted for the ratio of environmental to i y Levels, is only S312/kg. If we recall that the m i it estimate is Only for one category of health is and that it may underestimate expected benefits -> i orders of magnitude, economic just if ication for ii. .riing incremental costs of 530,000/kg may be I ' , itle on the basis of potential benefits. Several of t < 11 . proposed regulations and the selective Hudson *1 i'** t Iredginq options also may be justified since their - lie within the estimated range of benefits. Vi , given the range of uncertainty* we cannot rule -.i M.e possibility that costs may exceed benefits for 11 < ntrol options considered. 4 `r-t.vn regulatory decisions such as those essessed n.ust be made in the face of substantial ..im! iinty, the final choices involve value judgments >.* uplicit trade-offs by the responsible public t i . irtls (see National Research Council 1975 for a more ,h #,i ehens ive discussion of this point!. But one k i ia ional set of calculations can be made in an effort ; illustrate some of the value implications of 1 v i i at ive choices. In 1968 more than 1,000 people in Japan were exposed r i.i<jn dietary levels of PCBs from the accidental lamination of nee oil in what has become known as h* Yusho incident. The average cumulative dose was >r i mated to be 1 g/person. I See Chapter 3 for a r r i pt ion of this incident.) The cost of preventing l ` , ,`t dietary intake (sufficient to provide a Yusho dose l > *. , ii')0 people) by lowering PCB limits in fish would be j . .000* or 5125 p**r person. If this were as a reasonable price for r ering the magnitude of effects observed in the ''o /ictim'4 * he PDA policy *r* well as itj i ntena nee ' ` mg and tfif o' her lower co".t tPA control options '.d "ty ^ccr.CMCJl I v justified. But by this t i m of < .I'i'j, . ]u*a t i f i r~ ,* i-in fur the highest cost v>'A 1. The PC3 le/eis observed in f,sh '"" ptz. . J." the Yusho done to srall neuters of peepi* at . .rre^tl.- typical levels of fish corsurpt icn . h.r numbers of people would receive on./ I tc 2 f?r:e.v. of the Yusho dose. Thus, the above co-p>rison vc^id te valid only if the dose-damage relationship v*ere linear throughout this range. 2. The Aanechlor involved in the Yusho inci^-t -is contaminated with unusually high levels of polychlorodibenzofurans i these may have been resocnsib.e for Some pjruon ot tne ooserved effects on health (Kiyata et a!- 1977). 3. Accumulation of the 1 q dose by the Yus^o v;rti"s occurred over a shorter period than would be t/picel I j: e person whore diet con timed fish contaminated with PCD 5. Tables 2.1 and 2.2 indicate high a/eraoe or incremental costs with sorre options for recovering r:a s already discharged or capturing those l / :n .s? to prevent their eventual diseh.orq? to the er . i ro-r*. nt. This raises the question of whether it right have less costly for society to have avoided these preh. le-is by preventing the initial production e-.d jso cf ?\_2s. The cost of such en initial prospective ten :: measured by the additional cost ot achieving e;,i,dien* p iz f j.T.ar.cc icw:*i'ii,.r. eg acr^-* a ni substituting other mater isi * for those **-?.e* .-"r* redesign and substitutions ere not feasible, assess cost factors related to reduced prod-;-" * ist performance cr the maintenance of r.afev/. ca--cf accurately estimate those costs* bit -e can prov/Je a illustrative calculation. The ring" of the current, coi* '`it n- for t n. - j the u-e of PCBs in f f-ma l orn'or s and cjf ic;`. or s i " i l 1 l on to $ eiliioo p* r ye a r ' > s i : n * t a " 7 / r T- i ; r^prej rtn ts pr iff ir ; ! y f hecr at*: of *. jC . ` i ` u* . r : " '1 :i 1 '* i. s t i c'-.. v* p -o*: :" " , .in 1 i n _ r*^ * s - g t . -. ; - r ; * ho <i| n- : l . - : *. , - a - -' 7 f j r p . r r . -* , ' ' " ' *-f. fc k t-.r- * * * .i . 1.1for <i! 1 v - ;r ^ -. i'*- .5 - . "' ` h " ; ; -t th.s ir? i T* *r, t - I : n '7 t < i ^ 11 ^ fc Sr *. .- " , l a t Lie of a tire S * r**.n of , ' * ` *ca11/, at the l ir of the first i nt roduct ion of r . t-.t cohere i .1J us?. if v.e assure infinite time . . 1 i discount rate of 3 percent, the current value of ;,*?. to ban PC 3 s would have been 51.6 b:Llion. . r, i ,t production of PCBi ha* amounted to about 650 - !w` k j since 1930 O-fstin at al. 19*81- Thu* tha cost ; r . i' giain of avoiding that production and it* i*i uent damage to the environiMnt would have been ' * S-l/kg, This is et tha low end of the range of < 1 ttiectiveness measure*. He calculation suggest* that prevention can be more ^ tffective then control and cleaning up measure*! `.-is should not be interpreted as justifying a . .':iuu not to have allowed PCB production to begin for ' frisons. first, the cost* of such a ban would hay* < - i>? spared with it* anticipated benefits* Second* . t in <i`tt appropriate to think of the choice* a* being i.im' - 1 to the two alternatives of no production versus r.i.i., t ion and use in the current patterns* Instead one -.jwiid attempt to perform separate benefit-cost i. (.it ions for each type of use. tlse of PCBs in i--S'-.i systems with strict controls to prevent 0 i , itmtion of PCBs in the environment might be 1 '-tble in benefit`Cost terms* especially for thosa where PCBs are particularly valuable* As Table 2.1 i.'i, co$t* of collection and destruction for closed s .tvn uses are relatively low* The high control costs ft.- j.-',ociated with recovery of those PCOs that hava mm.i .iminated other materials or escaped to the r n * i i fitment * OCCLUSIONS 1. Substantial differences exist in the costs of -m ;d>jI options for the control of PCS* . Among the .*.! (natives analyzod--wh ich included EPA proposed ' iuiu ions on dispo^Al u~e. options for dredging il dt^pcsal of contami n.itod river sediment* and 10A ii' ( .lmons limiting permissible residues in fish ineil for human consumption- average costs varied by uMich as S orders o` m-innicude. .* . Existing f[A rea'Jlations on disposal and use are l to result in t he control of ?60 x 10* kg of * i -i^h avorjift co'.f'i of ;:i to S'1/^q of F'TK ftuj-o5f*<j rl*A r H,h(.;ps would increa: t*c _o ; -o f: l ' \ a 1 *. ' / . j. 7.: ' r f the ;n;-.sck P: 'r *-di7 * *o : ` ` tic-s a', lerna t: ves f~r drejotr.^ r- pc i - t rv *. a total of about 178 x 10* kg of Pc H s f: t pov r ; *! ! mobile river sediment at costs ranurg from s: : SJ.150/fcg- 4. It is estimated that up to 0.75 percen* of th* total PCBs released to the environrert enter *.~e hu~?r diet; thus at least 400 kg of PCBs would have tot removed from the mobile environ-en*a2 r5*rr:r ir. c: -r to achieve a reduction of 1 xg of PCDs in feed. 7r.s figure (400 kgi is derived using data fron Creit Lakes* a closed system; it nay be toe Lor f;r -ore t;**- systems. T?.\ ILr z-'.r v- TZZ :r commercially distributed fsnn could reduce ?Cj .npjI to tha American diet by about 6>! kg at a cost of le s tf*r. $l25000/kg. [A reduction cf an additional 34 cost less than $2JrC0Q/kg.> 5. Oastd on Lh* figures uted ir the analss :-s this report* FDA regulation of PC3 l;riM in fish d sti-ec for human consumption appears a pore cost-ef;*? r t? method of controlling dietary intake and huran health effects than tone of the most co-My E?A rr::'- p *. regulations on use and disposal, Sc-*? dr?-hi - ; options may be preferable to either EPA or FDA ,:r.s , 6* It is difficult to assess the b^r^fits of controlling exposure to PCBs with ;urt*v. iy i.t: hble information. The analysis in this report ?s; vte benefits as $)0/kg to $100/kg of TCBs re-^oved fror* t1-* environment or withheld from dischar*?, h-:t th;* even those figures could be high cr low by a f-ttor of 100 or more. recc^eiendatioss 1 I icv (Mkrre <h j'll d i^o a h 1 ifi 1 * 'J s * 4 ` ' ' .. tie ihcri^ni-il or .v r vi"* r-. 1 - i '-.r'-1! . conductive ncor'vic e' of ; r- ' r \ 2 A^ *1 r- .ir r C-jl. t' > l of l .f- , .1 t' : L i' - r,jr shcu I I l)*? oivi' r 1*,** j * , v- , 1 r- , . , . rtVi-l;"". ' ' J ' . -l V* * " ** 1 ' - - \ ' . ; :^ ; - f * ' ,r * - '. r r: av ; / should 1 l 'iiror. * d 1 1; r- ^ \ '' 4 t j . u i- r a s . r -1! - a :** i , f s I "0 : . >li'rry authority- "he analysis cculd then show 'IS .1 :ti analysis presented in this report--that so.me . i . is beycnd a particular agency's authority may be : . intislly more cost effective than some that lie -.ilmi the agency's Jurisdiction. A comprehensive, i . i `mated government policy toward control of r li.iants should reflect such findings. H l LSLNCES ih.'engn, R.ll. and D.A. Uelsbrod (19751 The concept of benefits in cost-benefit analysis: With emphasis on water pollution control activities. Pages 37-66, Cost-Benefit Analysis snd Water Pollution Policy. nlited by Henry if- Feshin and Eugene F- Seskin. Washington. D.C-; Urban Institute. i.tiing, L -. E. Horn, and T.J. Tofflemire 11976) Suneary of Hudson River PCS Study Results. Technicel paper In. SI. Albany, N.Y.: Hew York State Deportment of environmental Conservation. Mil ilews, H., C. Fries, A. Cardnar. L. Carthoff, J. Coldstein, Y. |tu. and J. Moore (1976) Metabolism and biochemical toaicity of FCBs and PB8S. Environ, lealth Perspect. 24:147-155. hi,iii, H., T. Kashimoto, and H. Kunita (19771 Detection ind determination of polychlorodibenrofurans in normal human tissues and Kanemi rice oils caused 1Kanemi Yusho.* J. Food Hyg. Soc. 13(11:260-265. |. i.iiut Research council (1975) Decision Making for Regulating Chemicals in the Environment. Committee on Principles of Decision Making for Regulating chemicals in the Environment. Environments 1 Studies Board, Commission on Natural Resources. Washington, O.C.: National Academy of Sciences. i:.i lunal Research Council 11977 1 Drinking Water and Health. Committee on Safe Drinking Water, Assembly of Life Sciences. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences . I.. - fork State Department of Environmental Conservation 11978) Tome Substances Impacting on Fish and wildlife. Division of rash and Wildlife Monthly Report 12, March 20. Albany, N.Y.: New York State Department of Envi ronment a I Conservation. ! A.R. and R. Turvey 11965) Cost-benef it analysis: A survey. Econ. J. 75(11:681-735. I. r. : 1 Tli", li. <15771 r c r-i. * t- - - - f- - St idy cr. Yosno ard res . S: ; . U.S. Lnv : ron-er t s l Protect wo- .'.reac,- i . 9 7 : : I Polychlorinated biphenyls 'PC3s): Cisp;:-: a-i marking. Federal Pegister 4J<31 ):7!;9-7;-: , U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (.?73`;i polychlorinated biphenyls (PCDs): "ir. :?ar t . r : .7 7 , processing, distribution m cc--or:, arc use tars. Federal Register 4 )( 110 > :24C02 -1(3L 3. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (1977a) Ettntiic Impact Assessment for Proposed Redaction o' Temporary Tolerances for polychlorinated 3ipher.. s in Food, f I'ca-jhi : 'hd na?e-j U.S. Food and Drug Adr1nistret 1 on ( 1977b) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBsl: b'hsvo: <: 1- contairinar.ta in food and food picka -ino ; it*; 11. s; reduction of t^.-norary tcicrances. Fed-.- 1 F-- us er 42(631:17487-17194 . Verier, Ire. ( 1977 ) ":crcanc-;c 1-pict s cl t`e Proposed Marking and Ciscoril Piet 11 *icr: :cr ;:,s. KT1S Report No. P3-267 eil/2'..'P. Spr : n.g f ;. 7-.: National Technical Information Service. Westin, R.A., l. Fourt, D. Dcrhey, and 3. ' c !:d - ( 19781 Microeconomic Impacts of the Prcpcsed ? H Ban Regulation." National Technical Infcmttc- Service, NTIS Report Ho. P3 231-231/) .P. Springfield, Va.: Verier, Inc. J GUIDELINES FOR EVALUATING THE POTENTIAL TOXICItr or chemicals w* ( jssaqe of the Toxic Substances Control Act, * n> lied effort was nad by various governmental 1 **> end nongovernmental groups to develop testing > l> i Mies. The guidelines describe the type of data lilted for an agency evaluation of the potential t-ise effects resulting front the manufacture and use -w chemicals. The purpose of this chapter is to i i *w ne whether the data required by the guidelines t sufficient for and relevant to making an adequate f s-s^nt of potential hazards to human health and the *. i i rwiment. t-L.-ift guidelines were examined that had been , nirii by three different sources: the Office of 'inde Programs IFJFRA, U-S. EPA 1978a), the Office I LFi.c Substances (TSCA, I'.S. EPA 1978b), and the n i ition Foimd.ii ion (1978J. 0<isic data requirements i ' (.`insistent nmonq these drafts; variations generally i i..i- <\ on the intended use of fhe chemical <e,g.# : ie versus com.-Tercia I chemica k I . A summary of the i. irntal requirements was prepared, and PCB data i implied accordingly !A;)p<?vli* Dk. ; tk-1 evaluation u.is p#*r JorflK'd as though pCOs were new ' i ts. Thus, when the requirements for particular . - :i? ??i` . ' .5 r*. - .** * - c ti ;c c ; ,, ; - -7 {tu r*p! i ni!u -it: '".s r . -i ; i- r s n* _ j \ - \ *r'. - > <OJrC: Tak^n from Penning I 1 ? JTOI . data depended or. anticipated exposure or 'J5? p^**.err> (eg., teratogenic, reproduction, or sorre chronic testing), decisions about whether to inciiHe :v- . da'a in the assessment were made based upon ir.forra* .;n regarding the original uses of PC3s ITabl* 3.17, rath*r than upon our knowledge of the ultirate .rp?s .re ari nvironrrent al distribution. Sy 1730 co~.ce re : i ?C&s B s-tv- *''* I.r* V - V '---* 1 ^ _ C t uch tl virnithii and lic-juits, in invest.-er.t -ir: castings, snd as heat-transfer '.Pennine ;">3Cl. Testing un under way to <etftino sui'.ibil ii for otter uses, such as waterproof inn, textile f lire - retardant, and artificial leather finishing, but full oral expansion of PCS use did not occur until r.ch : i'; . GENERAL TESTING REQUIACftr.NrS FOR EVALUATING TOXIC SU6STAUCES A comparison of the proposed EPA testing guid~l :.--s .u made to identify those elements core on ar--,-rafts. Test protocols were similar for rest t-ired ;r. i, TSCA guidelines followed riFRA requ; rr-tv. -. ratter clcrsly. . in. r * f....... ^ t. ccn t *- r involved the prescribed sequences of hinrd e i testa snd criteria for the choice of par'. :clI ir t"srs. Summaries of the guidelines data roqm re~ont 3 art presented below followed by corn-rents of the C11 *. e - wherever appropriate. Ch"riCp,t. Identity Product Men*, i ty_nv! pisrlo- nr of !n-:r- !.-rt tnforrition on the co-n.-ofs nf to- ; rc : s rc-|i; red . It should in-', i. M . to he - r v t ft*:- t- . v nf , :nrt'i:-ntc of -inif.i-* ,r- .cc ti.-.ii I - : - c ti . t c- in r -.i .. ' i h 1 v to i I- i f . rd . . r lor-V : 7.- j nr 11. , > : ; - chenical nan* frcip t he Chemical Abstracts . i?76 Index of Norenciar ure, or othtr well* , .! nai? s ; the Chemical Abstracts ICAS) registry number! 'he product name, trade name, and common name (i( . 