Document ZJo9ayrz8Xx16kMYjnk4dq7bY

Bulletin 552 Bureau of Mines THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY _ / Oliver Bowles UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE . WASHINGTON 1955 ASARCO ALV 0005954 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Douglas McKay, Secretary BUREAU OF MINES l. ) Fcrbes Director Fcr sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D. C. - * - Price $1.00 ASARCO ALV 0005955 Preface In 19:57 tho Bureau of Minos published Bulletin 403, Asbestos, the manu script of which was compiled by the present author. That report, although containing considerable basic and historic data, is out of date in many respects and has been out of print for several years. As there is wide demand for in formation on the subject, the need for a revision of the bulletin has become increasingly urgent. During the years since 1937 several books and numerous articles on as bestos have been written. Sonic describe deposits scattered in various parts of the world, and others pertain to the technique and equipment of mining and milling, new applications, economic problems, international trade, reserves, and various other aspects of this unique mineral. Accordingly, a vast reservoir of information has become available since the early report was prepared. A report entitled "Materials Survey--Asbestos," prepared by the author for the National Security Resources Board, was published in'l952. This volume, although paralleling in some respects the present more comprehensive report, was oriented primarily to the strategic grades of asbestos, particularly immediate and future supply. Supplementing the published information, extensive data have been ac cumulated by correspondence, by conferring with numerous authorities on production, utilization, and distribution, and by visits to asbestos mines, mills, and undeveloped deposits in the United States and in foreign countries. The writer lias drawn freely upon all such accumulated information, as well as upon available literature. He is indebted to numerous individuals for consultation and advice. Valuable comments were supplied from their background of intimate knowledge of the asbestos industry by Herbert Abraham of the Ruberoid Co. and Dudley T. Colton and associates of Johns-Manville Inter national C'orp. Special acknowledgment is due to G. \V. Josephson, Chief, Construction and Chemical Materials Branch of the Bureau of Mines, for cooperation and assistance on many phases of the subject. The present revision will, it is believed, satisfy a demand for current information on a mineral commodity of unusual interest. in ASARCO ALV 0005956 CONTENTS Preface........................................................................... Imriiductmn ............................................................... Thin**! Staffs'* dependence upon foreign source,**................. . ........... Shortage*............... ... Varieties and composition.. ... (*hry<otile a*be*to<... Amphihole a*be*to>........... . Erratic character of amphibolc filx Phv*ieal nropiTt**................................. Fibnni-* character.................. ("ojor and ht*tcr......................... Heat r<-*Mance................... Ib*at conductivit v........ ,,. Chemical re-i-tance.. . ... Electrical n-*Manee. Specific gravity*........... (`hemical composition IlMon.......................... I`ar!\* record*.......... ('ommeresai production. \*.bi*M<i.proiiuct inanufan ure l >|unn:ng fiber* . . \on*pitmnm 'i-e*. V.m honliviiite... . Anm-ite ........... f`rcido|jj**.. Trend* in fiber utilization It**i.verv of >crap.. 1 n*tr:l **:t nus.. 1 )i<iiif*i ir deposit *... (.`Lrv'ouU-,.., Alaska..., . . ,, Ari/ui.a,. (`aiifonua.. Marne. Mic.iaiia New York nrenoji \ erinont.. W l*con*!l:.. Wn::,c. Ampi.ibnle, Ala-ka... ( aijirn.a.. .... .. , . blaic Marv hind___ % Moi.ta::a __ _ . . .Yen Mexico.. North Carolina f irenou ............ T.-\a- ...................... \ irmma ............. U a'hitiutou.. t u her occurrence* Foreign depO*lt.* Major producing countrio Canaria............................ Quebec- ........ Ontario ... .... Hrm*h Columbia ..................... Newfoundland.............................. Pace Ill 1 1 1 2 0 0 3 A f 6 (> n 6 7 7 , 1 s s s 10 10 12 12 13 14 14 15 15 1A 17 17 17 17 IS ;o 00 22 22 22 23 24 21 21 2.. 25 2li 27 27 Li 27 >x 2s 2s 2S 2s 2s jit 2M 2i 32 33 33 Distribution--Continued Foreign deposits--Continued Major producing countries--Continued .Southern Rhodesia..................................... .. Union of South Africa................................... Cape of fiood Hope................................... Transvaal...................................................... Natal.............................................................. Swaziland.......................................................... Small producers in Rhodeda and the Union of South Africa............................... Soviet Russia................................................... I.os,' important countries.................................. North America...................... .......................... Mexico........................................................... South America................................................. Argentina...................................................... Bolivia........................................................... Brazil................................. ................ Chile............................................................... Colombia..................................... ................. I'eru................................................................ Venezuc4a..................................................... Kurope............................................................... Albania.......................................................... Austria.......................................................... Bulgaria......................................................... Cyprus........................................................... Czechoslovakia............................................ Finland......................... .................... France....................... ...................... Germany.................... .............. Ireland.......................... Italy............................. .................. ...................... Portugal...................... .................... Spain............................. .................... Switzerland................................................. Yugoslavia.................................................... Asia................................................................... China............................................................. India.............................................................. Japan............................................................. Korea........................................................... .. Republic of the Philippines..................... Turkey........................................................... Africa................................................................. Bechuanaland.............................................. Keypt............................................................. Madagascar.................................................. Morocco...................................................... Kenya................... .......... .............................. Other African occurrences........................ Australasia....................................................... Western Australia...................................... South Australia........................................... Queensland................................................... New South Wales....................................... Tasmania.................................................... New Zealand.............................................. Production and consumption...................... ............. History of production in the United States... World production........................................... ........ Free World consumption.................. ...................... World reserves................................................. ............. United States........................................ ................... Canada....................................................................... Page 34 36 36 38 40 40 40 40 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 43 43 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 45 45 46 46 46 46 47 47 48 48 4u 4!l 4 "i 4p 30 50 AO At AI AI Ai AI A2 A2 A2 52 53 54 54 54 55 56 56 56 50 61 61 61 ASARCO ALV OOOS9S7 ..VI World ro-crvo--Cunt inned Soviet Hu--;ia .. Southern Ithoih-in . Union of South Africa Transvaal................ Cain1 of Good Hope Ot iicr deposit............... . Swaziland............. China.............. Summary........... Political and commercial control Political mm ml , . Commercial control.............. International trade......................... V nrldtwde movement of a-hr- Foreign trade of tlie I'nited St to*. an*** ....... ....... Foreign Foreign Foreign trade of trade of trade of Canada........... Smitliern Cnion of SI!ulmntih ... Africa . . Pro-pert:utr and exploration.. General feature- of exploration UMregtelinotd-neaenddfoprmelxileplionr-aotof rey\pv)viinorrakt.i.o.n.............. K--ential requirement - for new (ii'Cwvrrit"* .. Mining method-. . I'nited Stat< r............................... Arizona ... Vermont Canada Southern Hlio.je-.a Cnion of Nun!, \frica. Swaziland..,. >o\ iet H.i--;a.. Cvprt- Clnita Anti.op;,> iiite and treinol,t * m Siilsm Milling metl.odi letin.tion-, < ienera! feat unCai.ada........ R..... \ ery of er-nle-___ a. Mill.l.e practice ... Capacity.. Untied ."ate-.... Arizona............ Vermont... Union of Africa. Sotilhen. Kliudo-:a.. ........ ........... Swaziland................. Soviet Hti--ia............ Supplementary milling at a factor.e...... ................. textile Grading anti da--ificat ion........ Canada and Vermont.. . Arizona.................................. , Union of South Africa___ Chrv-otilc_________ _______ CONTENTS Pane <0i22 62 63 6633 6633 64 64 666f>4555 67 *>7 f8 t\Q liS 70 71 71 71 71 72 72 777433 74 74 T75o T7<oi 7T7'rs.i 77'9 S! SI SI S2 83 S3 84 S4 84 Grading and classification--Continued Union of South Africa--Continued Crocidolite............................................................. Amosite.................................................................. Southern Ithodc.-ia.................................................. Chrvsotile.......................................................... Swaziland................................................................... Chrvsotile.......................................................... Soviet Russia............................................................ Chrysolite............................................................- India............................ . ............................... Chrvsotile............................................................. Stockpile grade- and specifications.................... Cheviot ile......................... Amo-ite......................... Crocidolite........................................ Marketing........................ General features........... Necessity for a balanced market........................ Distribution practices............................................ Prices............................................................................... Ilistory........................................................................ Price- in 1653......................................................... Substitutes for asbestos............................................. Soda-lime-silica-gla-s fibers.................................. High-silica glass fiber.-................. Other siliceous fibers.. ............... -............. Organic substitutes................................................. Substitutes for amosite.......................................... Summary of conclu-ioiis on substitutes............ Beneficiation of asbestos........................... Reduction of iron content..................................... Qtiinterra process............................................... Terratex process.................................................. Novabc-tos process.................... Vortrap process.................................................... Faulty ipecifications.......................................... Means of modifying inclusions........................ Elongation of short fibers................................... Symip-uV. of asbestos............... ' Synthesis of chrvsotile.......................................... Synthesis of amphiboles........................................ Synthesis of anhydrous asbestiform minerals.. Summary of asbestos synthesis........................... Manufacture of asbestos products........................ A widespread and diversified industry.............. Fabrication of asbestos products........................ Fabrics.................................................................... .Shingles and lumber........................................... Paper and millboard.......................................... Asbestos-cement pipe......................................... Asbestos-magnesia insulation.......................... Compounded packings....................................... Ashestos cement.................................................. Molded article-.................................................... Noncorro-ive filters............................................ Selected bibliography................................................ Index............................................................................... Page 85 85 85 85 85 85 86 86 86 86 86 86 86 86 88 88 SS St) HI Ill 03 04 U4 05 06 06 07 07 08 OS OS 'OS 0$ OS on 00 00 101 101 101 ' 102 103 104 104 104 104 105 105 106 106 106 106 106 107 1 OS HI ASARco ALV OOS9SQ CONTEXTS ILLUSTRATIONS VII Fie 1. fro"-fiber veins of Canadian ehryvolile asbestos______ ____________________________________ ________ ____ 2. Cmisiimptimi of asbestos, compar'crl with total new construction and industrial production, 1935-52___ 3. Map of major world deposits of asbestos................................................................................................ ...... ............... 4. Crude chrysotileasbestos from Arizona........................................................................................ 5. Location map of a-lio-tos deposits in Clila County, Ariz.......................................................................................... 6. Map of asbestos reuion in Quebec, Canada............................................................................................ _................... 7. Vein of asbestos on drift face, 500 feet below surface, Thetford mines, Quebec................................................ 8. Road cut tliroiiizh asbestos talus of serpentine rock, Cassiar Asbestos Corp., British Columbia, Canada. 9. World production of a'bestos and production by countries, averaged for 3 selected years--1938, 1941, and 1045........................................................................................................................................... 10. Production of asbestos in three leadimt foreiitn centers and in the United States, 1922-52........................... 11. Asbestos exports and imports in 1950, by leading countries............................................................. 12. Tvpical flowsheet of a Canadian asbestos mill............................................................................................................. 13. Mill of V'ruumi a*-bo>tO'* mine* near Eden, Vt........................................................................................................... 14. Brice history of Canadian a>be.**to*.............................................................. .................................................................. 15. Synthetic amphibole asbc'to* made in Bureau of Mines Electrotechnical Laboratory, Xorri*, Tenn........ P#ge 4 16 16 18 18 28 30 34 56 58 65 77 SO *i] 103 TABLES 1 \naly*e* of representative a.-*be>to* samp!*** ............................................................................................................. 2 A-duMo' content and heat resistance of a.'be'to.' fabric.*................ ,,....................................................................... 3 Sa!<** of &>hH**tu* iti Arizona. 1914--44 .... . . ..........................................,..................................................... I A'IhMo' production in California, 1x87-1951 ............. . ....................... .........................................,,..................... 5 A-lr production '-hipmcnt*' and 'ales* in Quebec, 1S7S-1952....................................................................... <>. t*iir\.nlt`-a'lit`'iu' production in Ontario, Canada............................. ............................ .................................. 7 Annual production of a-beMo-v in Rhodesia, 1908-52.................... .. . .......................................................... x A-lti-sin' production in Union of South Africa, by kind.*, 1926-52.......... 9 A-Ih -i..- production in l*nion of South Africa, by Province.*, 1910-52............................................................... in ('me:* 1*lilt** production in Transvaal, 1936-52.................................................................... ,,....................................... li A-he-eu** production in Swaziland, 1 i3i*--o2...................................................... 12. A*le'tr* production in Soviet Uu.'.'ia, 11*13--31*............... 13. Analy-e*. <>f Bolivian blue asboto-*.. ............. ..................... ........................................................................_.......... 14 A'l"-'t^ production in Brazil, 1938-52........... 15, A'bi-'to' exported from Cypruj*. 1923-51.................................................................. lt. Aidie-to* production in Finland. 19.37-53................................................................................. ,,.................................. 17. A.'Iumo- production in France. 1034-53...................... .. ........................................................................ .......... I'k A'hr't'i* production in Italy. 1x98--1953................. ....... ........................................................................... U` A^Ihmu' production in Portuual. 1943-52............. 2" \.-lic-nr> production in (`hina. 11*27-44........... ...........................,................... ..................._..................................... 2! production in India. 1917-52............................................... ........................................................................... 22 A'lo'production in Japan, 1930-53..'................. 23 A-hc-o- production in Turkey, 1931-51............ 21 A'Im-io' production in Western Au.*tralia. 1921-32............,,.................................................................. ................. 25 A*heMu* production in AuMralia, 1930-53................................................................................................................... 2ij \-lirti' 'old or u*ed bv producer.* in the United State.*, 1880-1953.................................................. 27 Auiphfholc a.'be.*t<j- >old or u.*ed by producer?* in the United State?*, 1921-53.............. 2* World production of a-bcMos, by countries. 1947-53................................................................................................ 2'* t 'oii'tiu 1 ption of a.*hc.**to* in elected countries, 1948-............................................................................................... 3n \*4m*m<ih production and consumption in the United States, 1943-53.................................................................. 31 l lifted State.** imports of a*be*tos, by country of origin. 1944--53......................................................................... 32 Import.' of .'pinning grade.** of asbestos into the United States from Canada, 1949-53................................... 33 Import' of chry?*otile asbestos into the United State* from Southern Rhodesia, by grades, 1949-53......... 31 ( roc.dolito and amo*ii< imported into the United States, by country of origin, 1949-53............................. 3-5. A'U--*w>' crude?* and milled fibers exported from Canada, by destination of shipments,1943-52................. 3*1. A'bo'to' exported from Southern Rhodesia, by destination'of shipments, 1943-52...................................... 37. A'boMo.' exported from Union of South Africa, by destination of shipments, 1943-51.................................. 3x. Canadian milling capacity, 1950.................................................... 39. Brice history of a>hc.*tOi* sold in Canada, 1920-53......................... 40. Brices of Vermont a.'be>tos, 1931-53.............................................................................................................................. 41. Comparable price* per short ton of African and Canadian chrysotile in 1953................................................... 42. Cell dimen.'ioiii' of natural and artificial tremolite..................................................................................................... 43. Value of a>bc\*to* products manufactured in the United States, 1950-52............................................................ 44. Value of manufaetured-aabe&tos products exported from the United States, 1950-52___................. g 12 }< 21 31 33 33 37 37 40 40 41 40 43 45 40 40 47 47 4*. 50 50 51 53 55 56 57 57 59 05 06 00 66 67 67 6S 68 79 92 92 93 103 104 104 ASARCO ALV 0005959 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY 1 by Oliver Bowles * Introduction "BESTOS is a name applied lo a group of naturally fibrous minerals. As indicated in a later section devoted to a detailed discussion of the early history of asbestos, the term may be defined as a fibrous form of serpentine or amphibole. It does not include fibrous forms of other minerals, such as wollastonite, nemalite (fibrous brucite;, or the fibrous forms of calcite or gypsum. A material that has the characteristics of silk or cotton and at the same time will not burn is unique. Because it combines these qualities with other advantageous properties, asbestos has specialized uses for which no substitutes are yet available. Asbestos furnishes a major raw material for a great variety of essential products, and their manufacture constitutes a vast industry. The I'nitcd States leads all countries in the manufacture of asbestos products. The value of such commodities manufactured in 1952 exceeded S332 million. They are not only of vast importance to building construction and industry but are absolutely essential to certain important fields of use, for example, steam packings and friction materials, such as brake-band linings on automobiles. UNITED STATES DEPENDENCE UPON FOREIGN SOURCES This great asbestos-products industry has been built up under conditions of overwhelming dependence upon foreign supplies of raw asbestos. Domestic mines furnish only f> to S percent of the domestic requirements of all grades and not over 1 or 2 percent of the important spinning grades. Canada and Africa are the principal foreign sources. Canada supplies most of the short-fiber demands of the United States and a major part of the longer fibers of textile grade. Africa furnishes a low-iron asbestos essential to important military needs where fireproof electrical insulation is involved and is the only source of an asbestos variety (named umositei that is of first importance as lightweight insulation on ships and airplanes. Africa is. moreover, the principal'source of emeidolite (ftitle ashestoso which has certain special uses. Bolivia also supplie- small amounts urn! is the only source of crocidolite in the Western Henii"phere. Our striking dependence upon foreign sources of supply makes this report of worldwide scope. SHORTAGES All hough in the past foreign sources of asbestos have filled United States need> moderately well, the supply has been inadequate at times, notably during \\ orld War 11 and for a few years thereafter. The asbestos-products industries have been expanding to pace the growing industrial activity, therefore the demand for raw asbestos has been increasing steadily. British and continental European _ needs have also been expanding. Central European asbestosproducts industries that stagnated during the war have been revived, and increasing quantities of African and Canadian fibers are being diverted from l uited States to European markets. Australian demands are also increasing substantially. Asbestos production during recent years has scarcely kept up with these growing needs. This stringency of supply has stimulated an ex pansion of world production facilities--as indicated in following sections of this report--that tends to bring supply and demand more nearly in balance. * Work on manuscript rompMotl July |M. : Cnmrmnlity-imiustry analyst, Bureau of Mines. l ASARCO ALV 0005960 VARIETIES AND COMPOSITION Then' are several varieties of asbestos and they difiVr considerably in composition and physical properties. Tile most important com mercially is rhrysotile, which constitutes about 95 percent of the total world production. Its wide use is due to the fact that its fibers are generally strong and flexible and therefore can be applied to many uses, such as textile and steam-packing manufacture, for which weak and brittle filters are not adapted. Species of asbestos other than chrysotile fall in the amphibole group of minerals. The principal varieties are anthophyllite, tremolite. aetinolite. amosite. and eroeidolite. Fibers of anthophyllite. tremolite. and aetinolite are iretu'ially weak and brittle, and their uses are limited. Sales are small, anil very little of the material enters international trade. Amosite and eroeidolite are mainly African varieties that are exported to the United States and other coninrie< in considerable quantities for special ized ii-cs. Mountain leather and mountain cork are varieties of amphibole consisting of flexible .'beets of interlaced fibers. Mountain wood i- a compart, fibrous mass of amphibole re-embling dry wood. The last three varieties are mineral eurio.-ities and have no present comnieieia] value. CHRYSOTILE ASBESTOS Chry-otile. a fibrous form of the mineral serpenti:e-. i- a hydrous magtioium silicate ha\:ne a composition represented by the chemical formula > Mur0.2.':i<)_.,2H.0. Antigorite i- a platy form having no present coinne reial value. Keoeiu work by Shaw1 indicates that both Oil. the hydroxy! radical or water of constitu tion. and 11.0. the water of crystallization, are pro-eiit in chrysotile. To indicate the dual nature of the water content. Shaw writes the chemical formula i()ll i.Mg,Si40.,H_.0. He claim- al-o that, in libers from different loca tion-. the proportions of these compounds vary. Thu- in Canadian chrysotile a greater part of the hydration is present as water of er\ -tallizat ion. while in Rhodesian chrysotile the Indiatioii i- due largely to the presence of the lndroxtl radical. He expresses the view that such a difference in chemical constitution may account in part for the superior electrical resistance of the Rhodesian fiber. The composition of chrysotile, however, is not rigidly fixed according to either formula given above. Minor quantities of iron, nickel, manganese, or aluminum may replace part of Sluu. Mjnl C , The AsiM-stos Content of Asbestos Textiles New Jerv\ Ceramic' Rrsearch Slu., Rutgers Unlv., New brunswick, N. J., Mar. 27. 1950. 7 pp. the magnesium. Such small replacements may result in some modifications in the physical properties of the fibers. Furthermore, these properties are influenced to some extent by the presence of impurities; but, in general, chryso tile is more constant and dependable in quality than other varieties of asbestos. AMPHIBOLE ASBESTOS The amphibole group of minerals was formerly regarded as consisting of anhydrous silicates of magnesium, calcium, iron, and other elements. When analyses were made, water was always found, but' it was regarded as oc cluded moisture. However, as early as 1910 Schuller.2 using five exact analyses of tremolite, found, by calculating the molecular ratios, that water was an integral part of the com position. and he derived a formula 2CaO. oNIgO.-SSiO.-HjO, which is now the recognized composition in contrast with the widely pub lished formula CaO.d.MgO.-lSiOj. Strange as it may seem, no general recognition was ac corded this new concept for many years. When X-ray studies of minerals were begun in the early 192<i's. .Sehaller's findings were con firmed. and it was further learned that all amphiholcs contained water of crystallization. It is only in textbooks of mineralogy published since about 1940 that the definite statement appears. "All amphiholcs contain hydroxyl." The water content of amphiholes is low--only 1 or 2 percent--whereas chrysotile contains about 14 percent water. As mentioned previously, the principal va rieties of amphibole asbestos are amosite. anthophyllite. tremolite, and eroeidolite. Aetin olite is of minor importance. Amosite is not a distinct mineral species. Rabbitt 3 found, by X-ray analysis of two amosite samples from .South Africa, that both were monoelinie in crystallization and therefore not anthophyllites. The chemical composition of one indicated that it was probably aetinolite. and the other was probably cummingtonite. Vermaas * found by X-ray and differential thermal analysis that amosite is a fibrous modification of the monoclinic amphibole. grunerite, the composition of which is expressed by the formula (FeMg)rSiiO^(OH); or 7 Fo. MgO, 8 SiOi.HjO. It is desirable, however, that the name "amosite" be retained, just as the name "eroeidolite," as pointed out in a * Schuller. W. T., The Chemical Composition of Tremolite: Geol. Sur vey Hull. 610. Mineraloeical Notes, ser. 3.1916. pp. 133-136. * Rabbin. John C., A New Study of the Anthophyllite Series. Am. Mineral., vol. 33. May-June 1948. p. 287. Vermaas. F. H. S.. The Amphibole Asbestos of South Africa. Ms. for publication Ja Trans. Geol. Soc. South Africa in 1933. 2 ASARCO ALV 0005961 VARIETIES AND COMPOSITION' 3 later paragraph, is used for tho fibrous form of riobcckite. Amositc may contain as high as 40 percent iron oxide; but. ns it is monoelinic in crystal lization. it is not a true anthophyllite, although it is commonly classed as a high-iron anthophyllite. Amositc, unlike the true anthophyllites that are almost invariably weak and brittle, consists commonly of long, fairly strong fibers that have certain specialized uses. It is mined only in Africa. Montasite is a synonym for amositc, but the term is generally restricted to the product of certain mines only. The composition of anthophyllito is now generally expressed by the formula Mg:lSi4On) OH sometimes written 7MgO..s.St0:!.HO. Thi- magnesium may be replaced in part by certain other elements, but complete replace ment is not possible because the anihophyllitos have only limited isomorphism. Ferrous iron may replace magnesium to a maximum of 'Jit percent, but such an anthophyllite would -tilt contain as much as II.4s percent MgO. When the ferrous iron content exceeds 2b.A! percent, the mineral ceases to be anthophyllite. a- it become- inutioelinie in crystallization while all auihophylliies are orthorhombic. Tin- MgO content of anthophyllito is said to range from A to oil percent. A series of 4(1 chemical analyses of anthophyllites assembled by Ki.hhiu ' -"hows a maximum of 31.53 percent and a minimum of 11.4n percent. The one with tiie maximum MgO content contained 5.(5 percent Fet). The ('< 1 content of anthophyllito- average- about n.5 percent and rarely I xeoed-- 2 percent. Aluminum is more important in nnthophylliie- than is generally sttppo-ed. Of Babbitt's 4'5 tabulated anahses. 14 show over 10 percent Al;<>,, and 20 show -over 5 percent. The aluminum may replace magnesium or silicon. A- mentioned previously, the composition f lreniolite is expressed by the formula f'u.-.Mg- -'ijO;: <:'OH i; or sometimes is written 2( aO.-'iMgO.sSiO. I|.(), The calcium may lie replaced in -mall pan by sodium. The mag nesium is replaceable by iron in considerable 'pinntiites and by aluminum to a smaller de gree. Abo. a small part of the silicon may lie replaced by aluminum. Trctnoiite generally eott-i-i- of gray to while silky fillers, which arc, - Ic tM ::i. JnU. C , uork cuM in .i. p. 271. for the most part, weak and brittle, although fibers of considerable strength and flexibilityare found at times. Both tremolite and anthophyllite are superior to chrysotile in resistance to chemical reaction. Actinolite differs from tremolite in that a considerable part of the magnesium is replaced by iron. The fibers are commonly green or greenish gray and quite weak and brittle. Crocidolite or blue asbestos belongs to the horn blende group of amphiboles. Its simplest chem ical formula is 3XajO.6FeO.2Fe2O3.l6SiO2.H3O. Considerable variation in composition has been noted. Sodium may be replaced bypotash, ferric and ferrous iron by magnesium or manganese, and ferrous iron hv aluminum. Mineralogists now regard crocidolite as iden tical with riebeckitc. being merely a fibrous form of that mineral. Crocidolite, therefore, hears the same relation to riebeckitc that chrysotile bears to massive serpentine and nmosite to grunerite. Blue asbestos is pro duced chiefly in South Africa, but several commercial deposits occur in Australia, and a small output is obtained in Bolivia. Except for those in Bolivia, no commercial deposits of blue asbestos are known in the Western Hemi sphere. In Bolivian blue a large part of the iron is replaced hy magnesium. The magne sium content of African blue asbestos is some what lower. ERRATIC CHARACTER OF AMPHIBOLE FIBERS It may he observed from the foregoing dis cussion that the replacement of one element by another in varying proportions is a prevalent characteristic of the several varieties of am phihole asbestos. This variation in composition results in corresponding changes in their phys ical properties. These properties may also he influenced by the presence of impurities. The somewhat erratic and unpredictable phys ical characteristics of the amphibole fibers have a profound influence on their use. A11 anthophyllite from one locality may give satis factory service for some specific use while one from another deposit, although appearing to be exactly the sgme, may be unsatisfactory. Thus problems in amphiboie-asbestos procure ment are much more difficult and complex than the procurement of mineral products like iron and copper which, when pure, have constant properties, no matter where they originate. ASARCO alv 0005962 ORIGIN Asbestos originates for the most part from rocks consisting largely of olivine, such as peridotitc or ihmite. ' or from pyroxonite. Most chrysotile deposits result from alteration of olivine to serpentine, and subsequent pris matic crystallization provides the fibrous struc ture. Contact ns well as regional metamor phism evidently plays an important part in the process, because in various regions, notably the Quebec. Arizona, and Rhodesian fields, intrusive rocks are associated with the deposits and doubtless definitely influenced their devel opment. However, no clo-ely associated in trusive appear to be present at the McDamc Mountain deposit, northern British Columbia, the Munro deposit. Ontario, or some of the African deposits. Prismatic crystallization occurs in fractures. More detailed discussions of origin will In- found in later sections describ ing asbestos deposits by State and country. Chrysolite occurs in two forms--cross fiber and slip fiber. The former is the characteristic occurrence in all fi.--ure-filled veins, the fibers crossing the veins approximately at right angles to the walls. In some veins the fibers cross from wall to wall, lienee the fiber length is gov erned by tlm width of the vein. In others the fibers may be broken into two or more lengths by partings that parallel the vein walls. Slip fiber, on the other hand, parallels the vein wall and usually shows the effects of pt es-ure and nun i ntent along a fault plane. Figure 1 shows typical cross-fiber veins of Canadian asbestos. The chrysotile occurring in sedimentary rocks in Arizona, the Carolina district of the Transvaal, and several other localities origi nated differently. The fiber in these localities was formed bv' mineralizing solutions derived from intrusive diabase and injected into lime stones. It occurs in cross-fiber veins. Under some conditions peridotites and pyroxenites are altered to fibrous amphiboles. of which the most common is anthophyllite. In some places it occurs as slip fiber in shear zones, but more commonly the altered rock takes the form of pockets or lenses consisting almost entirely of irregularly arranged bundles of fiber. The rock is called amphibolite, and the asbestos is of the mass-fiber type In the irregular belt of olivine- and pyroxenehearing rocks that extends from the Gaspe Peninsula in Canada to southern Georgia, the alteration was principally into massive ser pentine and chrysotile in the northern part, that is, in the area lying in Quebec, Canada, and in Vermont; but in its southern extension only sporadic occurrences of chrysotile are found because the alteration was more generally to anthophyllite and talc. The softest and most easily fiberized antho phyllite occurs generally near the surface of the deposits; with increasing depth, the fiber becomes harsher, more brittle, and less easily 4 ASARCO ALV 0005963 VARIETIES AND COMPOSITION O worked into a fluffy mass. The development of the best filler therefore appears to depend upon the action of weathering agencies. Con sequently. deposits of soft, easily worked unthophyllite tend to take the form of pockets or lenses of limited depth, and if workings are to he routined to fiber of this character the limitation of reserves must tie considered with care. If. however, the harsher, more solid asbestos masses can be fiberized successfully into marketable products, the reserves mav be much more extensive. Most of the deposits that have been developed show little promise of large reserves. The crocidolite and amosite of South Africa originated from rocks quite distinct from peridotite or pvroxenite. They were derived from sediments rich in iron and silica, known as banded ironstones. Prismatic crystalliza tion occurs in cross-fiber veins. i ASARCO ALV 0005964 MODE OF OCCURRENCE From tIn' discussion of origin, it is evident that there are three types of asbestos deposits-- cross fiber, slip fiber, mid mass fiber. Cross fiber asbestos consists of innumerable strands extending across veins from wall to wall, except w here interrupted by lonrritn<{imil seams. Most commercial deposits of ebrysotile, amosito, and crocidolite are of this type, but anthophyllito rnrelv. if ever, oeetirs in cross-filter veins. In slip-filter deposits the strands more or less parallel the vein walls. They frequently show sliekensiiled surfaces because they occupy shear zones where the rock has been subjected to movement and pressure. Slip fiber is common in the ebrysotile deposits near Eden, Vt., and predominates in the anthophyllite deposits near Bedford and Rocky .Mount* Va. In mass-fiber deposits there is no definite orientation of fibers. Almost the entire mass of the rock is composed of bundles of fibers or needles that sometimes show a radiatinsr structure. This type of occurrence is confined almost exclusively to the anthophyllite variety anil is well exemplified by deposits at Holly wood and Buck .Mountain, Ga., and Kamiah. Idaho. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES FIBROUS CHARACTER The outstanding physical characteristic of asbestos is its fibrous structure. Other im portant fibers found in nature are those of animal origin, sui-lt as wool and silk, and those of vegetable origin. examples of which are cot ton and flax. Nonflammability is one of the striking differences between asbestos and the (ihrou- products of animal or vegetable origin. Of perhaps equal importance is the difference in struct tire. Each filament of cotton, wool, or -ilk is of measurable and fairly constant diameter and is indivisible into finer sizes. On the other hand, fibers of ebrysotile asbestocan be divided and subdivided until a finetie.-- i- attained that is limited only by the delieaev of the niaebinet v used and the skill of manip ulation. The ultimate fiber size is presumably the -ize of the ultimate molecule or crystal lattire of asbestos. In other words, fiberizatioti is a cleavage process, and cleavage in ininerab is defined as a tendency to split in it certain direct ion. that is. to separate along and beta celt layer.- of molecules. Front the standpoint of use. fiber size fdinmetrf i- important, and the diameter will depend upon the dr<rree of fiberization attained in the milline proec-s. Fibers obtained from different deposit' vary in the ease with which they may be fiberized. Thus, two samples of ehrysotile u-hesio-. given exactly the same mill treatment, may furnish products differing considerably in fiber diameter, because one of them separates or fiherizes more easily than the other. Such differences may have great practical impor tance, because an asbestos having difficult cleavage may require such intense milling to reduce the fibers to desirable fineness that they may be broken into undesirable short lengths. Ease or difficulty of fiberization is therefore an important property of asbestos. 6 Experiments by Raybestos-Manlmttan. Inc., in lflo'2 on samples of Rhodesian ebrysotile. one dark with a total iron content of 2.4S6 percent and one a light type with 1.919 total iron, dis closed that the darker material requires much more time and energy to fiberize than the lower iron type. The uses to which a ehrysotile asbestos may be applied are governed primarily by length of fiber. The longest fibers command the highest prices, and prices are progressively lower for the shorter grades. It is apparent, therefore, that primary attention must be given to milling processes that will separate the fibers from the parent rock and will fiberize them adequately with a minimum of fiber breakage. COLOR AND LUSTER Chrysotile occurs in various shades of green or yellowish green. When fiberized into a Huffy mass, all types of ehrysotile are virtually white, unless stained by impurities. Amosito ranges from gray or yellowish gray to white and. if relatively pure, is white when fiberized. Crocidolite is lavender blue, and this color is maintained when the fibers are separated. Anthophyllite and tremolite are gray, greenish gray, or white, and the separated fibers are white unless staining impurities are present. The luster of asbestos usually is silky or pearly. HEAT RESISTANCE The heat resistance of asbestos is important in many applications. Some users of asbestos tend to confuse nonflammability with refrac toriness. Many substances that will not burn will, nevertheless, melt or decompose at rela tively low temperatures. The fireproof property of asbestos is one of its chief assets; but, although unburnable, it will decompose and lose ASARCO ALV 0005965 MODE OF OCCURRENCE ( its essential physical properties at moderately high temperatures. The eoneept of asbestos as a highly refraetorv substance has been created in the minds of some students of the subject by reading: the statement made by C'irkel ` that temperatures of 2.000 to 3.OOP3 F. an* easily withstood. while with some varieties a tempera ture of o.OOO0 F. has apparently produced no visible effects. With due respect to Dr. Cirkel. who wrote a splendid pioneer volume on a mineral of which little was known at that time, he was in error regarding the heat resistance of chrysotile. Brandenberger and others - who have made a comprehensive study of temperature effects of chrysotile- at the .Mitiendogical Institute of the University of Zurich, state that the socalled adsorbed water of chrysotile is driven otf at about 300 C'. Between ,550 and ODD3 C. all of the water of crystallization is driven off. and the mineral gradually alters to olivine. A pronounced change in physical properties accompanies this dehydration. At 400 C. there is a notable deterioration in fiber quality: and above not)2 C.. with more or less complete dehydration, chrysotile is completely decom posed. The nmphibole varieties of asbestos will withstand somewhat higlu-r temperatures than chrysotile; however, erocidolite. although having a low water content, is easily fused into a black, magnetic mass. HEAT CONDUCTIVITY Alie<tos doe- not have low heat conductivity. Its value for ln-at insulation is due to its nonfianunabilit\ and al-o to its fibrous structure. M .1 * M.s.. I*' i U: ms.-* t cU.. \S *J*..:' -: FT*-.n. uKi*:p..^... '11 'VIM, \irvcl hS:nisc. H.u. iaF,..v(\>Ti,IbA- t?. o1r^p47o.nirf **-i l * > V * iJ.k jJ.. f' which adapt it for manufacture into coverings that arc nonconductors of heat because of their porous nature. CHEMICAL RESISTANCE Tremolitc and anthophyllite are highly resis tant to chemicals. It is claimed that erocidolite resists chemicals and sea water remarkably well. Chrysotile is affected more readily by acids and other chemicals than are the arnphibole varieties. ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE Varieties of chrysotile lowest in iron content are most suitable for electrical insulation. Arizona chrysotile is superior for this use. Apparently the iron content of amphibole does not affect its use for this purpose because erocidolite. which upon analysis shows a con tent of about 3.3 percent FeO. has hiirh electrical resistance. This seeming contradiction may be explained by the fact that iron is present in erocidolite as a silicate, whereas in chrysotile it commonly appears as iron oxide impurities. SPECIFIC GRAVITY The specific gravity of pure chrysotile is 2/22. but that of the commercial fiber is always higher because of the presence of impurities. Tlie specific gravity of Canadian chrysotile ranges from 2.54 to 2.59; and the Arizona fiber, being lower in iron, has a specific gravity of 2.47. Tests recently made by the Bureau of Mines at Tucson. Ariz.. on fiber selected with great care to eliminate impurities gave some what lower figures--a 2.3$ average for Arizona chrysotile and 2.4S for one sample from Quebec. Canada. The specific gravity of anthophyllite ranges from 3.1 to 3.2. and that of erocidolite is still heavier, ranging from 3.2 to 3.3. ASARCO ALV 0005966 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION The chemical formulas for the various kinds of asbestos are given in a previous section on varieties. The actual composition cannot he calculated from these formulas hecause of vary ing isomorphous replacements of some of the elements and also hecause of the presence of impurities. Table 1 shows analyses of repre sentative commercial fillers. A wide variation is to lie noted, even in the same varieties, hut the ehrvsotiles are in General more consistent in composition than the amphiboles. Iron may be present in the amphibole varieties, except tremolite, combined chemically as an essential constituent of the mineral. Iron may bo present in any variety as an impurity, chiefly in the form of an oxide that is detri mental for some electrical uses. The iron impurity in Arizona fiber is considerably lower than that of Canadian, African, or Russian chrysotile. T\hlk 1.--Analyses of ripresi ntalin asbestos samples, percent --- -------- -- "-Hi* 1 SiOs 40.30 l*t :i*1 Kim.' A!!i,*'**|*L\II I* Ar;Mm< H.NM.1'1 . V r: It- I'l*.. t j.i**u *f *"*;*i V ' . . !* .* \ :! . .. .. .. .. ,, Niu V..rk ........ 41..W 40. OS 4n , 39. .V. 40 42. fO VI. 10 '*4 *A 49. TJ Av \* V* **" 24 Al:*M 0.21 1. 27 1.90 } TO 1.75 1.15 17.7b 3.9o 5. 72 32 .1 trft F--:Ot K.-O 1.35 ` i.4l .40 O.M .39 04 40 2 44 5. 37 1 I'd i; 9*. 11 40 Is 32 \S Wl 7 4' .57 oo .43 ... McO 43. f 43.30 42.0V 3s .35 ,3s T\ 40.05 2s R* 15.54 0 .3ii 12 25 .3. 77 24 T4* 25 i; Ca 0 N'a;0 0.05 . 15 1.74 .50 1 27 1 ii JO *ir. 13 O.V I*i ** 0. 40 .Hl ' 1. 55 fi.JKI 'fi.01 * 22 ` l.il OiO Total 13.45 ji to 14.31 Ifi.nO J6 07 11.32 99 49 1 100.02 99. jt^i no 100. 11 1,0.3 1.94 3.90 72 2.29 .30 2 31 2. A) 99 70 r 99.90 WO. on '< 100.42 Ml. 15 95.02 99.05 100.35 1c " I * . f- > *. \.|m j.| t r.uta'li 1 Miin-'. Miif' R: .:irh. N i. Ti.7. 1011, p. >. M.^.. li I* !*. i l. i i-i < h. i!**l E t't rn Hj!f"f VV.irwitk Map Aft-J' Iri'-Ih-c Canj'U. l of Mim-S-m'l lU-Snurcv-8 Orol 5ur\'i v. Mint. a: I '"................ . iM'iUti* 1 a *r *! Mi ?i\. --r< ': t`i.!'! ' l'lM>i.2.p r'-2 H ,,, \ I.. w- '? iii:rs-:i m -.tn rc Africa l/osori >( }. .: * K.`* Afn'i `''I ur\o>. M m. 12. j. 31. U .... t i. , u-.-k *: ! `:i f*. i> H. W,j:. \ . i'v.* \'L*'*> srt tli*-H )*n^irirt. c H Ene and Mm Mur. vn|, l u. \`n. Ams'W Iv >5. p, .1 s. jp: is.*,-. " li . \'J- I .! .l - ,. )* l > *f < nrsi.i < J*-*>1. F*ir\*-\ of (in*?.*? 1. IWIV '.V. i. 79. !J: .,.. ...... . \ V; <ti `m of.1i.l.5" f ;in--'Ain. M:m-ril.. wl *,{. M.i\-Jum- 194*. p, 270. H \ 1.. 'K ' - \ I* r. I - l 1!:. F. M* im-j.j:.'.*tn'!*'\ n 1-' M- .... i'Im-'I**-I*! CJj ,|nr* Miiiiim U-i|'\uiu, vnl *. N* 44.Mi\-fun* 1949. p, s. M ..VI.. iS M .. \ l. . ............... ' ' j* p it *2 * - . :- V* \"4 S{ P 1i' ,: >; | if :n Mu-..f Tr* " .`I j F.'ol Snrv. > Bull .lo. Miiutj!o^K".iI NoW'. ?r. i, 19W, p. 134. HISTORY1 EARLY RECORDS The peculiar property of incombustibility combined with a fibrous structure attracted audition to asbi-sto> over 2.000 years ago. .''tnall amounts were used bv the Romans for wuidinir sheets to preserve the ashes of the dead when hotlies were cremated, but the "immortal linen'' was so difficult to weave that only the most distinguished patricians and kings were honored with asbestos shrouds. A specimen of cremation cloth containing ashes was found 1 bonn- iif tin- hlMori<-:t! il.ii.i on thi> and follou-mc pace? wrn* ohiaini'd O I .from .1 si m*s of jriu on i(i- hi>tnry of ilu< .L5(H->ios*iiianuf:tc(urinc m* dustry that apis-ari-d tn tho AmtU't. cw mt ami Novi-mlnr 1935 and January, Ma>. atui August 193b issues of Asbestos tuuguttne. 8 in 1702 in a Roman sarcophagus and was de posited in the library of the Vatican. Accord ing to tradition, the ancient Chinese and Egyp tians wove asbestos into mats. In ancient temples asbestos was used for lampwicks and to protect altar fires. The word "asbestos." evidently first applied by Pliny to the fibrous mineral now known by that name, was employed erroneously, for in both ancient and modern Greek it refers to quicklime. The Greek word "asbestos" means "inextinguishable" or "unquenchable"--words conveying quite the opposite meaning from "incombustible," a characteristic feature of asbestos. Possibly Pliny had in mind Plu tarch's ASARCO ALV 0005967 HISTORY 9 roforoncc to tho "perpetual" asbestos lamp- however, casts some doubt as to whether all wicks used by the Vestal Virgins. "Lithos Italian fiber used by the ancients was tremolite. amiantos," tlie original term used by the A significant excerpt from this communication Greeks for asbestos, meant a rock unstained, reads as follows: untainted, or undefiled and doubtless referred to the cleansing of asbestos cloth by throwing For a long time it was believed that the Italian "amianti" were all the tremolite type because the first it into the fire. Another common name applied to asbestos was "Karystios lithos," because a well-known source of flexible mineral fiber was near examinations of the material were based on samples of tremolite. It was onh in recent years that, after further studies, the producers recognized that their products were for the most part ehrysotile with a long, flexible fiber. Karystos, southern Euboea. Greece. Early in A tremolite asbestos glove examined by the the first century Strabo referred to stone from writer in the Museum of Natural History, this locality that was carded and woven into London, England, in 1935, did not appear to handkerchiefs. Solinus and Plutarch also mention a fibrous mineral from this place. consist of strong fiber. A piece of so-called "asbestos" cloth of unknown origin in this These ancient writers evidently knew little of museum is not a fabric; it is a felted sheet the deposits, but as two exposures of serpentine that mav be a natural mountain leather. occur east of Karystos the fiber probably was Very little mention of asbestos was made ehrysotile.2 throughout the Middle Ages. According to Pausanius. who lived in the second century A. D.. refers to incombustible "Karpasian report, Charlemagne, who reigned from 76S to 814, had an asbestos tablecloth, which he flax." Some writers think this term indicates that the source of the fiber was Ivarpasos, would throw into the fire for cleansing. To mystify his guests was apparently the only northeastern Cyprus, but no asbestos-bearing reason for its use. rock is known in that vicinity. The reference Marco Polo refers to "amiantos" cloth shown may have boon to the island of Carpathos, the modern Searpanto of the Dodeconese Islands. Evans points out that the word "Karpasos" means "cotton" anti that probably it was tipplied to the mineral because of its adapt to him during his travels through Siberia in 1250. He was told by the superstitious people of that region that it was made of the skin of salamanders, but he was too scientifically minded to accept such statements. After much ability to textile use.3 Cyprus, however, was a wi'll-known source of supply of asbestos in questioning and search, he learned how the fibers were obtained and prepared. His descrip ancient times. Although it is difficult to de termine. from early references, the exact loca tion of the deposit, probably it was southeast of Mount Troodos in a village known as Antiauto. the identity of which is lost. During r--r-fiit years ehrysotile asbestos has been pro duced in considerable quantities near a town now known as Amiandos. This is probably the site of ancient Arniunto. for it is situated near Mount Troodos. IS miles from the sea port Limasol. William Lithgow, a Scotsman, writ ins: about the minerals of Cyprus early in lb- 17th century, referred to "the admirable -tone Annante. whereof they make Linnen cloth that will not burn, being cast into the lire, but serveth to make it neat and white." The asbestos used by the Romans doubtless was a lotisr-libored variety identified as tremo- hte ami occurring in northern Italy. The use of Italian fiber presumably led to the claim u idely made in literature (see definition of asbestos, Webster's New International Dic tionary; that the original "amiantos" con sisted of fibrous amphibole (tremolite, actinolite, or hornblende). A letter to the author from the chief mineral inspector in Rome,* 1 tion of the process of preparation, which con sisted of pounding in a mortar to eliminate impurities, suggests that the fiber was chrvsotile, and this conclusion is substantiated by the fact that the best known asbestos of Siberia is ehrysotile occurring at Minuisinck near the Mongolian border. Further evidence that the term "amiantos," as used by the ancients, mav have applied to ehrysotile as well as to amphibole is found in the uses of the material. With the exception of twisted fiber used for lampwicks, virtually all the early references are to textile use. Asbestos was woven into handkerchiefs, tablecloths, winding sheets, and similar fabrics. Most varieties of amphibole asbestos are weak and brittle and cannot be spun or woven. The principal exceptions, aside from the tremolite of Italy, are the crocidolite and amosite of South Africa--varieties unknown until com paratively recent years. Chrysotile, on the other hand, is strong, flexible, "silky, and well adapted for textiles. Judging from the probable sources of supply, it seems reasonable to con clude that it was employed in ancient times in the manufacture of incombustible fabrics. * Evans. John W,,. The Identity nf the Amiantos or Karystlan Stono of the Ancnnts Wuh Chrysolihc Mineral Mac. iLoodun;. vol. M, May P{. I1HH 1 Evjn>. John W., work cited in footnote 11, p. H3. "Asbestos" may therefore be defined as a fibrous form of serpentine or amphibole. It does not include fibrous forms of other minerals. ASARCO ALV 0005968 10 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY Tlio next import nnt reformer to asbestos was in 1076, when, at a meet ins: of the Royal Society, a Chinese merchant exhibited a handkoroliiof of "salamander's wool-' or "linum nshi'sti." An asbestos napkin belonging to Ferdinand 111 was exhibited in Vienna in 1679. Asbestos was discovered in the Ural Moun tains of Russia between 1710 and 1720, and the first factory for making asbestos products was operated during the reign of Peter the Great. Textiles, socks, gloves, and handbags were made there for 50 or 60 years, but the enterprise failed through lack of demand and poor transportation facilities. COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION The utilization of asbestos on a commercial scale originated in Italy. About ISOS a noble woman of Valtellina sponsored studies and experiments that brought her many honors and loti to the manufacture of asbestos thread, fabrics, and paper of high quality. Several companies were formed between 1>6() and 1S75. No -ii-rimis problems were involved in the manu facture of rope packings and beat-insulating board, but much difficulty was encountered in devising suitable machinery for fabricating spun products. Exhibits at the Universal Exposition in Paris in 1S7> gave wider publicity to the products then manufactured. In lt>60 asbestos was discovered near St. Joseph. Quebec. Canada, and a specimen of fine, -silky fiber from this region was exhibited in London in 1562. The deposits were few and small, and attempts to work them profitably failed. A new era in tin- asbestos industry began with the discovery, in 1^77. of the deposits near Danville. Quebec. Mining was begun in 187$, and 5u tons was produced in that year. The fiber could lie worked more easily than Italian aslii-stos; and its popularity in London, together with the easy availability of a growing market in the United States, led' to rapid development near Danville and Thetford Mines. Seven quarries, with an aggregate production of 1.400 tone a year, were reported in 18S5. The highest grade filler sold for only $$(i a ton in tfiat year, but by Hint) the price had advanced to S300 a ton. Thereafter, owing to depressed prices and to wasteful and costly hand methods of mining and preparation, the industry languished for severul years. Prosperity returned whenmechanical methods of fiber recovery were introduced. An occurrence of blue asbestos on the Orange River of South Africa was discovered in 1815. The name "croeidolite," meaning a stone with a woolly appearance, was proposed bv Hausmann in 1831. No development took place, however, until the interest shown by Francis Oats led to the establishment of the Cape Asbestos Co., Ltd., in 1893. Amosite was discovered in central Transvaal about 1907. The name "amosite," given to the fiber in 1918, was taken from the initial letters of the Asbestos Mines of South Africa, the companv chiefly interested in its production. Commercial production was begun about 1910. Interest in Rhodesian chrysotile was first centered in the Mashaba deposits about 1907. Ground was pegged by a prospector named Gath, and a large mine in the district still bears his name. Chrysotile was discovered in the Shabani area of Rhodesia about 1906, but no interest was shown in it until 1915. Since that date the growth of the industry has been phenomenal. ASBESTOS-PRODUCT MANUFACTURE The spinning and weaving of asbestos for textile manufacture were begun in America over 65 years ago. The early products were chiefly fireproof garments. such as coats, shoes, gloves, and helmets. Disastrous theater fires led to the use of asbestos curtains, but it was not until the advent of the automobile that asbestos fabrics were produced in quantity. Asbestos brake linings for automobiles were made in England in 1S96, but 1906 seems to be the earliest date that asbestos was used for tliis purpose in the L'nited States. A severe test of an asbestos brake band and one made of leather was conducted in 1907. The leather was burned to charcoal, whereas the asbestos was unaffected. Thereafter, woven asbestos brake linings were used almost universally until 1924. The advent about that year of the four-wheel internal brake led to the develop ment of molded brake linings, which were found to be more suitable than woven linings for internal brakes. Molded linings have now become more important than the woven kinds except for heavy-duty industrial uses. The first asbestos packing employed in dustrially for steam glands was made in 1871.4 It consisted of carded Italian fiber enclosed in an outer covering of cotton, but unfortunately gritty grains in the fiber worked through the cotton and scored the piston rods and valve spindles. The next step was to free the asbestos of all gritty impurities. Another packing made about the same time consisted of cotton wicking saturated with lard oil and coated with powdered anthophyllite. then known as "southern" asbestos. Although scared}' falling within the category of asbestos packings, it at least helped to emphasize the value of asbestos for such use. Soon thereafter packings of much better quality were made by using asbestos rope covered with a cotton "sock." Between 1877 Asbestos. The History of the Asbestos-Manufacturing Industry: Vol. 17, No. 5, November 1W5, pp. 2-6. I ASARCO ALV 0005969 HISTORY 11 mu! 1880. wIkmi high-grade spinning asbestos became available from Canada, the cotton covering was replaced by one of asbestos cloth. With the addition of rubber cores to give strength and resilience, these packings began to assume a modern form. With the advent of high pressures and temperatures, the require ments as to quality, shape, and size became more exactintr. and today the manufacture of packings is a highly specialized and complicated process. Asbestos paper was known as early as 1700, when a certain Prof. Bruekmann used it for his writings, hut the objective of obtainin'; an imperishable document was defeated bceau~e. although the paper would withstand the lire, the printing would not. The same result i< recorded by Poiitoppi.lian. Bishop of Bergen, in his Natural History of Norway, published in I7."i(). About the middle of the last century asbestos boards were used for book covers in Italy, and soon thereafter a vain effort was made to induce the Italian Government to manu facture asbestos banknotes. Other early uses of asbestos paper were for ornamental wallpaper and carpet linintrs. Asbestos paper is now a very important product, but its present uses as a fireproofing anil bent-insulating material were not contem plated by the pioneer investigators or manu facturers. It was first made in America at Waltham. Mas-,, about 1.1>7S. Italian fiber wa~ u-eil until IMP. when the shorter grades of Canadian a-bcsios were tried and found to be satisfactory. Its principal use at that time uas to protect hair-felt insulation from the heat of -team pipes. The value of asbestos paper for beat insulation was speedily recog nized. and the industry grew rapidly. At present a number of large factories make, in all. more asbestos paper in a day than was made in an entire year 40 years ago. An important development of recent years i- the manufacture of preshrunk paper. It docs not absorb moisture and, therefore, when used as a pipe covering does not shrink under the influence of heat. Thus, gaps in the cover ing through which heat might escape do not appear. Special papers designed for electric insulation where high temperatures are encoun tered are now made by the Johns-Manville Co. at Tilton, X. H. Further details on this prod uct are given in a later section devoted to the beneficiation of asbestos. The heavier and thicker product, known as millboard, was also made in the early days of paper manufacture. Heat insulators constitute an important branch of the asbestos-products industries. Asbestos, in the form of a mixture of fiber and silicate of soda, was first used for heat insula tion in 1800. Asbestos insulation containing 15 percent fiber was tried first as a boiler cover ing about 1S70. Canvas-covered sectional magnesia pipe covering appeared in 1SS5. Shredded rope and silk noils were first used as hinders, and just when the change was made to asbestos fiber is not known. Modern sectional pipe coverings have painted or lacquered sur faces instead of canvas, which improves the appearance and gives better insulation. The first air-cell covering was produced in Brooklvn in 1S9S. The manufacture of asbestos-cement prod ucts is comparatively recent. Asbestos-cement roofing was first made in Austria about 1890 by the "wet" process, known as the Hatschek process after Ludwig Hatschek. its inventor. A pressure-filtration or "dry" process was developed by C. L. Norton at Nashua. N. H., about 1905. He first produced 30- by 48-inch sheets several inches thick. Much larger sheets were made later. In 1908 a second process was developed for making thin sheets suitable for roofing shingles. However, asbestos-cement shingles were first introduced in the United States by Dr. R. V. Mattison at Ambler. Pa., in 1903. Within recent years the coloring of shingles has attained higher refinement, and asbestos-cement siding shingles have been developed. Flat sheeting for siding and roofs came into use shortly after 1903, and corru gated sheeting was first made in 1905. Pro duction of this great group of building materials has attained large proportions during the past 30 to 35 years. Asbestos-cement pipes were first manufac tured at Genoa, Italy, in 1913 by the Mazza process. Their manufacture began in America in 1929, and the first shipment was made in 1930. ASARCO ALV 0005970 USES The uses of asbestos are so numerous ami import ant that one could write a hook on that subject alone. On the basis of use, asbestos falls into two principal classes--spinning: and iionspiiming filter. Spinning: fiber comprises the longer grades of chrysotile and croeidolito. Nonspinning: filter comprises the shorter grades of these varieties and both the long: and short grades of amosite. anthophyllite. and related amphibole varieties. SPINNING FIBERS Spinning: asbestos is used for weaving: into textiles, but under the general classification of textile uses are included prepared yarns, listing, tape, rope, cord. wick, and thread. The longer fibers, such as Canadian Groups 1. 2. and d: Arizona No. 1 and 2 soft types: Rho desian C tSr Gl. C A G2. and to some extent C <fc G'i. and VKA2: Swaziland HYIJ and IIYL'2: the longer African and Australian blue fibers: ami Russian C-l. C-2. and 1-2 are adaptable for making textile products, such as cloth, yarn. tape, rovings, etc. The asbestos is spun and woven in much the same way as cot ton. -ilk. or wind. An out-lauding characteristic of asbestos fabrics i- their firepi..... finality. They also have superior heat-insulating properties but lower tensile strength than products made from other fibers. The low tensile strength is not due to lack of strength of the individual fibers, which in many instances are as Strom: as or stroiiL'er than silk: it is due to their shortness. heeaii~e filler length- range Generally from h to inch. Because of the shortness and smoothtie-s ,,f the fibers, it is difficult to make a 11hi-pereeiii ii-he-tos cloth: and only small fjuantttie-. ag.plied to specialized Uses, as in electrolytic cell-, are now manufactured. To give adeipiate strength to asbestos fabrics cot ton. rayon, or other organic fibers are blended with the asbe-tos in varying proportions. As the organic liber content is increased, the strength increase-, but the resistance to heat deerea-es. Accordingly. tile proportion of organic fiber i- adjusted to suit the conditions of end ttse. The higher the asbestos content the more diflieuli are the manufacturing prove--es. but these diflieulties may be over come to some extent by making a heavier cloth. Table 2 presents the standard code under which asbestos fabrics are classified and the heut resistance of each grade.1 A very important use of asbestos fabrics is for the manufacture of friction materials. 1 Tur k'* r. J l.. K!i*rWinc FiImt*. fur Falirieatiun of Ast*-st<fe Textiles: AsU-'to-. \ul. 32. No. 12, Juiir 19*i. p(i. 4*11. Table 2.