1.. i hed I : (he eaper iaental or internal code number) 5 '<<e molecular (empirical) formula and the weight 1 lecular weight range for each ingredient) end 1 ihe structural formula for each organic 11 cut. ' witter'; Comments: It is uncertain whether a < i > order of presentation will be established for i his information. However, because many substances i jhuiitted for approval will be mixtures euch as - Us, the following sequence nay be siost appropriate < identifying a product; l i ::e product name, trade name, and common name) ' tne experimental or internal code nuaberi i I Jt each ingredient: - the chemical namt from the Chemical Abstract a I of Nowncjat ure > the Chemical Abstracts (CAS) registry number; - the molecular formula and structural formula (fur organic, organo-inorganic, and inorganic nopounds whenever appropriate); and * the molecular weight or weight range. J it'1 ton of Manufacturing Process Guidelines require application for approval of manufacture or new u$e, 'I., include information regarding the basic f t luring process as well as information on the itiion of the starting and intermediate materials, i of Unintentional Ingredients An indication of c inintent tonal ingredients are formed is required I .[ih information on intentionally added itv .t.s; identification of components that might be detected as present tn amounts of 0,01 '> i or more of product weight are to be included. 1 * Coiwun's: A variety of chemical i -,i unn,ints is pr^s^nt in manufactured products in c >'i'lt s less than 0.01 percent of product weight . r ' r ' " r- ! * 4 ^1 - 7 :; : *? . . r * 1 *, ccj ` C 7 : ! r r 7 ", * t c 1 \ - . r . . . 11 sirj >s *)! T".--PC" presets _ s s .ir ~ tnnt ia 11 y bole* this Ijuit, and lo-level exposures to CDFs have b*n re?or,;**4 to prod;*: tcxic effects in anirals (Zitko et al. 1973, t-isbet Oishi and Hiraca 1970, Oish: et al. 1?7, Irterr.atioral Agency for Research or. Car.crr/IASC, in press). Thus a listing of all identifiable "contaminants" or unintentionally added ir^redlents should be required to make possible a proper evaluation of the potential toxicity of new compounds, for those ingredients kp.ovr. to be or suspected of being hazardous, an expected limit within the product should be stated, ever if this limit is Less than 100 u*t/a of orodvrt : - -* . Declaration and Certification of Inqred ken t L i r_; * s Estimates of upper and lc-cr i shield established for each as well as for any impurities known tc be present. Tko Limits skouLd te presented as percentages of the total product. Cganjttec*< Comment?; In addition, gj ixt;11s should be established for irountici t!*.at ray te expected to arise during normal use cf tb* product and under specified disposal conditions. TABLE 3*2 Amounts of Chlorodibenrofurans Detected in Cosvnerclel PCB Mixtures Araclor U4S 12se 12*0 101S Civf>tcn A-40 Phc-Aociof OP-6 Kanechior 109 4 on iCO fc 9 ) yg/g i.e l. 7 1.1 r:0 34 11.4 1 .9 l .9 ;. o o D ificu rui ` ^ ' *i  : . 1 i{ i 1 Ket h'jds General r* gw i f *.^rt 5 i n-1ude 1 i ' icnj of analytical pethcds (or references to 1/ recognized analytical techmqjes in the `d Scientific literature) for detec tmg and ` the concentration of ingredients or .`es- The techniques should include extraction ',i:iesr confirmatory methods# and validation lil-?Si including background lor blank) values and s' i / values; and they should be capable cf detecting - * - uring ingredients or impurities in quantities of i -nenl or more of total product weight. . t-n t tte_`s Comments: In addition to methods for i ' analysis, methods for detecting and 1,1 l''imirung ingredient or impurity levels in 'visonmentat media should be required for 11 ^guent use in monitoring programs. Detection ;j.f .Measuring capabilities must be in the range of \ " 1 ojglicaUy significant Quantities, if they are 1 rather than at a limit of 0.01 percent of i < 'i'ict weight . J 1 - and Chemical Data A '1required on the physical and chemical t < i n`s of the technical grade of each active 1' 5 "'"t present in the product. These must include i "-lor, melting point, solubility, stability, i i i water partition coefficient, physical state, *i or specific gravity, boiling point, vapor 1 * pd, storage stability, flammability, oxidizing i ng action, explosiveness, miscibility. 11 Vi corrosion characteristics, and dielectric |J 1 wf` voltage. Tho PlfRA guidelines apparently mj* data on all these properties for each new m tJ TSCA requirements are more flexible, r-lj.i'# on use of the che.-nical, testing condition, and in measurable parameters. < rui-1 t t ee ` s C` TO^'nt s : Argoirfil di t a should be 1 1 U-- *nt to as-,rising the hazard potential of the d-\t.intc. Tiiey should t* [ resented for known t quill's as w-*ll .litre ingredients. In the r>rii <[ a s *, sir tit of M*e vn'.'m, ca l * s . i c >.iirnonta l fat**, the rear * ions of intrrest a r*. th.it (Itttniuiu1 t h*- stability oe a compound ot :\`2: s* i i *r,i .-:*** r a i - , cr ; r! ; 7 - I . T.`e stability as3*ss-ftnt pay br* . t c ; .g , dised rn a conriuiscn of physical ar.i chen.-.il properties of the scostacce with those of o(.k?r Chemicals whose en/1ronmenta 1 prcperties and effects are known, or the analysis may be quant 1ta*ive, based on models and quantitative st rue ture-act 1 / 11 relationships. Mobility of the substance in the envuorrr.: cart be judged qualitatively fren its phys.cil propert.es, such as water solubility, bciiirj 7 ~ 1 rt or vapor pressure, or octar.ol/water partition also, based on physical and cV^;:il proper t 1s av wel 1 as additional data, such as the vc ] a t 1L 1 z j t1 -jn rate constant/re-aerat ion rate conrtan: nm, partition coefficients lor natural std:" iU (! . . h et al. 1977). A variety of reactions including . :U :'r( reduction, hydrolysis, elin;net ion or may affect the substance in the environ.-.-nr.. The science of reactions and re let 1 vi t ies ;s -.t-iJl largely in the empirical st.ige, but it i 1/ possible to predict appropriate p ithways by considering functional grown present in th arolecule. When reaction rates h<-e been fer suitable model compounds, corr.*]ot tons cf reactivity based cn electronic anl st*n: fjv.t r-. car* be u.tcd ti ;<.`.1*4./ \n*ues. Aitn , physical-organic chemistry provides tcol ; for _t- 1 ; predictions, sore data on model cn-;-crd; > r. ~ ^ ; <?d to incrci: ; the reliability *j. the fc:u ,. A wore 'crplex situation c'ccrs photochemical reactions. Mere aynt, [ . .'.is can genrrl)y predict fren t.'* f met ,o-> . ijic pr-. t - : r. a molecule? -in*? fr r t*v* ,-. i ( :r : ultraviolet sp^ctr-.n vhi^h is r il I* . predictable frjr n*1 > r'" v r ; 1-* mo J cu 1 e will ,it>sc ri <r ? 1 .-i c l 1 ; r ; 1 J t " ^ 1 * * : 1 * f ho* Ol <^ac t l . jn \ * .* t,l - * : h 1* *, * h* 1 * ; " t rr lie f 1 c -f. r 1 _ i j ^ r . g I ^; r ^ 1 * 1 r * ; 1 t f .: t s .nf- j Mii i'.l*1 t c- .| i . - r I - - i l <? , **' t <- i'. litt*. <_r> alii.- - '. -r. (' : 1 : ; hi `V - .i1 . . . ; - 1 * - 1n i.,; ' hir various reaction channels. 'oereas i-any i ' *uchemical reat t ions have quantum yields less ......... unity land most are accorparied by considerable e-n-i.jy wastage, so that a large fraction of the : /Nt absorbed is simply degraded to thermal e.,i*tgy), there are some that produce free radicals 'it may thus involve 1 ight - induced chain reactions, i i iin lengths in sues reaction! are complicated Ii iii lions of initiation, propagation, and it, -inaiion rates and therefore, are not predictabla w i. any degree of conf idance In uncontrolled or. iio.wntt. For these reasons it generally will !> necessary to do axper imental work on tha assessment of persistanca and the hasards posed by in'u them tea Is in tha environment. , 11 i.mental Oats imposed guidelines require a variety of data with iii l. to evaluate the potential environmental fate of a . 1,'inical, Both rirRh and T5CA require the types of . 'i inscribed below; differences between the proposed j. ii i intj are noted wherever appropriate. ' .il Degradation Degradation studies era required i-iitrinune the rate of decomposition end to identify i - ..i <1 residues that may adversely affect nontargat i .in isima. Oxidation and hydrolysis tests noting pH- ni t eng.erature-dependent properties must be made in .1, . .I and aguatic environments. The TSCh |i., ir-nenti specify that only acid- or base catalyzed i ir.ns need to be considered. Atmospheric oxidation , me to be performed only on organic chemicals with . i i pressures greater than 10 mm Hg at 10'C. ..in ion tests in aqueous solutions are required for tyc soluble chemicals Isolubilrty > 1 mg/1 at 20'C). Photolysis should indicate intensity and wavelength i i nfiation. Data must include a material balance, M Lite estimate, and the rdent 15icatton of each i . i'i.,'luct present in amounts greater than 10 percent i ti.c |.coduct weight, TSCA exempts from photochemical 1 ,u lit ion testing those chemicals that have extinction ' ! I ii irnts of less than 0.1 M'cm1 at wavelengths . i than 290 nn. _- * . r 1 r" , i : . 4 e -c * . - 4 ; - ` * * i. . - - . r \ . nna cn n;frclysis, ouic.io.i, lei, and photo degcadat ion should be presented as applicable. Qualitative predictions of potential deersdation and toxicity of new chemicals are possible through II! identification of functional groups in the molecule, 12) knowledge of general degradation processes, and (!) toxic properties of similar chemicals- The confidence of such predictions will improve with a better data base. However, although they will prove valuable in deteraiining priorities in the sequence of toxicity tests, the pcadictiors cannot replace the toxicological testa themselves. Tfcs f-lo ol i.!.- -,i*.mic*i unaergoing readier also must be considered. The environmental problem does not end when the chemical itself is transformed, unless it is completely mirer.il ired or converted to species available for norr.a 1 tiological utilisation. Transformation products nay be mere persistant and more hazardous than the parent compound, and thus must be dealt with in any analysis. Biodegradation Microbial metabolic transfor^at.jn nay be tha major route of degradation in soils and :n the aquatic environment. Transformation data must be obtained under aerobic and anaerobic conditions ;n both soil and water. Information regarding the chemcal `s affect on microorganism development (bacter. a, algae, diatoms, etu.i > required. Data concerning the disruption of such activities as cellulose decomposition, nitrogen fixation, sulfur transformstion, and CO, efflux are particularly important. In addition an assessment of potential disruption of wastewater treatment systems must be arada. Conmi11* s Cpmncit s : Microbial 4"-;ra-iat ion is probably the eia )or chi-mi^al transformation ru-ite in soils and aquatic s-dincr.t . In addition tr t re required data, estimates should be made of tie bt odeg radabi 1 i t y idle* (i>iol o.ji c 11 o,y;en d-j;ud I g d ys (/chmea 1 oxygen d.vn.ind - B00,/C0o I m ! c-'cpv.c i hi 111 y with biobiguil wtiie tte.ii--nr ^ : C,, * bO percent inhibition cf irdiotrd slcdij' i ur !. i l ' t Jn ; ard an r e r cl-1 c r .^nii :t ior.i i t i, : e-i I iO '.t li^s of biodegradat ion interred :ates should be i , . ired for compounds with a low biodegradabiIity >1 ir'/> or a low compatibility with waste treatment, > ui'th. ii ,' Movement of a product through the environment . j-iir contamination of food webs, loss of usable l mil water resources, end loss of wildlife habitats; i j pq iirementt include infonsation on leaching, v ili'ir, adsorption/desorption, and water-dispersal /. it its. ,< simulation Data must indicate the extent of iriiiation and potential adverse effects on nontarqet i.ivis I in particular, agricultural systems and hi Hesidue levels and rate of uptake in plants must l< i, iincd according to the TSCA guidelines. Fish 11 . .i-iiu 1 ation studies should use flow-through and i systems with sunfish and catfish as the FIFRA ,.iled test species. TSCA requirements specify i fish bioaccumulation should be assessed when ,K,l/water partition coefficients are greater than ' i when solubility in water is lesa than ff.l x ih ti 20T and degradation data indicate inirnee. Minnows and sunfish are preferred species ' TSCA guidelines. m.ittn'i Comments: At least two accounts of uiitionihips between octanol/water partition l.efficient and solubility in water have been j ;Iished. The relationships derived by Chiu et al. ; i'i 111 and Moriquchi et al. (I97i! qive solubilities i t 0 9*6 x 10' M and 0.S2I x 10 > M, respectively, i, a partition coefficient of 1.000. Tha 1.Utilities correspond to an accumulation I .,<1 ncirnt of 80 to 100 (Chiu et al. 1977 1 . The ; >i.felines could be modified to require I : n cumulation tests with fish only for those unds with a partition coefficient of 10,000, - 11 spond i nq to a solubility of 0.02 n 10* M to n i * 10 > M. and an accumulation coefficient of : refried :ij- Lev*.*Is for i-aej-t! . : ; r*' ^ A. Acute Tin let ty a. Shoft-t*rm Sc teentng c. Cnviro^ntil chiaist ry 1 - a C S 14 1 * i * 1 A, Chrar.ic TcjKScity S Pcproducti/t Tests C. occw-jiion Cl Hi A. ti.i;}- ntn ? * , S iru1*1 ion a. *v-t StrOl . C T * S c. Lonq-: m C v r ` 1 , r ?'. ici i ocj r | 7-t t % The FIF8A prcoosed uuldelines of - . hierarchical testing ichcc? for hazard assees-*nt. Table 1.1 summarizes the anticipated r.ove-ent through the various tests. Tha e/tent to which advancement through tha hiararchy Is required would depend on two factorsi results from te3ts in the previous level (e.g., if there is acute toxicity, proceed to level 11; :f there la no acuta toxicity, no further testing will be required unless environmental chemistry suggests persistence, in which case reproductive tests shojld be performed!; and anticipated use patterns (e.g., if use does not indicate repeated human exposure, tests are not required for long-term toxicity, teratogenicity, or repreductice impairment 1. The guidelines drafted under TSCA offer i basis fur assessing potential risk associated with anticipate! use of rev chemicals. TSCA proposed reconmendatiocs do rot include a rigid testing sequence. Manufacturers ate given the responsibility for detercinirg which tents should be perfumed to dt-*lop the essential ' f ; e : s data" with which scientifically suuri as s ;n e * s of ruk may bo made. Two s- tt cf studies are d' ,cr.be.*: reference studies and haz.uu uua hi.c ion studies. Reference studies are sugg-1 r*-d for ail rew cr--i:culs unless the ninuf jeturer can low th^t set- are rot t` l"v.mt to a particular subr-uno; (e.g.. ch--ic.il - -rr-'diates and mini iv -a tl.it arc j.roi'...~ed rl * - 1 r- 1 in rlo.frl Thu r * fv i . n t; 2 - j' 'ite toxicity studies, - : ,il'f hionic toxicity studies. . i . produc 11 on studies, . ~ i stolenic studies. 