--Asbestos content and heat resistance of asbestos fabrics Onde Asbestos contcot, percent ' Maximum tempera* tur<* for enOd puse, Cnmnvrml.................. 7Mo. hut not inc'udinz ............... I'udorunU'ss'.............. *uo. hut no* includine .............. A.................................... 'Mo hut not includine On............... A A ............................... 90 to. hut not including .............. AAA............................. 9*. to. hut not includine 99.............. AAA A.......................... 99 to and mcfudfnc too................... ISfl to 4rt) to 4AO 4.*i to 5.V) f>Hi to to 7-91 7Vi fo 90 .'such materials are brought into contact with moving members fbrakedrum, flywheel, or other rotating equipment) in such a manner as to retard the free motion of the rotating part. The effect of the friction is to convert the kinetic energy of the moving member into heat. The best braking materials are those that convert the kinetic energy into heat the most rapidly and dissipate the luat as quickly as possible. The friction material must also he heat resistant and nonflammable. As bestos is regarded as indispensable in most types of friction materials. Brake linings are of three principal types. In early days virtually all brake bands were of wnveti-asbestos fabrics, but at the close of World War I the molded type was invented and is now used extensively. Molded linings are of several types, but all consist primarily of asbestos filters bonded with an organic matrix. Metallic reinforcing, such as brass, zinc, or lead, is commonly added, and the shaped products are thoroughly cured. The asbestos required is chrysotile, ranging in length from fibers just under spinning grades to those as short as 7-F in the Canadian classification. A preponderance of the shorter filters is used because of the price advantage. A second type of friction materials is rub berized fabric lining. It consists of multilayer woven structures held together with wire- inserted asbestos yarn. The asbestos used is of spinning grades. The third type is woven brake lining. It is made in roll form in a variety of widths and thicknesses. It permits a wide range of service with a relatively small inventory. Its general utility popularizes it. particularly in industrial applications. As such linings are woven fabrics, chrysotile of spinning grades is required. The largest use of asbestos textiles is for the manu facture of automobile brake linings and clutch facings. As much as 70,000,000 linear feet of brake-band lining has been made in a single vear in the United States, but this figure has been considerably reduced during recent years 12 ASARCO ALV 0005971 VSES 13 because nf the substitution of molded linings. This is a fortunate circumstance. because spin ning fibers arc in increasing demand and con stitute a relatively small proportion of the asbestos recovered. More detailed information on friction materials has been published.2 Asbestos cloth treated with rubber is made into gaskets for use between the abutting or flange ends of pipes or between adjoining sur faces. such as manhole and handhole plates, to make the joints tight enough to prevent passage of air, steam, oroil. Asbestos cloth is used also for manufacturing fireproof theater curtains and -ei-nerv: blankets: draperies: mattresses; safety clothing, such as firemen's suits, gloves, shoes, aprons, mittens, leggings, and helmets: awnings; conveyor belts for carrying hut materials: woven sheet packing':: and lagging cloth to protect packings on shipboard. Braided and twisted packings arc closely related to textiles. Spinning-grade fiber.- are also employed for certain nunspinning iims, such as compressed sheet packings and gu-kds. Another important nontext I!,' use is the manufacture of low-iron fillers of spinning grade into strong asbestos paper. iViiett tt-ed in tape form for wrapping electcie will's, it i- said to make a covering superior to that obtained by wrapping the wire with a-be-tos roving. Because of their low iron content. Khode-iati spinning finer? are used for electric cable covering- and for primary elec trical insulating on magnet wire. A small ton nage of the longer Vermont filler is used for filter- in electroclietnical cells. NONSPINNING USES An important u-e for nonspinning asbestos i- for compressed packings consisting of felted tna--e- of fiber combined with rubber or other binder-. They are of various forms, known as et.mpri--ed sheet, coil, spiral, and high-pressure [lacking-. Another large group of uses is for heat insula tion; in fact, a-bc-to- is one of the most impor tant fireproofing and heat-insulating materials known. Among the la--t-known products is >jpereent magin-ia pipe covering, which consists appinxitiiuiolv of .vt to in) percent basic mag- ne-iuni carbonate and fn to 15 percent asbestos. A-bc-io- paper is used for making :5-plv air-cell and similar pipe covering: as sheeting between floors: as lining for stoves, beaters, filing cabi nets. soldiers' helmets, muflicfs for automobiles, drum controllers in sulfite mills, and automobile radiator covers: in tubes for electric wires, table mats. pads, stove mats, and other house hold appliances; and in many other ways. Asbestos paper is also used extensively in lIitff^iivuI.Ir*Pi* wVl.*J.mHN.ovT.\4.*. HlOn.oikt.n. N* l.rinMin'Jc\t.*up:oupf$.Vvi HaiwrkiowusppTy.ptrl*2.aNndo.T3h.$*i,ipr uM,manl>uv*r manufacturing asbestos felt roofing and buihup roofs and in making asbestos-protected metal roofing. Millboard is used not onlv as a build ing material but as a packing for joints of steam pipes and as a lining for safes, stoves, electric switchboxes, automobile hoods, and ovens, whore a material thicker than paper is required. An important use of millboard is for gaskets on automobiles and steam machinery. Asbestos is used for lagging steam boilers to prevent heat radiation. Largo quantities of the shorter fibers are used in plastic fireproof cements for boiler, pipe, and furnace covering. An asbestos-cement coating is sometimes applied to the surface of wallboard for both heat insulation and fire proofing. Numerous household appliances.such as pot holders, mats, and table covers, may he classed in the group of heat-insulating materials. Large quantities of the shorter grades of asbestos are used in manufacturing building materials. Portland-eement and asbestos roof ing shingles are used extensively. Compressed sheets of asbestos combined with cement are used for corrugated sheeting, wallboard. millboard. and lumber. Corrugated asbestos sheets have speeial merit in the construetion of chemi cal plants or other buildings exposed to a cor rosive atmosphere. Asbestos-cement wall tiles in a wide range of colors were introduced about 19:50. Asbestos-cement products are used in creasingly in Europe as roofing, ceilings, parti tions. paneling, linings of interior and exterior wails, water pipes, and gutters. The pipes and gutters require no painting and compare favorably in strength with east iron. It 'has heen found that wooden flooring may be nailed to a subflooring consisting of concrete to which about 10 percent of asla-stos has been added. Asbestos-resin-compositioti products arc becom ing popular for floor tile in homes, offices, and ships. There is a marked tendency toward more extensive use of molded brake bands in auto mobiles. Of the brake hands made in 1929. about $4 percent were woven and 16 percent molded. In 19:51. 70 percent were woven anti :5D percent molded, and in 1933 these percent ages were, respectively. 59 and 41. In 1947 the value of molded brake linings was over four times as great as that of tlie woven, and the number of pieces of molded clutch facings sold was twice as great as the number of woven clutch facings. This trend indicates a rela tively wider'use of nonspinning asbestos and consequent conservation of the spinning grades for other uses. Asbestos-cement pipes are being used in creasingly for water and sewer pipes and to some extent for gas mains. They are moderatelv resistant to chemicals, noncorrosive, rela tively nonconductive of heat and electricity. asarco alv 0005972 14 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY liirln in weight, ami. when laid with (hr usual flexible joints, so clastic that traffic vibrations arc unlikely to cause leakage. .Moreover, they are easily placed and joined. They are partic ularly ai'lvantatrcotis for carrying: solutions that must he kept free from iron rust. A standard pipe may contain 15 to 30 percent of asbestos filter, dependin': niton the type and use. Light weight tithe- are ttsed as electrieal conduits and duets of various types and for some venting applications in homes and industrial buildings. Asbestos is used in fireproof paints, in are welding. for protecting tin* surface of metal sheeting, as a constituent of plastic floor tiles and asphalt roof coatings, for covering fire hose, and in the manufacture of gits burners. A proee.-s has beet) developed whereby asbestos nine be cemented to steel by means of metallic adiie-ives. This process promotes wider use of a-he-to-- protected metals. A~besto- paper and millboard are used for electrical in-ulation. Short-fiber asbestos mixed in proportions of 4 to ti percent with asphalt improves the surface of roads. Asbestos i< used as a poli-bing agent. A rough u~Im-|"~ cloth i~ -nimble for common scouring and an aeid-iofined asbestos doth for imparting a high I'M or. In chemical laboratories asbestos is used for acid liltel's. f,,|- stoppings ill rnlllhlMion tlllies. lor fireproof supports and protectors, and for wicks which, when saturated with various mineral -alts, will produce colored flames. A filler ehiih in which noneorrosive wires are com bined with the fiber has an advantage of greater strength over the ali-a-bestos doth and al-u of lower cost beeau-e the wile reinforcement permits the use of lower grades of asbestos. Metal- sui'b a- iron. Monel, nickel, and leadeoated .'led ale used for the wires, the choice depending on the nature of the solution to be filtered and operating conditions. An impoitanl u-e of filter asbestos is removal of oil irolll eotldell'.'tle condensed -leant'. An important development in use during recent years is the employment of the very diort grade?, chiefly Group 7 of the Canadian classification, as a component of asphalt and plastic floor tiles ami us a reinforcing constituent, of molded plastics. As floor tiles may contain percent or more of asbestos, this use con sumes large quantities of filler, much of which win- formerly discarded as waste.J ANTHOPHYLLITE The uses of anthophyllite are limited b.ecause of its lack of strength. It is. with few excep tions. too weak for spinning purposes and can- M->pta'Ill*llxMfm*. A'UpjM. ml*vr-ii iho Asphalt-Tile Industry Vo!. 31, Xo. 3, not he used for ashestos-oement shingles or other products to which a high tensile strength of the fiber imparts essential qualities. How ever, because of its superior resistance to acids, it is well suited for use in chemical laboratories. The stronger grades of both anthophyllite and tremolite are used for chemical filters. An thophyllite and tremolite may be employed for other chemical-laboratory uses mentioned in a previous paragraph. The principal uses known for anthophyllite are for making plastic cements to cover boilers, pipes, and furnaces, as a filler in rubber, battery boxes, and molded electric insulation products, for wehling-rod coatings, and as an admixture in cement and plastic flooring, acoustical and other wall plasters, and stucco. Xo large, con sistent market for it has yet been developed, and production has never exceeded a few hundred tons a year. Many industries use asbestos in hundreds of minin' ways. The catalogs of some ashestO'prndmT companies contain lists of several hundred articles in which asbestos is a more or less essential ingredient. AMOSITE The uses of amosite. in order of importance, are: O' Lagging in felted form for high-temper ature insulation up to 0003 F. It is commonly used as a protective covering over $5-porceiii magnesia or other kinds. (21 Felted, loosely compacted covering for marine turbines, jet engines, and similar ap plications. It is especially well adapted for this use because it does not pack under vibra tion. and if it becomes wet it retains its re siliency and dries without detriment to the product. <:>i As a constituent of So-percent magnesia and calcium silicate insulation. For the asbestos content of So-percent magnesia, some manufacturers use 40 to 60 percent amosite and the remainder of Canadian Groups 4 or -3. When fibers of fair length are used, the propor tion of fiber may be reduced, possibly as low as 11 percent. If shorter fibers are used the percentage must be increased, possibly to 13 percent or more. The shorter the fibers that are used the greater the breakage loss in the finished product. Amosite furnishes long fibers at lower cost than those obtained by employing Canadian chrysotile. The 85-percent magnesia is ttsed for temperatures up to about 550 F., above which the magnesia disintegrates. Some products consist of amosite or other asbestos with a siliceous binder. They will withstand temperatures from 550 to as high as 1,200 F. An important special use for amosite is for insulating underground steam pipes. Its qual- ASARCO ALV 0005973 USES 15 ity of moisture resistance prevents or reduces corrosion and electrolytic reaction detrimental to the pipes. Another special use for nmosite is for making; a lightweight, fireproof walllmard used for par titions on ships. It is even lighter than wood, ami the weight per cubic foot would he increased considerably if other fibers were substituted for amosite. board, lumber, paper, and roof coatings, all of which arc employed extensively in the building trades. Asbestos consumption, there fore, is influenced greatlv by the volume of building construction. The relationships be tween the consumption of asbestos and activ ity in its major markets--construction and industry in general--during the past 30 years, are shown graphically in figure 2. CROCIDOLITE Crocidolite fblue asbestosi is characterized by hiuh tensile strength, acid resistance, and harshness in wet mix. The longer fibers are used for spinning and weaving. It is re ported that, during World War II. one United Slates firm inanufaeiured yarn from crocidolite in a small way. and this yarn was woven into fabrics for chemically resistant parkins:. Ac cord im: to current information, no spinning or weaving of blue fiber is carried on in the United States at thi- time. These processes are con ducted in Ivtrope. Blue-asbestos fabrics for acid-resj-tant packings or for other uses in the United ''talcs are now imported: Canadian fiber cannot be sub-tituted for blue asbestos in 'itch puokin::~. The shorter blue fibers are used extensively in the manufacture of nshestoseomotit pipe on the North American Continent, as their high teii-ilc strength and harshness in wet mix adapt tIn-ill well for such use. The new Munro mine in Ontario furnishes a harsh . ......... chry-otile that may. after further exper imentation. replace blue fiber to some extent. Long blue fibers are exceptionally well adapted for ga~ filters. Bolivian blue is preferred for 'll'- !(-e Tin- uses of asbesto- have been listed in some detail in tie- magazine Asbestos.1 * TRENDS IN FIBER UTILIZATION A Mriking feature of asbestos utilization is the very -in:i 11 proportion of the fiber that is sold directly to the consumer trade. With few exceptiott'. ashe'to' products are sold to other uidii'tric' for manufacture into finished prod uct-. In other words, they constitute a class of raw materials used in many manufacturing mdii-tries. Accordingly, the consumption of ashes)o- i- closely related to industrial activity. An important field of utilization is for heat insulation, roofing, siding, millboard, wall- 1 Tl* pp 4"10; Vo. 4, pp. 4-s. I94J an-J AjU'Stos l'ro<iucts Vol.24, No 3. RECOVERY OF SCRAP Recovery of scrap is an important element in some metal industries, notablv iron, steel, copper, and lead. On the other hand, asbestos once used is rarely recovered for reuse. In manufactured products asbestos is usually com bined with other materials; and its separation from such materials and its reprocessing into usable form are so difficult and costly that they are generally regarded as uneconomic. However, recent research indicates that re covery for reuse is feasible under certain conditions. During the early post-World War II period there was a shortage of spinning-quality as bestos. and the Bureau of Ships of the United States Navy Department requested the Na tional Bureau of Standards to study the pos sibility of reclaiming asbestos from insulation discarded during the repair and refitting of ships. The materials were of three general types--asbestos cloth, asbestos-cotton cloth, and molded pipe insulation, consisting of about 15 percent asbestos and So percent magnesia cement. Some of the products were painted or covered with magnesia compounds. It was found that the cement could be removed by treatment with a 5-percent hydrochloric acid solution and the paint with a sodium hydroxide solution. The cotton was removed by burning in a muffle furnance, but great care had to be exercised to keep the temperature down to 400 or 450 C., because high tem peratures will damage the fibers bv driving off the water of constitution. The cleaned cloth was reduced to fiber form in a paper-pulp beater. Fibers recovered from the cloth were satisfactory for reuse. Asbestos mixed with strands of fiber glass or with a large proportion of magnesia cement were recovered with greater'diffieulty and had limited use.5 Zimmerman. E. W.. Reclamation of Asbestos: N'3t. Bureau of Stanl* arrt. TVcJi. .Vows Hull., vol. 37. Vo. 9. September 1953, p. 139; see also Asbestos, vol, 35. Vo. 3, September 1953, pp. lfr-18. ASARCO ALV 0005974 16 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY 1 11 i / ______________/ Total new con struction * si fM i/ / \ // it / \ \ /! / Industr ial production "A,\ _______________ \ /1 \w\/ / * 4 /a/ / VW-f \ V-J y y Asbestos consumption '1 t1iI __LJ L-J__iiii ____ ____ 1____ 1--!., '_____ 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 FiM.ru- 2--(of A-heMo" (`omparod With Total X^w* t ou-tructiuii and Industrial Fruduction F.*35-52. \ ..f con-*irirtion from Bureau of Fun-inn and Domestic Commerce, and on industrial pr< *i from !**; s\.i He-erve Board..* ASARCO ALV 0005975 ASARCO ALV 0005976 DISTRIBUTION The United States has never bppn a large producer of asbestos. Production is centered in four principal countries--Canada. Rhodesia, Union of South Africa, and the Soviet Union. Since asbestos first became an important com mercial commodity tin* Province of Quebec, Canuda. has led in tonnage produced, but a large proportion of the output of this Province is of the shorter, nonspinning grades. Since 1916 the Union of South Africa and Southern Rhodesia have become increasingly important as sources of high-grade spinning fibers and certain special types of asbestos found only in small quantities elsewhere in the world. Before World War 1 the U. S. S. R. ranked next to Canada as a producer of asbestos, but during the revolutionary period there the industry in that country was almost at a standstill. In 1926. however, activity was revived, and both production and exports increased greatly. The Russian industry probably is again second only to Canada on a quantity basis. Smaller quantities of asbestos are produced in Cyprus. Australia. Finland, Italy, and many other countries. The location of asbestos deposits throughout the world is indicated in figure 3. Chry-otilc is the leading variety of commerce*, and most of the occurrences throughout the world are of this type: however, substantial quantities of erncidolilc (blue asbestos) are produced in the Union of South Africa and Australia and amosite in the Union of South Africa. Minor quantities of amhophyllite and -imilar amphiboie varieties are mined in the United States. Italy. Finland, the Union of ^uutli Africa, and several other countries. DOMESTIC DEPOSITS CHRYSOTILE Alaska Clirysotile Ims been found near Shungnak and in the .hide Hills in far northwestern Ala-kit: several attempts have been made to develop the deposits. The Sliiimriiak occurrences are close to the Kobnk River, 150 to 200 miles from its mouth. According to Smith and Mortic,*1 *the clirysotile occurs in small veins closely associated with -Tccnsume ami serpentine. The veins, which are most abundant on the east side of Dahl Creek, consist mostly of short fiber, although Mime long fiber has been found. Samples of the latter were submitted to manufacturers some years ago; they reported that the color 1 Smith. Philip > . ,nl MTilr. J. II. Jr.. Gmloey and Mineral Re* sources of Northwestern Alaska wl Purvey Hull. 815, 1030, pp. 344- was good, but the fibers were too weak for highgrade uses. However, samples of strong, flex ible chrysotile, over 6 inches^long and appar ently of high grade, were obtained in 1932 from a deposit in this locality. The asbestos appears to be of the slip-fiber type; therefore, it may be confined to shear zones. Stewart * states that 3 thin veins, the largest of which is about 3 inches wide, were uncovered at one point, and that some veins have been traced for at least a quarter of a mile. The deposit is undeveloped. Water transportation is available in summer. Asbestos deposits occur in the Jade Hills, which lie north of the Kobuk River not far from its mouth. These deposits were worked in a small way for a short time many years ago; in 1925 and 1926, interest in them was revived, and a trader at Kotzebue financed some new prospecting in the region. No definite information is available as to the kind or quality of asbestos found, but it probably is similar to that occurring at Shungnak. Additional prospecting in the Cosmos Hills was undertaken in 1931 and 1932 by Michael Garland under the Territorial Department of Mines prospecting program. The asbestos deposits in the serpentine at the head of Dahl Creek were discovered, and samples containing slip fiber 1 foot in length were submitted to the Bureau of Mines for analvsis. Garland staked several claims. Although the sample of slip fiber was identified as chrysotile asbestos of good quality, no development was attempted, and the claims wore allowed to lapse. Between 1944 and 1946 the Bureau of Mines conducted exploration work on asbestos de posits on Bismarck Mountain on the Shungnak River in the neighborhood of Cosmos Creek and Dahl Creek. Samples were taken, and tests were made at the Bureau of Mines Experi ment Station at Rolla, Mo. Tests were also made by several companies that mine asbestos and manufacture its products. The asbestos of the Dahl Creek area is chiefly tremolite, while chrysotile is the chief product of the other deposits explored. The results of tests on the chrvsotile were disappointing both as to length and quality of the fiber. The following con clusions were reached by Bureau of -Mines investigators:3 (1) Recovery of the higher grades of asbestos is so low that these deposits cannot be con sidered a source of spinnable asbestos. (2) The material might be used in the manu facture of asbestos shingles and asbestos board, 'Stewart. B. D., Mining Investigations and Mine Inspection in Alaska; Kept, (or Biennium Ended March 31. 1033. pp. 21. 22. 1 Heide. H. E. Wright, \V. S.. and Rutledge. F. A., Investigations of the Kohuk River Asbestos Deposits. Kobuk District. Northwestern Alaska: Bureau of Mines Rept. of Investigations 4414.1049,25 pp. IT ASARCO ALV 0005977 IS THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY although tin- fiber is more brittle than the Canadian product. (31 This asbestos might also be used as a filter medium because of the rapidity with which water passes tlirough the finer sizes. Arizona Asbestos was first discovered in Arizona bv Charley Newton in 1872. He, with a small force of pioneers. fought a band of Indians and during the engagement came upon an asbestos outcrop 3 or 4 miles northeast of Chrvsotile on Ash Creek. Gila County. No interest was taken in the deposit for many veins. About Ham chrvsotile asbestos was discovered in the Grand Canyon, and small quantities were mined on the north side opposite Grand View, about 20 miles west of Grand View, and at other points. After these dis coveries interest reverted to the Gila County occurrences, and in 1912 and 1913 many claims were staked. Asbestos was found in numerous localities over an area fit) miles long and 2.5 miles wide, most of which lies west of the San Carlos and Fort Apache Indian Reservations. The asbestos occurs in the Apache geological group, which, in the Salt River region, is repre sented chiefly by beds of quartzite and lime stone. It apparently was formed by mineraliz ing solutions derived from intrusive diabase dikes and sills which replaced the Mescal (preCambrian) limestone by serpentine. Possibly there was some reaction with the limestone or its impurities. It is associated with greenish and mottled serpentine. It occurs in cross fiber veins, which are most abundant through out the limestone in proximity to the diabase intrusions. Places where the limestone is much broken by the diabase are particularly favorable for the formation of asbestos. The veins reach a maximum thickness of about 6 inches. The fibers may extend across the full width of the vein or be broken into two or more lengths. The veins are erratic and do not persist for long distances. Conditions are most favorable for mining where several veins are close enough to each other to be worked from one drift. Usually much barren rock must be mined to recover the fiber-bearing seams. The occurrences are quite different from the Canadian deposits, where fiber veins traverse massive serpentine irregularly. The highest grade fiber, shown in figure 4, is soft and silky, has high tensile strength, and is excellent for spinning purposes. A harsher, less desirable fiber, however, occurs in many places. Arizona chrvsotile is very low in iron, therefore it is more suitable for electrical insulation than chrvsotile from other regions. According to Figure 4.--Crude Chrvsotile Asbestos From Arizona. ASARCO ALV 0005978 Fn. M. 5 --I.otHhjh \|*p if Asi* Depo(M m UiU ('ountv. \fit ilrdM ri4|> of wntl *m*uj Compiled Iv f.tncoln A. Stewart. Bureau o( ASARCO ALV 0005979 DISTRIBUTION 19 Melhaso.4 tho asbestos deposits of Gila County were grouped in five districts, but Wilson s later grouped them into two regions--the ChrysotileSalt River and the Sierra Ancha. The former extends from a few miles north of Salt River south to the latitude of Globe. North of the river it includes part of the Fort Apache Reser vation and south of the river a part of the San Carlos Reservation. The area south of the river is sometimes called the McMillan mining dis trict. The Chrysotile-Salt River region con tains the most productive mines. Asbestos de posits also occur south and east of Globe in areas beyond the limits of the region as orig inally defined. The region is a plateau of nearly horizontal strata, capped in places by lava and intruded by sills of diabase. It is deeply dis sected by the Salt River and its tributaries. The Sierra Ancha region includes an area ex tending north of Salt River to the latitude of Young and west of Canyon Creek to longitude 1110. It is made up of strata that generally dip eastward and are intruded by large and small diabase sills. It is deeply dissected by the canyons of Cherry Creek and other streams. The early history of developments in Arizona is aiven in some detail in the Wilson report cited above (footnote .it. The geology of the deposits has been reviewed by Budolh-t.8 The region is accessible more easily than in earlier years. The nearest railway station is Globe, which is 4(1 or more miles from most of the deposits. Hard-surface roads from Globe reach the vicinity of the deposits, and good access roads connect the main highways with most of the mines. Access to some of tho un developed claims is difficult. The scattered character of the fiber veins, the high cost of mining, the presence in places of harsh fiber, and the long distance from markets have tended to discourage production. Table 3 shows pro duction. by years, from 1914 to 1944. Figures for production for the years since 1945 are confidential, but the average for the period since 1945 was a little higher than the average for the preceding 6 years. A detailed description of nearly all of the Arizona deposits has recently been published.7 As discussed elsewhere in this report, low-iron chrysotile has great strategic importance for electric insulation products, such as electrical tapes and cable coverings. The C & G grades of Rhodesian chrysotile constituted virtually our sole source of supply of these highly important * Melhase. John. Asbestos Deposits In Arizona- Eog. end Min. Jour. Press. vol. 131. No. 21. Nov. 21. 1926, pp. HDfr-Hio. Wilson. EMred I). Asbestos l)e|**its ol Arizona: UnJv. of Arizona. Dull. 126. Mineral Technol. Ser. 31.192S. 97 pp. * Hadollct. Kay, Geolocy of Asbestos Deposits, II. Arizona: Asbestos, vol. 30. No 3. September 1948. pp, 4-10. 'Stewart. Lincoln A.. f*hryv,uU* Asbestos Deposits of Arizona: Bo* reau of Mines Inf. Clre, ?, 1955, 124 pp. fibers up to 1953. The Arizona fiber, however, is low in iron, and the soft varieties are eminently suitable for electric insulation uses; the Arizona deposits are, in fact, the only low-iron chrvsotile occurrences known at present in the tnited States. During the early stages of World War II, it seemed desirable to stimulate production in Arizona as a safeguard against shortage of supply from Rhodesia. To determine the possibilities of the Arizona area, the Bureau of Mines undertook an exploratory project in 1943. the results of which have been published.8 Mining was conducted in four locations that were regarded as most favorable. "Commercial ore" that could presumable be mined at a profit was found in two of these locations, but the exploratory work failed to indicate reserves of any considerable magnitude. In the other two locations, "commercial ore" was not found; the rock was. in fact, too lean to justify sam pling. In general, the occurrences were found to be erratic, discontinuous, and limited in area by rather exacting geologic conditions, such as small folds and bedding-plane faults in limestone in proximitj' to diabase sills and dikes. The tunnels driven as a result of one of these projects were driven farther by Phillips Asbestos Mines, and the Grand View mine, which includes these workings, has produced considerable quantities of soft fiber. One of the handicaps facing the Arizona as bestos industry is the limited market for the shorter grades, the disposal of which is dis couraged by the relatively low price they will bring in the market and by the high cost of transportation. Activity is interrupted at times through lack of working capital. A profitable market for the shorter grades would stimulate the industry considerably, but because of the scattered nature of the occurrences and the high cost of mining, onlv a relatively small output is to be expected during future years. Table 3.--Sale* of albedo/; in Arizona, 1914-Ul Year Short tons Year Short tons 1914 ............................. 1916-1** inclusive).... 1919................................ 1920................................ 1921................................ 19'................................ 192!................................ 1924............................... . 1925................................ 1931............................... . -V> >1.900 1.240203 413 93 * 132 118000 1930................................. 1931................................. 1912-34 tinclusive).... 1915......................... . 1936................................. 1917........................ . 19W................. ... 1939................................. 1940................................. 1941................................ 1928................................ 11929................................ ..1 >1,500 1941................................. 934 19U | Data compiled by Arizona Bureau of Mines. * Estimated. 6.43 184 >34 648 904 1,197 2.574 696 Stewart. Lincoln A., and Hatiry, P. S., Arizona Asbestos Deposits, Oib County. Ariz.: Bureau of Mines Rept. o( Investigations 4100. 1947. 28 pp. ASARCO ALV 0005980 DISTRIBUTION 21 County, in 191?. A small tonnage, produced in 1918 and 1919, was sold in 1925. Small quantities were produced 2' miles oast of lone. Amador County, in 1917 and near .Valley Springs. Calaveras County, and in AJamedu County in 1918. About 4 miles from Brvon. Monterey County, occurrences of chrysotile fiber of pood quality up to 1l: inches lonp were reportod bv the State mininp bureau in 1925. Fiber has been found in several widely separated spots: but, although claims have been made that a large deposit exists, no factual evidence at this time indicates continuity of a large area of commercial-grade rock. Asbestos deposits have been reported at Towle, Iowa Hill, and 3'- miles from Cisco, Placer County; at Goodyears Bar, Sierra County: and at Edgewood and Coffee Creek Bridge. Siskiyou County. During 1950 several promising deposits of chrysotile of textile quality were found in Shasta. Trinity, and Siskiyou Counties in an extensive serpentine belt. ' Milling and proc essing tests on a large sample from one of these deposits gave such encouraging results that further exploration would be justified. In 1951 an asbestos deposit was discovered in the Panamint Range. Death Valley National Monument, about the center of Inyo County. The location is about 7 miles north of Gold- belt Springs. Chrysotile asbestos occurs at a contact zone of syenite with dolomite. Samples taken from shallow pits show cross-fiber veins of chrysotile. of which some is of good quality. A small proportion of spinning grade appears. Most of the formation has been eroded away. The asbestos-bearing rock occupies an area about 450 feet in diameter on the top of the mountain. Accordingly, the reserves are limited. Other remnants of the same horizon may be present in other sections of the moun tains, but they have not yet been found. The nearest railway is at Keeler about 62 miles distant. The deposit is in an uninhabited, arid region served by a poor mountain road. During 1952 the Defense Minerals Exploration Administration advanced a small cooperative loan for exploration of the property, but no following development work has been recorded. An unusual deposit occurs about 2 miles northwest of Jamestown, Tuolumne County. Preliminary work has uncovered a mass of rock about 4,000 feet long and 1.300 feet wide, said to consist chiefly of antigorite, a platv form of asbestos closely related to chrysotile. It occurs in a serpentine area intruded by dikes and sills of metadiorite and related rocks. According to a press report a carlot of antigorite was shipped from the deposit in 1952. Xo com mercial use for antigorite has yet been recorded. Some exploratory work was done in 1953 on a short-fiber chrysotile deposit 4 miles from Jacksonville and 10 miles from railhead at Chinese Camp, Tuolumne County. Table 4 '* shows production in California, by years, since 1887. For the years omitted there was no output. In certain instances, the figures are grouped in periods of 2 or 3 years to avoid disclosure of the output of individual companies. The figures in this table include both chrysotile and amphibole. The entire output before 1900 was classed as amphibole. '* State of California. Division of Mint's, California Mineral Pro duction for 1946: Bull. 139,194S, p. 60. Table 4.--Axbf*(us production in California, I8S7-1951 Y*f ^Iiorl ton- V.,l|, Year Short ton Valu** Year Short ton? Valui* 1 vs; I'nSS 1 voi l.V.W . 1 -VJ1 . lVo lvci lv.M. lV.i.5 1.VIS ls`1`1 1 `HIM___ 19(11... . 1904... 1905.................... 1906.................... . 1907......................... 1908............................. 30 30 30 , 71 | 66 30 50 50 25 10 30 : 50 110 10 112 70 70 70 si. 800 1. 800 1, 800 4. 260 3. 960 1. 830 2. 500 2. 250 1. 000 200 750 1.250 4. 400 162 2. 625 3. 500 3, 500 6. 100 1900. . 1910.................... 1911.................... 1912.................... 1913.................... 1914.................... 1915.................... 1910................. 1917.................... 1918.................... 1919 1920.................... j- 1921.................... 1922.................... 1923.................... 1924..................... 1925..................... -- } 1926..................... 200 125 90 47 51 143 145 136 229 131 410 50 20 70 I 25 ! $6. 500 20. 000 500 3. 700 1. 175 1, 530 2. 860 2, 380 . 10,225 : 9, 903 6. 240 19.275 1. 800 200 4. 750 1,650 1927 ----- \1 1928.................... 1929.................... ' | 1930...................... 1932.................... .... 1 1933....'........ 1934......................... 1 1941...................... 1942....................... 1943...................... - 1 1944...................... 1945.................... . 1946......................:::} 1947..................... . 1948......................... 1949......................... 1950................ .... 1951......................-- ,193 219 309 16 4 723 37 ' (>i (> C) {>) (l) ; SI. 160 6, 175 3. 274 2. 867 836 15. 000 3. 605 0) C) C) C) () i Data not available. ASARCO ALV OOOS982 22 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY Maine A sample1 of chrysotile asbestos was sub mil tod to the Bureau of Mines in 1940 from a deposit said to be in T. 2 or 2, R. 5. Somerset County. The sample consisted of slip fiber, apparently of {rood quality, on sliekensided surfaces of dark-green serpentine. It resembled tbe asbestos-bearing rock mined near Eden, Vt. Some exploration work lias been done in the Little Spencer Stream area, probably the same locality from which the 1940 sample was obtained. Johnson's Co., of Thetford Mines. Quebec. Canada, drilled a few holes in the serpentine some years ago. and the cores indi cate the presence of narrow cross-fiber asbestos veins. The Bureau of Mines conducted a drilling program in this area in 1954. Montana A deposit of asbestos near Cliff Lake. Madi son County, close to the Idaho line, was devel oped to some extent between 1917 and 1923. The chrysotile occurs with serpentine in lime stone. an association similar to that found in Arizona. The asbestos-bearing zone is closely associated with diabase intrusions. Samples Matt to the Federal Bureau of Mines in 1929 were found to lie weaker and more brittle than fiber from Canada or Arizona. A mill was besrun in 1923. and additional machinery was delivered in 102<'>. but production has been almost negligible. Small quantities were mined and milled by the Muntbestos Co. in I93oM>ut there lias been no subsequent activity. Sam ples examined by the Bureau of Mines in 1951 were found to have fair strength and flexibility. A small proportion of the fiber is over threeeighths inch long. The veinlets of cross-fiber ehrvsotilc occur within or adjacent to narrow strinsrers and small lenses of serpentine within and between carbonate beds close to the basic intrusion. DMEA authorized a loan under which exploratory work was conducted in 1952, but no following development work has been recorded. A small deposit of cbrysotile asbestos, said to be of good quality, with fibers % to 1 inch long, lias been located about 27 miles west of Red Lotlge. Carbon County. It occurs in a mass of serpentine about 100 feet in diameter, entirely surrounded by granite. New York A deposit of chrysotile was found many years ago near Thurman. 7 miles west of 'Thurman station on the Delaware & Hudson Railwuv. Warren Countv. It was worked in a small way in 1910. and a sample of selected crude fiber was submitted to asbestos users. According to report, it was found to be of excellent quality. The veins are said to be small and probably too widely spaced to have commercial value. The maximum fiber length is about 1 inch, and most of the asbestos is one-fourth inch or less in length. A sample received by the Bureau of Mines in 1951 con sisted of serpentinized crystalline limestone containing one cross-fiber chrysotile vein about three-fourths inch wide and several small veins. The fiber is weak and brittle; but, as the sample was taken at an exposed surface, its auality has doubtless been impaired by weathering. The region has not been ade quately explored. This deposit is in no way related to those of Vermont or Quebec, Canada, inasmuch as the Warren County occurrences are, like the Arizona deposits, associated with limestone. Samples of chrysotile of good spinning quality have been obtained in the Lake George area, but the location and extent of the deposit have not been recorded. Oregon A deposit of chrysotile asbestos has been reported in Malheur County. In 191S an asbestos mine, a few miles north of Mount Vernon, Grant County, was operated for a short time. The product was a short-fiber chrysotile. A deposit of serpentinized peridotite contain ing cross-fiber veins of chrysotile ll: to ?< inch in width was located by Ray Stitham et al. in 1942. Exploration under a purchase option was begun in 1952 by the Johns-Manville Sales Corp. The deposit is near Bates, eastern Grant County, on the southwest bank of Big Butte Creek.' A zone of fiberized serpentine 250 to 350 feet wide and 1,200 feet long was un covered by bulldozing, and some core drilling was done.' Xo further development was under taken at that time. _ It was reported in the press in 1953 that Canadian Johns-Manville Corp., Ltd., had optioned chrysotile asbestos claims in an aban doned gold mine on Josephine Creek, south western Josephine County. An asbestos-bear ing zone about 6 feet wide was found in a tunnel at the contact of gravel and serpentine. Vermont Although asbestos was discovered in Vermont in 1824, no interest was taken in it until M. E. Tucker found a chrysotile vein while felling trees on the eastern side of Belvidere Mountain in 1892 or 1893. Its resemblance to the ASARCO ALV 0005983 DISTRIBUTION' 23 Canadian fiber was recognized immediately, mid it was hiter found lo occur over n eonsider- aren in Lamoille and Orleans Counties, i'lie Vermont fiber is ehrysotile similar in character and occurrence to that found at Thetford mines. Quebec: the deposit is regarded ns a southward extension of the well-known Canadian belt. The asbestos is of two kinds-- cross-fiber veins passing irregularly through serpentine and slip fiber lying parallel to slickonsided surfaces. Most of the cross-fiber veins arc narrow, those over three-fourths ineli in width being uncommon. After detailed study of the veins. Keith and Bain5 decided that the asbestos bad been introduced ns a vein-filling material in torsion cracks and crush fractures. Matched structures on opposite walls of the veins are common. They found little evidence in support of a replacement theory. The slip liber ranges from a fraction of an inch to several inches in length, is similar in quality to the cross fiber, and is adapted to certain spinning and textile uses. Fiber recovery ranges from 5 to ti percent. Asbestos-bearing rocks occur in four promi nent localities in Lamoille and Orleans Counties. The first occurrence, which is undeveloped, is about 2 miles northeast of Lowell. It consists of numerous cross-ijbcr veins and some slip fiber in serpentine. The second deposit, northwest of Lowell in the vicinity of Westfield, is in the form of a belt several miles long and a mile '-do. Considerable slip filler and cross fiber tr in place-, but none has been mined, in the third locality, southwest of Lowell at the foot of Mount Bcividerc, both slip fiber and cio-- fiber occur. The latter provides a small quantity of crude a-bestos. On this property III Mai? the Lowell Lumber Asbestos Co. erected a mill with a daily capacity of about Jon ton- of rock. Production was first re corded in puts, and in 1909 the industry was so active that Vermont became the chief asbestosprodueing `Mate. In lttiu the output increased 24 percent over that in I9D9. In 1911 the total production of the United States. 7,604 ton-. \\a- largely from Vermont. During that year coti-idcralilc Xo. 2 crude was obtained. In Iftl J Vermont, with an output of 4.403 tons, had the di-tittetion of being the only asbestosproducing ''tale in the Union, but for several years thereafter no activity was noted. The fourth serpentine area, extending about 2 miles eastward from the third, occupies a rominent bluff on the shoulder of Belvidere lnuntuin. Slip fiber predominates. A mill was erected in this district in 1902 by the New England Asbestos Mining & Milling Co. but was operated only 6 months. The industry KYitlt. Stanton B.. and Hun. Ororcf \\\, Chrysotllf* Asbestos, I, Cl.rjvotik* Wins. Ec*n (irol . \ol 27. No 2. 1932, pp. 169-ltt. was revived in 1920 by the Asbestos Corp. of America but not in the locality formerly most productive. Operations were confined to the opposite side of the deposit at the former quarry site of the New England Asbestos Mining & Milling Co. Slip fiber predominates in this region; there is little or no spinning fiber. A mill was built, and experimental runs were made, but there was no commercial production until 1929. In 1928 the company was reor ganized under new ownership as the Vermont Asbestos Corp. of America. The new company quickly put the plant in operation, producing 1.049 tons of mill fiber in 1929, and more than doubled that quantity in 1930. Although de pressed markets led to some reduction in output thereafter, production increased substantially after 1936. In February 1936 the properties were acquired by Vermont Production Co., Inc., subsequently named the Vermont Asbestos Corp., a subsidiary of the Ruberoid Co. In 1939 the name was changed to Vermont As bestos Mines Division of the Ruberoid Co. In 1944 a new quarry opening was made at the former location of the Lowell Lumber <fc Asbestos Co. The fiber-bearing rock was con veyed over the mountain to the mill by means of an overhead cableway about 1 mile long. In 1949 a new mill was built about one-fourth mile from the quarry, and the cableway was abandoned. The first large blast fired in the new quarry, about June 1944. uncovered substantial quan tities of slip-fiber ehrysotile of unusual length. Some masses consisted of fibers over 6 inches long. As it was difficult to process as a spinning filler, it was milled to Group 3 or to the better grades of Group 4 (Canadian classification). As greater depth was attained in the quarry, the proportion of long slip fiber became smaller. The quarry is predominantly a medium to shortfiber operation. The output of Group 3 fibers is approximately 4 percent of total production. These fibers are used for spinning and for filters ill electrochemical cells. The remaining groups in order of abundance are 6D, Group 5, Group 7, and Group 4. The geology of the Vermont deposits has been described in some detail.10 Wisconsin An asbestos deposit known as the Herriman property, in sec. 24, T. 36 X., R. 21 E., Mari nette County, was explored in 1952 under a Defense Minerals Exploration Administration (DMEA) loan to the Star Mining Co. Clirysotile occurs in scattered, cross-fiber veins in peridotite. Most of the veins are less than u Bj<loll**t. Kay. The Geoloey of Asbestos Deposits. I. Vermont: AsUstos. vot. 29. No. 9, March IMS, pp. 4-10. ASARCO ALV 0005984 24 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY three-eighths inch across. The pcridotite occurs in a pluglike mass, which, as indicated by a magnetometer survey, isaliout 300 feet long and 150 to 200 feet wide. No development work followin'; exploration has been recorded. Wyoming Several deposits of chrvsotilc have been found in Wyoming. The Brown Bear deposit lies in northwestern Lincoln County near the Idaho border. 7 miles south of Yellowstone Park. The nearest rail point is Lamont Siding. Idaho. 25 miles west. Greenish-yellow chrvsotilc fiber occurs in veinlets. most of which are less than one-fourth inch wide. Both slip and cross fiber occurs. Both have been described as harsh, but the slip fiber is most likely to be of commercial rrade." It is estimated that the rock contains less than 5 percent filter. The property was acquired by the American Asbestos Millin'; A: Minin'; Co. of Idaho Falls. Idaho, in 1917. It was developed with tunnels and opencuts. and 13 miles of access road were built. Xo produc tion 1ms been recorded, and there appears to have been no minim: aotivitv in the area since 1021. The Fire Kim: asbestos deposit, about 2S miles south of Lander. Fremont County, in T On X ,. R. Kilt \Y.. consists of cross-fiber veins in M-rpentine associated with chlorite schist and trratiite intrusions. A shaft 72 feet deep was sunk many years ago. and a drift from the bottom of the shaft was projected for 40<i feet. Tin- fiber-bearing rock is well exposed in a cut 125 feet lorn:. '25 feet wide, and 2d feet deep in places. Most of the fiber is short, but Diller Istsite- that some Ions: fiber of pood spinning quality was obtained. The yield of all grades would probably be under 5 percent. The property was acquired by the American Fireproofinp A Minins: Co. in 1917. A mill was iuiilt in 1919. and it is reported that several 'allots of fiber were shipped to Lander. In 19211. however, the output consisted of shaped sectional blocks of serpentine used in chimney construction. Xo activitv bus been noted since 19211. Cross-fiber chrysolite veins occur in serpen tine at Beaver Creek. T. 30 X.. R. 915 \Y.. about On miles southeast of Lander. Fremont C'ountv. The fiber is short, and the deposit is evidently small. Asbestos deposits that have received con siderable attention are situated in the Casper Mountain and Smith Creek areas. Natrona County. The Casper Mountain area is in T. 32 X., R. 79 \Y., about 8 miles south of Casper. 11 >am;vn. Edward. Asbestos Geol. Survey Mineral Resources of the fnited States. iy2. |>t 2. p 317 upillir.J S.. Asbestos G*ol Survey Mineral Resourccsof the Cnited States. 1917. pt. II. p. 3il- The rocks of the district, comprising about 4*2 square miles, consist of hornblende schist, diorite, granite, and serpentine. In places the serpentine is cut by granite dikes. The asbestos occurs as cross-fiber veins in the serpentine. Veins L to V, inch wide are the most common; they rarely exceed 1 inch across. Most of the small quantity of asbestos mined came from a lens 1.400 feet long and 500 feet wide. The old workings indicate that considerable short fiber is available. Small quantities of long fiber obtained many years ago were said to be of pood spinning quality. The Smith Creek asbestos area, of about 7 square miles, lies in T. 31 X., R. 78 W., about 27 miles by road from Casper. Masses of serpentine arc surrounded by granite-gneiss and are cut by metadiabase dikes. A lens of serpentine 650 feet long and 300 feet wide is exposed bv a cut 25 feet wide. 50 feet long, and 20 feet deep in places. Vertical cross-fiber veins of chrvsotilc appear in the serpentine. Maximum fiber length is about three-fourths inch, and most of it is under one-half inch. The veins are scattered, and there is no evidence of an extensive workable deposit. In 1908 the North American Asbestos Co. held the Casper Mountain property and the Wyoming Consolidated Ashestos Co. the .Smith Creek area. Two other companies--the United Asbestos Co. and the International Asbestos Mill & Power Co.--apparently had holdings in these areas. The latter company leased the Casper Mountain and Smith Creek properties about 1909 and built a small mill on each of them. The Smith Creek mill was completed in 1910 and the Casper Mountain mill in 1911. A small output of asbestos was reported from one or both of these mills in 1911, but activity was restricted by transportation difficulties. Small shipments for flooring manufacture were made in 1912. Thereafter no activity was indicated until 1934, when the Patee Asbestos Shingle Co. reported production of 200 tons from the Casper Mountain property. A small occurrence of harsh chrvsotilc in ser pentine has been noted 3 miles east of the Smith Creek mill. Further details of the Wyoming deposits have been given by Beckwith.1131 * AMPHIBOLE Alaska In 1943 Arctic Circle Exploration, Inc., of Candle, Alaska, submitted to the Territorial Department of Mines at Fairbanks, Alaska, a sample that was identified as tremolite asbestos. Mining was begun in a deposit near the summit w Beckwith. R. H.. Asbestos and Chromite Deposits of Wyoming Wyoming Geol. Survey. Bull. 29. 1939,32 pp. ASARCO ALV 0005985 DISTRIBUTION 25 of Asbestos Mountain in the Dahl Creek area, Kohtik River district. Up to November 1945 the company had produced a few tons, but no subsequent production lias been reported. The material is suitable for making chemical filters. Occurrences of amphihole fiber have been reported on Admiralty Island and at Chitina on the Copper River. A peculiar asbestos of the mountain-leather type occurs on Lemesurier Island in the north ern part of southeastern Alaska. It is a fibrous, lightweight, matted material resembling buckskin. Three occurrences have been noted, all paralleling the strike and dip of associated limestone beds. About one-half ton of the material was obtained from an opencut. Beds (1 to 10 inches thick were observed. Its identity ns paligorskite was established by X-ray analysis. Following is its chemical composition, in percent: MgO S.ll, ALO.i 14.27, Sit), 49.5(1. Fe.O.i 2.62. TiO, 0.52. CaO 3.34, K;(> 0.(16. Na.-O 0.34, ignition loss 21.43, H..O -- 7.05. H;0-- Hi.So. It appears to have qualities that woidd adapt it to the manufaeture of asbestos paper. The deposit may be lame enough for commercial exploitation. It has been described in some detail in a Bureau if Mines report.11 California As early as 1x32. asbestos deposits were worked in San Bernardino. San Diego. Cala veras. and. Placer Counties: and in 1333 and |xv4 occurrences in Butte. Fresno. Los Angeles. Tulare. Mariposa, and Inyo Counties were noted and some of them developed. Produc tion in lss2 was 1.2dd ions: in 1333. 1.000 tons: and in lss-i. i.inni tons. In !3S5 a small mine \\;t> opened at Windsor in Sonoma County, and lilier of stood ({utility was reported from Del None and Yolo Counties. Sales of asbestos in the United States of 30 tons in I8-S9. 71 tons in Ivin, and 66 ions in isOi were credited entirely to (.'alifornia. In Jx92 most of the production wa- from Wyoming, with small quantities from Oregon and (.'alifornia. but again in 1393 California, with an output of 50 tons, was the only produeim: State. The mines were idle in |v.i4 but produced 90 tons in ]s95. A small and gradually decreasing output was noted from 1x07 to loon. All the production up to the latter year was classed as amphihole asbestos. Kvidently it was used chiefly in Sun Francisco and Oakland for making pipe and boiler coverings, packings, and roofing. Deposits of tremolite asbestos of good quality have been worked to a limited extent by Ray J. Sylvester in sec. 1, T. 37 X., R. 5 W., ' Fislior, KoU-rt B . Tftnrtv\ Robert I,. and Van Ctt. H Corbin. Cm a Rnv<iM<* AsN*sto$ Substitute. Bureau of Mines Inf. ttm. l*n. .'.w Shasta County. The asbestos occurs in green ish blaek peridotite. An adit driven 88 feet encountered a tremolite lens that furnished marketable fiber. A small output was recorded in the late 1940's. Homer E. Fenn operated a similar deposit, the Stark property, in the same region. A small tonnage was shipped east for filter use in the late 1940's. A slip-fiber anthophyllite was mined for several years near Sims, Shasta County, but no activity has been noted since 1923." Amphihole asbestos de posits have been reported also at Castellia and Hazel Creek in this county. A deposit of amphihole asbestos associated with serpentine near Chandlers, Kern County, was developed in 1928. Several short tunnels and opencuts were made, but evidently the operation has not passed the development stage. A deposit of tremolite 2W miles north- northeast of Keeler, Inyo County, known as the Mcllroy propem-. has been developed and operated at times. Both long slip-fiber and short cross-fiber asbestos are present. Soft, white fiber occurs near the surface. Small shipments were made to eastern L'nited States for filter use in 1940 and 1941. A deposit of tremolite asbestos about I mile southeast of Iowa Hill. Placer County, was worked in a small way in 1944, 1946. and 1948. It is 9 miles by road from Colfax on the Southern Pacific Railroad. A production of 35 tons over a period of 40 years before 1948 has been re ported. The fiber occurs in a faulted contact zone associated with amphibolite schist. A shallow overburden has been removed by a series of trenches about 100 feet long. Tremo lite appears in various places throughout the area, but only one vein large enough to work commercially appears. In 1952 steps were taken to develop a prop erty known as the Goleonda asbestos deposit situated in sec. 36. T. 9 X.. R. 4 W.t about 20 miles north of Victorville. San Bernardino County. The fiber is a tremolite occurring in both slip- and cross-fiber veins in a belt of green schist. An occurrence of amphihole asbestos, prob ably tremolite. was reported in 1949 at a point 4 miles northeast fiom Burro Springs in the Panamint Range. Death Valley Monument. Commercial deposits of amphihole asbestos have been reported also near Quincy, Plumas County, and Hemet. Riverside County. An experimental mill for preparing amphihole fiber for market was operated for a time in the late 1940's near Paradise, Butte County. Georgia Many deposits of anthophyllite are known in Georgia, mostly of the mass-fiber type. Georgia asarco alv 0005986 r I L>ti THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY 11;i~ I...... ilif mn;t cun-i'-ifiii pmdiirer of .imphibnle si-^1 11-* of an_\ of the Suites. The hil Lro't <|iisinl il.v Ini' ohlilined from dc- pii'jK on or near Snll Moiiiilniii in the vicinity of Helen. Snntee. < 'levelitnil. ntnl Xneooeliee. W hite ( 'oimly. These deposits produced with 'otiie inlet rnptions from 1M14 until 1930 and piK'ilily in a -iinill way during earlier years. The a.'hesto' is of the mass-fiher anihophyllite type. It is claimed that 9(1 to !>."i percent of the rock (pinrried \\a- filler. 'I'lie iicst ashestos was near the .surface, where wealherinsr had made it soft and flexible. Tin- solid, tin- weathered rock Wil' lc>s desirable and re(|tlireil difl'crciit treatment. Resource' of the best liber, theicfore. were relatively limited, and nio't of tin- available hitth-gradc material was e\haii'ied. The fiber was prepareil for use some leaf' a_'(i ill a mill at (ialtlcsville about .'7 mile' from the dcpo'it'. It was employed piiueipalh for lireprooliiii.r. for iii'iilation. and it. paint mauiifaetore. A (lepo'it o| eoll'ideralile exletil. llc'cribed many veal-' airo as the .John Martin property, i' 'iutated at Inc top of Mack Mountain about 1! mile' north of Clarki-villc. Habersham <'on:il\. m lie-<`battahoneliee National Forest Re'erve. Aeei-- to the deposit is over about : mile- of eood to |ia".-di|e dirt road, suitable fol trin-k iiauheje. eoiineeied with a paved road. The depii'it eonsi't- of a potato-siiapeil pod or Ieii- about 1 .Hi feet 1(itiir from north to '`ith and a)itml oil feet wide. Bulldozer cut' faie uiieovored the deposit enough to permit a fair e'tiniate of a reserve of about 10.0(1(1 to*:' of U'lio'td'-liearine rock which would Mold ahull! oil pefeenl filler. Associated 111 111 - ini' are tale, chlorite, mica, and day. No 'ah-' have Ii.-i-i, reported. Two other deposits occur about 7 liiil<-- we't of ('larkc'Ville. Aiiotl.ei location of some importance, par ticularly from 1924 to 1927, is at Hollywood. Hahei'hani ('oiinty. The mass fiber is harsher and |c" 'ilky than that at Sail Mountain. The depo'its are of considerable size. They are '.aid lo cnmpri'c 7i 'cparate lenses 50 to 250 feet lone ami 2<i to 5(1 feet wide. The Tallulah Fall' Railroad pa."es within 100 feet of the dcpo'it'. Durine the 3-year period mentioned previoit'lv, a ~ui:ill mill was operated. Its eipiipnieiit eoii'i'ted of a gyratory crusher, an elevator, a hammer mill, a double cage mill, a vibratory 'creen. air suet ion. bin storage. and haeeer. The rock was hauled from qttnrry to mill in small, narrow-gage cars. The fiber produced was used in making battery boxes, for boiler covering, us a constituent in con crete. and as rubber filler. No activity has been reported since 1927. The mill was dis mantled and later destroyed by fire. Dis continuance of operation was evidently due to inability to develop sustained markets for the fiber. The L. M. Arnold asbestos deposit is about 1 mile from Statham. Barrow County, in a Hut farming country. Small quantities of fiber have been mined intermittently. Shipments made from 1923 to 1927 were used principally for chemical filters. In 1948 a small tonnage of asbestos was excavated from an open pit. which at that time was about 150 by 100 feet in area and about 35 feet deep. A soft, easily disintegrated anthophyllite appeared in the bottom of the pit. The size of the deposit cannot lie ea-ily determined. Asbestos was mined about 1580. 2 mill" northwest of Burton. Rabun County. The mineral was said to be long fihered and woody. It resulted from alteration along fracture zones of an extensive peridotite intrusion. Fiber <i to 7 inches long occurs in an 18-inch vein in soapstone about 2 miles southeast of Moreland. Corveta County. Long slip fiber occurs in taleose rock north of Lutkcrsville. Meriwether County. A large deposit of anthophyllite wa~ reported in 1949 in Cherokee County, about 45 miles from Atlanta. Other deposit; have been noted 2'; miles west of Cleveland and between Cleveland and Xneooeliee. White County: near Dillard and Clayton. Rabun County: 10 miles west of Greenville. Meri wether County: southeast of Highlands, .luek'iin County: and in several localities in Cmvcta and Troup Counties. Many other un developed deposits jn the State have been described by Hopkins.1'' Idaho The only asbestos deposit in Idaho that habeen developed commercially is in Idaho ( Yumty about 14 miles southeast of Kamiaii. The de posit consists of brittle mass-fiber anthophyllite occurring in lenticular masses, some 200 feet long and 25 feet thick. It is regarded as an alteration product of dunite. The Kamiah As bestos Manufacturing Co. produced in a small way for a number of years before 191-S. In September 1921 the property was purchased by the Western Mineral Co. of Kamiah. but no output was reported by this company. The Panhandle Asbestos Co. of Lewiston. Idaho, acquired the property in 1923 and reported small shipments in 1925. No sales have been recorded since that year. According to a press report in 1930 the Diatom Products Co. of Seattle, Wash., purchased the plant. The mill, which was apparently last operated in 1925. had a daily capacity of 240 tons of rock and was equipped with crusher, rolls, screens, and air >* Hopkins. Oliver B,,. Asbestos. Talc, and Soapstone Dt jH'Sits of Georcu: Oeorcu Oool. Survey, Bull. 29. WU. pp. 142-isy. I ASARCO ALV 0005987 nisTiuBi'Tiox 27 separators. Tin1 filler whs used for pipe mid boiler covering. in wall plaster and paint, and as a binder in cements and asphalts. In 1022 equipment was installed for sawing fire blocks and insulatin'! brick, but the project did not materialize. Later the property was leased on a royalty basis by Roy Randall and (.'. H. Bryson, but there is no record of commercial operation. A more complete description of the deposit has been published.14 Maryland Asbestos occurrences were noted in western Maryland as early as |SX3. but no production worthy of mention was recorded until 1017. In that year a slip-fiber asbestos deposit was developeil near Pylesville. Harford County. For many years ibis material was designated antlioplivllile but was later identified definitely as iremolite. The asbestos occurred in gneissoid schist that had been softened by weathering. The veins generally were small, and the usable fiber was confined to a zone near the surface. The good asbestos extended to greatest depths along'hear zones where movement and pressure bad been greatest. Mining was conducted to a depth of uhout 50 feet. The fiber was un usually strong and tough and especially well adapted for making chemical filters. It was processed by the Powhatan Mining Co. at Woodlawn. a suburb of Baltimore. Unfortu nately the deposit was worked out and the mine abandoned in 1041. A small quantity of long fiber said to be similar to that occurring at Pylesville has been found in a talc quarry near Dublin. Harford County. Montana A deposit of antbophyllite said to be exten sive is al out 17 miles south of Gallatin Gateway. Gallatin County. The fiber occurs in a dense, hard form but fiberizes to a soft, fluffy mass. Peter F. Karst operated the prop erty for several years, but in 1936 it was ac quired by the Karstolite Co. For a time the fiber was manufactured into a wall and ceiling insulation sold under the trade name "Karsto lite.'' The Montana Asbestos Co. controlled the deposit for a time and was succeeded by the Interstate Products Co., the present owner. During the late 1940's the latter company re conditioned the mine, built new roads, stock piled a considerable tonnage of fiber-bearing rock, and planned to erect a processing plant at Bozeman about 35 miles from the deposit. * Andervm. Alfred I.. The Oi*oloey n<l Mineral Resources of the K*gion A Unit Criflno. Idaho. Idaho State Bureau of Mines and Geo!.. Famph. 34. 193m. 63 pp. No production has been reported during recent years. A small shipment of nnthopbyllite was re corded in 192S from a property on Rainey Creek. 7 miles northeast of Libby, Lincoln County. New Mexico In 1951 the Bureau of Mines received a sam ple of a tough, matted mountain leather from a deposit near Doming. Luna County. Ac cording to report, the deposit is of considerable extent. North Carolina The Bluerock mine, owned by Industrial Minerals Corp., Asheville. X. C\. is on an anthophyllite deposit of considerable size on the South Toe River, about 2 miles southeast of Micaville. Yancey County. The original rock was probably a dunite. which evidently had been altered by a granite intrusion into a bluish to greenish-gray amphibole asbestos. The ex posure is about 400 feet wide. The chief con stituents of the rock are asbestos and talc. Serpentine and magnetite occur in minor quan tities. Development reported in 1943 con sisted of 2 shallow pits, 1 about 100 feet long and the other considerably smaller. Asbestos, which forms the major part of the rock in the vicinity of the larger pit. is in radiating fibers ranging from K inch to nearly 4 inches in length. Near the surface much of the fiber is altered by weathering to an undesirable brownish color. Further details concerning the occurrence are given in a press release of the Federal Geological Survey.17 During 1942 and 1943 the mine was an active producer. Sales of amphibole as bestos amounting to 2.214 tons in 1943 were chiefly from the Bluerock mine. The principal use of the fiber was for welding-rod coatings. Xo sales have been recorded since 1943. In 1952 a mill was equipped at Spruce Pine. X. C., for processing antbophyllite obtained chiefly at the Bluerock deposit. The mill was designed to prepare Group 7 fibers to be used in conjunction with Canadian 7R chrysotile in asphalt and vinyl- tile manufacture. Other actual or proposed uses include welding-rod coatings, molded compounds, paints, insulating cements, filtration materials, and underbody coatings.1* About 1928 a mill that would handle 35 tons of rock a day was built at Minneapolis, Avery Geological Survey, Asbestos Mine Near Bluerock Knob, Yancey County, N. C.: Press release. May ly. 1943. 