'taqenic studies, end ! `t ten predictive oncogenic studies. evaluation studies include chronic toxicity end > )ty tests. Draft guidelines recommend these iH from reference studies ere not edequete to . . . !. t potential toxicity of the new chemical, or when .lie he lard evaluation it considered essential. )ti- difference between FI FRA end TSCA proposed , ii.oi-nts can be summariied as follows; - i i IRA establishes a set sequence of tests with ; i ,1.1 points for movement through the sequence; i:.i'A allows the manufacturer to determine the cm and sequence of testmq deemed necessary for i.t .tically sound haiard evaluation; exemptions or i ii imes from recommended tests may be permitted if `e justification can be provided. .. i il descriptions of the tests specified in both i ` n lines are presented in Table 1.4. lists within the FI FRA scheme proceed f roe basic . .i.. i at ory tests to applied field teats. Beyond tests ! ,i te toxicity, wildlife data are required only when i -in. os of use suggest exposure in the habitat. When . <- [ it terns indicate no anticipated exposure or a i,.:mi 1 level of risk, data from chronic teste ere not ! .ilfil. fi with the hazard evaluation tests for wildlife < i ..no risk, the data required for asseetinq risk to i i.i'si ir animals and humans also would depend largely i i. anticipated use patterns and results of acute i.i. L l y tests . In addition to the FIFRA tests for animal toxicity - .! nlion, TSCA requires assessments of effects on i i..,i5, both monocotyledons and dicotyledons. The . ... ..ended tests determine effects on plant growth and . i<`i minat i on. The TSCA guidelines concentrate ............ efforts on assessment of risk to hiiman health *. s i.. not consider risk to domestic or commercial ........ .Ii. re r *: -nr t-oto evaluation scr.ti.t; 1. Physical and cheriral properties apparently are not used to itlernin* the approprute testing route tor each che.-r.cal except for deciding -nether reproductive toxicity tests should te (er for.-ed; a.td 2. Use patterns combined only with results Df acute toxicity tests arc inadequate means for selecting further appropriate tests of rex chemicals. For example, in this evaluation format chronic data are required for human health assessment only if use patterns suggest repealed exposure over a significant nor t ion nf the h*-alifespan and acute toxicity results are positive, similarly, terategenict/ and reproductive studies are necessary only if significant exposure to hudni is expected. The problems associated with these two points are discussed in the following pages using PCBs as the test case. The relative flexibility of the TSCn guidelines reflects the fact that ro single, rigid test.rq scheme is suitable fer the evaluation of all chemicals. In the opinion of this Ccirn> 111 r e , trie flexibility is good. However, the decision tc allow exemptions from the test requirecents or to r> gure additional testing should not be left to an individual but should be made by a group of exper-s with backgrounds in chemistry, toxicology, ecology, and agricultura. ASSESSMENT OF PCB HAZARD An analysis of PCB data (Appendix 01 cc-pited ft.ll .ir.) the criteria of F1FRA and TSCA propo-i-d g-ndelir- , lends to the conclusion thir pit; f-i .:V'ni . . i ir' lihcly to accumulate. PCOn do not iff'-ir r rticulaxly toxic for sh.rt tern , i,.jt r- i is *' ',i.h;ccl to i nl or pr' t a' . or, lior.or ; - il I" ' . . 1 or. a,iiic:p.it"l piti - r;i o t ur.e ( f-it i e lit, - - * pc.l d I'. T r l but l>r in tin; IT.. . ; j tv * n t a- 1 > t fir rn` m r. h r Oirih ijm- of 1r ; m- r :. : 11 r 1 r / r : J . table 3.-1 FIFRA and T5CA Data Requirements for Product Hazard Evaluation (Spp * species) *eic*aCc ie f i. l * 31 tSitf stt: IUI kliL .M'* hmhi ra* nt*trn" rT H rfdkf* iivtiii <uMnrMv'>MM)<) 1**1**** r**>i r> iwvtt i iWiiHI *<a *0*. rini *m *?** *r *^*i***^*i > ' - I .** i l I uf | Ti >>(( ,t '. ita a* >i *r Ki \ * . r -** t * ' aireuril bf<4-144/1 M *I4> * "W t* U'tB ** itri#t >at*Ji e Ml *. *.f* .... a > I* . i It ' *>r >4^1 .1*4 rfS *at -** t * M. iU **!*<* If l**H iaait*r 4ant il*tll: <vi Awatti i o* ii | ii ' a* aflati* i**l u *ar>tfii**i lM(. iJ aJf*tt Hrt'vH i* **fM|i r I*f)f** if*fK4vl**ri *H* '1* taw* imi fa-tai** *1!(;* ***+ r#a*fi*M!***if* (a*l>J*f*4 ** (IN'*?1 i** tin* rtaimi wL#a 1 **4 ana. i l tf* i*4i r*K bli'iatl it f'Hti** tr<HM** *Mreia*j4*ta: a** (!** a-t*r itfHiM Ifk# ri <na t ittllMtin *' IktfMtl l**IM jravi* t*C* *'*** ) > I. * *( ****** 'll* a*)ftreat tlrl*ae * ^*i tC*a * i ih i. tm at. "M >H aft treat taii* fjntr.t flHiTI * a 11 t T I r ft einiipe i*t* ret* |il*f it Hit wait tof**** ffirrtBtfW lattlli) MMI * Mtti it lv*M t* *r if)i if 4i*Mi** i *Mi* |tf*4<L 44 4at, ) a: an M* |4t n-a tear ptiata. mitral >*-**4ai ** toniuu- in< ifi-tl W(. 1. | ***'>! Iff *M**tr4 ftt *11 at* f-- P'**** r*lti.-*l iw*: **-1 **t ( ima TM* MfiNMt m aaa fapir a Ii i t .a atirifiiifa **41 r*la ftc* *Vl t*M a* Ml*'**t< t*tia 11 *% title* a* Jlfai* raa(i*| fji^a **l .**aa t |t rt*tiej : .i ,a* t if i-ra* tv I i *| .. tl a* * * m Hrfur<tr4 *a total r 11 ir i ?<.* i: iti 1 t ) is U -ii fflpp51;s x; x* jj-.iil* j:i t l * , r. : 1 2 t js t iV.?ins d .1 4 - : t : i : *. _ - of , ,f k: r:-:;sui. TSCfc r4 JU' :r,ts cjl t for -7-n <?;<ten?./e testing (i.e., reproduct 1 on, sobc.ircr.ic, ?t:. ] withoux consideration of use patterns or results of other tests. Ji III Hi it; r:i; I; sit::!: lililiiil! flFB T**tinq_ Results The conclusion niched regarding the potential hazard I I Ui! ii, rath g!!nl *5 posed to the environment by PCBs based on FIFPA :* requirements is questionable. Acute toxici`_/ is *1 observed only for some aquatic invertebrates, but these species ere not required test animals in the FITPA guidelines. Based on anticipated use patterns, the expected human and environmental exposure to the a chemical would be primarily (res protective coatings. Some risk would be anticipated in occupational situations, but these exposures could b-j carefully :t t n ;it t.t Mzi 11 ii*i . I 1 controlled. If the anticipated use had been limited to heat-exchangers and closed electrical equipr-nt, the testing data might not have suggested potent.al hazard \fo Hit rv. ltiV. , ; to human health or the environment. In such a case PCBs might have "passed" the toxic substance evalja'icn. The Hi Stfil'ji: h\l\% JiLtiss! 3Ji s;ij ' aggregate deta presented m Appendix D and the world* experience of more than *0 -/ears of use of this ,.I !:!-.! i,.L s"; -,i ft: n.,, j!!*| chemical indicate wldespreed environmental exposure anl possible serious heelth problems. The discrepancy is Hit due to the feet thet the current F1F?,\ protocols for. J * * sis* mw: !!:* f I ; r! e i&H=i; Jtr \'0z '* :*t \\X ; ::'i -JU t <*> | .sif;-;!*-. li*J; iiiiij'iii iihi herard evaluation relate the degree of required test inc Cw iiiif(fvii u*v- F(iw rCb experience p;ov:2es a jss llI test of the appropriateness of relatln? test !U ii'.l; Iti 3 S *;*** 311*1 requirements to protection! of chtsicil uses. The question of whether projected use patterns ~ i v an adequate indication of environment*) exposure is complex. The use patterns anticipated prior to manufacture clearly do not give an advqusttt i--press ;n Of the hasus'ln associated with a-rcid .-ntai rr If - -> t ^ 1 'I \\ environment djrirg raanuf *ct ur^ and us**, or of ll extended problems of n /1 roruit^nt a) r*iC4i? fror- 'f equipment containing PCBs. The u^s uf ;' u_ *ior l**JOr illustrated in Tatie J.', it*/ rsu'j^s* T-'i ?::posute throj;n di.pcsul of prr/!..c` s ' * i. r%vs P(2s. b.it ihe:.e j.es still do not sutler,. * r' 11 e X to M* * XM M MM X MM MM * M MM MM MM : ` -"'k ' ' " . * . -' ' - - i ' -. pi 1 !i 1 Au 1 e r l c l jl i t Ir. e i: 1 1 - ~< r^nchff* began noticing reprod .it i ve ccr;l;cn io-; nl excessive kit noitllity among tSit s*oct. Ar. i: problem was evident by 1967 , resulting an unprecedented 80 percent increase in iitorn mortality. Subsequent investigation indicated a r.trcnq tr Li", iiritip between kit isortelity erd the percents* of coho siI-dt. in the mother's diet, as well as the duration cf feeding with a salmon diet. Factors such as rancidity, pesticide conteninat lor. end streury poisoning were suspected but were - :ct to i;,-,:. .Lute to the problem. Experiments with the mink diet -ere conducted. an! the results indicsted that diets of ]Q percent saloon produced the reproductive problems. Further investigation ruled out salmon per se as the cause, because other species of Creat Lakes fish caused similar adverse effects. The following evidence strongly implicated PCBa as the causative factor: ( Jd u .) 3h v i * ojj p a ijtp o u high PCB residue levels of Lake Michigan coho salmon; sensitivity of mink to PCBs; similarity of reproductive carpiications in mink fed coho salmon and those fed diets contaminated with PCBs; Similarity of clinical ii' "J observed in mink that died while on diets containing coho salmon and diets containing Pdi; and accumulation of KB residues in air.l tis-,.- Bice Oil Contain rat ion in Japan IKnrutsmc ct a I in;;. World !l<-alth Organisation 19761 In June 1HC, Jap i se *S - h- a -* ^ ^ q u ?# mu m --9 ---. t rt. c wm c u 4 :> w h . u o -01 V 4,j c9> 1 C *- > >4 CVU u (r R q 4 H#C o t> VC O- iI I *# *' = SSie 4 *a- *i U9 6. dl patients suffering from chloracnc began appear.eg it the Fyshu University Hospital. Cy October of rh.it yer to., lii canq was of epidemic proportion;, involving more thin 1.300 people in 71 pref-cti res in the ..atcrn rectiot o! Tin, Tht exposure (mu cjimn to then patients .is "r..r ption of rice oil prodn-.cd in February, ' ?6B . ' ^-ti^nion of the rt-tn-i f .in ur i n-| prtvil'-riil.-l < 1' ---1 . heit er.cfiangc r , iti n resulted .n oil ' "in with Fanii Mac .100, a til ;(.ir.'nr "f t no . ii re I b i phen y 1 . in add it i 01 to s ' ptgns ' i mi I with chioracne, clinical signs included a " i -eiur t rmiaimsct and alkaline phosphatase, i i. . 1/ symptoms and chronic bronchit is-I ike ! : ns. decrease in conduction velocity in peripheral nerves, diminished growth in young males, and ii,i(e I skin on newborn#. !vi-en February end March of IliB, a disease .' l in chickens in the same section of Japan. More i -;o'>. 000 animals died. Clinical signs Includsd i. i meathing, droopiness, and decreased egg i ii m. Autopsy indicated subcutaneous edema, 1 --1 icardium, ascites, pulmonary edema, muscular r . .'iis, and a mottled appaaraaca of the liver. i ti iations revealed that the chicken feed had bean , .1,1 with the rice oil contaminated with Kanechi or iiuisequent study of the Kanechlor indicated large ii i - of chlorodibenrofurans present. The aatant of '.meal's involvement in the Yusho symptoms ia not 'i itiolved. VJ, kludge Problem in Bloomington. Indiana (HcCjoskey .1 11181 Residents of Bloomington, Indiana, had lining sewage sludge in fertilizing their gardens l i, ,h concentrat ions of PCBs were reported in the i<j|- i., lilt. An investigation to locate the source licJ that a local electrical firm was using PCBs aa liiric in capacitors. The company had been iiir ling wastes contaminated with PCBs into the ii ,i ii sewage system. By January 1976, sludge ii-:, had mean PCB levels of *79 mg/kg and samples of i (.filed with the sludge had mean concent rat ions of ,1.'4 , k , j!* < n h officials conducted clinical aval oat ions on in the electrical firm, their families, and r.iu^on residents who had used the PCD-contmstd i for fertilizer. Serjm PCB levels, alteration in > cellular function, and plasma triglyceride levels PkAdiined. Although wean serum levels were ii*ky high compared to U.S. population groups i i<m s 72 families 14 HKj/kg; residents It ii; U S- population 5 mg to 20 mg/kgl no correlation MU* detected between the serum levels and the : - ^ of y*ar* using sliidge, total pounds used, or lin^ wo last use. setun levels of selected liver . nM'fPdjed s tgn f f i can t l */ with PCB levels in -f - i triglyceride levels. r - * I : C n' ; n !. r ,, : 'MMU*' : g '(ji Tif ,,ud sen P: /r r hid teen bci.ccn 19< 2 to tin r;l liJCs by PCI n t (refi General Electric eanuf act ur 1119 pl.mti a r fert and Hudson rails, averaging about 11 ig ytt dry. The long-term contat1nation has polluted virtually the entire river bed for many miles downstream. Button sediment below Fort Edward reportly contains 5*0 to 2,980 ,g/kg. The average concentration of ?CSs m bass, perch, and Bucket Is 62 mg/kg to 1)5 mg/Vg. Cont ami nation of Fish ftea | it 1 Patstcn ? ur tjyi_Pi a r. c fJaroalovasv 197fI In 1977, a poultry firm began noticing high chemical levels in tissue samples taken from their chickens. The feed supplier was asked to help in pinpoint Inn t' *ri the Culprit was feurd to be fish steal contaminated by PCBs that had been used in foraiulating the chicken feed. The fish acal had been prepared and stored in Puerto Rico at a Ralston Purina plant warehouse where two electrical transformers containing PCBs were stored also. Contamination of the me ai occurred during a f.;t in April 1977, which damaged the electrical equif-rer.c and allowed PCBs to leak out. inter from (ire hes-ts evidently mixed with the PCB fluid and soaked into the stored fish meal. Tha contamination was not detected and tha fish meal was subsequently sold. As a consequence, 6 00,000 chickens and 15,000 dozer, eggs were destroyed. Some of the contaminated feed did not actually contain the PCB fish, meal, but the feed had been processed with tha same aiachtnery as the fish 1r-.1i. It is clear from these Lilwstratlcns that croycted patterns of use may not provide an adequate nlicii nn of the eventual distribution of PCBs in the cnvirenrnt or the extent of the hazard this distrihut tor. car. p;t. These incidents were the result of menuIittvr;rg in! disposal procedures--factors not considered in proposing guidelines for testing new chemicals. Toxic effects of PCOs in workers expon-d ,n l hr . r occupations were noted as early as 1717 and night hi,(r-n anticipated even earlier i.-o-n the effects of ( !r-r is.itrd naphthalenes dcrect.-d doling Viirlci ..it ! ' bts 1r- 4 9 ) . had the ^--arcress rf toxic crtnicil: ' ~ r ' n as w i'ii*-.pri*ad as i( ir. iu:;enM/, it- e *v-il`l hi 'i* be-*:: ?ot'. tiian suff e itr.i ro ha ' ' 1 ''* ' v ifaclure an I u * of prr,s or. at I ?< - - demanded detailed testing that would have i i the chemical's throne and more subtle toxic . ti.ni !*ivi u . : :il.)1 and chemical properties of PCB* indicate the ' h i. i of these compounds to persist as well as their i "-accumulation potential. The data compiled i ii i") the Reference Set requirements and the , i ! use of PCBs in protective coatings, which wouid iii in some exposure of humans, Justify the ... ii'iit for Hazard Evalusticn Studies. These probably would detect at least some of the toxic - ' - of PCBs. However, it should be noted that most i - Inonic tests proposed to assess human health i . ,ii In require use of species (rodent plus ona other : ii. .ill that would not adequately reflect the human i i response to pcB exposure. The common laboratory .. ,i in.msls (rats and doqsl do not always respond to . i1 1' isure in the same manner as humans, and Table J.B I .> is that no one species exhibits "typical" human i:, t or>* of pcB poisoning except in the case of in .jiiiict ive tests. Thus proper choice of tha teat . becomes important when evaluating tha potential i. 11 1 of any substance. M>hough PCBs have been detected in the u.S. husan i .iii ios (tuti and Strasaman 197%, Humphrey 19771, 1 ,have been no documented cases of PCO intoxication ! i. imans other than those related to industrial i ante. Effects, when detectable, have been subtle i licr than overt. For the most part, the proposed sets f inn for FITRA and TSCA are designed to detect only . . intoxication. Subtle effects are not considered i ,11 in the scheme proposed for TSCA and only . : , rurally in those drafted by FIFRA. i i , vitirndations , 1 ,|s the I vo most important properties of a chemical '. ,rlaie lo potential ha.irds lo health and the .. .i i-.ii'n', ,m' II s ni-rs i st i-ncp and I ipoph i I i c 11 y . ii 11 Horns'1 in th ip tests rhat nfcr.tify these Ji .1', i IPS Should a 1 , t I il I ir pi I r. to the ineviliblll4, *, i j QfiPPii 111 ' :i4 nuri.il i >n .Hi.J heal l h pi Ob I "ns . *. 4 if Chroric fcedisp Aquatic 5p*ciei Trre*tri*l Specie* TtfAtofM ici t j *r i ibtlitv VCt r' f ^7 t 1 n ; > f ri'!). _ i j *. l-.-li '3f * ,t: . * i- J-S .!/ tifcryo to a i City tvKJcv. at i AOLM * 1 | ve ( che*>qe j ; S 10 hicb rhlonn? ctlaimnq product*, IQO ^CO flat. - io*r Liver chamo*, tr reproductive effect*. lOO-SOi ..q/q Pf-anfccy - Vulho i/rpton, altr;rd rt^foduc1 Ini 'ycUi, h ;f>f-t*$*ic and liberation, 2 . 4 - ( n q Cbicr.e-i - ao-e norpholoqic d^for-it reproduction (jrcliftt, .I ede-a, JO-SO *q/q linii * dote response re 1 at i- m qro*th and reptoduct iont 1) v/q pelican * tor* hepatocellular charge** 100 q Ooo* * reduced qrouth, son* Uvr chanqea, 100 *q Wildfowl - eom# reproduction char;#*. nt with iptcin, ^o-lCo bi/q Cffecte seen in avian specie*. tf-IW *9/9 myUt * Oncogentcly OoeiRMl lettal Pu*ai ;nni - n**qat4\e r*utt* Aim* ten - 1221. 4 cK, aiqnt f icant 1 / Tg-j^n; y-tl *ich chlof :na* -*f - -- -js - , U.",'>T * 1 C J* : J * j r- , , t. . \ .j \ b* emphasized, however, that evidence of I i,,r r sistence or nonl>pophiJirit y does not suggest Jack i i.irard potential. i i/stcii, chemical, and environmental chemistry data vi . fficient to determine persistence and lipophilic ji pities of chemicals and can be used to predicate i' . ntial bioaccumulation and environmental <i i i ibut ion. Therefore, the Committee recommends a I.1:.Tiered evaluation scheme sa illustrated in Figure j l. This scheme requires first i > chemical identification of the parent compound, . (Cities, metabolites, and degradation products; . determination of phyeical and chemical proparties; Mi I assessment of environmental and bioscreeoing i-,r it-term tonicity) test results for parent compouad -m >.J me tabol i te s, m tins point, if the data indicate that the chemical is i. -iii ly persistent or lipophilic, or both, its i fiopiftent for large-scale use should be scrutinised .i . fully and possible alternatives considered. On the i . is of the scrutiny, the chentcal may be either ( ^}eLted or subjected to additional testing. If the iitf.t indicate that the chemical is not highly persistent m lipophilic but there are indications of potential i. u tuiii the chemical should be subjected to additional testing. If there are no indications of potential l.a/ards, the chemical may be approved for manufacture Ai. l use , Additional assessment of hazard potential for all nuiiiect substances should include; r development of a mass balance mode 1 of the ! vential movement ol the substance through the v. jronment using data regarding physical and chemical Ii pieties and anticipated source function parameters; . ident if icat ion of "problem areas'* or sites of iki r>iitial chemical accumulation 4c.g., agricultural j. it.,!-., urban areas, marine or freshwater sources, or { i.> i mat ions of these); > specification of test! to assess toxic effects v . ! 11 i (> t hn "prob lem areas." r< ,i guidelines should be formulated specifying ; i i cental i ve species for oath environmental medium and I l ) Id Rfc J i f uUijh-ifl Hiicnie cN*immcni j*'?*"*'? p"!iariiJ rt , i<j in those species most appropriate for **s*ss-ng tonicity to huniins. Specified tests should incl-de t 1 . r eproduc t j ve altei i* lar/.; 2 . p i *. ho 1 oq i c a I else.., a -i ' * j \ t / ior .11 iir d i 1 i>.i . r r *: r t . 126 i-.j such an arp^oach, industry could con-:*ntr*t* . < i rig efforts on ident if/ina effects in specif:^ For example, if the model predicts primary il Accumulatior in the sediment of rivers And Ure manufacturer could concentrate on assessment i is within these systems, using quick screening r- c other media when results indicated possible i .iticn of land or ir Monitoring After A i has been Marketed should be required to keep , and government Alert, to unexpected ii ii ions, end AdditionAl tests and the 'filiation of appropriate control measures could be \r \ as necessary. 'J'TS 11, B.J. and R.K. Ringer (1977) Current status of n toxicity to mink, and effect on their -p iJuction. Arch, Environ. Contarn. Toxicol, 4:279- if., V.H. Freed, 0-H, Schmedding, and ft.L. it ( 1977 ) Partition coefficient and , . ..cumit! at ion of selected organic chemicals, . iJLin. Sc i,, Teghnol . 11M7S470, iion Foundation (1970) Approaches for Oevsloping * >t tn<j Guidelines Under the Toxic Substances '.it i o I Act. (Unpublished) i: ti. , L.J. netting, and J. Tofflemire (In press) >* pioblem of PCBs in the Hudson River system. The fentific basis for public control of environmental tv hazards, symposium, 1976. Mew York Acad. Sci. u ce Week. (To be published Spring I979J ivy, H.E.B. ( 1977) Evaluation of Chanqes in the i -t l of Polychlorinated Biphenyl in Human Tissue. , l Repoit on FDA Contract No, 22J-7J-2209. i- i iqan Department of Public Health, i ,< tonal Agency for Research on Cancer llAAC) (In i i:$ >) Monographs on the evaluation of the uti i oogenic risk of chemicals to humans 10,'4)-*1OJ. (or r*Jf.)be in or ^dor 1 979 ) . fi B. (194*1 ~,he Analytical Chemistry of -ti.trial Poison^, Hazards, and Solvents. Hew York; * '. i' i e nee Tub 11 sho r s , Inc. i . v ; A y , R. 11978) Contamination of fish 11 wl)h ' H l-irks FDA Sludy o( mibh.ip A Ralston Putin i 1 i .. i all St . J . U, July I . i j t i i . . . 7 Y : i- . : t , 7 . )'>.r Jt'1 ^ a - ! A. . : i : 1 " 7 2 I i: p ; iF - n l o 3 a l sit;), o? Vjsl.j, a ; . - i r i is"1! t/ r./tstittn of r:cc o.', c:t` i~ir,atttd with a cottrersul brand of polychlorinated biphenyls. Environ- P.eallr. p,tspcct. 1:119-128. Kutz, F.M. and S.C. Strassman (1975) Residues of polychlorinated biphenyls in the general population of the United States. Pages 179-14), Proceedings of National Conference on Polychlorinated Biphenyls, ttoveeiber 19-21, 1975, Chicago, Illinois. Repoi t No. EPA-StO/6-75-004. Washington, D.C.: US. Environmental Protection Agency. McCloskey, F.X., T.O. Middleton, R. Schneider. J. VanDeet, W.T. Paynter, R.p. Telle, and C.J. Cloeck !1??3) polych.l cri.'.-t. J ..il.c./i e.-uosurr - Ind.am. Morbidity and Mortality Ke"kly Report 27(121:99-100. Moriguchi, 1., Y. Kanada, and K. Komatsu (1976) van Dr Waais volume and the related parameters for hydrophobic!ty in structure-artivity studies. Che-i. Pharmacol. Bull. 24:1799-1106. Niabet, I.C.T. 11976) Criteria Document for PCBs. Report Do. PB-225 797 . Washington, O.C.: U S. Departnenc of Commerce. Oishi, S. end K. Hiraga 11978) Is a mixture of polychlorinated dibenzofurans an inducer of hepatic porphyria? Food Cosmet. Toxicol, 16(11:47-48. Oishi, S, , H- llorita, and H. Fukuda (1978) Comparative toxicity of polychlorinated biphenyls and dibenzofurans in rats. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 47.17-22. Penning, C.H. (141ft) Physical ch r iitrrir t i: r -.-.2 commercial possibilities of chlorinated di prenyl. Ind. Cng. Chcm. 22(111:1118-1182. Roberts, J.R., DM. Rodgers, J.R, Bailey, and r.A. Rorke 119781 Polychlorinated Biphenyls: Biological Criteria for an Assessment of Their Efferli on Environmental Quality. Associate Crrr;::e* on Scientific Criteria lor Environmental Qial-.t/ Ottawa, Canada: National Research Cti.nti 1 of r inula. Smith, J.U., .I. R. Mabey, II. Dohonos, 3.R. llolt. 5.5. Lee, T.W. Chou, DC. Oonb-r Jn: and 7. Kill I 117: i Environmental Pathways of S-'lerted Chemicals m Freshwater Systems. Part !: Gu - ku round an.l E-perimcntal Procrdurc;. Report No. (7.1-103/1 17 1!1. i.ash mg ton, D.C.: 77.5. E.-ti.ronri ntil ir'.n-i i I 7B i . I miiorntntal Protection Agency (1978a) Draft timi^lines for Testing Toxic Substances. Office of l.fcic Substances. I llnpubl i shed I i. .s i ,<vi ronment a 1 Protection Agency (1978b) FI FRA i; .posed Guidelines for Registering Pesticides in tne United States. Sjbpart 8 Introduction, Subpart Ij rhemistry Requirenents, Subpart F-Nszard evaluation: Wildlife and Aquatic Organisms, Subpart 1 Hazard Evaluation: Humans and Domestic Anismls. irleral Register 8 J( 11 1): 29898-2974 1 and t r 1411:17151 -17401. . ' Health Organisation 1 1978) Polychlorinated tr i phenyls and Tar phenyls. Environmental Health , iteria 2. Geneva: World Health Organization. ` r i i 'ii, v., D.J. Wildish, O, Hutzlnger, and f.H.I. Choi l 1971) Acute and chronic oral tonicity of irilorinatad dibenzofurans to salmonld fishes, tuviron. Health Perspect. 2:187-189. APPENDIX a AREAS, VOLUMES, AND MISCELLANEOUS QUANTITIES FOR CHAPTER 1 CALCULATIONS' ji t (1. lft this Ai-lr wrr i.sel m t-W ' 1 '1 rv, uf F , l! , a&lE A.l Areas, Volumes, and Miscellaneous Quantities c 5 *'* *1 s ** I if' CwJ ( f ei.es *r ic* TO*l hta* af tSt*n*0* *.a na< 1.1*1.*4* t. m. >*) 3.104.*17 T41.7J4 Mfit,lur4i Pi ir at *< iii^rn l .104.311 m. M* 1 .**) >4* i.m.iu 'M *4 *44*7 4,37J.ua I.H4JIJ Sue* < ,f af :o* muk iffti/yn IMM 1* >.4*0 14 .17) *4 4 , | J | At*i ' 4**1 n*ftl O f J ." i *< i ' 'i. `*a ism. iit 1.417.*) 4,144.314 ' t M4 U 1 Mft* Ati*ftl if vv*i I a I % i c 0 r*eitf 5y(I*C* A(0* Vi>i ui^c of u*`i *c*r ih*1! Ji.Jti 104.4 14, 'll 1)1 4 4.*4* 37.) 42,444 1*2.J 4*t*rv#i 14 a*im Caoaetif < ftBOO 2cf**f**C ^utlafl *caa vo 1 * of 1 1 MM wt*r (an'a kl.*>7 *4. ju 11.774 jjt.i 1.174 m, 7*1 11.304 2**14 1*4*1 )| *l, turtifi Ac** vc]#c Af rtarl wat*r tan1) 1*2.244 11,47) 12.*44 11.4 1.011 1*1.4 1 77,)10 17.141.1 i i. Ai*a Mlr-nc *1 f e| ftPlicO . ,e 1 f i 'mi ak Vgiijac of )tr*N ladiMAtl Coni44ftir>4 4C4* nn}l* . a 7| % *03 114* 11.43* lOtflMAt* waiiM at la*tt*4ir ltiiiti containing rv** f Mil 17.417 HI laao 4*41nonta Containing *Ct4 ta*1) * 14-124 l .747 1 Mi 1 1.431 1 ,,a4f OowMari** rotAftO wiA (MM 14 (M 441*1 Ovietl CW4ll'l ft>4ft. TV* <lf(4rMH an lit K|(4 Atl^tn, I , 11. a.t* m# ;*urt'4rAr-M** ftr"*fo meft tM I4r < Cr**l Mt** *f*a. *ueft ftfaina vta in# wif *f * :v *i** lot *r*4 tft im Cftn UJkti 1**144 filu4#i (M #*t*r**f*c oroo of tk* U* *4tiih #t ** *<h< i * < 1 puitM mi r*4 *1 IM 4c*4t Nil". T44 4*i in *M ootac 4Hurfii rt**fi 4>4 mi <** < ir>4t *ntfi4 m (**4* draiaoo* ffM illt ia*o* *n tM Mat** taooorci* Conner r* ur- - Bi'Wrt** tfp*UM. ii' cnoi ** t*f v*t* 'a M; l*f* il4 *n-t [allow- ocfMncnt pj*---*. -mrr lAiaurffl f44rt, IMm r*44 ** m aerna. tM* *ro eoawnM c* -. v.tiIM n( in* ,(M tcea, i* i*n *'.n t* k0J *<** la* ***** aik*. *M t*o* n> .... hi-ifi* ivtiAA ),<. > I Ci*l TM t L*vr*4 a *r *A* *r*>a *a 4 OiOCtod f*r f*40 -.-r Jis.njijp t-i 4<*44M*i Im* in* tncw* afej* are fro* t'wrti- . CLU*rtan. anj cn**v. . 1 it . -* Ctr<r. *r0, T it i * 1. 1*. -l. tno **440*0 (ortn# wti*a Ml* in* irj* pf 1 ii# gratmi. - .^oK'y'icft Surva* lire. *i0 *+ cM flfwcaa 4M*n Mrw ttor ti.r (*[ *i *owrc*a ASuned *r* mi ...* r 1 .ip .ftn rf ihi'i-j mr 1*11* twOv iac1*#M tfi* *>*r(.ic* .icpsa or (** j* rt**ra wttnm *n* um>. ''tT ' "*J ami ii"i'. nlMa of aciiTvrti* cpncaiAMi* t<a*. ..n* iM eunrencraiin* of r-r, I.J II- r:ila( j jfcC* *M?r, jMy ifti `) t (nruan **4 ,nvl*-*vJ. ..-tun <;44.' 4c-Ay il* a sn (K* .*** *1 2nn :f of flv*f tinea*, anO iImhIi i-ij tj.i.'i'i-j .*! 1 at iiiiih ificJ. Uca M in *rv*4 and -',la-c* ror 1** rii*4*jit m^cvia^v <rv PitrAiwu 4-ji <1- - >.. 4.1,- ts,- jrci* iPi' aiii-r Mdi* n**.i i* '. ihiJt >* ipv (722 > * cMpti-u im e> 1 1 j , h. ' * . i * T-ifb.- ............. 411? ***^at - rt-o a tat* y at acc in * -i* \.c idnal ai i* , 1 .fl *-,c a -1 **. m* jr(,n>r illy) *."ff . 1. nn 4c 1 jCk-J. a 1 .*wlat to* vitft iM J*( t*i t ioA. owe ,m cr4bn 1. A in rreet iv (1 -144 tPri<1,. 1 i'. \ LAP-f 11 liv>'d l a . 1* V 4# 14*0 (faina. ' ft V ill J # j \ I't r>n J. '...g .yft 1 >i4>i. , 5 r VP I f j n; 4 poni^g I- 4. 4 a 0 4 ftjfi , 1*1 if attcaao. ali>wAi *n*nn*14 Hwvtu-I ^4-|iftft at (.ft -1 ^ i*<i (,.,rrf - ' ' 1 * ? 1 ji^' of 4im*m *<or 4*r* wtra*t*4 in* j(4-f. ui t ii- - Hill 1 ! r 0 * Tfeo.fj* . M. , 10 7-1 i W*C*r r.PT "l At V ` 1. .. I . : .' 11 in ijf| Fi.iw4h 1 it**a .4 I J , . . ..,4 , 1|t ; II. 1 : : I u . . .1* - i.i-Ufi: and ()i c***cun nnviaf a wa*0>e u.kji^ ei *OJO ic,p -s t or .tr.-* ,in -<y , |pf iiff J** 40* *! rnrlwl# tMi* narruvn* (|ja I *4 * 1 *c 0ui -:ot*a m( ki-ii ihj* l awwar* oik#*. jft. jn* I (1 I, , 11 | e*lM *r* arrwra** ( * i-ar.-.n t >, u t-,r ^ -ui ,1,^ hcjs j 'I tftift 10 (-(Writ* I ft* rmui.il lie 11 1 ,' 'irriti .rrc'-'F ('i.p 1 1 r*, iv., ..*114,-1),* 4? '4tk 1(1 J1 SI *. ft- M'-fofi 1 r 3 t'l.-f r . <1 m.< ,.11. > j ' 111- t h.m I I w ,w. ^ *t 1 i-a 11.^ 1 fto .1 cv t s 11 1 f*i- 1 ., . .. -1, J 2 iro it 1 `Ij'-i. 1 / * ' c V' * 1 r 4 A.id lipi-ft J- .11 I t ii^ c .*20. t, 11. -i 1 - , vJ 1 o ill, . - *? * 1 '.................... 1, m- *iw ji'4 `i.fitffl l!*r 11 < . .f fiv 1,-viHiin, k 1 ` ' ' fti'-r i 1*.' r.i.'M, *v laannTtr ift.ir t hi- .-.ift n.|.f m an - .iai ` '|-`-|,t ' ....,| , J- II . :.v ,% . , ' ft ' 0, -.1 "t ` -'`ift- Hi 1 ) 21 a-i.-ii rci*. fh 1 s tiftwii il 0**i *t 1 ' ' ' " 1 1 { ' 1 r * J J ,r iii-i i- i*f . ' '1 ' .1.11 .I'l -lit j (yllftlUltJ Ml 1 ft4 *ft in-rin1 IHIflWt* " 2 k lri<i I'lftftjl * | L | ,-r 1 - ' I r * .ftf.iC* 1 < . , " li'.p,- f M- i F41 i t x.Jk urn<]pn f , t ' r r 1 \ *t 1 1. .1 Iyj-, . 1 1 ft* luMlil r--ft ciji , le 4i--ti*k>iii < i| cOfHitlltfd u|im.i 4ft jU-rj^i- 1 ft 1, 1 r, k-1' pf 0.1 1 iftj Mu< a,-4i or - -7 T 1 i? . f . , J.K. Culbertson, ar.fi I:. 8 - Chase ( 19731 I sediment discharge to the oceans from the "inous United States. U.S. Geological Survey trio. Washington, D.C,: U.S. Geological Survey, r , ed. 1 1970 ) The Water Encyclopedia. Port i ' jton, NT,: Water Information Center. Inc. x'ffient of the Interior Ceologicel Survey (1970) :i..i lonal Atlas of the United States of America, itigion. D.C,: U.S. Government Printing Office. .-i Resources Council (1969) The Nation's Hetar i.esi Tha First National Appraisal. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office. APPENDIX a COMPUTATION Of INCREMENTAL COSTS PER KILOGRAM CONTROLLED FOR EXISTING AND PROPOSED CPA REGULATIONS Thie Appendix provides computations fcr each cf the average coat figures of Table 2.1. The sources for the data are Versar, Inc. (1977), Weatin et at- (1979), a.