2pp. i* Rukeyser. Walter A.. Mining & Milling Corp. of America to Beein Production in November 1952: Asbestos, vol. 34, no. 5, November 1952. pp. 26-29. ASARCO ALV 0005988 2S THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY County, for treating mass-fiber anthophyllite occurring in that region. The mill equipment was improved considerably in 1935, and steps were taken to develop a market for prepared asbestos to be used in home insulation and in many other wavs. The mill has been idle for many years. A deposit near Plumlree, in this county, was developed some years ago, but very little fiber has been produced. A mill was built near Otto, Macon County, in 1928 but has not produced. A small output was reported in 1919 from a deposit of mass-fiber anthophyllite at Cane River, Yancey County. Deposits' of anthophyllite occur also near Warlick. Burke County;' on the Xantahala River. Macon County: near Bakersville, Mitchell County: near Todd, Ashe County; Brevard, Transylvania County; and on Davis Mountain near the old Baker gold mine, Caldwell County. Oregon Sixty-four tons of amphibole asbestos pro duced in Oregon was sold in 1892. Asbestos occurring in the Pine Creek district, Baker County, was described in 1922 as a soft, longfiber tremolite. Development work on tne property was reported in 1925. and in 1926 a 810-foot tunnel was driven. A small production for experimental purposes was reported in 1929. White, iron-free tremolite occurs near Azalea, Jackson County, a slip-fiber asbestos developed alonu fracture planes. Small quantities were sold between 1941 and 1944. A tremolite deposit has been reported on Cedar Springs Mountain, northern Jackson Count}-. An unde veloped tremolite deposit is situated about 5 miles from Agness, Curry County. Texas Amphibole asbestos approaching tremolite in composition occurs in cross-filter veins travers ing serpentine in four localities in Llano and Gillespie Counties. The veins are very irregular, but there is promise of a considerable supply. Tit- occurrence of cross-fiber veins is unusual in amphibole asbestos deposits. Further informa tion is supplied by SelJards and Baker.19 Virginia Anthophyllite asbestos occurs about 12 miles south of Bedford, Bedford County. The pre vailing associated minerals are hornblende and olivine. Unlike the mass-fiber deposits of Georgia and Idaho, the best asbestos is the slipfiber type, occurring in veinlike masses occupy ing shear zones. Several veins have been noted. * St-U&rds. E. H . and Baker. Charles Laurence, Economic Geology of Texas: Pari 3.1935. p,, S52. and one 18 inches thick supplied considerable fiber from 1904 to 1911. A mill for treating the asbestos was erected in Bedford in 1903. Verv little has been produced since 1911, A small quantity has been used in the manufacture of Tenax, "a preparation used by dentists. A deposit of slip-fiber amphibole occurs also at Rockvmount, Franklin County. A shaft was sunk to a depth of 40 feet, and 40 tons was obtained from this mine in 1907. Deposits have been noted also near Boyce, Clarke County, and 8 miles from Roanoke, Roanoke County. Washington. The Asbestos-Tale Products Co. developed a property near Burlington, Skagit County, and produced a small tonnage of mixed talc, serpen tine, and asbestos about 1930. The milled product was used in boiler coverings, roofing, and acoustic plaster. The company also manu factured "Asbesto-fill," a heat-msulating build ing material, and "Asbestocite," a compound of asbestos fiber and tale used in roofing paints and plastics. No production has been recorded dur ing recent years. Asbestos has been mined near Pateros, Okanogan County, for use in paints. Deposits have been reported near Leavenworth, Chelan County, near Hamilton, Lyman, and at other points in Skagit County; and 8 miles north of Chewelah, Stevens County. Other Occurrences Many other occurrences of amphibole as bestos were known from 1880 to 1905. The following localities, mentioned in early records, evidently had small importance as sources of supply: Staten Island and Long Island. X. Y.; Xew Brunswick, X. J.; Median and Colerain, Pa.; Lawrence County. S. Dak.; Stevens Point, Wood County. Wis.; Six Mile and Pick ens. S. C.: Baraga County, Mich.; and Xew Hartford. Conn., where a small mill was oper ated in 1903. From 1901 to 1906 a small out put of asbestos was reported near Dalton, Mass. It was first thought to be chrysotiie but was identified definitely as anthophyllite in 1906. Blue asbestos (eroeidolite) occurs at Beacon Pole Hill near Manviile, Providence County, R. I., but not in commercial quantities. FOREIGN DEPOSITS The deposits of the major producing coun tries--those of Canada, Southern Rhodesia, Union of South Africa, Swaziland, and Soviet Russia--will first be described and thereafter those of less importance. asarco alv 0005989 ASARCO ALV 0005990 Kmu'RKr. --Mj> of llcjtion in (>iia<U DISTRIBUTION 29 MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES Quebec CANADA The asbestos deposits in the eastern town ships of the Province of Quebec, Canada, have been famous since 1 STS. They are situated 100 to 175 miles from Montreal and somewhat nearer Quebec, occupying a stretch of high ground known as the Xotre Dame Hills--an extension into Canada of the Green Mountains of Vermont. The hills continue northeastward to the Gaspe Peninsula, and serpentine is exposed in many places throughout their length. An asbestos deposit was developed at Port Daniel on the Gaspe Peninsula in 1919. Commercial asbestos occurs in two areas along this serpentine zone--the Asbestos and Thetford Mines district described later and the Eilen (Vt.i district, which has been described in the discussion of domestic deposits. The Quebec area, about 70 miles long and a maximum of 5 or 6 miles wide, lies between Danville and East Broughton. Within this section are six producing centers--East Broughton. Robertson. Thetford Mines. Black Lake. Coleraine, and Asbestos. The asbestos, a ehrysotilc of exceptionally high quality, occurs in a very extensive serpentine and peridotitc formation of post-Ordovician age appearing in places as mountain masses rising 7<in to 1 .nun feet above the surrounding coun try. It is said to be the largest area of serpen tine near the eastern coast of North America. In the accompanying map (fig. 6) of the Quebec asbestos region the areas indicated as eonsisting of serpentine include also areas of galdiro and pyroxenite. hence the areas of host rock ure not as extensive as the map would indicate. Cirkcl 3,1 attributed the origin of the ehrysotilc to columnar crystallization of serpen tint* in cracks and fissures. The process is somewhat obscure; but he presumed that the serpentine, which thus takes the form of bundles of extraordinarily fine filaments, crystallized from aqueous solutions acting upon the vein walls. Cooke.31 who has made a comprehensive study of the origin of Quebec asbestos, states that folding and deformution toward the close of the Ordovician period were accompanied by the injection of masses of peridotite and pvroxenitc. Further folding, probably in the Devo nian period, was accompanied By injection of granites and related rocks. The peridotites and pvroxenites have suf fered a general alteration, in consequence of *OrkH. Frits, Chrysolite Asbestos--Its Occurrence. Exploitation* Milling, anil IVs: Canada Dept, of Mine*. Mints Branch. 3d ed.f 1910. pp V2-95. * Cooke. H. C.. Thetford. Disraeli. and Eastern Half of Warwick Mai**An-.is. Qui'l*-e Canada I>i*pt. of Mint* and Resources, Oeol. Survey. Mem. 211.1937. pp. 13V-140. which most of the original olivine and pyroxene have been converted to serpentine. This serpentinization is presumed to have been caused by water present in the peridotitfe magma reacting with the mineral constituents during the later stages of crystallization. A second more local alteration was caused by injection of heated waters into fault fis sures, from which they penetrated all the pores of the rock; wherever they encountered in cipient fissures they reacted with the peridotite, converting it into serpentine, some of which was deposited as the fibrous form of ehrysotilc. The high temperature that induced or assisted the reaction is attributed to intrusion into the peridotite of the granitic dikes and plugs al ready mentioned. Deformation and faulting were contributory factors assisting the aitera'tion and recrystallization. Cooke summarizes his conclusions as follows: Three conditions were necessary for the formation of chrysotile fiber veins: (1) Faulting to break up the rock and permit ingress of solutions. (2) An adequate supply of the necessary solutions. (3) Injection of acid dikes in sufficient numbers to raise the temperature of the serpentine to a point where it would react readily with the solution. Lack of any one of these conditions would prevent formation of fiber veins, even if the other two were present. Cooke .claims that the asbestos deposits are localized along the north west side of the main peridotite mass, therefore the asbestos-forming agents must have entered from that side. In some places the Quebec fiber is soft and flexible, while in others it tends to be harsh and brittle. Cooke 22 concluded, from careful analvses, that the harshness was due primarily to tbe presence of talc. Keep 33 reached a similar conclusion regarding Rhodesian chryso tile. Most of the output of the Black Lake, Thetford, and Danville areas js derived from cross-fiber veins ranging in width from hair lines to 4 or 5 inches and, rarely, even wider. The bulk of the production is obtained from veins less than one-quarter inch across. The width of veins is important because it governs largely the length of fiber. Fortunately the fiber as a rule breaks easily from the wall rock. Figure 7 shows a typical occurrence of asbestos veins in the Quebec district. Slip fiber originating along slickensided Cooke. H. C.. The Composition of Asbestos and Other Fibers of Thetford District. Quebec: Trias. Roy. Soe. Canada, ser. 3. vol. 29. sec. 4. May 1935. pp. 7-19. a Keep. F. E.. Geology of the Shabanl Mineral Belt, Bellnjwe Di$* trlct: Southern Rhodesia Geol. Survey, Bull. 12, 1929. ASARCO ALV 0005991 30 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY f:i 11]l plane' ;i- a r.-ull ul'slow readjustment of tie- i'iicU imi'-es at a later time forms the chief piiiduet of tlie Ka-t Brounhton area. 'I'lie filler' aii- mat led t.ie.'ther, more or less in paral lel pi.'iiioii, and therefore appear to he longer i haii i lie.v realh are. Slip fiher. as a rule, is !" valuable than elii'S fiher. The peiceiiiasre of fiher in the rock is low; however, heeaii'f of the wider utilization of lie- very r-hori fibers iluriim recent years, the pci eeiitaee of recovery is now considerably iudur ihim it was 2o or more years ago. In tin- yield was .1 percent of the total rock mined and 7.7 percent of the rock milled. In lti-'il tiles,- percentages were 7.7 and 9.5 and in 1952. 7.2 and ''.5. respectively. Although Canada produces substantial quan tities of spinning fiber, considerably more than 9<l percent of its production consists of the shorter grades, for which, fortunately, an extensive market exists in the United .States. Table 5 shows the annual production and value of asbestos in Quebec since the industry was first established. Until 1S91 virtually the entire Canadian output was crude fiber, hut thereafter both crude anil milled asbestos were produced. This change in tin* character of products is reflected in the sharp drop in average value in 1S92 compared with the previous year. The ex ceptionally high average values from 191S to 1920 may he atti United to the abnormally high prices obtained for fiber on account of war conditions. Crude No. 1, for example, sold for more than STOOD a ton during part of this period. The remarkable gains in output during and since World War II are noteworthy. The following companies operate in the Quebec area: Asbestos Corp., Ltd., operates four mines, the King, Beaver, British Cana dian, and Yimv Ridge. Work is underway on a new mill that will bring the Xormandie ASARCO ALV 0005992 DISTRIBUTION Tuii.i: '>.--.-1 tbixiu* jiniihictinn (ihipmfiils and xalm) in Qmbrc. 1S7S-1953 1 31 .. ' ,r pro-hu tuiN. MkiM lHI' value Avrraco value jwr ton Year Production. Total value Averaeovalu.- <hort tnn ivi**auc . per ton |N> |x7' 1 XX*1 ISM IS52 1 X.SH ikm 1 xs.*> Ism; Ixs7 JSSS bvi | VIII |VI| IVI-J ivi;* |VM l VI.*. 1 V*>l, |vc I V* IV 1 VI'l I'MIM 1 "1*1 ! "Ml J ! "in., J `in i , .. . .. . .......................... i mi ii. ri: | 'll IV i i :.! 11 I-'iJ ]*!:; ! ' 1 :!*. .V) .'lull 3.M) 540 SKI SI75 1. HI 2. 440 3. 45s 4.t>l' 4,404 ti. 1 13 i*. Mio U, 279 (1. 0>2 II. 331 7. (13U .x. 756 in. vr> 13. 2112 15. vi.'j 17). 7.71 21. 4ll.s 33, 400 311. (134 2`i. 201 35. I7* lV `HiU <l. 675 01. 9x5 i.i. *. 1. **;5 Ml. fill.") IU2. 22 J 111. 17 7) 136, 107. 4111 113. 11 7. sp.i. .iim 24. 700 35. 100 52. 1150 OX. 77)0 To, 007 142. 44 1 2011. 251 22U. 07(1 255. 007 426. 7)54 1. 270. 240 s7S 300. 4112 310. 150 420, 525 36k. 175 423.000 300. 52S 4'lti. 340 5x1. *>07 7io. 4ir. 1. 274. 315 1. 101. x70 1110.1*70 1. lsii. 070 1. 470. 47,0 2. 143. U53 2. i7,.y *ni 2. 7)7> 1. 7)11*1 2. 2`iI. 5x4 2. Hil7. -2!i 3. U2H. 3011 3.1150. 0-4 3. >3n. 5(14 2. x`i7>. U37, 3. 544. 3H2 S65. 00 05, 00 65 00 65. 00 72. 00 65. M 5X. 37 50 05 40. 55 57, 00 00. 77 12x. x2 107. 77, 64. Id 46. 00 53. 15 42. 04 38. >4 30. 26 31. 23 37. 30 33. (10 38. 70 37. 02 31. 04 33 43 30 16 34. 7(1 30 62 30. 16 35 35 33. 10 20. 60 27. 52 26. 04 26. 0(1 31. 34 1016 .. 1017 ............ 1018................................ 1010 .................... 1020 ............................ 1021 ................. 1022 1023 ............................. 1024 ....................... 1025 .. .. 1026 ............................. 1027 .. .. 1026 1020 .. 1030 1031 1032 ........................ 1033 ....................... 1034 ............................. 1035 .......................... 1036 ........................ 1037................................. 1036 .. ............... 1030 ............................. 1040 ....................... 1041 . . ... 1042 .......................... 1043 .. 1044 .. 1045 ....................... 1046 .......................... 1047 ................................ 104X.................................. 1040.................................. 1050............................... 1051.......................................... 1052 ............................. 1053 133. 330 137. 242 142. 375 135, 862 179. 891 87. 475 160. 330 216. 804 208. 762 273. 522 278. 689 274. 798 273, 033 306. 055 242. 113 164. 297 122. 977 158. 367 155. 980 210.467 301. 287 410. 026 2S0. 793 364. 472 345, 581 477. 846 439. 460 467. 106 410. 265 466. 806 558. 1SI 661. 821 716. 769 574. 006 S(o. 344 073. 108 020, 339 011.226 $5, 182, 905 7, 198. 558 9, 019, 899 10,932,289 14,749,048 5, 199, 789 6. 053. 068 7, 364, 260 6, 561. 659 8, 976. 645 10,005,487 10,621,571 11,238,361 13,172,581 8. 390, 164 4, 812. 886 3, 039. 721 5.211. 177 4. 936, 326 7, 054. 614 9. 958. 183 14,505,791 12.800.195 15,859,212 15,620,000 21,468.840 22.663.2S3 23.169,505 20,610.516 22.S05.157 25,240.562 33,005.748 42.231,475 39,746,072 65,854,56$ 81,584,345 SO,254,913 56,052,805 838. 57 52. 45 63. 35 80 47 81. 90 59. 44 37. 75 33. 07 31. 37 32. 82 36. 22 ;-.8. 65 41. 16 43. 04 34. 65 ot| 24. 72 32. 00 31. 65 33. 52 33. 05 35 3> 44. 4s 43 51 45. 20 44. 1*3 51. 57 !<j. 5ii 411. lx 48. 84 45. 22 49. *7 5S. 92 69. 13 75. 23 53. 53 96. 04 94. 44 ; > I'-' s : - ' I ! ** X *"i. m k . Tl* v * \'t` tsi lu-trv r iiu km M,n Jour . Alls. 17. 1921. p. *51. Figure for lyU- of (** `j. \!:w lii 1 M ,rl* Hu < m -if Mini 1111:inin piiidiii tidii. .Johnsons Co., a pioneer |ii<iiIwi'it. 1ms o|)tTii t * *11 u mill for many years, and an additional new mill lias recently been et on [del ed. Canadian .lolms-Mati ville Corp.. Id.. operate- the largest asbestos mine and mill in the world at Asbestos. Other operators ill" Bell A-be-tnS MilleS. Xioolet AsbeStOS Mine-. Lid.. (Quebec Asbestos Corp., Ltd., and Klinikote Mine-. Ltd. The Dominion Asbestos ('. prodm ed. on a more or less experimental ba-i-, in its new mill near St. Adrian, Quebe<. dnrmj part of lii.Vj. but operation was sus pended at the end of the year for financial read justment. Continental Asbestos Co. operated for a short time only. Provincial Asbestos Co.. Ltd.. began production on a small scale in 1953. The rock was beinsr milled at the Continental Asbestos Co. plant. Extensive development work has been done on the United Asbestos Co. property, most of which underlies Black Lake. The work has been done by Lake Asbestos Co., a subsidiary of American Smelt- ins: & Refining Co.; and it was reported in 1954 that the former company had exercised its option to take over the property, erect a new mill, and drain the lake preparatory to open-pit operation. The Lafayette Asbestos Co., Ltd., successor to St. Lawrence Asbestos Co., Ltd., is planning development of its property in Cran berry '1 ownship. Dorchester County, Quebec. Development and exploratory worlc has been done on several other properties. The Canadian deposits occupy an exception ally favorable position, as they are within easy reueh of extensive markets in the United States. The Quebec industry doubtless will maintain its advantage indefinitely in the short-fiber market, because high freight charges on rela tively low-priced products discourage trans oceanic competition. For spinning, pipe, ami shingle fibers, however, the price per ton is high enough to provide a worldwide market range, and Canada must compete with Southern Rhodesia, South Africa, and Soviet Russia. ASARCO ALV 0005993 32 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY In tlio 1920's, when demand did not exceed supply, foreign eompet it ion post'd a serious throat to the Canadian spinning-fiber industry. About 1924 the industry took active steps to meet this competition )>v consolidating com panies and exercising economics in mining, manufacture, and marketing. Since then the industry has operated on n better competitive basis, particularly with establishment in 1931 of a uniform liber classification. The threatened inroads of foreign competition were obviated in the years following the late 1930's, when de mand gradually increased until it reached a point where all world sources were unable to meet it. Recognizing the trend toward wider use of the shorter fibers, shipping companies have recently reduced rates on these grades. Conse quently. the market range of the short fibers has been expanding. Asbestos deposits in Quebec are not confined to the productive area already discussed. The pre-Cambrian Grenville limestone in the Ottawa River Valley has been altered in places to dolomite and magnesite, and in some locali ties serpentine has been formed by reaction with magnesia- and silica-bearing" solutions that emanated from invading gahbros or other intrusive rocks. Locally the massive serpen- tint' is traversed by veins of cross-fiber chrvsotile similar to the occurrences in Arizona. Such veins have been found on lot 15. range IX. Grenville Township. Quebec, but their extent has not yet boon determined. . A few tons of asbestos were recovered in 1942 and 1943 in connection with the mining of refractory magnesite-dolomite rock near Kilmar." A similar deposit held by Eastern Asbestos C'o.. Ltd., occurs about 40 miles to the west. 24 miles from Buckingham, Papineau County. Some development work has been done in this area. One band of serpentine IS inches wide, vi-ible for a lentilh of 40 feet, shows veins of asbestos of the ribbon type \ to V inch wide. Another bund containing asbestos veins up to \ inch thick is said to be continuous for 250 feet. Further exploration is contemplated. A deposit of good-quality tremolite has been discovered in Quebec on the south side of the St. Lawrence River about 30 miles from Quebec City. Attempts were made in 1949 and 1950 to find a market for the fiber. It is said to be well suited for filter uses, but demands were too small to justify commercial operation. It was reported late in 1953 that asbestos had been discovered along the new Quebee-Labrador Railway. It is said to be crocidolite (blue asbestos). If so. it is the first discovery of this type of deposit in North America. A Canadian asbestos company is investigating its possi bilities. Ontario From 1916 to 1924, some interest was aroused in the development of an asbestos industry in Ontario. Small quantities of chrysotile have been obtained at two points in Doloro Town ship south of the gold-producing area of Porcu pine--the Slade-Forbes mine and the Bowman mine. Production was reported at intervals from 1917 to 1926. Thereafter there was no activity, except mining of test samples under option by prospective operators until 1950. when Taegana Alines, Ltd., Shumacher, On tario, reopened the Slade-Forbes mine and produced a small tonnage. In 1951 the prop erty was optioned to Van Packer Mines of Canada, Ltd., and some exploratory drilling was conducted. In 1935 considerable development work was done by the Rahn Lake Mines Corp., Ltd., of North Bay, Ontario, on a chrysotile deposit near Matachewan. Ontario, Bannockburn Township, about 30 miles southeast of Timmins in the Porcupine gold area. There has been no significant production. The most important recent event in the Ontario asbestos industry is development by the Jolms-Manville Corp. of a new prop erty--the Munro mine--12 miles east of Matheson, Munro Township, district of Coch rane, Ontario. The deposit is about 55 miles east of Timmins. The chrysotile asbestos occurs in cross-fiber veins in a nearly vertical serpentinized sill having a width of 500 to 900 feet. The sill is cut by later dikes and dis placed by cross faults. The veins have a maximum width of about 1 inch. It is an ticipated that the deposit will furnish consider able quantities of the longer Group 4 grades, but little or no fibers of spinning grade. Drilling indicates that fiber persists to a depth of several hundred feet. The rock is mined by open-pit methods. Initial milling capacity is 50 tons of rock per hour, with provisions for adding a second 50-ton-an-hour unit. Production began in April 1950. It is stated that much of the output will be used for asbestos-cement roducts. Development and operation of the lunro mine and mill have been described." Other prospective producers hold adjoining properties. The asbestos-bearing rock has been traced eastward to the Quebec boundary and may extend through several townships to the west. This deposit may prove to be an im portant supplementary source of asbestos, but 14 Dresser. John A., and DenK T, C.. Oeolnpy of Quebec: Province of Quebec. Dept, of Mines. Economic Oeolojrjr, vol. 3. ltH9. p. <56. Baker, R. D., Asbestos Production In Ontario: Western Miner and Oil Review (Vancouver, B.C.), vol. 26, No. 12, December 1953. pp.35-37. ASARCO ALV 0005994 DISTRIBUTION 33 il will probably furnish limited quantities of fibers loop enough for textile use. The geology of the area has been described in detail bv Hendry.M It was reported in 1953 that the Johns-Manville Corp. bad acquired an asbestos property in Reeves Township about SO miles west of Matheson. Extensive core drilling lias es tablished the presence of large reserves, but there is no immediate prospect of development. The Ontario occurrences have been described in a recent report." The following table, showing the history of Ontario production, was taken from this report. According to this report, Ontario has been a producer of actinolite. a variety of asbestos produced elsewhere in negligible quantities. From 1901 to 1934 a total production of 2.1ST tons was reported from a deposit in Kaladar Township. Lennox and Addington County. British Columbia Cassiar Asbestos Corp.. Ltd., subsidiary of Con-West Exploration Corp. of Toronto. Can ada. is developing a new asbestos deposit in northern British Columbia. The fiber-bearing rock occurs at an elevation of 6.000 feet on a spur of McDame Mountain and is deeply cov ered with talus containing 7 to 8 percent of ehrysotile fiber already opened by centuries of freezing and thawing. The appearance of the talus slope is shown in figure 8. The area is about 60 miles south of the Yukon TerritoryBritish Columbia boundary and about 70 miles from the Alaska Highway. The company estimates that nearly 6.000.000 tons of asbestosbearing rock containing 7 percent fiber of spin ning grade is already in sight. A mill having a capacity of 250 tons of rock a day was completed in 1952 and was in produe- H*nlry. N W.. Ehrysotile Asbestos in Munro and Really Town ship*. onurin r.inudun Mm and Met. Bull., vol. 5-1, WJ. pp I F . an*l :\ttter|y. J,, Asbestos in Ontario Ontario I Vpt. .f Mines, Industrial Minerals Cm. 1 trcW ed.i, April 19X3. 23 pp. and map*. tion by midsummer 1953. It is designed pri marily to process fiber from surface exposures. A larger mill to handle rock from underground workings was under construction in 1953 and 1954. Samples of the asbestos tested in the United States were found to be of good quality for textile use. It appears that the iron con tent of the processed fiber will be low enough to pass specifications for nonferrous fiber. Two properties in southern British Columbia have been acquired by Western Asbestos & Development, Ltd., a company formed in 1952. The Okanagan Falls property is on the east side of Lake Yaseaux, 6 miles from the Okana gan Highway. The deposit was discovered in 1910. and 10 opencuts were made by bulldozer in 1947. Further opencut exploration and prospect drilling were under way in 1953. The asbestos consists chiefly of antliophyllite lenses associated with serpentine. Short-fiber ehryso tile is reported in places. The deposit appears to be large. The second deposit, the Revelstoke property, is on Sproat Mountain 2 miles from the Revel stoke Highway and 21.' miles from the Canadian Pacific Railway. The asbestos is the ehrysotile variety, occurring in cross-fiber veins up to five-eighth inch long and also as slip fiber up to 5 inches long. A program of geologic map ping. trenching, and prospect drilling is planned.JS Newfoundland Several deposits of ehrysotile occur in the Lewis Brook area near the west coast of New foundland. Samples of the asbestos examined by the Bureau of Mines some years ago ap peared to be of good quality. Difficulty of access and poor transportation are probably the chief handicaps to development. How ever, it was reported in 1953 that Newfound land Asbestos. Ltd., was preparing for com- Stephens. Fred H,, Asbestos in Southern B. C.: Western Miner and Oil Review. vol. 26. No. 7, July 1953. pp. 44-46. Tabu: 6.--Chryxiitilf-axbfxtn* production in Ontario. Canada Y-ir Tout Value Mine Operator HH7. ___ 10 1*1-23. 6 1921. . . 172 lUg.'). ____ 2 ____ 14 1937. ____ 1 1*139. . . ____ 18 195U............. /26. 549 - - - \ 38 1952............. ____ 23,033 $2. 150 2. 600 91, 900 901 3. 925 250 720 1.493. 099 3. 766. 769 6. 300 3, 847, 853 Slade-Forbes*................ Bowman................... .. ......... do........................... ......... do......................... Kahn Lake................ .. Munro...................... .. . ...do......... .............. .. Slade-Forbes........... .. Munro............. ............. Slade-Forbes Asbestos Co. Bowman Asbe.*to> Mine*. Porcupine Asbestos Mining Svndicate. Do. Do. Rahn Lake Mines Corp., Ltd. Do. Canadian Johns-Manville, Ltd. Do. Taegana Mines, Ltd. Canadian Johns-Manvilie, Ltd. ASARCO ALV 0005995 DISTRIBUTION Tvblk 7.--Annual production of anbcxtos in Rhodesia. 1008-53 1 35 Y.\ir ton* V.iluo Yc-ir j*hort tons Vahio lnn* It* Id lull HU 3 1 `.II4 ) ii i :> 1 i! r> Hi 17. mis !!*!! I'.i'iu 1**21 J.fVl 1i 1 t*2.-i l I"27.. 1u2s. 1 rein 272 332 460 552 2. 722 3. 320 6. 307 2U0 4R7 2.010 6, 157 9, 562 8. 574 0, 70S IS. 823 10. 52S 14, 240 20, 364 26. 141 34. 340 33.344 33. 176 3`-. IKK) 42. 634 37. 765 5. 224 8. 612 32, 100 00. 050 180. 800 158. 684 425. 240 450. 572 705. 608 577, 600 626. 80S 603, 423 705. 021,' 726, 835 794. 215 070. 327 1. 186, 627 1.070. S47 Ki3I...................................................... 1032.......................................................... 1033.......................................................... 1034.......................................................... 1U35......................................................... 1936.......................................................... 1937.......................................................... 1938.......................................................... 1930.......................................................... 1040.......................................................... 1941.......................................................... 1042.......................................................... 1043.......................................................... 1044.......................................................... 1045................................................ 1946.......................................................... 1047.......................................................... 1048........................................... 1949........................................... 1950........................................... .. 1952........................................... 1053........................................... 24. 042 15,766 32,214 56.346 57,014 58,811 58,313 * 57. 801 44.134 55, 803 58, 146 58. 203 56. 293 55. 872 54.004 68. 807 70. 638 71.527 84. 834 87. 730 386. 404 107. 002 555. 003 402. 745 646. 658 836. 469 840, 025 1. 020. 921 1.088. 782 1. 410. 566 010. 041 1. 488. 052 1. 673. 025 1. 674, 467 1. 788. 386 1. 676. 503 1. 73S. 4M 2. 604. 623 3. 0S6. 703 4, 615. 400 5. 452. 108 6. 651. 075 6. 542. 731 | ........... il \ in s Ri. ,{f .,f \f .. Mmural Hi-'ourc*-' of th I'niu-I M !(> and Bureui Mm<*> Minerals Yearbook. iiiiilcd 1 >y gneissir granite. Cross- and slip- lilier eliry-ioii!e oceiin'enees of commercial size arc found only in masses of serpentinized <1 unite. The fiber is white, silky, and very flexible. Tin- formation dips 25s to 45 in the hill country and 5 to in3 in the flat area. It extends down the dip for an unknown dis tance. probably far below practical working depth. Filler veins attain a maximum of 6 inches in thickness, but the fibers are rarely uver 3 inches lone. Data on the geology of the area have been assembled by Badollel." The Shabani area is a prolific producer furnishing tons a month or more of com mercial fiber. The most valuable fibers are the CiV (i Nos. 1 and 2, produced chiefly in tile Birthday mine. 'Flic Croft mine at Filibttsi has attained some importance. For many years the district was handicapped -erioii'ly by difficult transportation;400 wagons and 7.0(10 oxen were used for conveying sup plies and products many miles over poor roads. In 192s this hindrance was overcome when a 03- inile railway from .Slmbani to Somabula was completed. In 10.') 1 steps were taken to finance a new company. Rhodesia Montcleo Asbestos. Ltd., a subsidiary of African A European Investment Co.. Ltd., of Johannesburg. The property involved is a 740-acre tract in the Yukwe Hills about 15 miles southeast of Shabani. The deposit consists of a steeply inclined zone of asbestos-bearing serpentine, 80 to 275 y H.flcIM. K.iy. `iiM.loev of IL-jkish in Southern Rhodrsu: Asb* \ <! 3-*.'No. 2. Aucust htfn. pp 4 b feet wide, lying between masses of granite. The fiber zone is said to have been traced for 5.000 feet along the strike. The asbestos is of the slip-fiber type. According to a published prospectus.31 surface exploration and prospect drilling have established a reserve of about 12,000.000 tons of fiber-bearing rock above the 400-foot level, yielding l!j to-2b percent as bestos. A high percentage of long fiber is in dicated. A mill with a capacity of 15.000 tons of rock a month has been built. It was in operation for a short time but was closed down late in 1955. It was reported that asbestos prices were too low to yield a profit. The Asbestos Mining & Supply Corp., Ltd., controls the Kloef mine adjacent to the Rhomanite mine of Rhodesian Monteleo. Ltd. It is developed with shafts and adits and is said to have large reserves. According to report, a pilot plant was in operation in 1953. The Johns-Manville Corp. of New York City, in cooperation with British Metals Corp. and other interests, has undertaken to develop two properties, the Temeraire and the Shamala. in the Mashaba district of Southern Rhodesia. One mill will handle the product of both deposits. A new subsidiary company, Rho desian Asbestos, Ltd., has been organized; and two additional properties, the Shashi and the Darwendale, have been acquired. Preparation was made during 1953 for production on a sub stantial scale. There are several small asbestos-producing mines in the Belingwe district south of Shabani, *: Rand Daily Mail. Johannesburg. *pt. 24.1951. ASARCO ALV 0005997 30 THE ASBESTOS IXnfSTRT among which arc the Vanguard. Associated Asliostos Mines, Ltd., and the Southern Rho desian Chrysotile Cor])., Lid. The latter opera tion furnishes some fiber equivalent to Canadian 3R. During 1951 the mine was producing at a rate of about 75 tons of fiber a month, hut late in the year a serious cave-in interrupted produc tion greatly.3-' The Masha ha district, 42 miles east of Shahani on the road to Fort Victoria, is a producer of a well-known commercial grade of asbestos. VRA. The principal mines are the Oath's and the King, 4 miles apart. They are owned bv Rhodesian A- General Asbestos Corp., Ltd. Historically they are the oldest producers. Mining was first undertaken about 1907. Pro duction rose from 2,010 tons in 1915 to 9,799 tons in 1919. and 1S.S23 in 1920. A small pro duction is obtained at times from the Ethel mine in tin- Lontaarundi district more than 200 miles north of Victoria. Samples of asbestos equivalent to Canadian OR or better have been obtained from the 14th and Kith levels of the Antelope gold mine in the Bulawayo district. No information is now available on the extent of the occurrences.33 About HO other mines or prospects have been listed, but production from them has been small. Most of them are in an area that includes Mashaba. Shabani. Belingwo. and Filabusi. The shortage of Rhodesian fiber entering the United States in 1951 stimulated more active development. The Economic Cooperation Ad ministration (ECAl, later succeeded by the Mutual Security Agency (MSA), gave assist ance in some instances. In 1929 all important mines were consolidated under a single company. Turner <.V Xewall. Ltd,, of Manchester, England. This company has controlled almost the entire output of asbestos in Southern Rhodesia since that time. Rhodesian asbestos is especially important for two reasons. First, the proportion of long fibers of strategic grade is relatively high. It has been estimated that 25 to 30 percent of the fiber produced may he classed as spinning grade, whereas only 4 to 6 percent of Canadian fiber is of this grade. The preponderance of long fiber in the tihabani area is. however, over emphasized on a percentage basis by the fact that there is an enormous market for Canadian short grades, whereas the shorter fibers are recovered in smaller quantity in Rhodesia because they cannot be shipped profitably to markets the chief of which are remote from the mines. The second reason for the outstanding importance of the Rhodesian asbestos is its content of easily removable iron. Thus, after " Data from B. C. Burgess, Defense Minerals Production Admin* lsimtton iDMTAt, Johannesburg, South Africa, n Set footnote 32. milling, the fiber is well adapted for electrical insulation uses. There is only a small local market for Rhodesian fiber. The product of the mines is exported, chief! v to Europe and America, by way of the port of Beira. Portuguese East Africa. The early history of the industry has been described.34 UNION or SOUTH AFRICA11 More kinds of asbestos are produced in the Union of South Africa than in any other country in the world. Blue asbestos (crocidolite) is produced in large quantities in the Cape of Good Hope; chrysotile and tremolite have been mined in small quantities in Natal; while four varieties--chrysotile, crocidolite, amosite, and anthophyllite--are mined in the Transvaal. Table 8 shows production by kinds. The output of amosite recorded in this table is exclusively from the Transvaal; the blue variety comes principally from the Cape Province, with smaller quantities from the Transvaal, while the chrvsotile originates chiefly in the Trans vaal. Table 9 shows production, by Provinces, from 1910 to 1953. The following descriptions of deposits may bo supplemented by consulting certain more de tailed South African reports.36 Cape of Good Hope The fiber resources of Cape Province are blue asbestos, which was first discovered between 1803 and 1806. The name "crocid olite'' ("woolly stone") was proposed by J. F. L. Hausrhann in 1831. The most exten sive deposits of crocidolite known in the world occur in Griqualand West, northern Cape of Good Hope, in a belt of banded ironstones of sedimentary origin extending from a point 20 miles soutH of the town of rrieska northward beyond the village of Kuruman to the borders of the Bechuanaland Protectorate. The max imum width is about 30 miles. The lavenderblue crocidolite occurs in interbedded cross-fiber veins that are widely distributed throughout the entire length of the belt. The asbestos is confined to the lower iron-rich third of the Griquatown formation. As the asbestos is derived from folded sediments with variable dip and strike, knowledge of the geology is essential to intelligent prospecting and develop ment. u South African Mining and Engineering Journal, The Rise of Rhode* sla\< Asbestos Industry: Vol. 52, part 1, No. 2531, Aug. 2, 1641. pp. m-m. Some of the Information herein was kindly furnished by the Geolc^l* cal Survey of the Union of South Africa. * Hall. A. L., Asbestos In the Union of South Africa: Union of South Africa Geol. Survey Mem. 12. 