-rj Steven Malkenaon, Office of Planning and Management. U.S. Environaiental Protection Agency. H*Sir -cic-rratc Transformers. rlG.ds Each transformer contains approximately 1,154 Kg of fluid of which 977 kg are PCBs. Draining is 99 percent effective, yielding 1,229 kg of fluid (990 Kg ct PCBs, for handling ard processing. A cost of $5)4 or iC.f5l.cr; of PCB is derived band on the following: Transportation charge. 50.07/kg Incineration charge, So.ll/kg kindling charge per unit 1n ' i. fd and Ificin*ratf High Voltage Capacitors. t . \ h capacitor ueujtii S5 kg and contains 11 kg of i i he cost per-kq destroyed is S3, 86. Handling and transportation charge, (itineration charge, $0.55/kg Ji.itidling charge per unit SO.11/kg i . -l.ied and Incinerate Low Voltaga Capacitors. ir ,*ih capacitor weight 9.1 kg and contains 1.6 kg of riiis, a cost of ST.19 or S4.49/kg ia derived. Handling and transportation charge. im ineration charge, SO.55/kg Middling charge per unit SO.13/kg SI.10 5.00 -JrOO S7.19 I tush and Drain Transformers and Inctnerate. Fluid. I i h transformer uses 1,023 liters of solvent at i Contaminated solvent weighing 1,350 kg must be j. i i --d and mcinerated at a cost of SO.40/kg (aee M. i i I.' process removes 90 percent (or 91 kg I of the FCBs . .lining after draining, the cost-per-kg of FCBa t. .uoyed will be SB.50/kg. Solvent Ti ansportation and t rc inei at ion Handling charge per unit $109.00 540.00 100.00 S74B.00 i Place Transformer Carcasses in Chemical Waste i tndf 111.i i ,-.|..sal costs are estimated at Sl/ft1 or S0-07/kq with ,i |'.>rtation costs of $').04/kq. The average weight of L.inslormcr is 2.955 kg and cost per unit is $125. it . h unit contains 9.8 kg of PCBs, the cost-per kg of i . n itaob 11 i zed will be S 3 3 . I 6 . . t : n e t a 1 . ( 1 7 ' ? 1 ?!.' iti-l ttv. . . i_ . ' t -J r;" 5 7, kq to 75G kg of PC3s per unit -7i ,i:'. ,.c replacement at a total cost of S2.3 r.. t i; ts to S 1 . 4 mllon or SH.67/fcg to Sj5.0C/kg. C. keplace Motors Containing PCBs in :'inm] Equij tent. The following estimates are based on t est in et si . (197B). The regulations would force the rebuilding of <52 loader aiotors containing 20 kg of PCBs each at a coat of S3,103 or $155/kq. Equipment in service conteina a total of 1,145 ks n` irm tf prtsaturi scrapping or replacement of these machines would range from $640,000 to $2,240,000 or $560/kq to SI,955/kg. H. Drain and Incinerate Mineral Oil Transformer fluids If Contaminated by >foro Tlian 50 mg/kg FCOs. Westln et al. (19781 estimates that the cost of testing transformer fluids and subsequent incineration if necessary would range from $613 million to 3169 mllnr,. It is estimated that transformer fluids m-.y be contaminated by 175,000 kg of PCBs. If ail of th" PCBs were detected and removed, the average cost would te S3,500/kg to $4,400/kg. However, th.s calculatj : ir.iy underestimate the average cost of destruct <r- m* -c-., it in the absence of regulation, contaminat' d f'. i.rts were normally used as utility boiler fu-jl, srrr (nrt.oof the PCBs would be destroyed in an, event. If i percent of the PCBs are deetroyed when corbjstic-. ;rars in utility boilers, then the average destruction attributable to the regulation is only 3,75'J r: i:.'", , 175,0001, in which case the average con of d?r ` i , ; mn of PCOs is S70,000/kg to S8S,0G9/kg. :i rhvul ; f. n ht-.ivrr that the eni"rci on effettive del t r u-1 . r., i t l'"ji in utility boilers is scanty. If for 'triction rate wire as low as 50 p-ricir. : h" a t :n Table 2.1 would be lower by an of I'M of " v ; id e . 1 It i Mush and Replace Conta.n;nated Hydraulic Fluids in u< Casting. - s> in et al. 11973) estimate a cost per machine of it.><7 and an average PC* contamination of 0.11 i . idi hine or Sill,000/kg. However, there may be i1 .initial variation in the degree of contaminetion in ! ment machines. True average coeta would be much i ..! lor a policy directed only at the most . Miiinated machines, but would rise e* the policy was sii'.iiind to machines with lesser contamination. i . 1 t it)' ICES '.is ii, Inc. (1977 1 Microeconomic Impacts of t he (`i giosed Marking and Disposal Regulations tor PCBs. tmS Report Ho. PR-267 BJJ/2WP. Springfield, Va. : n ii tonal Technical Information Service, tin, R.A., L. Fourt, D. Berkey, and B. Woodcock i97B) Microeconomic Impacts of the Proposed "PCB ii an Regulations." National Technical Information ,r, vict, HTIS Report Mo. PB 2B1-IBI/1WF. < :.(>i ingfield, Va. s Versar, Inc- APPEldix C THE BASIS FOR THE VALUE OF STATISTICAL LIFE A number of approaches to assigning monetary values to the loss of life have been proposed or used in tl literature on the economics of health ar.l safety. The epproachee can be broadly categorized by the j;, they determine values, l.e., either according to nd;videal preferences (willingness to pay) or according to reaource or opportunity costs. Ths following is a brief of t.`,i mu ufinuicnts. I For core (itc.r.i it diacuaaions of alternative concepts of the value of life or safety, see Schell ing Mil, Mishan 1971, Acton 197). and Jones-Lee 1976.1 Wjllingness to My Conceptually, the more attractive approach is /il'* ircrcjtcs in longevity cr mint tion :r. the r:t>b'.: . : ,*y ' '>u`.h due to accident o: i. 1 I r.-1 u r. e-.-cor ling to - : . - an I . v id i,l I if. willing to | In .|7 I' e t - en '.C ilc often .ic t as it 1 i '. - t i t ; ` - , . ri 1 -- ': r. o !, r t. 11 is, t! e / a r - i l 1 : i i | to t i a : I i i H '7. fir good-, ar.'i v r 11 that 'hy v 11 . r ;-.e v.-rra. ; i ') -udujls r.ilt Cc.iiicM, til . . > . u i t in reJuct in | eyi'-Ft-tancy or incri3S?tJ r i'.i) j | ity of dea* h in rtu:H for inc cease s in incoo^s . u.'C goods and sr?t vices, and perceive themselves 10 > i>-*ter off tccause of these choices. Examples would i tpling risky or hazardous jobs because of higher ' or travelling by air instead of on the ground i > .`r air travel is quicker and store convenient. these examples stake clear* the question it not - .iich an individual would be willing to pay to avoid i^-n death tomorrow, but rather how much he would be L.lnij to pay to achieve a small decrease In the t i>ihiity of death during a given period. Thie t i.ngness to pay can be translated Into a more useful t if- for policy evaluation, nissly, the value of 1^<.ica|__life or the value of a statistical death . ifd Suppose that in a group of 1,000 similar i .1. /1dual s, each would be willing to pay $1,000 for s i it> that would reduce the probability of death by 1 i] This policy is a form of collective good for the < ii'iluals involved. The benefit to the group is found ' , j Hmq across all individuals. Thus, the aggregate * i ! .. gness to pay would be $1 mi XXion Cl,040 a $1,000), ii'j O expected number Of deaths avoided would be 10. : t..- ut ittstical value per life would be $1 million - i h-d by 10 or 5(00,000. Tv > approaches to the empirical measurement of t K ugnesss to pay have been used in the literature. f i\ to observe market transactions where individuals m i.,dliy purchase or sell changes in their risk levels. - * sample, if wage differentials among occupations are ii ! to differences in occupational risk levels, Nt- ^ differences might be interpreted as reflecting, et riMtgin, the individuals* trade-off between . * f>/&afety and money. The other approach is to conduct \ ,:vt-y* that ask individuals a series of questions about > vi-< ^ieticl situations involving nsk/money trade-offs. it the questions are carefully designed, and if individuals are truly capable of predicting how they v .-,iM act if placed in these hypothetical situations, il.nr answers may reveal the monetary values they attach t } i*<J>4Ctions ii risk. Tii^re have been two major studies using wage rates . innate willingness to pay. Both studies are based is*- same wiqe data but they rmptoy different sots of i-i . ,i.a iin.il risk data ard thus present quite difl*,r| ii-.aMs. Thaler and Hose r\ (I97bl concluded th*it th, t > i . t ira I value of lito 1 u: 5 between 5140,000 nr i The-'' * r e i i o d *. ' - - ^- ;. efforts i o i: * \ sc r *. / *{ p: - i- h * ; . : . - . - for statistical life. Artor. K77J) d if responses from a stratified rsr.-in sa-ple cf rt . . *`i in the Boston area. The survey ins*r .v:nt : : . * 1 a njnbet of questions about attitudes and vaU ; . with respect to efforts to save lives i.-f e'^rgerr/ situations. The question of greatest inheres*. cr-iTerr.ei the willingness of the individual to pay for a pr-v.ram of emergency coronary care that would redice the probability of his daath from heart attack. Two different forms of the question implied values for i*f ui ana HJ,0C0. Jones Lee (1974) asked a similar srr.ail sample of individuals several questions about their willingness to accept hiqher air tares to travat on lines that had lo.^r probabilities for a fatal crash. The value of statistical life implied by the respondents ms at-:ut million. The disparities suggest that substant i \ 1 / more reseerch is required before reliable estimates of the value of life can be obtained with such techniques. But the results may suggest order of magnitude bounds on appropriate figures. Opportunity fost/Human Capital The more common approach to the valuation cf l.t*4 s th? opportunity cost, productivity, or hunan c\: itil approach which values each life lo.t at the p;e *r.t level of the earnings that an indi/tdjal rcud niv* expected had tl.e death not occurred. The apjreach is based on the assumption that earning*, reflect t*n individuals marginal productivity, or the ird * / .d u* 1 v $ contribution to total economic output. There are three criticisms of this approach. it has no necessary relationship to indivu! ni first, 1 ingnc**j to Fay. SvcCnd, it alio*1; no ro|* lor * f l ib111 st ic natuie of d>;.ith and the avoidance of death health and safety aras, or for different * i ; . 1 att: tude 5 or pro f. r er< r 3 t rd rr.' -o ! m ' ` . f!*/ definition .in individual c:.:ll f. * . r> ' ' * i ' Tu rr-.-iit v i | -' cf hi$ cur n >-v,: s to j . . * * ' ', a I '-lieu jh l w n st.iti.tic.il v.; ,i.. c- f i r HC i > ^ r< wiilinqness to pay for sr.^il probability : * fu.M fc><? several times the discounted expected , :,tre. Third, the implicit judgment ! ;* 11''j I he approach is that an individual Is north < i she does, or that productivity is the measure . th !'< i.jse of variation in patterns of eernirgs over a i r nd d ifferrnces among individual* in their i nates in the labor market (including the factor of : " ii.ation), values derived from this approach crucially to age, lea, and race. For example, . n I, percent discount rate and 1971 patterns of w.'ji, saving the life of a white male between 10 and tis of age would prevent the loss of about $190,000 i ,, outited lifetime earnings. For a nonwhit* uosin !: same age, the earnings loss prevented would be .It Mil $70,000 (Cooper and Rice 197$). Some (it , ost analyses using productivity values have i.( <w.l to adjust for these factors. Others have used . t> - lor the population as a whole, while still 'i,dies have added estimates of the direct costs l .:--s as represented by such items as doctors' fees ittal bills. went a 1ly Derived Shadow Prices wli.-ated above, empirical estimates of the value of .trial life vary within two orders of magnitude, t'.,' of them can be questioned on statistical and 1 (ut) grounds. An alternative to the empirical iir is the judgmentally determined value or range is. There are several instances of this approach I literature on the evaluation of health and safety ^ < a. earliest official use of an explicit value of in the analysis of proposed governmental strategies ii.'l in the RECAT report Office of Science and i. ' ..;y 1977) in which a life was valued at $140,000 .i ;.'>ting the costs of fatalities associated with r tile accidents. The figure represents the average . I' gi.irticipituin in the personal income of the . .. it is the product of per capita personal inrcTrt * 1 .i t i roe s the rsi imuted rednet ion of the expected i'1 ,m of 'he average accident victim. Another n > t i I ,e of life occurred in a report by the Naiics, >i (i Counc il I 19 7 4 ) where the value ol i'|>rc -' : - . - - d f r t - r"'!.r ini; gisoi.s f " s if u , . : . - I.-w l .1- Is? u , s Irf iv.'l a` or t V- f t s i s : j : prr isjts avoided. Another report by tr.e tior.il Research Council ( 1978 1 used a range of ; : ; 1,0C0 to 51,070,000 per death avoided- Most of the core broadly based empirically derived estimates cited above reside within this range. For these reasons we chcse to use this range for the calculations in the text. REFERENCES Acton, J.P. (1971) Evaluating Public Programs to Save Lives: The Ces of K- >' Zi.'.tu Calif.: Rand Corporation. Cooper, I.S., and O.P. Rice (197$) The economic cost of illness revisited, Soc. Security Bull. 19(21:21-1$. Jones-Lee, K.W. (197$) The Value of Life: An Econo-:c Analysis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Hishan, E-J. (1971) Evaluation of life and limb: X theoretical approach. J. Political Econ. 7911):631 705. national Research Council (1974) Air Quality and Automobile Emission Control, volume 4: The Ccsts and Benefits of Automobile Emission Control. A report by the Coordinating Committee on Air Quality Studies, Commission on Natural Resources, National Academy of Sciences/National Academy of Engineering for the Committee on Public Works, U.S. Coeirtts Senate. Serial No. 91-24. 9Jrd Copri*. National Research Council (197B) Chloroform, Carbon Tatrachlortde, and Othar Nalonethanes: An Environmental Assassment. Committee for Scientific and Technical Assessment* of Environmental Pollutants, Environmental Studies Board, Ct'-nsdn on Natural Resources. Washington, O-C: National Academy of Sciences. Office of Science and Technology (1177) Cmili'i/e Pe)ulatory Effects on the cost of Aito-oti/e Transportation. Pepott of the hd n0c c-.t-i 11 e- . Ktshingten, D.C.: t> .5. Co/.rnirent Printing n; [,, ,. 1 in i, T.C. 115681 The `if you save mi l , ' In rroLl us :n (mbl.i- t s.\~ nd 11 i:,>. ,'m.i 1 y , . . 1 '* 1 by S.0. Chase, lr. nshmii' in. D.c. h,,. ' I . c i futi.. , . fi.S. 11976) The O'c jp.it i >:. I Safety tnd Health h - Its Coals and Its ).rh:"vcn>n;i. l.'iihin]tcn, I *tncan Enterprise Institute for Public I I icy Ftreirch . R.H. end S. Rosen ( 1976) The value of saving a . e: Evidence free the labor market. In Household I . . l.ict ion and Consumption. Edited by N.E. lileckyj. New York; Columbia University Frets. APPENDIX D CHEMICAL Alio TOXICITY DATA AS PEOUIRED BY FIFRA ASD TSCA GUIDELINES CHEMICAL IDENTITY Product Identity The PCB product contains a mixture of chlorinated biphenyls; each biphenyl can be present as ary ore of a niasber of isomers. Table D.I lists th* che-rical r,i-e and registry niasber for the aiost common 11 ARC, in presaI. Synonyms for PCBs include chlorinated biphenyl, chlorinated diphenyl, chtoroblphenyl, polychlor ;r. i'.ed biphenyl, and polychlorobiphenyl. The fcl loving trade names have been used: Aroclor Chloretol Dykanol Tr<?rteen Hof 1 imoL Pyr sin^l France: Phenocior Jp.in : K tncrMor he :r, FUG: C 1 ph^ri f t ft 1 / : Frn<*i USSR: r-ol^culaf f orn j l a nr 1 ` 'r isomi-r j ur-* i-,ht. ri 'r. t '"Mi. ' - in Tji id t*. J liu (. i TABLE D1 Chemical Abstracts Register Nuffber for PCBs './* r *M- ** 1 TKf- **< r *' I . 