2d ed., 1630: Union of South Africa. Deportment of Mines. The Mineral Resources of the Union of South Africa. 1640, pp. 320-334. ASARCO AL.V 0005998 DISTRIBUTION 37 Tablk S.-- Asbestos product on in Vnion of South A frica. by kinds, 1026-53,' in short tons Vntr AmoMto frod'lolitf Chrysotile* Total year Amo'ite Crocidolite Chrysotile Total 1020................ 1027 102s ........... 1020 . ... ni:w ........... 11)31 . . 1932 ........... I`.133 ... . 1934 .... 1!I3.'> ........... 1936 ............. 1U37 ........... IU3S ........... 1939 ....... 2. 940 5. 0113 0. 7-IK 11. 2(10 3. 2S1 2. 087 1. 3!ll 3. 000 3. 757 -1. fist 4. 823 <i. 531 S. 7!>3 11. 200 4. 021 1. S73 5, 141 0. 030 5. 181 3, 651 2. 061 3, 225 2.811 2. 511 1. 204 5. 217 8. 810 10. 127 7. 133 12. 171 12. 162 17. 717 10. 510 0. 038 7, 715 0. 572 11. 025 15, 183 16. HO 16. 855 5, 573 612 11. 007 22, HO 21, 051 33, 037 10. 281 15. 676 12,070 15. 887 17. 503 22. 708 25, 236 28. 633 23. 176 22. 038 1910........... 1911........... 1942........... 1913........... 1944........... 1945........... 1946........... 1947........... 1948........... 1940........... 1050........... 1951........... 1052........... 1953............ 17, 767 19, 211 24. 924 23, 189 22, 848 16, 737 9, 838 18. 780 30, 372 41. 974 42. 393 54. 053 63. 280 38, 258 8, 901 4, 352 7, 641 10, 344 9, 666 9, 671 8, 691 9, 079 10, 909 21. 180 30. 598 33, 659 44, 735 37, 707 646 1, 658 1,917 2, 034 2, 014 1, 765 1,666 2. 253 4. 441 7. 600 14.334 19, 509 24. 070 18. 840 27,314 28, 221 34, 482 35, 567 34, 528 28, 173 20, 195 30, 112 45, 722 70, 763 87, 325 107. 221 132. `.185 94, 805 < I)Jtu front Bur. .u; **f Miiir. Mmcr.i* Ri'houre*'* "f iIn* 1 lilted Stall* and Mineral^ Yearbook A small output of anthophylhtc is omitted. T.\m.K 9.--Asbistos production in I'nion of South Africa, by Provinces. 1010-53. in short tons1 v. * ,'*ir Ca\"' pr(>VHUV Transvaal Total Y,,ar Province Tranraal Toni 1010 3.. ................................ .. .. 1 `.11 *2 1013 .. loll . ... , . 1015 . inm . l`H7 .................... ........................... 101V . 1010 r.2n . ............................. .. .. 1021 1022 1023 l``2l .. .. .. in2i 1027 . I'J-JX mo.i .............................. 103" . ................................ 1 93 .. ................................. fifio 1.25-1 1.217 038 1.160 2.083 4. 22.8 2. `.Mill 3.204 3.526 3. 467 2. 991 4.317 3.001 2.540 3. 993 4. .827 5.07S 6 030 5.481 3.651 10 30 56 407 3. 103 631 3, 541 1. 503 1.302 4. 076 4. 240 7. 628 10. 104 17.313 18.076 26 OS-4 13. 800 12. 025 3 693 1 1. 267 3 1. 220 3 062 1. 100 2. 130 3 4. 656 6. 220 3. 674 3 3. 933 3 7. 112 3 5. 122 3 4. 380 8. 303 7. 241 10. 168 14, 007 22. HO 24. 054 3 33. 037 10. 281 1032.. .................................... 1033. .................................... 1934.. .................................... 1935.. 1936.. ................................... 1037.. 1938.. ................................... 1930.. .................................... 1940. .................................... 1041 . 1942. .................................... 1943. 1944. .................................... 1945.. 1946.. .................................... 1947. 1948. .................................... MM9. . .................................... 1050. 1951 1052.. 1053.. .................................... 2, 964 3.225 2.810 4.048 6.484 5. 144 6.381 7,281 7.835 7.589 8.301 11.999 20, 883 9. 106 12. 662 14, 783 20. 167 21. 188 23. 921 16, 505 15. 827 21.011 21. 704 27, 27S 27. 768 26. 747 20.016 12. 636 21. 959 37. 434 58. 918 72. 203 89. 290 109, 398 73, 934 12. 070 17. 593 22. 70S 3 25. 236 3 28. 633 3 23. 170 3 22. 03s 27. 302 28. 2.80 34. 550 35. 656 34. 582 28. 216 20, 225 30. 142 45, 735 70. 017 87. 414 107. 3HS 133. 839 04. 817 F.J'J" * f*.r fl,, .* I,-`!** lathi*!** from a**h'io in the Ohio i of south Africa' Onion of South Africa Geol. Surrey Mem. 12.1918 p. IH. fieuri'j for ld'-Vi from of Mini-5 'includes small 'pnnttth'S >i( anthophyllue for some yearvi. pro-Ju non in Natal. Tin- fillers range in length from less than inch to 2 inches or more hut rarely exceed 4 inches. The proportion of spinning fiber is higher than that usually found in chrysotile deposits. Cape blue works up easily into a muss of fibers that are flexible and resilient and have a silky feel. Its tensile strength is generally greater than that of chrysotile, and it is also more resistant to acids and sea water. It is used principally in filter cloth, boiler mattresses, packings, gaskets, and as bestos-cement pipe. A highly silicified. pale brown, semiprecious variety, known as "tiger-eye" or "cat's-eye." occurs in the Hay district. The lighter color varieties are obtainable in slabs 9 to 12 inches long and the darker kinds in pieces only j to "i inch across. In 1935, 9,000 pounds of "tiger-eye" was marketed. In general, the region is arid, with limited water supplies. Transportation is also diffi cult; some workings are as much as 130 miles from the nearest railway. The Cape Asbestos Co. undertook active mining north of Prieska in 1893 and in 1929 was operating 13 mines. During 1951 quite a number of nomad prospectors and diggers operated in the asbestos belt, but the principal producers were the Cape Blue Mines of South Africa Pty., Ltd., a subsidiary of Cape ASARCO ALV 0005999 3X THE ASBESTOS INIK'STRY Asbestos C'o.. Ltd., and the Griqualand Ex ploration & Finance Co.. Ltd. Turner & Xewall. Lid., has acquired considerable interest in the asbestos hell. Griqtialand Explora tion & Finance Co.. Ltd., produces blue fiber from two mines, each having a mill, in the Kuruman district. Ktiruntan Cape Blue As bestos Pty., Ltd., also operates a mine and mill. The output for many years up to 19-47 teas 7.000 to 10.000 tons annually, but since then it has increased remarkably and exceeded 24.000 tons in 1952. The new Riley Bridge over the Orange River at Koegns. completed in 1952. will greatly facilitate transportation and stimulate increasing production of blue a.-be-los. Transvaal Chrysotile.--Cnnilinii ilixtrict.--Asbestos was first produced in theTransvanl about 1905 from a ilepo'it of chrysotile 20 to 25 utiles east of Carolina. In origin and occurrence it is simi lar to that found in Arizona. Cross-fiber veins occupy a 5-fnot zone of altered dolomite over- Ivins: a diabase sill. The veins parallel the bedding, which dips to 15 northwest. Mines have been operated at various times, but production has never been large. A -i-eond depo-it of chrysotile in the Carolina di-triri occurs on the farm Kalkloof. 3 miles -ontli of tie- Komati River and 47 miles by road from < arolina. Thi- occurrence is of the usual type - cm--filter vein- in serpentine derived from ultrabasic igneous rock. The liber occurs in mativ clo-ely spaced, parallel, thin seams inclined at a -icep angle. The asbestos is of coed quality, but .1 Inrun proportion of it is -i.ort null liber. Evidently reserves are ex- ti.-i\ e. A mill was in operation in 1929. but production ha- been -mail. IIni hi Hun ili-lrn'l. -- In 19)V> Hall3, directed attention to a ehry-otile deposit near Barberton tti ca-tern Trau-vaal, but it was not developed -criously until after 1921. The deposit occurs in :i lull iif serpentine bounded by quartzites lung about :> mile- from Kuapsehe Hoop and 14 to 17 miles by road from Godwin River -tation. The a-die-tos-hcaring portion of the -orpoii!inc has been traced for a length of 1J and a width of 2 miles. Further exploration may extend its boundaries considerably. Under ground mine.- have been developed extensively near both the eastern and western ends of a 2-mile zone. The Xew Amianthus Mines. Ltd. (subsidiary of Turner & Xewall. Ltd.), operated near the western end. This deposit proved to be un usually rich. In 1950 the average recovery was Hall. \ I.. AsIh-sIm* hi tin* i`m<m <f 5outh Africa l*nion of South Africa i Mii] Mirv*y M*u. u. p V.i. 15 to 17 percent of the rock mined, and monthly output averaged about 1.000 tons of fiber. Un fortunately, tlie reserves proved to be too small to sustain production for more than a few years, and by the late 1930's the mine was said to be nearly worked out. However, it was reopened in the early 1950's by Audax Asbestos Holdings. The Munnik-Myburgh mine occupies the eastern end of the serpentine area. Mining was begun about 1920, and in 1930 monthly pro duction averaged about 200 short tons of chrys otile fiber. This mine also became inactive: it is claimed that suspension of operations was due to flooding and collapse as a result of heavy rainfall. In 1950 the property was leased by Afriean & European Investment Co., Ltd., of Johannesburg, and active measures were taken to reopen the mine. The corporate name of the operator is Munnik-Myburgh Chrysotile As bestos. Ltd. Reserves are said to be extensive. The company claims to have four parallel reefs, known as Munnik line. Griffin line. Smithy line, and Jones line. Recent development work has been principally in the Munnik line. The other belts are yet to be explored. Treatment in a pilot mill of rock from the reopened mine is said to show a fiber recovery of 10 percent of rock milled. A new mill with a monthly ca pacity of 3.000 tons of rock has been completed. Late in 1950 the underground workings had been developed enough to furnish 4.000 to 5,000 tons of asbestos-bearing rook a month. The liber will be shipped from Xeilsprutt Station. 10 miles from the mine, with a direct rail line to the port of Lourenqo Marques. The Staltzburg Asbestos t('hrysotilei Hold ings. Ltd. (successor to Staltzburg Asbestos Co.. Ltd.), and the Doyershoek Asbestos Mine. Ltd., are close together about 19 miles southwest of Barberton. The former company produced at a rate of 3.000 to 5.000 tons a year since 1950. The Doyershoek property, situated on a 2.500aere tract, is said to contain large chrysotileasbestos reserves. A mill, which was' being remodeled in 1951. has produced a moderate tonnage, chiefly 4Z. according to Canadian classification. Mining has been conducted in three underground levels and in an open pit. Extraction is said to be about 2 percent of the rock mined. Barberton Chrysotile Asbestos. Ltd., began operation in 1947 about 30 miles northeast of Barberton. The company has a mill that can produce about 200 tons of processed fiber a mouth. African Chrysotile Asbestos, Ltd., a sub sidiary of Msauli Asbestos Mining & Explora tion Co.. Ltd., has become an important pro ducer. From 300 to 500 tons of processed fiber a month is prepared at the property, which is about 17 miles south of Barberton. Renova- ASARCO ALV 0006000 DISTRIBUTION 39 (ion of the mill and addition of improved equip ment were reported in progress in 1952.3" Sev eral other eompanies operate in the Barberton area. " Amosite.--The only commercial deposits of mnosite known in the world oeeur in the Trans vaal. As indieated in the introductory part of this report, amosite does not appear to be a separate mineral species, but it has enough distinctive qualities to justify its continued consideration as a commercial type. The amosite belt extends from just south of the confluence of the Olifants and Steelpoort Rivers northwestward along the basin of the former river to a point near its junction with the MTIilapitri River, and thence westward to ('huniespoort. The asbestos occurs in cross-fiber veins as sociated with diabase sills in a series of shales, slates, and quartzites that dip about IS0. The depth to which the asbestos veins persist down dip has not been determined. The strike of the rock parallel:- the Olifants River: accordingly, tin' tributaries of the river cut across the strike and create favorable conditions for driving strike adits along the fiber veins. The most prolific source of amosite is a group of mines near Rcnge 05 miles north of Lydenburg. These mines are controlled by Egnep. Ltd., a subsidiary of Cape Asbestos Co.. Ltd. Amosite is the only asbestos present in this area, usually referred to as the Lydenburg field. The relatively undisturbed nature of the bunded iron-tones in this region has permitted sys tematic mining and preparation of a fairly uniform product. That pun of the belt north of the Olifants Rhi-r i- known as the Pietcrsburg field, where many .-.mailer mines are worked. In this field both atno-ite anil croeidolite are present as cro---fiber veins in banded ironstones, which are intensely and intricately folded. Amosite occurs alone in certain horizons, but croeidolite i- usually accompanied by amosite. either in contiguous parallel seams or mixed within a >ingle -cam. ( Tocidoltte i- a 1~<> mined in the same geo logical formation in the Warmbatbs and RiMeiiburg districts near the iron-ore mine at Thaba/.imlii. The urdicstos at Penge occurs ill three bands. The I'pper band is 42 inches thick; 14 percent is nsbe-tos. Below it is 72 indies of waste rock, beneath which is the Main band. 00 inches thick, about 25 percent of which is asbestos. A band of waste rock 108 inches thick lies below it. and beneath is the Lower bund. 50 inches thick. 11 percent of which is amosite fiber. The bands are mined sepa- lu( irtiu5t'n (mm B (\ Burgess.DMPA, Johannesburg, Union of South A(ru-.i. ratel.v, and the fiber from each has distinctive properties. There are four mines along the outcrop. The Amosa and Penge mines are adjacent to each other at the town of Penge. The main milling facilities are at these mines. The Kremellanboog mine is about 8 miles to the southeast along the strike, and the Malips mine is 25 miles northwest of Penge. Each mine lias its own milling and housing facilities. Many smaller mines are also worked. Much of the fiber is 6 inches or more in length, is of strategic importance, and is in strong demand. Output has increased greatly, exceeding 42.000 tons in 1950. Renewed interest has appeared in the as bestos known as "montasite." This is not a new term; the variety was described by Hall3,1 more than 20 years ago as follows: The term "montasite" has recently been registered as a trade name to denote a fiber of very superior qual ity found in the Montana mine of the Pietersbure field. Its mode of occurrence in the banded ironstones,"phys ical characters, and chemical composition shim- that monta-ite is identical with amosite, of which it repre sents merely a very finely fibrous variety: thoroughly fihertzed inonta-iie has a very beautiful almost white appearance, and is liable, on'cursory examination, to be mistaken for chrysotile. The term has recently been applied to the product of several mines in the L'nion of South Africa. Some samples named montasite sent to the Bureau of Mines were identified as amositc. The term "montanosite'' has also been used. Croeidolite.--Occurs in the western part of the amosite belt, a region designated as the Petersburg district. It is associated closely with amosite. and both varieties are obtained from some of the workings. The blue asbestos is obtained chiefly from open pits near and east of the Malips River. The maximum length of fiber is about 3 inches. The deposits are con fined to the lower part of the Pretoria series, where the fiber occurs in banded ironstones. "Transvaal blue" differs mainly from "Cape blue" in that it usually contains minute mag netite crystals which cut the filters. Further more. it fiberizes less readily than the Cape material. In general, therefore. Cape blue is preferred; but improved milling methods are gradually overcoming the difficulties, and a substantial market has been established. The remarkable increase b production to 17.350 tons in 1952 justifies a statistical record of the industry during recent years. Table 10 shows production from 1936 to 1952. Production of Cape blue is shown in table 9 b the column** ** HaH. A. L., Asbestos in the Union of South Africa: Union of South Africa, Dept, of Mines and Industries. Geo). Survey, Mem. 12. iui. P- 2". ASARCO ALV 0006001 40 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY headed "Cape Province" because tin's is the only type of asbestos produced in that area. T\hi.k ]0.--('rucithili!< i>nnlurlniit in Transvaal, 19-><1-52 1 Y ur Short tmi< Yvitr Short tons l'.i.m.. . . lIi'.fctsir ... ...... 11U9431!I). .. . .............. 1 !M t .. 1942... 1944..... .............. .. . . ... 253U5I 2.326 32..592s03 370700 2,456 I. 831 1945........................ 1lilI-MIK7...................... 11995410).......................... l1i1l).5i2l.......................... 1,471 1, s1i0te2 2, 608 15SI,, 3L8S7I 18,078 17, 356 Rup-i'i Mill"' MhmtjI' Y'U^vtk. Anthophyllife.--Occurs in the Zoutpansherg district, 50 miles west of Waterpoort Sid ing. The fibrous structure has evidently been developed under the. influence of weathering, therefore the persistence of usable fiber at depth is doubtful. Production has never been large: since 1939 it has ranged from 12 to S9 tons a year. Natal The most important asbestos deposit in Xatal is in the Tusrela River Valley east of Kranz Kop. Zululaml. Chrysotile asbestos occurs here in vertical cross-fiber veins near contacts of aplite dikes with green serpentine. Production has been insignificant. Tromolitc occurs near Pomeroy. Zululaml. SWAZILAND Development work was begun in 1937 on an important deposit of chrysotile asbestos in an area in Swaziland close to the Transvaal border. The asbestos occurs in cross-fiber veins in a mass of green serpentine lying bet ween a banded chert and a dark, barren serpentine conforming in dip and strike with the sediments. 'I'lie fiber-bearing rock, which dips 40 to 00 south, ha- an average width of about 110 feet. The Havelock mine, operated by Xew Amian thus Mines. Ltd., a subsidiary of Turner <k Xewull, Ltd., began production in June 1939. The mine is connected with the railroad at Barberton by means of an overhead cableway 12.G miles iong. As indicated in table 11, showing production since operation was begun, the Havelock mine has become one of the world's major producers. It was reported in 1952 that a new operator, the Msauli Asbestos Co., was mining a property adjacent to the Havelock mine. The company estimates that it has reserves of 2,000.000 tons of rock carrying 5 percent asbestos fiber. The milled asbestos is sold as Grade 4. Table 11.--Asbestos production in Swaziland. 1939-53 1 Year ^ Short tons j Year Short tons 1030............ 1040................ _____ 1041............... _____ 1042................ 1943................ _____ 1044................ _____ 1045............... 1946................ .... 20.804 21.127 18.937 32.650 32,138 1047 ........................ 1048........................... 1949........................... 1950........................... 1951........................... 1952........................... 1053 27, 055 32. 43! 33. SI67 32. 067 34. 964 34. 760 30. 103 Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbook. SMALL PRODUCERS IK RHODESIA AMD THE UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA The major output of asbestos in South Africa is in the hands of strong, well-organized firms that operate efficient mines and mills. There are. in addition, numerous small producers that sell their output chiefly through brokers in Johannesburg. Their mining operations, particularly in the amosite and blue asbestos fields, are usually crude, consisting of surface workings confined to depths of not more than 12 or 14 feet to avoid caving. Timbering, which would be required at greater depths, would automatically bring the operations un der the restrictions of the South African mining laws. Accordingly, the asbestos obtained con sists chiefly of near-surface material generally inferior to that obtained at depth. Milling processes are generally less efficient than those at the larger mines. The small producers in Southern Rhodesia and the L'nion of South Africa were having difficulty in marketing their asbestos in 1953. Supply had caught up with demand to such an extent that buyers became selective, and the tendency to buy on tighter specifications reacted most keenly upon the smaller producers that lack facilities for ef ficient milling. SOVIET RUSSIA Before World War I. Russia ranked next to Canada as an asbestos-producing country. During the revolutionary period the industry was almost at a standstill, but later it revived on an extensive scale. Table 12 shows produc tion from 1913 to 1938. Xo definite production figures since 1938 are available. The great increase after 1929 did not affect world markets greatlv, because increasingly large quantities were being used within the country. Accord ing to report,*0 the percentage of Russian Economic Review of the Soviet Union. Oct 1-5. 1932. p. 365. asarco alv DISTRIBUTION 41 asbestos exported dropped from 51.1 in 1922-2.3 to only 20.5 in 1931. This condition reflected rapid expansion in the manufacture of asbestos products in Soviet Russia. It is probable that tho lotip. higher priced fibers were exported in larger quantities than the short fibers. In 195-4 Russian asbestos was being exported to several European countries under tratio agree ments. Table 12.--jinuh/rtiou in Snrift /:;<!, 1U13-3U 1 Yiur V tnr tm% Year Metric tons 1*M3 ... l'.iM.. . _____ 1915.. I!U It . I'.n: tut- . 1!'!!). . 1920.. 1021. . 1922.. 1!*23.. . 1924... lir>5,. . 1 -.. 17,4`U 15.69] 9.779 8. 192 () Pi I. 478 2. 604 3.215 3 4. 7m> 3 s. 4oti 3 12.33U i 1 v 334 1927. ............... J<I2S ... 19211.. 1 ',130. , 1931 . 1932. ........ 1933................... 1934................... 1935.. 1930. 1937. 193S 1939.. 3 21. 1 ofi 3 26. 492 3 29. 520 54. 0S3 64. 074 59.800 71,700 92.500 95. 500 125. 117 125. 000 86. 000 (*) Kcohnj:)'< ft* % k-m ***}- iM' inn in-1 nt her sources. f .ttj ti > 45 ti! M- V. r *m..1-.i 'pi ` V; * i-iT iy;4`*' mi The asbestos region providing the major part of Russian production comprise.- what is known, as the Uajeiiova district in the Urals. Prin cipal production is at Asbest. about 90 kiloni- eicrs northeast of Sverdlovsk (Ekaterinburg). Minor production in this district is obtained from the AJajwevsk area in the north and the Xeviansk area in the northwest. The largest mine in the latter is the Kramouralsk. At Asbest in the Bajenova district, where the asbestos industry is now centered, 20 or more open pits are worked. They have been under control of the State since 1918 and were oper ated by the Uralasltcst Trust for some years following 1921. Asbestos was first discovered here about 1710. and systematic development under direction of Baron Girard was begun in Iss.'i. The asbestos-hearing serpentinized in trusion is alaiut 21 kilometers long and 200 to 1,2ou meters wide. It consists of peridotites. which are Itounded by schist or slate on the west ami by granite on the east. The asbestos is confined to ellipsoidal musses of serpentine, some of which attain a length of 3.500 feet and a width of 1,000. The highest percentage of asbestos is found in the central parts of those masses. The cross-fiber veins generally run nortli and south, with a vertical dip. iilip fiber appears in places. Russian asbestos usually is regarded as being higher in iron than the Canadian fiber, but Rukeyser41 has pointed out that Canadian asbestos is high in ferric iron, whereas in the Russian fiber ferrous iron predominates. This probably accounts for the greater discoloration of the Ural asbestos upon weathering. Russian asbestos deposits have a comparatively shallow overburden and are therefore weathered quite extensively, which may explain the somewhat harsher and less silky condition of the fiber compared with the Canadian. Asbestos occurring below the 50foot level more nearly resembles that obtained in Quebec. _ Although the percentage of spin ning fiber in the Russian deposits is a little higher than that in the Canadian, the percent age of total commercial fiber is about the same. There are three major groups of mines in this district. The most northerly, known as the "Proletariat," produces shorts almost exclu sively. The two major producing groups are the October (central) and the Ilvinski (southern). Outside the Bajenova district, the only not able production has been from Minusinsk, on the Yenisei River in eastern Siberia near the Mongolian border. Here the deposits, said to be of the same general character as those of Arizona, have been worked in a small way. a production of 1.490 tons being reported in 1905. Asbestos also occurs in serpentine in various parts of the Altai Mountains southwest of Minusinsk. A chrysotile asbestos deposit on the Laba River in the Maikop district of the Caucasus, about 98 kilometers from a railway, has been described.42 The mineral occurs in veins in serpentine which have been intruded by granite. In general, the fibers range in length from 2 to 7 mm., with a maximum of 25 mm. (10 inches). The asbestos is said to be of good quality, but the reserves are not extensive. The deposit was worked in a small wav in the 1930 s. A small output was reported from the Katun River district from 1907 to 1909. Chrysotile has been reported in other parts of Russia, as follows: In a peridotite-serpentine belt in the Province of Transbaikalia, southern Siberia; on the upper course of the Yenisei River in the far north; near the source of the Kuban River east of the Crimea; and in Turkestan. i Rukeyser. Walter A.. Chrysotile AshestoMn thr Bajenova District, V. S. $. R.: Ene. and Min. Jour.. August 193J. p. 336. Taiarlnov. P.. (The Laba (Bedeni Deposit of Chrysotile Asbestos tn the North Caucasus): Neues Jahrb. Mineral. Geol., Referate II, 1930. pp. 24&-2S0. 332G1I* *--35--4 ASARCO ALV 0006003 42 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY LESS IMPORTANT COUNTRIES NORTH AMERICA Mexico Chrysotile asbestos occurs in a licit of ser pentine about (i miles long anti with a maximum width of one-fourth mile, situated about 11 mih'S west of Victoria, a short distance north of Monterrey in the State of Xeuvo Leon. Samples received by the Bureau of Mines in 1942 contained veins consisting of fibers of spin ning length and apparently of {rood quality. The nsboMos is concentrated chiefly in (he footnail side of the serpentine belt, where it occurs in bands of rock ranging in width from a few inches to 7 or S feel, half of which consists of asbestos in places. The cross-fiber veins gen erally do not exceed s, inch in width, and most of them are `it to b inch wide. Slip fiber up to .7 inches I0115: appears in a faulted foolwall zone. Small stringers of asbestos occur throughout the entire width of the serpentine belt. Tin- quality of the asbestos is high enough to merit investigation. Some development work was reported in 1943. but no subsequent information has appeared. A sample of mountain cork--a variety of spongy, matted amphibole asbestos--from an undeveloped deposit near San Luis Potosi was sent to the Bureau of Mines in 1931. Asbestos has been reported front the State of Puebla. SOUTH AMERICA Argentina Deposits of asbestos are reported at Alta Gracia, Cordoba: Sierra de la Cortadera. Mendoza; Kiambala, Catamarca: and in the Provinces of San Luis and San Juan. The fiber is said to be too short for spinning or weaving. Annual production from 1939 to 194.7 ranged from 51 to 349 tons. Figures for output since 194.7 are not available. Bolivia Bolivia has the distinction of possessing the only known commercial deposits of erocidolitc (blue asbestos) in the Western Hemisphere. They have been mined in a small way for many years. The deposits art' about 200 kilometers northeast of Cochabamba in the Province of Chapere, Department of Cochabamba. The asbestos veins range from b to 30 cm. (12 inches.! in width. Thev dip about 45, the same ns the associated shale. The veins are fairly close together in places; G veins have been found in a cut 1 meter wide. The deposits have been described by Gumucio." The fol lowing chemical analyses (tabic 13) of the fiber appear in this report. Table 13.--Analyxrx nf Bnlirian blue parent ; Crooiiloliti* No. I. he j i NCoV.ocM2.nll2tpd 1 cUss 1 elas SiOj.... TiO-.. AIM).. FcjO,. YvO. Mnt). Mn Cad.. Nag).. K.O-. H.O.. ....................j ....................! ............ 1 ................... ' .................. ....................... ......................... ....................... ................ ......................... ....................... Tolal.. ......................... 5-1. OS . 04 ; 2. 90 : 14. 50 6.85 .08 11.72 2. 10 5.55 .40 1. RO 100.02 . 54. 50 Trace 3. 12 15. 10 7. 15 .06 II. 50 1. 02 4. SO . 22 2. 83 100. 09 The fiber-vein area is evidently very extensive. The asbestos fibers are weaker than the African or Australian blue, but the ma terial is in demand for certain important uses, particularly as a filter medium for gas masks. Development work during 1950 uncovered fiber ol much greater strength and flexibility than any found heretofore. Conditions for production are unfavorable. Transportation is over a road 210 kilometers long. 00 of which is liable to traffic interruption during the rainy season. Development work is not extensive, and very little mechanical equipment is avail able. A 6-month rainy season (November to April) hampers operations. Production during recent years has ranged from 13 to 405 metric tons annually. Brazil According to information assembled by the Foreign Minerals Region of the Bureau of Mines an important asbestos deposit in Brazil is at Djalma Dutra (formerly Pocoes) in the State of Bahia. It is mined by S. A. Minerasfio de Ainianto. and the milled product is shipped to Sao Paulo for manufacture of asbestos prod ucts, such ns pipe covering and roofing shingles. Daily mill eapaeitv in 1944 was said to he lb tons of fiber. The asbestos is a slip-fiber chrvsotile occurring in ropelike masses up to several inches in length. The fibers are some what weaker than Canadian asbestos, and al though they are long, they are not well adapted for textile use. Indicated reserves are esti- (lumupK.. Julio Y,, Mpxnrmmiuni s*hrr los yaclii't* nti< ! .i*U st di Minoru ituii\utu. vol.fi. No. 44. Mj> -Jutir iitfy. |*|.U. asarco ALV 0006004 DISTRIBUTION 43 mated at 4.fi0n.000 tons of rook containing 2.5 percent filter designated ns Class 3. A deposit at Piabas, municipality of Queimadas, about 240 kilometers northwest of Salvador. State of Bahia, was reported in 1939. Analysis indicates that the fiber is ehrysotile.44 The Foreign Minerals Region of the Bureau of Mines has also obtained information relating to the Correigo de Viriato asbestos mine north of Itabirn do Cnmpo and about 20 miles by road south of Nova Lima. State of Minns Gerais. It is owned by the St. John del Roy Mining Co., which also operates gold mines at and near Nova Lima. Chrysotile of spinning quality (fibers h to \ inch long) occurs in cross fiber veins in serpentine. Locally the rock contains 2.5 to 3 percent fiber. Reserves are reported as large but unmeasured. A processing plant is equipped with screens and air separators to produce six grades of asbestos, which normally are shipped to Sao Paulo. Spinning fibers are obtainable: but. as no local market exists for long fibers, they are used for non spinning purposes. Samples of the filler ex amined by the Bureau of Mines were strong and flexible and apparently of excellent quality for textile use. Tlie plant has been inactive since late in 1949. Negotiations were underway in 1951 and 1952 for a United States firm to take over operation of the property, chiefly for recovering the high-grade spinning fibers for export to the United States. It uas reported in 1952 that-there is another a.-lie-tos occurrence on the opposite side of ilia mountain not many miles from the Viriato mine. 'Phis is an undeveloped deposit, but it is claimed that the proportion of spinning fiber is higher than in the mini1 now worked. A report appeared in 1942 to the effect that an asbestos-eetiieut-protlucts plant was to be built in the State of Minas Gerais, near an a-bestos deposit about to be developed. Data mi ihe location and extent of the deposit have not appeared. A sample of the asbestos was identified by the Federal Geological Survey as anihophyllite. The fibers of the sample sub mitted were unusually strong and flexible for this type of asbestos. No record of progress on till' project has appeared. A-bcMos of unstated quality has been pro duced near Governador Valudarcs. Minas Gerais. An amphibolc asbestos deposit has been reported near Rio Branco, .State of Per nambuco. In 1947 it was reported that a deposit of high-quality asbestos had been located near Jinizciro, a town at the northern boundary of the State of Bahia. Deposits are known also in Goias, Rio Grande do Sul. Sao Paulo, State, of Rio de Janeiro, Paraiba, Rio liunnu of Mines, Mineral Trade Notes: Vol. 0, No. 5. November !93V.p l|. Grande do Norte, and Ceara. They are un developed and of doubtful value. Production in Brazil during recent years is indicated in table 14. Table 14.--Anbextns production in Brazil, 1938-53 Year Metric tons Year Metric tons 1038..................... 1030 ................ 1040...................... 1041...................... 1042...................... 1043...................... 1044 _____ 1045...................... 120 45 500 i 13 185 966 459 2, 723 1046................ 1047................... 1948 1940................... 1950................... 1051................... 1952................... 1953................... 1 Exports. - Produced in Bahia only Incomplete figure/. 1,214 2. 631 1, 499 lj 415 844 1,321 2 720 2 720 Chile Several asbestos deposits have been reported in southern Chile. According to an article.45 deposits have heen developed to a limited extent at Hualane. Curico Province, and Gorbea. Cautin Province. Analyses given in the article indicate that these consist of amphibole fibers. Another deposit is 9 miles north of the port of Corrall. Valdivia Province, near the extreme south of Chile. Here the asbestos occurs in irregular veins in serpentine. A fiber length of 3 inches is mentioned. The reserves are said to be large. Both the rock association and the chemical composition given in the article indicate that the fiber is chrysotile. Very little development work had been done when this report was written in 1944. Chile has produced asbestos in a small way for several years. Front 1945 to 1950 produc tion ranged from 150 to 440 metric tons a year. There is only one plant in operation, and it produces amphibolc fiber, but the location for the mine and mill has not been determined. Colombia It was reported in 1949 that asbestos deposits at Varumal and Antioquia. State of Antioquia. were being explored. One of these deposits may be the same as that described by Singewald.41' He states that a deposit at Morro Norizal, State of Antioquia. was examined in 1944. Nine outcrops that were examined exposed an area of about 49 square meters of rock having a fiber content of 0.S1 percent, about two-fifths of which consisted of fibers over 2 cm. long. p."11En, gineering and Mining Journal, vol. 145, No. 10, October Pm. ** Sineeurald. Quint in !>., Mineral Hesourcesof Colombia (Other Than Petroleum): Geol. ur\ey Bull.964-B, 1949. pp.67-88. ASARCO ALV 0006005 44 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY Other scattered deposits appeared nearby. The asbestos is a ehrvsotile occurring in cross-filter veins in serpentine, but the deposit is described as probably smnll and lean. During 1951 samples of asbestos that appeared to bo of good quality were obtained from a deposit at Neira, near Maniznles. State of ('aides. An official of Emergency Procurement Service examined this deposit. Samples submitted to the Bureau of Mines for examination were found to consist in part of ehrvsotile and in part of nemalite. which is fibrous brueite (MgOH). The latter fibers would appear to have little commercial value. Some of the ehrvsotile fibers are long, but most of them are low in textile strength. All of the asbestos is of the slip-fiber type. No esti mate of reserves is available. According to report.4: active measures were being taken in 1951 to develop a chrvsotileasbestos deposit in the vicinity of Yarumal or Yaldevia. which may be one of the deposits already mentioned. The Institute de Fomento Industrial, in cooperation with Eternit Colom bia. and the .lohns-Manville Corp., conducted studies and explorations of these deposits, but no steps have been taken to develop them. Peru Samples of ehrvsotile of good strength and flexibility were received by the Bureau of Mines in MM2 from a deposit reported to be in the Department of .bmin on the eastern slope of the Andes. No further in(ommiion has appeared. Venezuela Chry-otile deposits of the Quebec type occur in the State of (`ojedas. 5 to 7 miles from Tinaquillo and about 35 miles from Valencia. There are two major deposits, El Tigre and La Montanita, about .'lb miles apart. A zone of peridotite. bordered bv schist, extends along tlie flank of the mountain range on which these deposits occur. Asbestos-bearing serpentine bodies are present at various places within the peridotite. but extensive work has been done only on the two deposits mentioned. The asbestos occurs in cross-fiber veins ranging from microscopic to occasional 1 tj-inch widths. A fair proportion of spinnable fiber is available. Fiber reserves at La Montanita appear to be larger than at El Tigre. At the former deposit, fiber-bearing rock of commercially workable quality appears in several pits in an area about 1.500 feet long and 300 to 400 feet wide. The uppermost pit is over 400 feet higher than the road-level pit. InjtKutc dr Fomento Industrial informe del Ger&ntc, June 30,1MI, pp. SVM. Compania Anonima Minas de Tinaquillo (CAMAT), with offices in Caracas, prospected the El Tigre deposit by core drilling and began construction of a mill in 1941. Owing to war time restrictions on building materials and machinery, it was not completed until 1945. Production was begun in 1946. but before 1952 it did not exceed a few hundred tons a year. In 1952 Amianto Venezuela Compania Ano nima (AMYEC'O) of Caracas was organized, and in 1953 it established ownership to both properties and many adjoining concessions. Production was begun in September 1953 under the new ownership and has attained a much higher rate of output than in previous years. Millrock mined at La Montanita is hauled by truck to the El Tigre mill. Fiber of shingle-stock grade is sold to an asbestos-cement products plant at Caracas, and an export trade is being developed for the longer fibers. EUBOPE Albania Asbestos of uncertain quality is said to occur in the Korcha district. Development work was reported in 1940. Austria Short-fibered amphibole. known as "micro asbestos." was mined many years ago near the Hungarian frontier. It was used in asphalt and concrete road-surface mixtures. Discovery of a deposit of asbestos was reported from Rottenmann, Styria, in 1949.4S Bulgaria Amphibole asbestos of the anthophyllite type occurs over a large area in the eastern Rhodope Mountains of southern Bulgaria. According to official records, production has been insignificant.. Cyprus The chief asbestos deposits of Cyprus occur at Amiandos, on Mount Troodos in the west-central area. A peridotite plug, consisting largely of olivine, is altered to serpentine on the periphery. Short-fiber ehrvsotile asbestos oc curs in the serpentine in irregular veins tiiai have a maximum thickness of about one-half inch. Faulting and shearing evidently have exerted a definite influence on development of the fibrous structure. The asbestos content of the rock runs only 1 to 2 percent. The deposit is evidently extensive. Mining World, vo). 11, Xo. 8, July 1949, p. 52. ASARCO alv 0006006 DISTRIBUTION' 45 The fiber is of the chrysotile variety and generally too short for spinning, but small ship ment of spinning fiber were reported in 1934. Milled fiber is graded into three classes--Stand ard. Shorts, and Fines. The Standard grade, designated "shingle stork," is said to comprise about 90 percent of production. About 1923 an aerial ropeway 18 miles long was constructed for conveying the asbestos from Amiandos to the seaport at Limasol. The construction cost was about 2,320 a mile. The cost of transporting asbestos by means of the ropeway, including interest on investment and complete amortization of the equipment in 10 vears, was given as 6s. 9d. a ton, whereas the motorwagon or animal transport formerly employed on the 37-mile winding road cost 20s. to 25s. a ton. The industrv attained considerable impor tance from 1926 to 1929. but production declined greatly during the depression years. Production has been in the hands of a single company. The Cyprus Asbestos Co.. Ltd., operated for several years before 1927. but in that year the Cvprus'Trading Corp., Ltd., was organized and absorbed the former company. In 1932 the newer firm was reorganized as ('vprus & General Co., a British organization, and in 1936 the assets of the latter company were acquired by the Tunnel Asbestos Cement Co.. Ltd., a suhsidiarv of the Tunnel Portland ( Vinont Co. of West `Thurrock. England. The producing company was later known as Cyprus Asbestos Mines. Ltd. The product is used chiefly for the manufacture of asbestos-cement products in England. The deposits have been described in some detail by Whitworth.4 Mining operations were described briefly in l'MK.5" Production in 1949 was higher than during any year of the preceding decade and was still higher in 1951 and 1952. Increased activity was attributed to additional mechanization, improved quarry conditions, a plentiful labor supply, and favorable weather. More than 2.400 laborers were employed during the work ing season of 1949, when 8 mills were in opera tion.51 The fiber recovered is about 1 percent of the total rock quarried and about 3 or 33percent of the rock milled. As local consumption is small, a largre per centage of the production is exported. Exports began in 1906. Table 15 shows exports for u scries of years. t- Whitworth. M.. Cyprus and Its Asbestos Industry. Mining Mag., tol. 3V. IK*, pp. 143-150. > Mining Journal (Londoni. vol. 240, So. 5883. May 22.1048. p. 380. 11 Asbestos. Cyprus Asbestos Mines. Ltd.: Vol. 31. No. 12, June 1450. p. 10. Table 15.--Asbestos exported from Cyprus, 1923-53 1 Ywr Metric ton* Year Metric tons 1923................... 1924................... 1925................... 1926.................. 1927................... 1928.................. 1929.................. 1930.................. 1931.................. .1 1932.................. 1933.................. 1934.................. J 1935.................. 1936.................. 1937.................. 1938.................. 2, 186 ' ' 1939................ 4, 442 1940................ 3, 255 1 : 1941................ 6,627 ! 1942................ 11,079 1943................ ..! 11,765 1944................. 14,017 1945................. 5, 487 1946................. 3,628 1947................. 1,626 1948................. 4, 640 1949................ ... 7,712 1950................ . 7, 634 1951.................. 9, 659 1952................ . 11,892 1953.................. 5, 668 10,377 9,673 4,874 3,128 1,189 1,983 3.125 5,993 *6,369 *8.106 *12,556 *14,989 * 17, 180 16, 556 14,484 i Data from Geological Surrey and Bureau of Mines Mineral Resources of the Cnttoi States and Mineral* Yearbook. * Production. Czechoslovakia According to the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce.55 "Asbest" Gewinning und Verwertung von Asbest Gesellsehaft m. b. H. at Dobsina, Slovakia, reported an output of I. 200 metric tons in 1933, 2,100 in 1934, and 2.600 in 1935. In 1940 the operating company was "Asbest" Bergbau u. Industrie A.-G. The product is said to be a poor-quality short fiber, suitable only for mixing with insulation com pounds and for the manufacture of asbestoscement roof shingles.53 Finland According to Mineral Trade Notes,54 Finland has 2 asbestos mines, 1 at Paakkila in the com mune of Tuusniemi and 1 at Maljasalmi in the commune of Kuusjarvi. The former mine supplies about four-fifths of the output. The entire production consists of anthophyllite. According to an analysis reported by Borgstrom,55 Finnish asbestos is of the following chemical composition, in percent: Si02, 56.57; AljOj, 1.02; FeO, 5.72; MgO, 30.78; CaO, 0.57: H20-r, 4.89; H20--, 0.14. This corresponds closely with the analysis of Georgia antliophvllite. Both mines are operated by Suomen Mineraali Ov., a company established in 1917. At u C. $, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Foreign Metals and Minerals: Clrc. 3, April 1036. p. 9. u Bureau of Mines, Mineral Trade Notes: Vol. 10, No. 1, January 1040. p. 10. h Bureau of Mines, Mineral Trade Notes: Vol. 37, No. 6. December 1053. pp. 35-36. u Bergstrom, L. H., (Finnish and Foreign Asbestos): Tek. Foren. Finland Forh.( toI. 65, 1036, pp. 105-107. ASARCO ALV 0006007 40 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY Bnakkila operations are both oponeul and underground. The smaller mine is an open pit. Suomen Mineraali Ov. operates a refining: mill at Tapanila. 12 kilometers from Helsinki, and also a factory for manufacture of asbestos products. Finnish asbestos has high acid- and fire-resistant qualities. The principal domestic use is for making so-called asbestos-wood slates used as inner sidings for house walls. Short fibers are also used in flooring, rubber and bitumen compositions, and other fire proof products. Imported chrysotile, chiefly from the Urals, is also used. Some of the shorter grades are exported. They are said to be used chiefly in Sorel-eement flooring. Production in Finland during recent years is shown in table Mi. Table 1G.--A'bi 'Iny production in Finland, 1H37-53 1 approaches chrysotile in physical character istics, samples received by the Bureau of Mines were definitely identified as tremolile. The fibers, however, have unusual strength. The long fibers are said to_ be suitable for spinning, but there is no evidence that they have been accepted in quantity by textile manufacturers. Xo production figures are available to indicate the scope of operations since the mill was built. The Canari mine in Corsica was under development in 1948. The deposit, which is evidently of considerable extent, consists of slip-fiber chrysotile. Milling at a rate of 15 to 20 tons of fiber a day was expected in 1949. It is reported that the mine produced 1,050 ions of asbestos during the first quarter of 1950. A brief description of the operation has been published.57 Available production figures for France are indicated in table 17. V* :>r 1937 193$ 1`3I 1 *>4t I 1**41 19)2 HM3 I'M 4. 1945 1: In ; * France M* trie tun* Year Melrr tons 7. 269 6. 422 i>. 220 5. 337 3. $42 4. 070 7. 4<ili 7. 733 4. 107 1946... 1947.................. 194$.................. 1949.................. 1950.. . . 1951. .. 1952. . . . 1953.................. 5. 7S1 6. 351 10.818 10. 4 $6 10. `MU 11. S50 6. 100 10,929 Table 17.--Asbestos production in France. 1.934-33 AVnr M.-lnc ton. Yoar Movie toil' 1931................ 400 1935 .............. 450 1936 .............. 405 1937 .............. 250 19.3$................ 450 1939 . ..................................... 1940 1941 ....................................... 1942 ............................. 1943 ............. 7S 1944................. 31 1945................ 40(1 1940................ 375 1947................ 934 194$................ 1. 309 1949............. 1. 090 1950................ 1951............. 0.940 1952... 0.3OO 1953................ 9.300 Although a small output of asbestos has been recorded for 10:14 to I0:i-S. no information is available on the source of the fiber for those years. The only deposit for which data have been obtained is near Chaleau-Queyras, De partment of Hautes Alpes. It was discovered in 1939. but active measures for its develop ment were not taken until the property was acquired by Guy H. Montmartin and associates. 555 Fifth Ave., New York, X. Y., in 1947. In 104s serious floods destroyed a dam and power station adjacent to the mine, and in con sequence development was delayed. A new mill was under construction in 1949. Ac cording to Kukeyser there is. in this area, a mass of dense, tough, dark-green serpentine, probably derived from peridotile. At the mine elevation, about 8.000 feet above sea level, is a mass of light-green serpentine about 130 feet thick, which appears to have resulted from hy drothermal alteration of dolomite. The as bestos is found only in this zone. Although claims have been made that the fiber closely Germany Discovery of a greenish white chrysotile in Bayerischer Wald. East Bavaria, was reported in 1935, but no record of production has ap peared. This is said to be the only occurrence known in Germany to have commercial possi bilities. Ireland An asbestos deposit at Avoca. County Wick low. was reported in 1931. Xo data are avail able on variety, quality, or extent. Italy Italy is called "the cradle of the asbestos in dustry," because the mining of asbestos and the manufacture of its products were begun on an industrial scale in that countrv. Italy also is unique in that much of the fiber produced in * RukrjM'r. "`alii r A.. AsU$to> at Cluteau-Quevnis. Knuuv: As ti cjns. \o! 2v. No. lo. April pp x-$i. > Asbestos. Tbe Canari Mine--Corsica: Vol. 30, Ko. 3, September IMS. pp. 20-22. 6. (IMI ASARCO ALV 0006008 DISTRIBUTION' 47 early years was tromolile. a variety of amphibole asbestos little used elsewhere. Before discovery of the Canadian deposits, Italy was the chief source of supply of asbestos for both Europe and America. After the Quebec deposits were developed, the demand for Italian asbestos declined. One important deposit is in the Susa Valley region of western Torino near the French border. Here tremolite asbestos, which is particularly well adapted to the manufacture of chemical filters, is mint'd in the mountains S.000 to 9.000 feet above sea level. A second deposit is along the Aosta Valley near Ivrea in northeastern Torino, about 46 miles from Turin. Tremolite asbestos has been mined in the mountains in this locality since IS65. but there has been little activity since 1905. The fibers are long and higldy resistant to acids and heat; but, owing to the difficulty of separating them, they are not well adapted to weaving. A third source of supply of tremolite asbestos is near Sondrio. northern Lombardy. This asbestos also is a Jong-fibered variety similar to that of the Torino deposits. The Balangero mine, situated in Torino about 20 kilometers north of Turin, has been the chief producer during recent years. The asbestos of this district is chrysotile, disseminated in a large -crpentine mass. A geological report on the area, prepared in 1942, 1ms been published.4'1 Short fiber only is produced. Mining is by open pit. with gloryholes. Shallow blast holes are drilled on low benches, and high explosives are used to obtain complete fragmentation.' Fiber is separated from rock in 2 mills. 1 of which is of similar design to those used in Quebec, Canada. Fiber recovery represents about 1 percent of the rock milled. Consider able detail on mining and milling has been pub lished.4^ Notes from various sources on Italian asbestos deposits were assembled some years ago."" Annual production over a period of more than of) years is indicated in table IS. About 95 percent of recent production has been from the Balangero region. Portugal Anthophyllite asbestos is mined in two locali ties in Portugal. Samples examined by the Bureau of Mines were found to be of good (piulity. The most important deposit is near Evoru. Province of Alemtejo, southern Portugal. Soeiedade Portuguesa de Amiantos, Lda. Porto, Portugal, has operated a mine in this area for several years and began development of a new Table IS.--Asbestos production in Italy, 1898-1953 Year Metric tons Year , Metric ton* 1898............. 1899............. 1900............. 1901............. 1902............. 1903............. 1904............. 1905............. 1906............. 1907............. ...! 1908............. 1909............. , 1910............. 1911............. 1912............. 1913............ 1914............. 1915............. 1916............. 1917............. 1918............. 1919. .... 1920............. 1921. . .. 1922............. 1923............. 1924............. 1925............. 131 81 126 243 243 202 182 220 209 359 359 190 170 169 171 163 82 85 60 98 420 540 1.538 2.160 2.105 1926................ 1927................ . 1928................ . 1929................ ..I 1930................ 1931................ 1932................ 1933................ 1934................ 1935................ 1936................ . 1937................. 1938................ 1939................. 1940................ . 1941................. 1942.................. 1943.................. 1944................. 1945.................. 1946.................. 19^7.................. 1948.................. 1949.................. 1950.................. 1951.................. 1952.................. 1953.................. 2. 900 3, 840 4.950 2,847 851 632 1.284 3,267 2. 252 4.320 6,113 6, 393 6. 860 8.271 10.766 *11.695 8. 459 7.238 5.222 8.814 10. 719 13.044 15.877 21,433 22.612 23. 938 20. 397 deposit near Braganca in the northern area in 1948. Following is an analysis of the fiber from the Evora mine furnished by the producing company: Ptrcenf ?iO:.................................................................................. 56. OS A1;U;......................................................................................... S2 FejOi .............................................................................. 6.26 Cat) .............................................................................. 13.62 Mat)............................................................................... 21.51 Ignition lu-?...................... 1.67 Total......................................................................................... 9f. 96 Production is small but has been increasing somewhat as more industrial uses for the product have been found. Table 19 shows the output during recent years, according to official figures. Table 19.--Asbestos production in Portugal, 1943-52 Year Metric torts Year Metric tons 1943.............. 1944.............. 1945.............. 1946.............. 1947.............. i 96 1948............ 33 1949............ 20 1950............ 12 ` 1951............ 91 1952............ --i 1 414 101 257 168 > Asbestos. AshfM5 Deposit At San Vittore (Balanstcroi Italy: Vol. . No. 12. June !Wh. pit. 16-24. w Bureau of Mings, Mineral Trade Notes Vol. 22. No. 4, April 1W6. pp 22 26, \<l'Stos. Geology of Italian Deposits- Vol. 29. No. 7, January 1W8. p| 16*24. Spain Two occurrences of chrysotile asbestos in Spain were reported in 1920--one in the ASARCO ALV 0006009 4S THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY Pyrenees and the other in the Cantabrian Mountains. No further information concerning them has appeared. Production has been small and irregular. The official record of output in metric tons during recent vears follows: 1941. 2 tons: 1942. S4; 194:S. 50;'l94S. 35; 1949, 40; 1950. 41; 1951. 41; and 1952. 30. A small intermittent operation has been re ported at Mellid, Province of La Coruna, in northwestern Spain, but the largest operation is in Malaga Province near the southern coast. As reported by Cabot Sedgwick, American consul at Malaga.61 chrvsotile asbestos occurs in nearly vertical cross-fiber veins in serpentine asso ciated with peridotite. The asbestos is recovered from a large number of small pits scattered over two mountains. It is mined chiefly by independent workers, who sell their output to the operating company. Asbestos Espanoles, S. A. The company hauls the mine product to the milling plant at Mijas. Most of the fiber is under one-fourth inch in length. It is milled by crushing, screening, and air separation and is used locally as a constituent of roofing and cement pipe. Daily production of about 2 tons or less was begun in 1951. Mon tidy production of 30 tons of asbestos, reported in the press in 1952 from a deposit at Ronda. is probably the output of this operation, as Ronda is in Malaga Province. Switzerland Asbestos occurs in the Cantons of Grisons. Tessin, Valais, and Graubunden. but output is small; a maximum of about 400 tons was obtained under the war stimulus of 1918 and 1919. The most important deposits are at Poschiavo, Canton of Grisons, where a small amount of chrvsotile of spinning quality is available. Both chrvsotile and tremolite are said to occur in Graubunden. Production for each of the 5 years. 1942--46, amounted to 6, 11, 7. 35. and 40 metric tons, respectively. No other official figures are available. Yugoslavia Several chrvsotile asbestos deposits occur in Yugoslavia. The following information is ab stracted from a series of articles by Millar.61' At Karlaca. about 225 kilometers southsoutheast of Belgrade in Serbia, a short dis tance from Raska, a deposit of considerable extent contains semibrittle chrvsotile in fibers chiefly under one-fourth inch m length. The better zones are said to carry 2 to 3 percent Bureau of Minos. Asbestos la Spain: Mineral Trade Soles, vol. 37, So. t. July 1953. i Millar. \V,, B.. Ash-sins in Yugoslavia: Asbestos, vol. 34. So. 2. August, pp. 2-10: So. 3, September, pp. 2-JO; So. 4, October, pp. 2-6, 1V52. fiber. The rock is mined from an open pit with a face about 1,500 feet long. An ex ploratory adit was run for about 900 feet at right angles to the bench face and was still in fiber-bearing rock, hence the deposit is large but is quite low grade. A small mill produces an ungraded fiber, most of which would fall in Group 6 of the Canadian classification. An adjoining property at Belci has been developed to some extent. It is a short-fiber prospect, although the fiber is a little longer and stronger than at Korlaca. Adit samples con tain only 1.75 to 2.5 percent fiber. The ftujiste property about 50 miles southsoutheast of Korlaca is on a mountain. The fiber is confined to a zone about 1 yard wide along a major fault plane, hence the supplv is limited, but the fiber is of higher quality than that occurring elsewhere m the country. Crudes Xo. 1 and Xo. 2 are recovered. The asbestos is said to be of good quality, being somewhat harsh, and almost as strong as Canadian fiber. Production in 1952 averaged I or 2 tons a month of hand-cobbed crudes. The Bogoslovac asbestos mine is about 83 kilometers southeast of Skopje in Macedonia. The fiber-bearing zone is large, but the asbestos content is low, and the fiber is brittle and con sistently short. A new mill having a capacity of 170 tons of rock a day was built in 1952. A unique asbestos deposit occurs at Stragari. about 50 kilometers south of Belgrade. The asbestos occurs in tough, leathery sheets in a shear zone at a contact of serpentine with limestone. Xo commercial method has yet been developed for freeing the fiber for normal use. The deposit is extensive, and a mill to handle 340 tons of rock a dav is planned. It is believed that, by a dry-milling process, the material can be broken into small sheets and shredded enough to permit blending with normal chrysotile for use in asbestos-cement products. A deposit of weak, short-fiber chrysotile having ribbon structure occurs at Petrovo Selo in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Several areas have been developed with adits and opencuts, and a mill was under construction in 1952. A small prospect having little promise occurs at Goc, about 220 kilometers southeast of Belgrade. The following production, in metric tons, has been reported for recent vears: 1947, 309: 1948, 752; 1949, 1,138; 1950, 958; 1951, 1,523; and 1952, 2,506.63 Further detail on the industry was published in 1953.64 u Monthly Review of Yugoslav Economic Statistics. May 1953. Bureau of Mines, Mineral Trade Notes: Vol. 37, No. 3, September 1953, pp. 42-47. ASARCO ALV 0006010 DISTRIBUTION 49 ASIA China Asbestos said to be of the chrysotile variety occurs in a number of Provinces in China, including Chihli. Jehol. Chahar Suiyuan, Shensi. 'Szechuan. Hupeh, and Kwangtung. The most important deposits are in the Laiyuan district. Chihli (Hopeh) Province. (The spell ing "Hopei" in the footnote reference is not now recognized.) Here the asbestos occurs in numerous generally parallel cross-fiber veins in limestone. The maximum fiber length is about l!_! inches. The asbestos has evidently boon formed by mineralizing solutions derived from igneous intrusions, therefore it is similar in origin to the Arizona deposits. Hou 61 has described the deposits. The longer grades are of spinning quality. The deposit has been worked since 1914. Production in 1927 was ISO metric tons. The fiber, conveyed on horse back to Yiksian 006 kilometers) and from there to Tientsin by train, supplies manufacturing plants in the latter city. Four such plants were reported in 1927. Their products are mostly for domestic consumption, though some are shipped to Japan. Asbestos mines about 3 miles from Chinehu. Manchuria, have been worked in a small way for over 20 years. The output was shipped to factories at Osaka and Tokyo. Japan. A small production was recorded for China for several years before 1939. but from 1939 to 1943. under Japanese stimulation, production increased sharply. Most of the output was probably shipped to Japan. Table 20 shows production for a series of years. Table 20.--Asbistn* production in China, 1927-44 Yv.ir tru ton** Y*.ir Metric on small output of tremolite originated in Bihar and Orissa during 1921 to 1932. In 1940 the Bureau of Mines received a sample of asbestos from a deposit near Cuddapah in the Madras Presidency about 125 miles northwest of Madras. The sample consisted of lightamber chrysotile resembling the Arizona fiber. It was exceptionalJy soft and silky, displayed superior strength and flexibility, and had a maximum fiber length of 3% inches. It occurs at a contact of magnesian limestone with an intrusive basic sill. Small quantities of the fiber have reached the United States market. It was reported in 1946 611 that the most promising deposits of chrysotile in India occur near Puhvendla, a considerable distance south of Cuddapah (approximately 11 30' X.: 78 E.). In this area the asbestos occurs at a contact of traprock with limestone. The asbestos veins are confined chiefly to a zone of serpentinized limestone at the contact. Veins up to 7 inches wide have been found, but they average li to 1 inch thick. The occurrence is evidently of the Arizona type. In 1951 and 1952 production as large as that of the Cuddapah district was recorded for the Singhbhum district of Bihar. The fiber is chrysotile, which is said to be somewhat brittle. It occurs in serpentine intruded by dikes. Asbestos occurs in many other parts of India; but no estimates of reserves are available, and none of the deposits seems capable of a large production of high-grade fiber. The develop ment of a substantial asbestos-producing in dustry in India apparently will depend largely upon the establishment of domestic asbestosproducts plants that will utilize the weaker and shorter fibers. India has been a producer of asbestos for many years, but the output has never been large. Table 21 shows production since 1917. l*i`27................... )U2v................... 1 020 1U3U . IU31................... 1932................... 1 <133. .. 1 *J3o. ... 241 277 315 2G4 250 230 200 1 70 1030.............. 11137.............. 11138.............. 103U.............. 1040.............. 1941.............. 1042 . 1043.............. 1044___ 1 69 700 18.015 20.015 20.515 20.615 = 20. 000 (i) M.incium.i uitiy, No ficures availably slncv IW3. India The Hassan district of Mysore State has been the most productive area in India. Pro duction consists chiefly of amphibole fibers. A Hou. T. F,, Notes on the Asbestos Deposit of Laiyuan District, Hopei Province fin English;: Nat. Geoi. Survey China Ueol. Bull. 25, March JH35. pp. 34M3. Japan Before 1939 a small production of asbestos was obtained from various scattered deposits, but after that date intensive exploration and development were undertaken, and a subsi dized asbestos industry of moderate size was established. The most important mines are in the Hokkaido district, where about 94 per cent of the chrysotile output originates. The other 6 percent is mined in southwestern Honshu district. In the Hokkaido district the chrysotile occurs in irregular veins in serpen tine. In some areas the fiber is of good quality; in others it is brittle, a condition which is attributed to the presence of talc between the Bureau of Mines, Mineral Trade Note*: Vol. 22, No. 2, February 1946. p. 26. ASARCO ALV 0006011 50 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY T U)LE 21 --A^bist' proihlt'tinli in India, 1917 -52 tailed description of the Japanese asbestos industry has been published.67 Y-ir Mi tnr tn|i Ye tr Metric ton* Table 22.--Asbestos production in Japan. 19SG-53 1 nit: lilts .. l`)l` . 1112(1 1921 | <>22 1923 . . . 1924. . . . 1925 . . ] t2i 1927 l`i2s 19311 1931 1932 1933 150 303 394 1. S47 321 2-Mi 251 127 Hi 59 69 139 324 34 0 91 25 1935.. 1939 1937 193s 1939 urn 1941 . 1942. . 1943 1944 .................. 1945..................... 194(1.................. 1947 . 104s . .. 1040.................. 195(1.................. 1951 .................. 1952..................... 64 Qi 102 90 266 251 372 514 000 .502 833 312 163 83 14S 211 52(1 694 fiinT' All of the asbestos is low grade. A mere fraction of ii is Group 3 or belter (Camt<li:m elas'i/ieiiiioti.. Inn most of it is below 5. It is used chiefly in asbestos-cement products. Six open-pit mines have been worked in the area. The fiber-beaiing rock is processed in mills patterned after those in Canada in which the fillers are separated by screening and air suction. Most of the production in the Honshu di'irict has 1... .. from the Seimi mine in shimaiic prefect ure. Another asbestos-producing area is in the Kyushu district in the extreme south of the .Japanese croup of islands. All asbestos of this region i- of the amphiliole type. There are tun group' of mines--the Meiji group produc ing 'lip and cross fibers and the Kondo group produciiie' mass fibers. The slip fiber is said to ion-i-t of tremolite and actinolite. The Kondo LTottj) covers an irregular area about 400 feet lone. Here the asbestos occurs in radial airsrreirutes of white to gray mass-fiber anthophyllitc. 