1 ' *1**### I r r*> LSlStiCf'ili. r , . a* 14 |rvicfi #** #V. ItU'**1 1 ,**atr #M0: J-Chl&c^J.k 04pA0AT* ; j. * HlW.rMj !. Ca# iatir H#***#** 0**. - J0H-4I-* Cnm Allr bm>*: 4-CA*#*l-l ' '0*0M#I r. ?' ft< <n ia*00*i <>,**. 0*t4 +** it* I ** *. 1l6Jf*0l*4 0# **cr A*toi t, 1 -BiSMOfOM . 4 '*i0Mnri } i. pirHi-rai_ij;fc#k Cho U*p4r. S* J444-IP4 til#*. ***4r. * J . I ` 'ifhllf#* I r i ' *01 |M**AV I J, > - HCIIWI*>44^L ^ta ** i*rvM* M- ' Jl0**-44- CM. 0*04 f *: J.4-PA0*J##0M.r'*4*A0Afl C**. ***kr. !ir*iri A4- m.- l*t*-44J <.*. 0*01#- Kwi <. ' *0krftl*f*~ U l' 1-1' UtnfUlnrHuMMl r-.tA. *( MMtni IM- M. : l*44*T|*0 <**. 0*ti. HM: J,1',lt#ieAI*r"l.1`-*i*a*tI 1 , ) 4.THlM<rw<fcAMTl *. A0*4r k*r*lr*0 ** A0M ,#* 400k# **> *.*'.4*fll#AL0#*L.I'-Bi^***fl , . 4 - Tf4CH>>aH*Wrt .......... 4lv|fM M. M i Tfll-P-1 ,1, M1| | 4t<Ti4**ir>i.l `-1****TI )M 1-?4<*M UIM|i|'M t 1 flf* 4ftr Jlintn Ut *o. C*#. ttilf *wi i'.>,i tr*cn4W-*,i -#,***>) t. J, r *' Tn rncriibrgO iAitfti \ CAM. A*ir 444, *. Ch*. ** f. ***: I , l. 4 , * ' *T*t r*#M9#0-t , 1 - 1.J' i, '* Itf BB>*4 I -1 3en# *tr itrir to*. w+. Ch**- tkiii' *: . .1 *rii*cAkra+<. t Ii'4 V*y0t*0ftI0r1t0Atfty| C#*. 4*ir. *rviev0 *, m. > toUiutii CM* Mtr. *4*0' i. f *.\" *T#t#b4440t0* 1.1 *0if40vt l.r.t.r Tmit9L9H;>ipMHft Ch*0 *0U. $*r*4c* BM- M. im-lf>J Cn*0. <Mi(. **. ). *', t' * t0*t4t*l*r**l. i' -*4f*i0Tk a.r .i,r-Tf4TL>rM>iMti OlM. I*r*4000 0**. )*4t CAM. *#0t # MIA J, I' . $. I ` * t*t f4*B l*t0 4 1 ' - 010*04# l I k` , f , <*TH#00Ai#r"0 4*A*srL 1CTi**. iMr sr*t*00 0*0. *0.1 111*0 H L eiM. imu. 0Mi , >' .* tTtr0*ftl0r0-ki'-04rA**rt . 0*-*lf**hk*f BitMATf CIMM. A0*Cf. kmitl ** M,: JJ>00-1)) CRM. **(#. *4M0: - 1* .4.4*1 -t0tr*CAl*r*-k .k ' `*4P*0*vl 1. ). J1 ,.l>''000*0fc0#0>*M*0t cam. 0**ci. tafvirov 0v*. at.: mtf-u-4 (AM, 4Mlf. I4MJ I. >.)'* ,4*A000*CAkof0` 1 , k 1 -0i0Aafk M1 .1. 000011*40#Mi*h**tk CAM. A*0tr. kffl00 ***- *0 i h:h<m CAM. 0*00#. *> I j',).4,,-00RCMAL*40'l.ll'0iW400T4 * -' . a,.\ ' **, * ,1* m.tT4*-i*i t>\'-stpMkft ' * 1 *> #t*>an>to#rvrw*yL - win S*r4e* *t. t>, i |4+#t-j<) AUttt Mr*' I. *' , %t nrnkBr#- t l'**4pM**fk '*'** W*tr. s*rvi* *f M t )l)ri M f **. *41*%#, a*-*- *./* , .*0*n%cnt*r**l, r-MtAwfrr) i: **-*' -j' .****< >00tp*00yl C**m 4.ii r ertc *-1. * v`*4 *vr i, j. j1 . * - t0JM-l0 lr*^k,tk-*4*ABT> ' v_~ j - * . i-v-'r.' I, M.t, 88i4>Wrl <S**tr <>ro.e** 1st. M * iUlMi.i ',M 'M(' l'*lN '* L, *`. *`_r*4 4*Mft;aiiMMfl - utr. c-rvirr* *. **. Al.lr 1.41 .*,* l, L 4tr **. #. I |>|||f '14 ;,r.4.H,v.fWrtk . 1 *, i . ii'i.j** M| " L`"` t ' ,* 'I'f !< * I '`l'- *' 4 ' * - .:........l +* 1 . j -H 9- , i t . I ' . A i.- A l4rs. [ t i 1 S >1 .(i , | >- l.,,A,.nr..l,| -b*.1 0*000. 0*0. *0.. mti-4*. 7 0*0tr. *M0i ; r,U .4>#iiichi0r.4li !.*?*>). <'_,V*tkkti r00*0R**^| 0*0t. UfL 000 0*. *0R0 0*0#. **( I.J'k).4',4-*A*Moij.|.; I*el i0#01M0A0Hyk Ch**. ** **#** 000. *0.. )44>-}|.| CHv*. 0*00#. N0M04 t' , J . * , ' , |1 0V*i-ri^oiL>- >il'. .4.4 '*0**fnj0f00(p000^1 Cam 0*%f. frvi*k 000 00., e**0. 0*0tr. NM, l.r.1,1 0.I-..N.0CR404-.-I. L. 1!.>4. *_!__>,,1* -wta*eA 0#*Jkip*0A2l 0*0*#. *4W4C* 000, *40 )S0V *. t 0**4#. *0*0! 1. 1,J,4.ir4-RetJfujg10. ). !- *.>*1 * *eh A-404 010 IJ^I *0411. MS*, s*. Ml40i"4.ft >4i4r. 10*0 /. ' . 1' , 4,4 .1 j. t . _* - ' ' .hi-40B^iTnxJ *#04 r SijK44 ** -0 *to*i r. 1 n* # . ) . j. ) . 1. (* , J .| < *to4r. r*. iwivi* 1. -.>> 1*441.; - to.** 4 . *a w J.'jJ,J,.4.\. - -N>r> *i n j 04 >> i 1' ' >. * * ^ ' -*; * 4 w<r>imi hrtij j fc*A4-0 tol*U. *) 40 IV-I.4..4.I TAi-*. 0b0tr. h.4- . t.l . l. 1, 4 ' , V '> * I hi.. 4r ^^ Z + ' J .. ^ let. ; | i- 0.2 Co^iosit ion of Chlorinated Biphenyls ------------------------------- 1 1 1 > <.. 41 1 >1 4 .; 1ohipheny1* " We qht * _ Percent ChtorintJ NO. of 1 *om*r* /'i.) 1* l."n lJ ..."r `l ; .'V '* 1 >' *3 1* i .,J , '7 >i U*1'1 '* i . MO l*>4 191 Ji2 j 290 12* 15* i 429 440 494 0 i* 11 ,1 41 54 50 *1 IS 4* 79 1 1 13 24 42 42 24 13 1 1 y J on CJ i in. F : Modified (im 0uf( et t| . <197<|. i'WU . The composition of som conwctcifl Mixture* the united States, Italy, Germany, and Japan are i in Table 0,J < IAftC in press; turfee et el. t* i stet i t?e i.i i ing Frocess produced by chlorination of biphenyl. The s, illustrated in Figure 0,1, requires biphenyl* ,us chlorine, a catalyst such as iron filings or chloride, and elected temperatures- T.ie crude . purified by alkali wash, sometimes followed `illation tt'urfee 19?*?; .ARC, in press; Nisbct htt tec et at. 1979). A detailed discussion of th . (.uf inq process of Monsanto <the LCS- producer* . i > Our frc, . 'tvcmical composition ol the final product v in* to-; rre of r h | or i n-i i on ard with t h>.* 1. " I . . -nplo*, rl. f uch->', of rep-, v*.h t ho * . ; i- nt^ < o y va r / in -unpoMt ton i' I T ' C - vJ i r,*j r t-d i * n* i rr* 3ur .lb; c? a * ' . ' * '- -' r- -r i product^ l^ht !!.,sbet 1*7*11. IK . r , * --.i tic* Table 3*21 of chi ot od r jf *r a ' *: d . * r -* z ,, PCB mixtures, and quantities may vary Ire-* *: batch. Th* fact that different batches of Teas* e i frc-i the same (Manufacturer r have different, accents cf chlorodibcnsofurans (CDfsl appear* tc be a reflect ;or cf variabi 1 ities in the production process. the primary process in the production of PCOs by the chlorination of -.pi.ciyi would not qive GDI's, the aqueous alkaline washes and st*-*m distillations cc^ld be anticipated to give the small amounts of cors ob:.er*r:l, as shown in the following example* Oy ____ ___ fl* Oy fnit fcl>n aa rci oil n i^i tllf Such a schcrre could have been involved in the Japanese *Kanemi Yusho" incident, where *.he pca- contaminated rice oil was heated vi*.h str.im at 200*, ar,i where a relatively high ratio of cors to PCBs was observed, i**evAjacors of the problem suggested an alternative route of contamination itiiya'a et el* 1977), PHYSICAL a;id chemical data d*ta have not cecn reported in a consistent miiver in the scientific l ircruturr-. Chemical and p)v - 11 r r c-pe rt tes have been jnvcsi.i itrd Icr mdii'l'nl ^toblphcny Is in r.om** jnM in-'C'S .ltd n others fer* *'v ' rc;al product c: mixture. f,rv a*-dj*;nnal h*-c1t*i';e two *;r.id*.s o|iVhs *7* t'.'. * < . i' ? - . r ' * .i'ir r i nr ort''fl a l.j ' r - r . I **r. \ |ij ire ; i ,v i* w . . T , * pr ^ ir a I .i r d r- * * 1 f ha r j 7 t - 1 ,' .' . t - *' ln..( 1. ^ r <!' ; w*'; e ii- -u t t h sj . !>.. * TABLC 3.3 Approximate Percent Composition of Some commercial PCB Products :< i ore ip"*** i lrocior f*p4 or Cr*4 ion 1211 113} DU 134* 1314 1340 C- IOC KC*400 M04 cH-;a `0.1 ) l <0(1 ' '0. 1 ` - ' - mjV i 11 74 1 - <0. 1 * - ci)"icii JO 13 31 14 1 0.3 - 11 3 c,!"lClJ 41 4 14 44 11 - 4 13 S f ; j**1* * * a 3 J 33 *0 21 - 23 44 n ewV`l Cll".C,4 './r'l i '0.1 * - 0.3 0.3 34 If -l 4 73 ' * .0,1 * 4 ' -- ** 13 3* 41 4.4 U - ** *- 31 l) - ftnetor* 0 - ' 'uV't Cll"'10 - * * " 1- - -* * * * * * ioa c.. -40 33 n \ - a- i*kc (lft erootl o Kltb U1H1, tar!** *\ *1- UlHl . ! H 5 M! Qm'tUtia* *i <rv<t 0#*dwcM < If Jin s- T ' Zil -rr-ii's - :1 - ' r - 1 v,'r,`ir.`o . ! Bull'''in o/r i IC^A:. [-parities in l-3-rT ! . l or s h* " noi t ' r. -1*s - - r r ; d * nor P.v/r * r- I . : n th:r 'c'-t; .t:d t r < i-~o log ica I 1 y It is not pcrc*ntd:c? of total Aroclor usage in th* i \ states vas represented by the technical grade *1 As far as wr knew, all toxicological studies f'l'fi done with the purified grades* and therefore i n technical qrades are not available. Thus it is iMe to assess the toxicological effects that i tealized from exposure to technical grades of . (See Tables D.4-0.7,) I ,u>i.rJ.f NTAL CHEMISTRY DATA . ra l Chemical Degradation i i is PCOs nay er.ter natural water through discharge or as a result of disposal and .i. f equipment. However, they are inert to , [, .is except under extreme conditions (Hutiinger et l'tt 4. Nisbet 1970. i i 3I Degradation PCBs are extremely stable ...........is, not reactive chemically under environmental '.i io.is. Oxidation* reduction, nitration* '[ i ntion and nucleophilic reactions (reactions with .i,. alkoxides, amines) have been described ' i Mc.jpr et alt 19741. The conditions required for ^ Frictions make it unlikely that they will take < m the environment at any significant rate. ?.,.r.e applications of PCBs, such as quenching of s < i n.i-tali, heat-transfer media, and transformer , lead to the formation of degradation products . .tr< escape into the env i rormert . The formation of i .n.siwd d*benzofur*ns on heating of PCBs to 50C- i< one example (Duser et . 1970 1 . Polymeric . iof unknown coxpos i t ion* possibly incorporating >j . ..re also farmed from PCBs upon heating (Zitko .. 1971). Chemical contairinants Ipenta- to i .>i n (hf'ny Is, hrptt * to noiachloro < ,j. ryl ethers, and pentj- to j f li i oterphrnyl s l , considered to be a result of . . -i r i on uu re ide nt i f i ed in Kancm i lYusho) rice c! ' r ^ . t al . 19 7 11. Ati-m 90 percent of i h i s r* 1 of the Cjj.n erphet.yl s . .nd their c op'*'"'at : ` . * ; : : ; n' : - , ti.? . Mri 1 . jp s .'n ! : dr r ' i f i : * 3 i f :eJ oil 3); s, t' i or. of the results is r nqu : r*^d ?*. jr iidt io-, Photcreac 11on of rCBs prod^c- s a jnf 1/ of products. Loss of chlorine, wish replnt by hydrogen or hydroxyl groups* redrrang^m*nt* condensation* and "polar" products have been observed (Hutzinger et al. 1974.) One of the reaction products of sunlight i rr*d.io"i of PCB mixtures is the replacement of chlorine by hydroxy groups at the ortho petitions. Th;s allows oxygen to bind in a similar position on the oti.er ring and to produce chlorodibeniofjrana, Both heat and light can accelerate th trAn<#r---* z *: (Hutsinger et al. 19?4), It is not possible to assess quantttat*./e1/ the importance of photodegradltion of PCOs In the environment. A major portion of PCBr* in the efi/jcr ent is not accessible to sunlight end, consequently, :-e amount of PCBs decomposed by pt.orodoeradation io l:r.ely to be very small. Table D.3 provides ext jnct,:i coefficients and quantum yield data for the Iojs of a given PCI isomer (i.e., transformation by loss of a chlorine atom and formation of a PCB molecule with on- less chlorineI. Biodeurariit ion Microbial degradat ion of PCBs denn'-ds **-*" chlorination and the position of the chlorine 4io-i or the biphenyl molecule. Lower chlorinated biphenyls are readily transform'd by bacteria, b-it the higher Chlorinated compounds are not (Sisbct l7S). Achromobnctcr isolated from sewage sludge rapidly degrades PCBs (Ahm?d and Focht 1972). V -%: ail ' :r- 11974) also *;t iblj jied microbial d- -g r vi-it * bacterial culture isolated from lake wi*r. growth was not . fferr^d .idv* i-v l y w.n* n p v, C i :. <*oclor was added to tr.f tjlhirc IWor.g ' Table D-9 . ) nd l nn-r I g / j R lodcgradat ion ratr*s oi < b lorob i ( h n /1 s t i y ` fi -'-d from the data of r iaK,w\ . ii97-i : , .* Of Alcal!3nnes arul A<; : rr-r 'jt. t r r . F ; c; i n - 4 1 ; .1 ; . r1 fivit 7, )*2.41- .! 44.1-49 141-150 Tr icMorobiptwtiyla 2.JMJal`,4- 2,2',5*a\S2*,),4- 21.1-20,1 JT-SI l)"H 41 T tcch lorofr (phtny 19 2,),4,4>MMe!1* j,a\4,**. J\4.4'- i, 14 f 44-50 <4-(I.) 177-127.5 ?-i$ 104-10$ 107-114 - ['*') ' r so--; pr:- ! F< -: :M 7r , 1`.4.4 *7.7* , ),*, V7.7\J.J-.47.J'.J,4` 7.2*.J.51.4- l.l'.J'iO.S2.2',4,4r,52.2,*4s,Sa2il'.4.4*.5- NtRchLrobiphciyli 2,2 , ).4.4\52.2',)t1-,4.42r211)j14'il,r U'.J.'M.r* T * * 1 , iii'ii*,*!*!- LLJ- :it . s Hi 4-iu 91 1 - 100 1-? J 74.4?>.4 117- 111 77e?i 71.5-49 n-m 4 )v)-.U4 Maptacnioroblph.nylt *,,1, >' *,J'.J, *. f. ),a, 1)4.5-1)5. 5 no !*;ic j 107- ! 10 1OUlICCi Ml(it4 fro* 1MC I in prtotl . S iv tc t; D urlaa a t s i. (117*) . data, the Man primary biodegradation rates were calculated (Table 0.10). Considerable differences esist between the primly biodegradation rates of Isomers (Furukawa et al. 197eb>. Tf-.t-i in 2 itQ a positions" are degraded aruch nor? slowly than others, but the rates given ir Table D.10 would probably be useful In designing a mode 1. According to Baughaian and Lassiter 11778), representative concentrations of microbes in different water bodies are; Pond 3tf4EutrcpMc Ol f' |*r. it Sfid ;n-c Ot s. L 1 Ko c*: lf' 10' n* l 10 ; 0- I olubility of C'h loiob irhgny 1 Isorcrs and ? . in Water lng/1) t t|2 ?r} 1 > Ten; Hi orotoiphenyl* * *0 2 )0 1 . If l l`*ftjr|* 1 - 14 1 Sfi l 40 0 01 >>enyi* ic`1 7 * IO'* a.2*4j#o,s'" J.J`a0s4a5-Heeachlprob*phenyl 2* l',M` i5.5'Octechloratu pheny1 U .J, Deeec hlorpbipheey1 2 2 A I***1 II ) l A 19 2 4 4 A IO'1 4.T N 10'3 1$ io'a I <1 c Li 4 phenyl i * m J i .< 10 * >' - I * 0 * l * r l I I#'1 * s* I I0`* . 5 4.1 19` * ' 11 1 l It '1 Acockor 1242 1241 m IJ40 Mo i io-2; 1.20 * IO*1 |10 a <0~z frc Doric* et a]. ILfTt). y\s to extrapolate the rates to environments 1 . ns introduce considerable uncertainty. The measured under optimum conditions for the i itnism, at cell concentrations from 0,4 10* to * 'lis/nl and cMorobiphenyL concentrations of 50 I . whiqh is 11 mg/l to IS mq/t for mono- to j> : f t it* i pheny Is* respectively, well above ;iie I y of di- through tetrachlorobiphcnyls (Weil et - ' a.sum that ttu* rate depends linearly on the i i .if ion of ch 1 orohipheny ls, pitrapolat ion to the i ambient concentrat ion in the ng/1 range would .....implication by 10*. i'jout 10 percent of the > iy tar degrading FCDs I i.'ong and kaiser 19Til. i", the rates should be irultiplied by 10 percent nid cell concent r a t ion . The results of these II i - 'ins are g t ven in Tab le 0 . t 1 . i t>it the biodegradation of roost i i si til i phenyl s roa y be pit re roe 1 y si ow, and th it of *i l tin .re substituted ch l nrnli i phr n y 1 s prre*. :c i l ly s a: * c?-; e-ib.e ;c. * t- r , of . i * d i . : t i i 1 j i ; r a * v l i f . . r c . : it o f rc"s on m icrcorgan i sms have been studied : - . i r.-q st iqators and results ate presented in Table 1 . .1 ' Pc-.rquin and Cassidy ;975, Ewald et al. I97i. ; i rlct 1976, Powers et ai . 1 977 . Rlakemore 197?, Dlateroore and Carey 1979, Furukswa et al. 197?a>. PCS* may induce changes in the ecotaqical roie of microorganisms because of different sensitivities. Thus, community composition may change depending on Level of FCBs, temperature, and the ability of the organisms to metabolite these compounds (O'Connors et al. 19781. Mobility Through the Environment Adsorption and L^schinu laboratory tests indicate that Aroclor 1794 is adsorbed roost efficiently on soils with a high organic content and or. clays. Atoclcr 1C`.( was adsorbed strongly on silty clay leas soil and could be leached only with difficulty from silt and sandy loans. Less than 0.05 percent was leached after 4 months, and it consisted of mainly aono- and dichlorobiphenyls (Haqua et al. 1974, Mu to et al. 1974 , Tucto- et al. 1975a, Hague and Schmeddirg 1976, Kisbet 19761. Transfer of PCJ Isomers from soil to water follows cloaely their physical properties, especially water solubility and partition coefficients as indicated in Tatis D.ll (Halter and Johnson 19771. Vol-itil itv Konsanto Technical tulletin 0/?l,-10-f. gives a graph of vapor pressure (VP, aw Kgl of Aroclors '242. 1748, 1754, and 1760 ovr tha temperature rur.ye 150' *o JOO'C. From the graph, the logarithm of vapor pressure is a linear function of l/T (T teepera* urn . 'Y.'.-. logIVFl A B/T Aroclor 1747 ~ 174 8 1754 i 760 A__ 8.9 84 e. b d.s l: ^ __ 1/jlO 3,000 1, l , K. C VP axtnfsl it-; f. ?or, 9.0 x 10 8.1 r. > 0 \ n s \r 0 1 < 11, i Tj at 1 for I " 'H 4- r 1 2.4-Clj j.4.*-ci j 2,2'.5,5'-ci4 cii0 Aroclor 1212 Aroclcr L2U -to' *c j 1 #r L*'11 r.'i i on Cocfjicjcati 120 25 7 10 1203 60 no Jikpi p TicM 0.30)1 0.22 0.2i 0 OH >0. 21 2.0)6 0 1* SO-JUCCi Kcprtn ted (* i t h rvcif f : C It I Ofl " I J.'.'r .r i ft s (An front tChtnophti 2:155-1*4, euncc. fl J . ,, {. id I.C. irMutec, An aiCi4*cnt of the mprt of &ol: degradation of polychlorinated biphm^ I; n * h 4: - itic nruo<inr.tt. Copyright tl?'Ul, ('crv*.ior rrtss, i.rj. SOURCE: M o d ifie d f r o * O u r f t * A t * L . A(1 7A > . TABLE 0.9 Microbial Species Used in Degradation Experiments Specie* Tift# 4>9r*1*tiGn of PCD a o u # r* f* a. Acftrobcter Hocitdia 20 day# (on*u**t 1 tsitod rintjl + (low chlorinated) S3 ttra C i 4 0 Ol o I u 4J U u ol ~ 0[ Aiparqii lus Pseudocode** Ar i * 73 days * ('Cttra CBi * If i%*-- bl >fl O ^ * indicate* degradation. - indicate* no effect. W IN r- o IU o -1 a < V o f- TABLE 0.10 Chtorobiphen/ls Primary Biodegradation Rate *tono Dt^(both rinqs Mhtt i Tri-lhoth rift'j*. >l>*t.) T"U#-Jbot> t tpr.. 1 jhst ) t'l'iti- * rbotl. 111191 fcuos'.j rril/c* I < h hr 1 n 10' v 4 m Jl r it" v > - } * 1 .a . 0 *r.*i 1 y one 1 *rtnr*r. 2.4 . r* . 3 ` , 1 . i *; r i' ll Primary BiotjearNation Rate (ng/ml-htl ny 1 tnga tuber i rinq* rubrt.) ft r mgs *uu*1 .1 h nn^i tubH . I : .tin pent* r<i 11 iff adt ion CulfOpluc U^c 1 .) * io'K lil H U-" 1 11 I0'11 U a I0'11 <5 a 1* -14 o i i out rop!i i e L4k| It1011 1) B io!* 111 10 * 7.1 i 10' <5 a 10 Sd. 1. ) 1. 1 1. ) 1. J S a io` * 1 lo'16 10'1* l*-1' 10*1 J ' jair * ; Z\ S'JCCl.*/' Ic'-ftdea^u Eu^itna MtuetMooid CycloiuritM ; j -1 r c 3 )C5-00ug/l KS-SOOeg/l Itg/I logg/1 ic: j z . r . f- i ! c l irJut-its ^rc-L.^ in^ibui 7rth Kxltficd ^towtr- tata lre/r(flib! coriitior] inhibit 9(omOi IrSlfcit 5 r ot refjeed rata ot cell r*4uc*J total arojnt ar.d tat* of nucleic acids - nvtic reduced level* rate *--t c7,!or)fhf J aupprruH r;Mi.gBynEAr \ a rat* n* |,l A I . 1 ! I U 10 20 30 X CHLORINE IW/W1 - ( I. k<i ft >1 lUMb V i I 11 V nit i imltnui'U' j<. *c* jtcii pi i*>j|> . . I nr. IihQ of Ihc ( || 1m f cufT! I <il>ir|n- pi I. I 40 50 wi 'jIi' , .m> i. ttough Hater PCBs ire strongly adsorbed lo sedieent and their dispersal through water depends on the rovewent of the sediment- (See discussion of che PCIi in Sediment in Cheptef 1.1 ' Bt pace mutation KBs ere remarkable among organic industrial ch*tuci: s for their low solubility in wster 1 Table D.tl, treir high octanoi/water partition coefficients, accumulation COefficiants, (Tables D.14-0.It), snd their resistance i i TABLE 0.13 Equilibrium PCS Concentrations and Distribution Coefficients (Kd) for Aroclor 1254 Static Condition Continuoua Flow Soil Concentration 44/?) 50a !% 700 100 500 150 700 100 WjO Conct.' trat ion T.tO *, 10 J.0 .to 54 . )> . it 11 "*.in ir ?i 5 6h lo4 4 It * L: M fj i ; iCtl r f .L!.i( 4' J -.v n I [ ' ' 11 i-r> TA'l.E B.ld Octanol/rfate i Fartition Coefficients and Ecological Haqnification Values for Selected PCBs * -c ' loio i . 0 * * rj ichl oro I. 5.I * t r ichloro 1,5*2' . V *|>(htich1oro 2 , 0 , 5 . 3 ' i r , V-hCKichloro Hpcichloto (Ki>noi/N4tfr Pitt)tion Co*tiic ktnt >90 0.700 T, 190 s. ICO P.000 )9 00> 191,000 Ecological f icat ion vain* 0*0 1.200 4,400 12,000 12.100 02.000 07,000 to in vivo degradation (Table D.171. A* a result, they exhibit extraordinarily high values for bioaccumulation in animal tissues, especially in fish and other aquatic rginism*. ror example, the average concentration of PCBs in Lake Michigan is about 0.0*8 mg/kg, yet mature lake trout, Salyglinus namaveush. contain an average of 28 eg/kg. equivalent to a bioconcentration factor of >-01 x 10* l Me tea 11 1977, U.S, EPA 19721. B i oacrumu1 at ion of PCBs by fish and other aquatic organisms may take place either through ingestion of contaminated food organisms or by direct absorption through the integument. Coho salmon, Oncorhvnchue kisutch. were fed food pellets contaminated with I. * , J`,*'-tetrachlorobipheny1, 2,4,6.2*,4',8' end J. 4.9,2',4",5 ' hexachlotobiphenyl, After 108 days, the salmon contained an average of 1.4 mg/kg of each of the two hexachlorobiphenyls and O.iS mg/kg of tetrachlorobIpheny I . from >0 to 80 percent of the TABLE D.15 PCS Acctssulation Coefficients in Selected Animals Inirtl oistcrs (Aroctor 17941* .hi I^P la roc lor 17941* I iih iriluarinrl lAroctor h.j I inllon I d ic A lor o- I * lion: Itrtrirli lorn- I * 17941* accumulation Coefficients 101 x 19* - 1*9 x l**1 2* X 19* 37 x 10* 1 - 100 I* bdy xt x 19 9xlSJ J I nil I 1 l l i ' HttJ i * i 'Hndi `i - I r.M* lljnim 1 I 9 - * I *"l f . o Hi h iocli( | I * H * . I I r <-i"' Brjnuh rl *| ' : ( t i { > m .LE D.16 Accuikulm tio n Coe ;f ic ie n t o f A ro c lo r 1254 by A q u a tic In v e rte b ra te s 1 1 i- o^ o j _1 ^I * r* o 'Nl o </l o X o ! I o ii i! i` i i 1 s2 i 4 ki 0* * C CH 4U r * wu o cu oc HO 11: \u %- L< 4 C 0* cr *> c * -4 *4 --o a&. (y --i OH o u -- i.i u o r-i i -4 v J Cl 4 ;t oa o . *, l | lto .o io ito.o tio.a ji.o *t. . r ^ r. 'r " I. r. .; r> f - e .`:.nr , . ! -u: to T rue tilor c.b i peer. / i in tl.e d 1 . .-: .' .rf '.id froi 19.8 r v/kg to i .9 m :/kg c.er a ; r: - : o; 0 3 di/s, corpircd with 2,4,f.2',4".9' .j\ichlerobiphen, l, -which decreased Iron il.l r-t/yg tc t.i rg/kg; and with 2.4.6,2',4'.61 he each 1 or ont;ven, 1 . which do created frcm 20-2 mg/kg to 6.0 mg/kg (Cr ,:tr f, 1. 1979). ' The direct uptake of '*C-2,9,2 ` -1 r ich loro-, 2,5. 2 ' ;9' - tetrach'.oro -, and I.4,9,2',9'pentachlorobiphcnyIs by the green suefish. Lepc': s cvanellua. mi studied by Sar.born ct at. 119791. After the fish had spent 19 days in static water, the bioconcentration factors were determined as tiir'uun '4 4Ci. ...i iwncac.norobipnen/1 i,9!0. Model icnontcn studies Bioaccuau1 at ion and biodoqradat ion studies with a series of "c-lab*-led chlorobiphenyls have been node using the terre .- -io! aquatic Model ecosystem involving both fool-cm.n transfer and direct absorption in aquatic organ i tres. Including the snail, fhysa sp,, and the f::h c affinis (Metcalf et al. 1S75, Metcalf and Lu ill1-.). The degree of bioaccumulation, as determined from the ratio of amount of parent compound in snail or f.sh to r-o.rt In water, increased in proportion to the d'gr*e of chlorination; and it reached high values for h*xachlorobiphenyl--42 x 10* in fish and 100 n 10' in snail--and for decachlorobiphenyl--97 z :o* in run and 930 x 10* in snail. Ccrrespc.iid.iiu ly, the higher chlorobipheny1 $ were ore stable in the tissues of the organisms, as determined by biodegradability inde-. or ratio of -vncu.-n of polar cor.pound stored. The biodegr idab? I : ty index the fish decreased from 0.4* for trichlorobir-hcr.to 0.009 for decachlorobiphenyl. IIAIARD EVALUATION Agute_To*!ciy T-it* lethal Drir.e r.tudtv-s L0.r -.a-. i.< Im uq*t i .in' t rrr* r : .i i vi Id 1 i l*'' .*ir pi v :-, i i : 1 n : n. I via I doses range f rc-n n .v) * f t ; : o I I , c ' j , , . this level is t vgu k f i>i t.. ol , : n LC ,.j. f . r !,, r t 11 : TABLE E .10 To*icity o f PCBc jnd DDT m Continuous t 1ow Tc 3 ts Aroclor L2S4 1 HO DOT J 242 1241 125* L 2*0 124? I2l us* 12*0 1241* 4 13*1 5 CM? C l e 4 Rainbow Trout 01u*9AiIf Ctiannol C*tf*h Oluegill* CMnnol Catfish s day* ISO. 0 .... 2. ) 150.0 110-0 .... -- -- .... -- -- 149.0 -- 10 rfjyt 1.9 2*0.0 O.t 72.0 1*0.0 440. 0 .... 170,0 210.0 .... .... 7*, 0 *4.0 "'"SO lag/ll IS day! .... 20 day. -- *4.0 0.1 54.0 7* , 0 200,0 .... 110.0 110.0 740,0 .... -- 57,0 21.0 -- -- 10.0 140.0 140.0 -- .... 300,0 300,0 -- .... 2S dJy* -- -- -- -- *4.0 210,0 -- -- 110.0 170.0 -- ------- 4fcmporat urc, 27*C, source: Stilling and Hayer 11*711. - 10 -- -- -- -- -- -- 1*0.0 -- -- -- 140.0 -- .... TABLE D.19 Toxicity of PCBt and DOT to Invdttmbratos Compound Organ,ha lioaaaay Typa* Exposure Idayal Atcolor 1242 Xroclor 1254 Aroclor 1154 UBT Aroclur 1242 Arocior 1342 Aroclor l?4f AlOClOC 12*4 UUT unr AroclOr 1254 DOT 30T AiOClOt W42 .\toclOc Aroc 101 l'J3 Viorfor 11 ' 4 rr'T Crayfish Crayllah Crayfish Scud Seud Ieu4 feud leud Seud Glaae Shrimp data Shrimp Claat Snnmp ftvaqenf ly Or.iqcrvl ly 0jm*<` 1 f ly Oamac lily 0-imap l i \ y atmtle atatlc eon tinuou*.flow ttitle cot1nuoua-f1ow eon tinueui-1low catnc atAtie atatie continuous-How eontinuoua-f Low static continuous- f low static itttie eontingouu-Clow eonttnuoua-flow stAtie 7 7 7 4 4 10 4 4 4 5 7 5 * 7 7 4 4 i `Ti- tii*1 p u vi r.', 1 S . i* *C : ail k.i 1 * n * r v , J5(t-.m: |.H. 7.1. 'I ^ 41 I i h-T .n<l , i l 1 1 7 2 l , LC'j0 4. V U 30 100 10 100 10 s.o *2 2,400 1.2 0.* 3.3 :. o 1.3 00 1 ,000 400 290 jQ T 9S 1 TABLE D.JO Toxicity of PCBs to Pits and Rabbits, LD50 (mg/kg of body might) Arcelor 1331 Ht ;or!) 4 000 Adult st iotli weoninq rati feral) Mult r.t 11.v.) )0-d*f old rt> ;or:1 120-day old rota 10raJ) djODit. ikm> >7000 * 3200 Arcelor 13)3 4S00 '1)00 <3000 Arcelor 1 343 300 >100 > l 300 Arcelor 124| 11,003 >100 <1)00 Aroelor 13)4 Aroelor 1240 4000*10,000 10.000 4000-10.000 1300 1)00 400 1400 3000*3)00 >1)00 <3000 Aroelor 1244 11.100 <2)00 '.-.'.kCC- xodided CrCT* 1A*C (i pr**l . T.M'LL D.21 Acuta Oral and Carnal Toxicity Effacts of PCS Exposure i*iaj *#M*al -- TtMtWM Nrfiat mrtilitr u*r irtai to thin EftfC'* u\n )Ut if . s4 *9. Ml) aSti/J *MU MCI ' ' * C*H|I Piq Kit *n L* /4 4ilr 4**41 t 4>UI II * Mrtl Itaq 4 4*ilf #Mco *a. MffT WW4 **? a a 1 U 1 H*tN i*4 11 IS# 1* Jar* *4 it |t 4ifi 44 iA 4 (MPMH Ot **iM (SO tiii4f MloHiotlgK *f CCI4 tHill f *y0M* **4lta in HvaP c*l 1* ratty wua-psitii r*HUoJ sUi Viy lurrOit* of >OI*ftl; C4* | I `flliAi. ny it.it ntanwla* !)t vtiqnt * k'trjir: ft 11 IwlllSi; *y -lift aiaotiiie* t r 11 ! 4; 1 *4 -4 .-4 Cm 1 J rn U a- If, h JI>,1 X t R.*h4l1 4)Umj| t d.iyi: I 'l 1 1 ( t * Ma MS i'ulT. i Jr 4 1. JO,| 4 *1 04 1* 4*fm It ana 104 I'i>i*p4h >j4i ii.tv a in m i<- i4.i iM ,.| - | *V.`f niitfia *<-**-Ir|*c4 Pi) > f <. rat 411 Pliny 1 mt+i. tear 1 i, yh il if gr jnu4 It rcn : . .1 Oi'^roiii in 4 1, * in** la r.'JJy 0v'.civP Ji inn cm* ral Slftapny " n-i jir v* *> 1 l ! -J *>*. m * t<- at 1 uyny J i 1 ................ t- 1, ............. <1 > . .( 1. 1 1 f (irrational thifieoir of vnr *i0rr*if Th im no of |>. 1 < ) a Mil la> rr ^no 1 n H it `i 1 nil l I viirr rota* riPi) ) ......... riiJi-a 1 am. (.win 1 --> of %a I l 4' t|f< 1 < * in 1 h 11 at 4< l * . | k n 11 I i itl'l'l'l.l'll 1 S" <' '*! ; 1' t 1 \ :*e > .1 r. si--' i - ii. i -i/'-; - . <LC, ` * . - i e S it a Tests usir.-j Dajihnja, fathesc rlrr-lli, and Gaiwrys indicated that the larval staje it rsac sensitive to PCS effects (Nebrker et al. 19771. (See Tables D.19. D.2J, and D.24.) Life-cycle effects on birds ere given in Table D. 25- lies The predomnant route of PCS net abolish is hydroeyletion (Table D.261. j Some chlorobiphenyls nay be hydroxylated via arena oxide internediates which suggests potential carcinogenic .ty end eutegeeicity. The hydroxy lated chlorobiot-nvl - i A re" .* periin compounds. The tez : col O'] i c a 1 significance of the recently discovered chlorot1pheny1 Methyl aultones is not known. Results of chronic feeding studies ere presented in Table D.27. Hutaaeniclty For Aroclors 1242 and 1254 no statistical evidence has been presented for mutagenic effects in bone eiarrow or spcCMtoqoma 1 ceils, for irut-i^emc effects in donlnant lethsl assays, or for chro-tiosor 11 aberrations in huaan lyophochroaiososial cultures. Ames test results with Aroclor 1221 end 4-chlorobiphen/1 indicated significant Mutagenicity (Wyndhaa et al. 17). i Date indicate that Keneclor Soo, Aroclor 1244, end perhaps Aroclor 1254 are errcinoj-r.ic in mice and rats viable D.211. SOU*CE: M o d ifie d zom N is b e t ( 1 9 7 4)( i J 20 - i Spanning and E99 Production of Fat.*.. ) j i nposed to PCBs 1 i 1 *11 on *i?i 1 f 1 J i . - J2*4 li 6 1) a Spawn knqs/ IrmlU **<!/ iptwninq 0 0 2.1 20 1.9 4) i.i It 4.9 to 00 00 1.0 4) 5.2 104 2.0 44 2.4 104 E<W/ fMMll ISO 209 21 44* 110 540 220 250 P?r<r > h**c! " : 0 0 1 10 4 52 0 0 79 42 55 25 1. t hujificd froM Hiabet (19741. .. ; : _ : M ")T k~n i a-'J Ha _c i lit* "5 O r 1 r. ;-i .. a.-vi Su z / i va i arA 3ii S of A l-v: r 5 , /. ' 'S Hatch i.ng , After Exposure to Aro clor 1254 |ir j 2nd 2 Kc5s at 12- 14*C Incubation Me an Alcvln Sire rc* l.q/ql Oeya 7erccit Ittchitil -ty Per cent Sut vivil Length <r.n J Cxpoiur* for 4 wmIii f2 bt(or and 4 4 (ter hat cSmoJ 0 510 94 01 14 5 490 t* 74 IS 10 400 79 44 14 * < 9* 0 JO 0 in 0 JO 1ft -- 19 24 12 15 440 94 J7 10 440 41 7 29 liwwart for 2 Mtiia (to 2 day* before h*tchtnq| t 500 91 91 n 1 too 94 70 15 0 27 0 24 0 24 0 ;o 0 10 10 400 90 15 400 92 If 411 90 ff 490 44 40 11 0. so 94 U 0. 26 Tf 25 0 21 40 14 0. 24 JOUMTf.- Modified from Jfisbet (1974) * ? L a T A ltlE 0 .2 5 L ila C y c le E ffe c ts o f A ro e lo r 125 i is 9 * - f9 A =3? S 1 Ij * a : ' &JT rt m s ar 4 A* i* * * 999 Hiil iyii?** - t ** ****** S'* VH 2: :s 4 ^A S! 9 &9 is: 21%= i1 S** I *4 n* O ne *4 -* ne t 4 * &l 4 4 a. s 5|i !-I ** ** 4 * 3 jj t? :.?*, :s ;i -iSj-e c *on G O ;o " * a &c Sen. o> <i 3 ti n-> n J - r G4 a s; - - table 0.26 Matabolisa of Polychlorinated Biphenyl tsoners Spociaa Parent Compound Product* rat rat rat r*t tit. ricrosotcj i <t rat rat iat rji a-chlorobiphanyl a-ehlorobiphaityl l4C-2,J dlchloroblphanyl i4C-2.a.d-tr chleroblphanyl 3,1`, a-trlehJoroblphany I *H-3 , 31, 5 ,5 '-tatrachlorobiphcny 1 ,J,J'-tatrachiorobiphanyl I.J'.a,a'-tatraehlerobiphanyi l<C-2,J,4.5,4'pentachlorobiphanyl 2,3',a,5,5' -puntjehlorepiphany t 2.2' . a . t' , o-i'L-nt jell 1 ornb t I'ltany 1 2 , . ' t . (j . tj -t rr ` onohyd retry lat ad dartvativa di hydro*)latad darlvativa a'-chlort-J.a-hiphanyldio1 a'-chlort-)-*tho*y-a-bif>h*ny idtoi a * -cniorc -a-oathoiy-3-blphanyldioi a'-chlorc-a-aothexy-J,5-biphanylJiol 1',5'-dlenlorb-a-blphanyl 4'-hydro*'1*tad dartvativa )',a*-dih.drotrylacad dcrtvatlv* 1'-hydro**-a'-atathoiylatad danuti*( a'-hydro*/-)' -mathoxylatcd darivative nrmohydro ylatad derivative )-nonohyd`oxylatad dartvativa 2,3' .5.5 'tatraehiorn- J-btphanylol trana-1>* dihydro-3.3',5,5*-teiraSKTorubipJ *fiyi-),*-biph*nyloi 1 and 5-h>dro*yUttd dartvativa > and 5-h)droxylated derivative y and a`-hydroxy latad dartvativa V ,a *-dihydroxy latcd dmvativi 3,2'. a.5.5'-pentjehloro-J-biphanylol }.*'-dihytro-3.a'-diol 3.3' , a.5,51 -I'ontaenJoro-),ablphenyloi iBONOhy-lict t lated derivative PTH 1 j . -1 * 1 I / * * i \ ? ` -i . J * l' i a I 1 vfl 1 t i r lr o.2r> continued 1 eoront Compound c*t 1,1' .4.4' .i.S'-hoooehlorpbipnonyl r*t l4C-l,,*,! .4'-hooochlorobi- phonyl r*t 1,1 ,4,4',S,}'-hoooehlorobiphonyl rJLblt ribb 11 111v* r microtOAt) 4-chlorobiphonyl 4-enlorobiphonyl r abbit 4,4'-dlenloroblphonyl rabOit troenlorobipnony 1 )f kqeofi* i1 , . -'crii 1,1' ,4,4', W-houchlorobiphony 1 4-chloroblphonyl 4,4'>4i<MWtyMi\ly 1,1' ,i,S'-t*t[tel)lonki(iiinyl Froduct* no hydrooylotod product* aoftohydroiylotod donvativ* 1,1' .4,4 `.S ,S 1 -houcnioro- )biphony lol 4-<hloro4'-biphonylol 4-ehloro-4`-blphonylol 4'-ehloro-1,4-biphonyldlol 4.4'-aiehloro- Hlptmylol l^'-dxcnloro-o-blphonylol 4* -- cnloro-4-blphonylol 1.1'.*.*'-totroehloro-1-biphonylol 1,1',S,J '-totroohloro-4-blpnonylol trono-l.4-dIhydro-l,l1,S,S'-t*troehloro-J,*-blphonyldiol onohydrooylotod derivative aanehydrozy with eh Ion no inift aohohydrony oethooy lotod derivative bhohydioiylotod derivative enonydroitylotod dorlvotlvo onehydroiiylotod dorlvotlvo yiduona chicfcana 1,l*,4,4',V,S*-hoooehlorobiphonyl 1,l', 4,4', J,S'-hooocMoroblphenyl trout trout e rout trout trout qoa t voj t tow ir,vu> ftonkoy 4-ehlorobipnony1 4 ,4-dlehloroblphony1 1,1',*,*'-to troeh1oroblphony1 1,1' ,*,S'-cwtr*eitlorobiphnyl 1,1* .4,4',} *'-hoMchlorobtphonyl 4-ehlorobtphony1 4.4 * -dleh loi oblpbonly -enlorobkp4 onyl 1,1* ,).}'-utr*chlorofeiphdnly mire RilCt mi ct Si 1,1',S,S'-totroehloroblphonly pentochlorobiphonly 1,1* ,4,4*,5, V'-hoiochlornbiphenyl "pJiJjpO ro* lARC (n t-rria>. no hydrnuyloted product* Mtonydi oiiylotod dorlvotlvo pontoch oroblphonyl donvativ* ponnoh oro tnhydrooylotod donvot. vo no hydri oylotod product* no hydrcoylotod product* no hydrcoylotod product* eonjuyetod metabolite* 4-bydrooy-l,l'.J.S'-TC# no nydroiylotod eotobolitea 4'-chlorp-4-biph*nylol 4'-ehlori-l.4-blph*nyldlol 4,4'-die tloro-l-biphonylol 41-ehlori-4-biphonylol one^ydr^ylitid dtftvtiv* dlhydror Jatad danvttivea trana-J. ,'edihydro-3.d-TCa diel hyUcoJty- , 4-diftydro-) ,d**TC# d*ol no thy lau; fono derivative wthyloulton* donvativ* 22' , 4 < 4 ' . $ , 5'-h**chloro*J* birhanylc1 9 i. I TABLE D. 27 Results of Chronic Feeding Studies Using Verioue PCS Mixtures Spec if* Dot* PC* Ti* trt#ct - nouSa 100*9/9 or 1M (intckior 500 32 VMM Hepatocellular caxcinonaa: tom# *u]#> praad nodular hyp#rpl##i# INagaaati. t *1. 1512, Ito #t #1. 151)1 500*4/4 104*4/4 KAAochlor J00, 400 Aroelor 1254 )2 v**k* 11 wont ho MO tract iNaqataki at al. 1H2I Adanofibrofia of livtr (Kiotorouqh and Lihdtr i*74i 104*4/4 Aroelor 1254 ( nontha No affect (Kiabrough 151*1 A*t 10a * 500 Aroclar 0 Month# Adanofibroai* Ikiabrough at *1. 1412) *9/4 125* it ili >*/* lOOxi/4 Xanaehlor 400 Aroelor woo 52 weak* 21-23 oontha ramalaa developed naopltattc nodulaa In liver ilituri and *#* 141JI tncraaaad nuabar at atillbecna and reduction ot fatal weightr naoplaatic nodulaa of livar (durk* and Fitlhugn 15701 100114/4 Aroelor 1 year 125* * 12(0 Ho illnaaei inert*** in total tarun lipid* * choleeteroli *li*ht inert#** in trltlycaridaa: liver hypertrophy and focal area* of hapatocaltular d*g*n*r*tion (1ARC (In proa*11 Monkey 20 - 1*0 4/4 2.5 - 5.0 4/4 Ktnochlor 500 I2*a 1 mil * (gtitition) ( nontha offtpnn* with reduced laarnin* ability (Shiots It It) r*Malaa developed acna, alopecia. #rytho*i and availing of oyolide: alteration -i aanatrual eyclaat incraattd freguercy m abortion (1AC (in praaal) Chicken# 50*4/4 50*9/) in ItjO \ 09*9/9 20*4/4 Hi iik )0*4/4 125* 125* 125* 125* Pc 1 i nn 1041 1004 1 OOwtf/q W0 1* Month# 1 Month# 2* weak* t w*a* 4 vooka 4 nontha 5.5 oontha 10 week* 12 montna Mala# davali-pad only alitht pariorbitti oodana end irythane iBartotti at al. ti*i Nyptrtrephii hyparplaatie 9*atritis, uicaratioft .md anama {IANC tin praail) Infant* vitli ovidane* of aavoro hyparplaitic taatntia and hyparplaaia ot hair folhcli Peducad a** production and daclino in fertility ll'latonou and Painhart tODI Doforautiea in nock and toa (Bush et al. 1*74> Decree** hai ehability (kapltnger at al. 15 Mi Subeutaneou . 4m: atrophy ot th* *pl4in; kld nocro* ; con9*ation and fatty infiUrAtiOi of tha liver 30% aortaUty (Bird tt al. 1971) Deao reapom * relationship in dtpresaad right nain reduced reproduction (Aularich at 1 Dinger 1417) Mortality incurred (Aulcrich and flintier (977; Increased ne of hrpatocytaa : nurtiber of htp-atoeyta and *wt*bcr of mitochondr11 IStotc md Croiehua 19 7B2 M.ilcs - rrJv w'cd 9rowth rate: 1 ncri,jsJ (1 ver wriuhlii elevated *u*rgw alkaline phosphate Uo|'l*nkfcr rt al* 1T?U t : 11 ni res it 1. n. and D.D. Focht 11973) Degradation of iJ ilfcMorinttfd biphenyl* by two specie* of A: o<. hromobacter Can. J. Hicrobiol. 19:47-52. i< iT-h, R.J. and R.K, Ringer (19771 Current statu* of ) x toxicity to nink. end effect on their epioduction. Arch, environ. Contan. Toxicol. Iillf. 29] . it,tii, D.A. , R.J. Harlar, end J.R. Allen 11*7$) reproductive dysfunction In rhesus nonkey* exposed to low levels of polychlorlnsted biphenyls (Aroclor INO. food Cosnet. Toxicol. 14:99-103. .- ,i.i*an, C.L- and R.R. Lassiter (1979) Prediction of ironmentel pollutsnt concentrstIon. Pages 35-54, l it mating the Hsssrd of Chenlcsl Substances to Aquatic Life. Edited by John Cairns, Jr., K.L. I'l'.'ion, and A-W. Makl, Philadelphia: American ' S.i, tety for Testing and Material*. fi. r c.R. chawan, and R.M. Gerry (1970) Response of broiler chickens to low level Intake of r<1/chlorinated biphenyl isomers. poultry Sci. tlUl :530-541 . Vrn.ore, R.P. I197R) Effects of polychlorinated L.(tienyls on mecromolecular synthesis by i.c t erotrophic marine bacterium. Appl. Environ, rtioiobiol. 35(21:329-33$. rm.-re, R.P. and A.E. Carey (1970) Effecte of I'.wl/chlorinated biphenyls on growth and respiration i f t.eterotrophic marine bacteria. Appl. Environ, hictobiol. 351 21: 323- 320 . j.iin. A.W. and S. Cassidy (1975) Effect of (<-it/chlorinated biphenyl formulations on the growth of estuarine bacteria. Appi. Microbiol. 29ll):125Ut. . D.R., G.E. Olau, H-C. Alexander, and U.O. Mealy il9?S) Oloconcentration of 2,2*,4,4'tttechlorobiphenyl in rainbow trout as siessured by in accelerated test. Trans, Am. Fish Soc, 4:7(5-792. r, H.J., 1. Kumar, and B.C. Brownlee (19701 An moiMnt of the impact of solar degradation of polychlorinated biphenyls in tha aquatic aiiv ironment. Chemosphare 2:155-144. . ;e j. and o.c, Fitihugh 11970) Status Report of : ministry and Toxicology of PCBs, Suppl. I, December I Washington, O.C.: U.S. Food and Drug A.lia i n i st rat lor. ser, H.R.. H.P. Oifltif 3* . -.! C . ? - '. : ' Formation of pol y rh l i.i,i ted iir'.r:';.: irs r; from the pyrolysis of PCas. C-.ei-ip.-T" 7.179. Bush, B., C.F. Tumasor.n, and F.D. Baker ( I97i ) Tcricit/ ar.d persistence of PCS he no logs and iicm:s in tie avian ayatem. Arch. Environ. Contam, Toxicol. 2:195 212. Durfee, R.L. 1197$) Production and usage of PCBs in the United Stetee. Peges 103-107, Proceedings of Hetlonal Conference on Polychlorinated Biphenyls, November 19-21, 1975, Chicago, Illinois. Report r-o. EPA-5$0/$-75~004. Washington, D.C,: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Our fee, R.L.. C. Contos, F.C. Whitsu/re, J.D. Barden, E.E. Heckman III. snd R.A, Mesti.n (197$) PCB* i.n tha United Stat.er--Indntr-* Distribution. Report Ho. EPA 5$0I$-1$-0DS. Springfield, Vs.: Versar. Inc. Ewald, W.G., J.l. Pranch, and K.A. champ (197$I Toxicity of polychlorinated biphenyls IPCBsl to eracillai Call population growth, carbon fixation, chlorphyll level, oxygen consumption, and protein and nucleic acid synthesis. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. I$(l)i71-B0. Purukawa, K., P. Hetsumura, and K. Tonomura 1 1973aI Alcallqenea and Aclnetobacter strains capable o' degrading polychlorinated biphenyls. Agric. Siol. Cham. 42(3):54]-540. Purukawa, K., R. Tonomura, and A. Kamibayashi 1197(b) Effact of chlorine substitution on tha biodegradabillty of polychlorinated biphenyls. Appl. F.nvirnr. Micrcihlol 75( ?!: 223-227 . Gruger, ll.E., N.L. Karrlch, A.I. Davidson, and T. Hruty (1975) Accumulation of 3,4,3 *,4-tetrschtorcbiphcny1 and 2,4,5,2",4',5*- and 2,4,$,2',4,$- hexachlorobiphenyl In juvenile Coho salmon, inmor.. Sci. Tachnol. 9:121-127. Haltar, H.T. and H.E. Johnson (197*) A model system to study the desorption and biological availability ->f PCB in hydrosoils- Aquat. Toxicol, lias, Eva I- STP $34:170-195. Hansen, D.J. (197$) PCBs; Effect on and accumulation fcy eatuarina organisms. Pages 262-28), Proceed.n-,s of National Conferenco on PolychlorInated Diphenyl:;, November 19-21, 1975. Chicago, Illinois. Report Do. EPA-5*0/$-75-004. Washington, O.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. I EC , *, R. and O. Schne-iding (1914) SV.Jio on . i cm pt ion cf ttkcUd pol /chlorinated biph*.-, ] i . "tt on Kvinl lurftco. J, Environ. Scl. I'e-ilth u i m 2 I 129 11 7 . , ", ft., D.H. Schmedding, and V.H. Freed 11974) Atjoue solubility, sdsorption, and vapor behavior >f polychlorinated biphenyl Aroclor 1254. Environ. -i f Technol. t<2);139-142. II l<r, O., s. Safe, and V. litfco (1974) The i.custry of 9CEs. Cleveland, Ohiot CRC Preee. i inii tonal Agency for Research oe cancer (IARC) (In i>et*l Honogiaphs on the evaluation of the tnclnotietlc risk of chemicals to buaane 14:4)-10). I i.mc for release in or after 1979) . t> . H. Nagasaki, H. Aral, S. Nakiura, S. Sugihara, mi *. Hirao (1971! Histopathologic studies oe liver t j-Bor igeneaii induced in nice by technlcel pi.tychlorineted biphenyls and its pronotlag effect <1. liver tuaeors induced by beniena hesechloride, i o .<> 51.14)7-1444. ...i , k.l.E. and P.T.S. Hong (1974) bacterial .1. , iidation of polychlorine tad biphenyls. I. . h ..t i ficttlon of some metabolic products from fi .t lor 1242. bull. Environ. Conte*. Toxicol. 1.iti:21-294, u.,i(, K.L., O.E. Fanchar. said J,c. Calandra (1971) losirologic studies with polychlorinated biphenyls. i,.lcol. Appl. Pharmacol. 19.402-40). . A.D. (1974) The toxicity of polychlorlaatad i i.>ycyclic compounds and ralated chemicals. 1|, CRC '-i.t- Asv. Toxicol. Pagas 445-49B, Clavalaad, Ohiot <IC 7 reaa, .1 ujh, A,0. and R.E. Linder (1974) Induction of i n ncif Ibroais and hapatomas of tha liver in BALB/cJ in.ee by polychlorinetcd biphenyls (Aroclor 1254), J. osi. Cancer Inst. 5)*.547-s52. 1 I .i.iijti. A.D., R.E. Linder, and T.O. Caines (1972) h -i phological changes in livers of rats fad l . !y<hlorinatad biphenyls. Arch. Environ. Heelth 144-)4. ... NT. and T. Baba (1973) Neoplastic changes in mi rat Liver induced by polychlorinated biphenyl. ,,.,i 44:105-100. .......,1.1. D C, (1970) Uptake Hates and Effects of rcbs .... imi ,top lank ton and Zooplankton. (Unpublished iei Metcalf, B.L. (1977) The biologies! fate and transformation of pollutants in watar. Pages 195 221, Fate of Pollutants in the Air and Hater Environment, Fart II. Edited by I.n. Suffet- Ke-w York; John Hiley a Sons, Inc. ttstcalf, R.L. and Po-Yung Lu (197a) Partition Coefficients as Measures of Rioaccumuletion Potentiels for Organic Compounds. Final Report to tl.S. Enviroiusente 1 Protection Agency, Contrect No. 00-014109, July 15. Urbane, 111.; University of Illinois. Hstcalf, R.L., J.R. Sanborn, Po-Yung tu, and 0. Nya (1975) Laboratory model ecosystem studies of the degradetloa and fata of radiolabelsd tri-, and pentacklorobiphenyl compared with ODE. Environ. Conte*. Toxicol. 1:151-105. Hlyata, N., T- Rashlmoto, and R. Kumta (1977) ts-ra-, Arch. Detection and datcrmination of polychlorodibcnsofurenc in normal huswn tissues and Kanemi rice oile caused `Kanemi Yuaho.' J. Pood Hyg. Soc. 10()1:20C-245. flute, T., T. (abodera, and Y. Shinosaki (1974) The solubility of PCS* (polychlorineted biphenyls) in weter aed adsorption from watar. kadioaotopea 2X4) 119-2 2. Mngaeeki, M., S. Tamil, T. Hags, K. Herugami, end N. (1972) bepetocercinogeniclty of polychlorinated Ito biphenyls In mice. Cann 0);005. Rebeker, A.V., p.A. Pwgllsi, and D.L. DoToe (1977) Toxicity of 9olychlorinated biphenyls (PCOs) to Fish and Other Aquatic Life. Report No. PB-244 434. Springfield, Va.i National Technical Information Service. Nlsbet, l.C.T. (1970) Criteria Document for PCRs. report No. PR-215 397. Washington, D.C.i u.S. Depertrent of Coemerce. O'Connors, H.O., Jr., C.P. burster, C.D. Powers, D.C. Riggs, snd R.C. Rowland (197B) Polychlorinated biphenyls may alter marine trophic pathways by reducing phytoplankton site end production. Scien:? 291:7)7-7)9. Piatonou, N-S, and B.S, Reinhart I197J) The affects of polychlorinated biphenyls (Aroclor 1 254 ! on chick :n egg production, fertility and hatchabi1ity. Can. Comp. Ned. 37 : 34 1 X4. Powers, C.D., R.C. Rowland, 11. C. O'Con:v,r, Jr., on! C.F. Hurster ( 1977 ! Scij.oncc to po 1 /cMonnite) l2 biphenyls ot nirint ^ytopinr.ton isolate* c.i",: under natural conditions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 14(6) :760-764 . Sanborn, J.M., w.r. Childers, and *.L. Metcalf (1915) Uptake ot three polychlorinated biphenyle, DDT, and DDE by tha green aunfish, kMsir Crenel Ins Aef. Dull. Environ. Contest. Toxicol. 11:209. Shiota, K. 11970 Eabryotoxic sffecta of polychlorinated biphenyla (kanaclora 300 and 500) in rats. OkajiMa rol. Anet. Jap. 51:93-104. jtailing, D.L. and f.L. Mayer, Jr. (1972) Toxlcltiea of PCOs to fiah and environmental realduea. Environ. Haalth Perspect. 1:149-1*4. Stott, l.J. and t.A. Crelcbus (1970) The effecta of a polychlorinated biphenyl Aroclor 1294 on the uhlte pelican: ultrastructure of hepatocytee, hull. Environ. Contest. Toxicol, 19t 3) 1319-325. Tucker, E.S., M.J. Litachgi, and M.M. Meea (1975a) Migration of polychlorinated biphenyla in aoll induced by percolating eater, hull. Environ, Contain. Toxicol. 13(1):96-93. Tucker, E.S., v.M. Saager, and 0. Hicka (1975b) Activated alodge prlnery blodegredation of polychlorinated biphenyls. hull. Environ, Contest. Toxicol. 14(6):705-713. u.S. Enviroiusental Protection Agency (1972) An Evaluation of DDT and Dialdrln In Lake Michigan. Ecol. lea. Ser. Report Mo. EPA *3-72-001. Washington, O.C.i Environmental Protection Agency. Weil, L., C. Dure, and K.E. Quentin (1974) Mater aolubility of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticldee and PC*a in reepect to water loading by these compounds. Maessr Abwasser Forachung 7:169-175. Wong, P.T.S. and X.L.E. kaiser (1975) Oactenal degradation of polychlorinatad biphenyls If. Hate studies, hull. Environ. Contest. Toxicol. 13(2):249255. wyndham, C., J. Devenish, and 5. Safe 11976) The in vitro met*bo)ism, nacromolecular binding and bacteria) mutagenicity of 4-chlorobiphanyl, a mod*1 PCS substrate. Res. Coxmun. Che*. Pathol. Pharmacol. 15:561-570. lltho, V. and P.H.K. Choi (19711 PC* and Other Industrial Halogenated Hydrocarbons in the Environment. Technical Report Ho. 212. St. Andrews. Hew Brunswick, Canada: Fisheries Research Board of Canada.