'Phe fibers are intermixed with tab- and hornblende. Both dry and wet mill ine lias been employed at Kondo. In the dry mill the fibers were picked up by air suction. In ihe wet-process mill the lock is broken with jau crusher' or stamps and the fiber flouted off with water. Production of amphiliole fiber rutitled from 1.300 to more than 4.000 metric tons a year from 1940 to 1945. but thereafter the output declined greatly. The uses of the amphilmle varieties are too limited to permit sustained production under normal conditions. Under intense stimulation production of all kinds of asbestos exceeded 12.000 tons in 1944, but thereafter it declined greatly. Table 22 shows production during recent years. A de Year Amphibole Chrysolite Tnt.it 1936........................ ............... 1037 ................ ............... 1938 ..................... ............... 1939 ............... ............... 1940 ............... ............... 1941 . . .. ............... 1942 . ... ............... 1943....................... ............... 1944 ..................... ............... 1945 . . ............... 1946 . . . ............... 1947 . ... 1948 ... . . .. 1040 ............... ............... 1950..................... .. 1951..................... ............... 1052........................ 1953..................... . . .. 400 400 400 400 3.900 3.830 2.005 1.564 4.679 3.050 44 219 24$ m 78S (2<'l 0 30 30 30 30 90 1. 486 3, 73S 8. 221 4. 994 3. 953 3. 698 4, 590 5. 208 P) 5, 351 (!) C-) 400 430 430 430 3. 930 3. 92(1 3. 491 5. 302 12. 900 8. 044 3. W>7 4. 249 4. 809 5. 6K4 6. 139 3. (Rill 4. 07s 1 !>:'.> fur from .Vnuril .........ir<v Section. SCAP. Ab *tc. Resource* nf l.i|un Kept. 115. n. y; data for 1947-53 from Minora! Re'iUr(V*. Of J.UMf.. Korea A small output of asbestos was reported in Korea in the 1930's. In 1943 production reached 5.310 metric tons and in 1944. 4.532 but dropped to 1,303 in 1945. Xo output has been reported since. Xo information has been ob tained on the location or extent of the de posits or the type of fiber produced. Over 90 percent of the i944 output came from .South Korea. Republic of the Philippines Samples of amphibole asbestos have been obtained from the Republic of the Philippine', but apparently the deposits have not been developed, as there is no record of production. Turkey Asbestos has been produced near Kutaia (Kutahyai about 70 miles southeast of Burra in western Turkey. The Bureau of Mines obtained promising samples of cross-fiber chrysotile in 1934 from a deposit near Sarikantis. Province of Kars, Turkish Armenia, not far from the U. S. S. R. border. Deposits are reported also at Karakose and Kogizman in the valley of Agri, in the Eskischir region, western Turkey. The writer received a sample of good-quality tremolite asbestos originating in Turkey in 1947, but the location and extent *' Natural Resources Socthm, SCAP. Asbestos Resource* of Japan: Rept US. 1W, 32 pp. ASARCO ALV 0006012 DISTRIBUTION' 51 of the deposit are unrecorded. Little is known of the character or extent of any of the Turkish deposits Production for a series of vears is *rivon in table 23. Taui.k 23.-- proiluctiiin in Turkey. Ido 1-51 Vi'ftr Mi'tnr tfn< Yi-ir Motrin ions 1 !31 1U32 .. 1U33 IU34 1U35 1U311 1U37 1113s . 1 US!' nun 1`tll___ ... -J 1042.. .. 58 11)43 i 120 11)44 . .. J 1045 104 11)40.. .. 1111 11)47 . .. 157 1048.......... 60S 1114!)............ Ss 1050............ 1 Do 1............. . ! 140 205 133 231 13S OO 30 203 250 245 SO ATWCA Asbestos has heen reported in various other points in Africa, in addition to the major de posits already described, namely those of Southern Rhodesia, the Union of South Africa, and Swaziland. Bechuanaland Late in 1951 the Marlime Chrysotile As bestos Corp.. Ltd., a subsidiary of Marble. Lime W Associated Industries of -Johannesburg, acquired what is known as the Moshaneng .isbc-ios mine, about 40 miles northwest of Lnbat-i. The property is on a railroad 60 miles north of Mafeking. The asbestos occurs in Tosy-liber veins in dolomite underlain by a sill of diabase. A relatively high percentage of 'pinning fiber is said to be present: its quality I- eenerally good, although some harsh fiber appears in phues. A mill capable of handling ."i.nnti tons of fiber-bearing rock a month was being built in 1952. Several shafts have been 'link paralleling the dipping beds. The shafts and a single drill hole have blocked out a mass. "Inch is estimated to contain 16,000 tons of asbestos. This property may become an im portant source of chrysotile.4* Egypt An asbestos deposit has been reported in the Eastern Desert of Upper Egypt, about 500 miles south of Suez and approximately 33 miles by road from Mersa Alam on the' Red Sea. The asbestos was described in 1950 as a short-fiber anthophyllite. In view of the very limited market for this type of asbestos there is little prospect of successful development, * luu from B. C. Burgess. DM PA, Johannesburg. South Africa. although a production of 1,247 metric tons was reported for 1951. Madagascar In 1951 samples of an unusual type of asbestos were obtained in Madagascar. The fiber is peach color, of spinning length, and very strong, flexible, and silky. It was sub mitted to three laboratories for identification-- the Bureau of Mines Eastern Experiment Sta tion. College Park, Md.; Rutgers Universitv, New Brunswick, X. J.; and the Johns-Manville Research Center, Manville, X. J. Each of these laboratories identified it independently as anthophyllite. This is the first instance oh record of anthophyllite possessing the strength and flexibility of a spinning fiber. Xo infor mation is available at this time as to the loca tion or extent of the deposit. A white, iron-free, amphibole asbestos has been produced in small quantities from a deposit 290 kilometers north of Tananarive near the village of Antsiafabositra. About 17 tons was shipped to France in 1951. Morocco In the early I940's there was considerable interest in the Bou Azzer asbestos mine, in desert country about 100 kilometers (62 milesi north of the Sahara Desert. A good dirt road leads from the mine to Americane (66 miles) on the Marrakech-Ouartzate Highway about 101 miles southerly from Marrakech, a terminus of the Morocco State Railroad. The asbestos is chrysotile occurring at a contact of a mass of greenstone with granodiorite. The fiber occurs in lenses, many of which are small. The asso ciation of the asbestos with cobalt ore is unique. The company that mines the cobalt has de veloped the asbestos property. A sample of the fiber about 2 inches long was sent to the Bureau of Mines and found to be of good spinning quality, but only a very small fraction of the fiber is of spinning length. Short fiber was recovered from the rock by a crude milling process. It is claimed that up to October 1944 about 500 tons of short fibers had been hauled by truck to Casablanca, where it was used in the manufacture of building materials. Xo activity has been reported since that date. Several other asbestos deposits have been worked in the vicinity of Bou Azzer. The Bou Affroh deposit about 7 miles west of Bou Azzer consists of cross-fiber veins in serpentine. In the Aghbar deposit about 9 miles east of Bou Azzer several adits have been driven in a mass of serpentine. Fiber-bearing serpentine has been noted on a mountain about 23 miles east of Bou Azzer. ASARCO ALV 0006013 n2 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY An asbestos deposit of considerable impor tance occurs near X'Oob at a high elevation on the Sirotin Mountains about 20 miles from the Tazennkhi-Agndir Highway. It is about 185 mile:* by road from Marrakech. The deposit was first prospected in 1942. Societe Minibre du Siroua. organized in 1946, has carried on underground mining and operated a small mill. The asbestos occurs in dolomites; but, unlike the Arizona deposits, the dolomites are interbedded with quartzites. The fiber is said to be a high-quality ehrysotile with an unusually large percentage of long fibers. It is claimed that as much as 50 percent of the fiber would qualify as 3T (Canadian classification) or better. A "possible" reserve of 20.000 tons of fiber has been estimated. Another deposit at Tif Dm near X'C'ob is small and contains short fiber only. Production in Morocco was 604 metric tons in 1951 and 576 in 1952. Kenya A deposit of anthophyllite was discovered in 1949 in the Teita Hills about 120 miles from the port of Mombasa. A mill has been built, and progress has been made in developing uses in such products as chemical filters, compound packings, and thermal and acoustical insu lation.'-' An anthophyllite asbestos deposit has been developed about 40 miles west of Kitate in western Kenya. The fiber, prepared in a simple mill, is used in making asbestos-cement sheets and roofing tiles and asbestos-lime hollow blocks for building construction. Fur ther details have been given by .Sinclair.TM Other African Occurrences A small output of asbestos was reported from the Maeheria deposit. Algeria, in 1942. No information is available on the variety or quality of the fiber. Fibers of unspecified type occur in N'yasuland. Anthophyllite oc curs at Morogore in what was formerly German East Africa, and ehrysotile was reported near Macequece, Portuguese East Africa, in 1929. In 1953 samples were received by the Bureau of Mines of anthophyllite having exceptionally strong fibers from a deposit 88 miles from Vila Pcrv. Mozambique, which is on the main railway line from Beira. AUSTRALASIA Asbestos deposits are numerous in Austral asia. The principal deposits are described '* Astw-sios, The Maklnyambu Asbestos Deposits, Kenya, British Eas^ Africa VqJ 34. No I. July IW2, pp. 2-8. ^Sinclair. W. E,, Asbestos in East Africa: Asbestos, vol. 32, N*o. 7, January Ife&s.pp. lfr-22. briefly herein. A more detailed description of Australasian deposits has been prepared by Noakes.?I Western Australia For many years a small production of chrvsotile was obtained in Western Australia, but since 1937 blue asbestos has attained greater importance. Chrysotile has been obtained in the Sherlock property, in the Roebourne district, about 24 miles from the port of Balia Balia. Here the asbestos occurs in veins that arc restricted to a relatively narrow zone. Two main veins, separated by a dolcritc dike, have peen proved for a length of 1.000 feet. The percentage of fiber 2 inches long and over is said to be much higher than in tlit* principal producing regions of the world and is of good qualitv. Up to 1934 about 1.000 tons of fiber had been mined by contract laborers and shipped to Europe, but no system atic mining had been followed. Shaft sinking and the erection of a pumping plant were begun in 1934. Other producing areas are Lionel in the Xullagine district and Soansville and Cooglegong in the Marble Bar district. These deposits are all in the Pilbarra goldfield area. At Soansville chrysotile occurs in veins up to 30 inches wide, with a maximum fiber length of 6 inches. The veins have been proved over a length of 1.200 feet. Asbestos was discovered in the Marble Bar area in 1909. A large deposit has been re ported 15 miles west of Cooglegong. Chry sotile veins range from threads up to 6 inches wide. Table 24, compiled by Elford,TJ shows production in Western Australia from 1921 to 1932. Figures on production in Australia for later years are shown in table 25, which follows. Important deposits of crocidolite (blue as bestos) have been discovered in the Hamersley Ranges in the northwestern part of the State. The fibers are found in beds of the Xullagine series, which form a belt 180 miles long and 20 to 30 miles wide, trending east-southeast from Millstream Station, about 45 miles south of Roebourne. to the Ophthalmia Ranges. The de posits closely resemble those of the Griqua Town series in South Africa, the principal world source of blue asbestos. The Hamersley Range deposits are said to have a higher percentage of long fibers. One important area is in Yampire Gorge, where several seams of crocidolite Y< to 2% inches wide appear. The Xoakf. L. C.. Mineral Resources of Australia, Commonwealth of Australia Department of Supply and Shipping: Summary Report 17 Asbestos. Aue. 28. 1945, 26 pp. plus tables and maps. n EUord. Harold S., Australian Xonmeiallic Minerals, II. Asbestos: Chem. Eng. and Min. Review, vol. 25. Sept. 5. 1933. p. 396. ASARCO ALV 0006014 DISTRIBUTION 53 Table 24.--Asbista* production in HVibrn Australia, 1021-32 Year Quantity, tun*1 v.ilu*'. Locality whore mined 1!)21............. i 1U22............. ( 1 1023............. ---t 1112-f . . .. ____ 1112') ____ ___ 1026............. 1 1027............. I'i2s............. ____ IMJM ( \ 1U3U ____ f l 1*131............. 1032............. ____ 202 22 170 2.5 111 3 73 50 111 14 10.8 11.7 jo on] 1. 300 7. 350 250 3. 865 150 2. 200 1. 010 2. 430 oi)2 304 782 101 8. 508 03 0. 113 r:> 4. 228 17 500 108 1. 446 110 1. 762 Lionel. CooeleKong. Lionel. C'oogleKong. Lionel. C'oocleKong. Lionel. Do. Do. Roebourne. Lionel. Soansville and Lionel. Sherlock. Soansville. Pilbarra. We.-t Pilbarra. Roebourne. Do. i'c<rioti is '30 mill's liy road southeast of Mulga Downs, which is about ISO miles southeast of Roebourne. A small mill was huilt in this area in 1939 by Asbestos. Molybdenum & Tungsten Co.. Ltd., and was acquired in 1943 by Australian Blue Asbestos, Ltd. A second company. West Australia Blue Asbestos Co., Ltd., later operated in this area. Another producing area is the Wittenoom Gorge. 17 miles by road southwest of Mulgi Station. Australian Blue Asbestos. Ltd., com pleted a new mill in this area in 1940." A more complete description of the Austral ian blue-asbestos deposits has been published.'4 Cnollicial reports indicated an increase in output to more than 3.000 tons annuallv in 19.V2 and 1953. Two asbestos seams. 2 and 6 inches thick, are mined by a room-und-pillar method. The as bestos occurs in a hard, ferruginous quartzite. First, about 4$ inches of the quartzite is re moved from above the asbestos, and then the bottom 24-inch section containing the 2 seams of cross-liber crocidolite is mined. Other de posits in the same general area where the fiber scams may be thick enough and close enough together io merit commercial operation are Dale's Gorge and Marramamba Homestead. The principal production of Western Aus tralia shown in table 25 is blue fiber. Small tonnages that reach the American market are of gooil quality. The output of Australian Aslirstos. AstH*?to Mill at Wittenoom, Australia: Vol. 28, No. 3, September iwfi. pp in 12. ' Miles. KVnh H.. and Fotall. J. Part I. The Blue Asbestos Bear ing Bandit Iron Formations of the Hamersley Ranees. Western Aus tralia. and Part II, Tin* Blue Asbestos deposits of the Hamersley Ranee and Tlutr Economic Importance: Western Australia Geol. Survey Bull. 100.1W2. 61 pp. Blue Asbestos, Ltd., is marketed through the Building Materials Division of the Colonial Sugar Refining Co., of which it is a subsidiary. Because of the remoteness of the region, transportation is costly. Anthophyllite asbestos deposits are reported near Bindf Bindi, 138 miles north-northeast of Perth; at Goomalling. 76 miles northeast of Perth; and at several other points. A smalt output has been reported from the first of these deposits. South Australia Crocidolite occurs over a wide area in a belt of pre-Cambrian metamorphic rocks extending north from Encounter Bay for about 400 miles. Deposits have been prospected in many localities between Truro. 47 miles northeast of Adelaide, and Blinman. 220 miles farther north. A deposit 10 miles north of Hawker, about 248 miles north of Adelaide, was worked in a small way many years ago. The fiber, which ap parently is derived from magnesian limestone, lias a maximum length of about 2 inches, but most of it is short and matted. Two shafts 40 feet apart were sunk to a depth of 26 feet and connected with a drift. Unfortunately, the fiber-bearing rock was faulted at the 26foot level, and nothing is known of its continua tion. Another deposit 18 miles south of Blin man in this same general locality produced a small tonnage in 1941. Crocidolite has also been mined 9 miles north of Robertstown, S3 miles north-northeast of Adelaide. The fiber occurs in a narrow belt in altered magnesian limestone. Amalgamated Asbestos Industries. X. L., built a small mill in 1940. but the high cost of mining and prepara tion discouraged sustained production. This area is said to have produced 62S tons of blue fiber up to the end of 1944. Chrvsotile asbestos has been found in preCambrian metamorphic rocks near Cowell. 6 miles northwest of Franklin Harbour, on the eastern side of Eyre Peninsula. Ail the de posits are within 15 miles of Cowell. They occur in white magnesian marble, which has been serpentinized. Because of erratic occur rence and low percentage of fiber, mining is said to be unprofitable. Anthophyllite has been produced in small quantities at Kenton Valley about 20 miles east-northeast of Adelaide. Amphibole as bestos. probably actinolite, occurs at Lyndock, 28 miles north-northeast of Adelaide. Small quantities were produced in 1936, 1937. and 1940. Production in South Australia, which con sists chiefly of blue fiber, is indicated in table 25 (p. 55). ASARCO ALV 0006015 r>4 THE ASBESTOS IN'IH'STRV Queensland Asbestos In).' 1 jiv'd noinl in ninny localities in Qiieciti-himl. mainly within tin' serpentine belt nnrllleitst lltul north of R< >ekll:i 111 J>( Oil, extending front Buliuignwan tiesr the Filzroy River to Muiibomugli. The deposits at Prinrhester untl Marlborough appear to In- the most importitnt. although little is yet known of their ((Utility or extent. A sm.-tli amount of fiber litis been mined. On Marl I inrn niili Creek near its junction with the Fitzmy River well-defined veins liavinsr a maxim inn fiber length of 1K inches are reported. Queensland asbestos is said to he coarse textured and of low strentrth. It is ue]| adapted for ashe~to~-niiU.,ne'ile floor ing. for boiler covering. and a< an insrredient of paint'. Anihophyllite has been found at Caiionna. -in miles north of lloekhatnpton. and oilier (mints. New South Wales A'l>o'tiis is as'oeiated with serpentine in three main belts of ttltrtihasie rocks--the (ioidnri'hmok belt on I )u> Clarence River, Iiorlhea-t el'll New South Wales: the Great r-erpeiititie hell, which runs through Da mi ha. about -Jon miles north-north west of Newcastle; ami liie (iuildairiii-Wtiilelldheetl hell. 2ml miles 'otit h--out hw e-l of Sydney. Wunderlich. Ltd., developed a deposit in the (iordoii'hrook la'll in ]P4<i. The mine is m ar Darwil'jil. T2 miles by ..... . northwest of Graf'oii,. A mill was built in 1942. and several hundred ton- of ehn 'ot i]e was produced by the cm! n| |o44. In I`.144 the owners organized a new company. A'lio'iov Mine- Ptv.. Ltd. The fiber i.e..hi-' in veitt' up to 1 inch wide and is' mined by openeiit. This area is the principal producing one in New South Wales. Another area that i' said to have produced 2.47' 'on- of ehry'onie before activity ceased in Ii' at Wood's Reef. 12 miles east of Rami ha in the Great Serpentine belt. The U'lic'tn' occurs in steeply inclined cross-fiber vein- in serpentine derived from peridotite. Mill rock eoii-i it tiled slightly less than half of the rock mined, and recovery from the mill roi-lc averaired > percent. High costs and un suitability of the liber for asbestos-cement prodm-i' di'eouraoed further activity. The evolution of chry'<ui|c fiber from serpentine in this area has been discussed by Proud and Osborne/1 who made a detailed study of the deposits. Small (piantit ies of ehrysotilo were obtained in 1021 from a deposit 10 miles east of Broken Hill in n serpentine area outside of the three belts mentioned heretofore. Amphibole as bestos. probably tremolite. occurs near Orange and Lewis Potids in the Orange district, and aetinolite was produced in small quantities many years ago near Gundagai. Tasmania An asbestos deposit at Anderson's Creek in the Beaeonsfiehl district about 2o miles north west of Launceston was discovered over 40 years ago. and a production of 200 tons was re corded in 1899. Chrvsotile occurs in a belt of serpentinized peridotite and pyroxenite about 5 miles long and 1 mile wide, into which small granitic dikes have been intruded. Asbestos is concentrated chiefly where alteration of the peridotite is most complete and in areas close to the dikes. Most of the fiber is 'j to K inch in length. The first asbestos mill in Australia was erected here in 1917. Only about 8 per cent of the rock mined was milled, and the selected mil] rook yielded about 10 percent fiber. Fiber extraction proved to be too costly, and the mill was removed to Barraba, Xew Soutli Wales, about 1919, Small quantities of amphibole similar to the aetinolite produced at Gundagai. New South Wales, have also been mined in the Beaeonsfield area. A second asbestos-producing area is about 5 miles east of Zoelum. western Tasmania. Chrvsotile occurs in cross-fiber veins '? to 1 * inches wide in un extensive body of serpentine and peridotite. There are prospects of large reserves, but their extent has not yet been determined. Mining is conducted in both opencuts ami adits. A mill was built in 1942. The operating company is Tasmanian Asbestos Pty., Ltd., n subsidiary of the Colonial Sugar Refining Co. A deposit 2 miles south of the mine has been under investigation. A third asbestos area is on Asbestos Point on the southwestern shore of Macquarie Harbour. * I'n.u-l, lultn anl 0$horm\ l\. Stress-Environment in th*> .......... nf OirysoMlf. With Sfvci.il Rofcivncv to ih* OccurnTuv ar f. W.tr Burnb-i. NVw ."'tutli Wales: Econ. Geul.. vol.47. No. 1. /.iiiiurj. * February |yAJ> pp,, ASARCO ALV 0006016 DiPTKiurnnx oo I'ro-pi-fiiiiLr tiiul shaft <inkiiiir reported in 104:5 indicated (Inn ehrysoi ile-libcr veins, b lo 1'j inches in width, were spared at intervals in serpentine. The liher is said to he of flood quality. The proportion of fiber to rock appeared to he hijrli enough for eeonoinie min ing. Ini! reserves may lie jimiled. A rhrysotile oeelirrellee has lieen noted at tile month of the Spers River about 2(1 miles south of Asbestos Point. Table 2d shows Australian production, by Provinces, dtirimr recent years. New Zealand Chrysotilc a.-besios in veins as wide ns 3 inches occurs in a serpentine area at least .`5 miles lout; near Mount Arthur in the upper Takaka district. Both cross fiber and slip fiber are available. The eiviss-fiber veins occur principally in shells o to .'in inches thick surroundim; cores of massive serpentine with few or no veins. The fiber yield of the shells is estimated at in to 2d percent. It is reported that a mill and power plant were completed and d:l toil' of fiber produced in 1041. The d'-po-il i--aid to be eXtelMVe. A production of 42 ions in |odd. v_v, tons in 19dl. and GO-'i tons in I0d2 has In-i-ii reported. Table 25.--.U-bistns jirnihictiiiii in Australia. 1930-03. in metric tuns Year New nuth outh Wall's Australia Total 103 IU31____ 1032____ 1033____ 1034____ It'S")___ 1031!.... 1037.... 103S.... 1030.... 1041).... 1011.. . 1042____ 1043.... 1044.... liM.'i... 1040____ 1047.... __ nuu._ 107* I 10.52____ 107,3.... s `.1 13? 142 400 2. 7,os 2. t7*4 211 2`>U 330 330 3*0 430 Oi id l ii.i n: ,,i\,ii)sM*\ 6 20 13 36 SI 123 49 40 1 to 152 04 11 0 7 $ 40 41 17 13 G ,) 144 116 112 270 157 143 102 43 123 27U 370 02 121 247 313 1. 100 3?0 1. 000 '.177 1.31? 1. 230 2. 154 . . . .. . 2 4 4 " 10 105 2S1 <b . ...... 144 130 132 2*3 157 170 243 16? 170 325 4'K 35li 334 fiuu 3.022 4. 071 020 1, 300 1. 34.? 1. 671 1. 643 2. 50! 4. 124 5. 040 ASARCO ALV 0006017 PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION HISTORY OF PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES Scattered deposits in California and other Western States furnished a limited tonnage of asbestos many years ago. Georgia, North Carolina. California, and several other States have supplied small quantities of anthophyllite and tremolite at various times. Chrysotile is produced principally in Vermont. The deposits are extensive hut furnish short fibers pre dominantly. Vermont has produced inter mittently since 190$. and the output has in creased greatly during recent years. Arizona has supplied a small tonnage of chrysotile annually with some interruptions since 1913. ''nine of the Arizona output is of excellent -pinning quality. Table 20. compiled from data reported by producers to the Federal Geological Survey until 192-1 and thereafter to the Federal Bureau of Mine-, si lows the history of production in the United State-since ls.sO. A preponderance of the asbestos produced in the United States is of the chrysotile variety: Small quantities of amphibole (anthophyllite and tremolite) have been produced annually for many years, but for some years there were so few producers that the figures were concealed to avoid revealing the output of individuals. Table 27 shows available figures for the produc tion of amphibole asbestos since 1920. These figures are included in the United States output presented in table 2G. WORLD PRODUCTION Table 28. compiled by the Foreign Minerals Division, Federal Bureau of Mines, shows the production of asbestos, by countries, during recent years. These figures include both long and short fibers of all varieties of asbestos. The output in Rhodesia and the Union of South Africa consists principally of spinning fiber and the better grades of mill fiber, because the local demand is small and the value of the T \ hi.!. 2ii.--Axbixtnx stilil or vtol by productr* in tin I eih <1 Slate?, ISSO-lOoS s. * SlKifl JOti Vr.lu. Vim- Phorl (on* V:i)ui 1 SMI IsM i ivs.'i 1"} 1 vs;,. 1 VS(`. ISM. i-- 1 VS`., 1 S'HI 1 S`1 1 . |s"2 . ivii. 1 vr, |s`/(. . lv'iT.. 1 VIS ivi*. ptnil ]`Ml| l-MIJ . pH 13 full . PHK*. 1 *M If . P.ui7, 1 ill is . l'.MI'l .. 1910 .. It'll.. ft 12.... pin .. P*14 ... p'i:> .. fin_____ .. ., .. .. ..................... 150 2nn 1. 2(ic 1. (100 1. 000 3(1(1 2oo i ;>o Kill 30 71 (Hi hh ;>n 32.1 7`.i5 504 5so (it 1.7 fiM 1. 0.74 7-17 1. (10.7 N\7 1. -iso 3. lllii 1. 00.7 0.73 930 3. (Is.l 3. 003 7. HO-} 4. 403 1. 100 1.247 1.731 1.03s 84. 312 7. ooo 30. ooo 30. ooo 30. hoc u. ooo 0. ooo 1. 500 3. ooo 1, MMI 1. 500 3. 000 6. 410 2. .700 4. 403 13. .12.7 0. loo 0. 410 HI. 3"0 11. 740 10. 310 13. 40s Hi. 20" in. 700 21. 740 42. 07.7 2s. 70.7 11. SO'.I 10. 024 C2, 003 fiS. 317 110. 031 R7, 010 11.000 IS. 00.7 70. 0.72 ISO. 004 1017............ 101S ... 1010............ 1020 .. 1021... . I 922 1023 ... 1024... . 1925 ... 1S12H ____ 1027............ 102s............ p29 . . 1030 . 1031.. 1032 . 1033.. 1034.. . 1031.. . 1030.. 1037... . 103s . 1030.. PMO. . 1041.. 1042.. . 1043. 1044 ... 1041.. . PMC... . 1047. ... 104S... . P.M`1.. ] !."(> 1011.. Pi52 . 1053.......... .. 1, 05s<i*S 1, 161 1.64S 831 67 227 300 1. 25S 1.358 2. 081 2. 230 3, loo 4. 242 3. 228 3. 559 4. 745 5. 0S7 8. 020 11.064 12. 070 10. 440 15.450 20. 060 24. 301 1.7. 4sl 6. 014 G, (5(57 12. 22C* 14.07.7 24, 037 37. 002 13. 3S7 42. 434 51. 0-15 53. S64 5-1. 45G 8201.014 118. 087 248 261 673.231 336. OOs 10. 12" 9. 626 42. 526 51. 700 134. 731 336. $s2 351. 17s 351. 004 280. 2s4 118. 067 105. 202 130. 677 158. 347 ot|0 (j?7 314. 161 344. 644 247. 264 512. 7ss 674. 5lls 725. 7.73 49$. $57 334. Ml 380. 334 1-1(5. (Ho 504. 704 918. 55S 1. 806. 261 2 G14 41(5 2. 025. 0.70 3. 012. 500 4. 713. 032 47853. 005 5" ASARCO ALV 0006018  ' '-estos produced in i. jirysotile variety, hibole (anthophyllite a produced annually tome years there were figures were concealed mtput of individuals, figures for the producos since 1920. These * United States output DUCTTON the Foreign Minerals i of Mines, shows the by countries, during ires include both long varieties of asbestos. :a and the Union of rincipally of spinning s of mill* fiber, because 11 and the value of the s, 1880-1953 Short tom Value 1, 958 $291, 014 998 118, 687 1,161 248, 265 1,648 678, 231 831 336, 968 67 10, 120 227 9,626 300 42, 526 1, 258 51, 700 1,358 134, 731 -A 2, 981 336, 882 2, 239 351, 178 3, 155 351,004 4, 242 289, 284 3, 22S 118, 967 3, 559 105, 292 4, 745 130, 677 5, 087 158, 347 8, 920 292, 927 11, 064 314, 161 12, 079 344, 644 10, 440 247, 264 15, 459 512, 788 20, 060 674, 508 24, 391 725, <53 15, 4S1 498, 857 6, 014 334, 815 6, 667 380, 334 12, 226 446, 045 14, 075 504, 764 24. 035 9IS, 55S 37. 002 1.S06, 261 43, 387 2; 014, 416 42, 434 2, 925, 050 51. 645 3, 912, 500 53. S64 4, 713, 032 54, 456 4, 853, 965 Bulletin S52 ASARCO ALV 0006019 PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION 57 Table 27.--Amphibole asbestos .sold or used by producers in the United States, 1021-53 Year Short tons Value Year Short tons Value m192s1.... 1923.. 1924.. 1925.. 1926.. 1927.. 1928.. 1929.. 1930.. 1931.. 1932.. 1933.. 1934.. 1935.. \\m.. 1937.. 393 42 158 127 1, 165 (>) 0) 0) 1, 172 589 371 0) 0) () 0) 345 532 $23. 700 6. 800 5. 193 8. 585 10. 950 0) 0) 0) 33. 420 J5. 992 7. 259 (>) 0) {') 0) 11, 860 11, 897 1938.. 1939.. 1940.. 1941.. 1942.. 1943.. 1944.. 1945.. 1946.. 1947.. 1948.. 1949.. 1950.. 1951.. 1952.. 1953.. c) 4)6 1,388 1,952 2. 108 2, 114 392 240 430 449 (') (') () (') (') (') () $9, 691 9, 988 18, 164 18. 612 32. 526 7, 222 3. 989 5. 504 6. 218 (') (>) (') (') (') (>) * Bureau of MutesT<ot at libert> to publish. very shorl fibers too low to justify shipment to foreign markets. Russia, on the other hand, has developed important asbestos-products in dustries that utilize large quantities of short fiber from the Urals. Canada has small local de mand for short fiber, but the industrial centers of the eastern United States provide a readymarket; for this reason the shorter grades con stitute a large proportion of the asbestos pro duction. The figures for total output in table 28 are more or less rough estimates because Russian output is large but unavailable. In 1951 Canada produced about 63 percent of the world total and the United States about 31$ percent. More complete data on the output for each individual country are given earlier in this report in the sections devoted to discussion of asbestos deposits throughout the world. A table of world production appears each year in the Asbestos chapter of the Minerals Yearbook, published by the Bureau of Mines. World production of asbestos and production, by countries, are shown graphically in the col umnar chart, figure 9. The figures used in this chart are the averages of production for 3 selected years--1936, 1941, and 1945. The chart was compiled by the Department of Table 2S.--World production of asbestos, by countries.' 101,7-53. in metric tons [Compiled by Helen L Hunt. Foreign Minerals Division, Bureau of Mines) Country 1947 1948 1949 1920 19S1 1952 1953 Au-tralia .. ...................... ____ 1.399 llnlh ia 'cxjmn-' ..................... ......... 141 Brazil..., ,, .,.............. . .. 2.631 Canaria ''"ale^>,............................ ____ 600.391 Chile................................................ ......... 440 Cvpru-*.. .. ....................... ......... 6. 795 Kcypt.. ............................... ......... 1.015 Finland ......................................... ......... 6.351 France.......... ......... ............. ......... Fnoich Morocco . . - ............ ......... ......... 934 825 40 India................................................ ......... 163 It ah*.................. ............. ......... 10.719 Japan....... ...................................... ......... 4.249 Kvnva............................................. ......... 582 Mari'aua-car. ......... (s) New Zealand................................. Fortuual.. ...................... ......... 91 Southern Rhodesia.. ......... 49.073 Spain............................................... Swaziland........... ... .......... 25,360 Taiwan (Formosa .. Turkev. .... ......... 30 t'nion of Smith Africa. .. .. 27.344 Cuhed Stater (eoid or ti^ed by pro- dueer.-)... ............................... ......... 21,804 Venezuela....................................... ___ 240 Yugoslavia............. ....................... ____ 309 1. 348 147 1. 499 650. 239 150 8. 106 1.625 10. 818 1,309 399 9 83 13. 044 4, 809 510 (5) 1, 671 182 1, 415 521, 543 291 12, 556 117 10. 486 1,090 402 9 148 15, 877 5, 456 716 2 414 62, 502 35 29. 421 652 203 41, 490 101 72. 246 40 30. 814 410 250 64, 334 33, 649 192 752 39. 360 192 1. Ill 1,643 166 844 794. 095 172 14. 989 260 10. 949 6. 080 511 30 211 21,433 5, 664 229 1 42 257 : 64, 888 ; 41 29, 635 216 . 245 79. 300 2. 599 4, 124 316 465 1.321 720 882, 866 843. 078 (!) 17, 180 C) 16, 556 1. 247 60 11, 850 6. 100 6. 940 6, 300 604 576 34 25 526 694 22.612 23. 938 6, 139 3, 060 379 354 17 3 826 693 312 168 70,454 76, 960 41 30 31.719 31,542 35 24 80 . 97, 402 121,416 38, 495 190 958 46, 851 260 1,523 48, 864 394 2. 506 5, 049 735 720 826. 303 (!> 14.484 <s) 10, 929 9. 300 544 m 20, 397 4,078 151 (J> (=) C) 79, 595 e> 27. 309 86,016 49, 401 40 3, 748 Total (estimate).............. ......... 900, 000 I. 025, 000 975, 000 1, 300. 000 1,425,000 :1, 425. 000 1, 375, 000 i In addition to countries listed, asbestos is produoed in Argentina, China, Czechoslovakia. Korea, and l\ S. . R. Estimates by the Bureau of Mines are included In total. * Data not available: estimate by the Bureau of Mines Included in total. * Exclusive of sand, gravel, and stone (waste rock only), production or which is reported as follows: IW7, 8.718 tons; 1018, 40.066 tons; 1949,32,015 tons: 1950. 43.S51 too*: 1951. 30.628 tony, 1952, 35.982 tons; 1953.19.158 tons. t Includes asbestos Sour. * Less than 0.3ion. 3T26PK*--55------ 5 ASARCO ALV 0006020 METRIC TONS 5S THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY i7Union of South Africa, Southern Rhodesia, and Swaziland Figym. 10.--Production of Asbestos in the Three Leading Foreign Centers and in the United States, IU23-52, in Metric Tons. ASARCO ALV 0006021 PRODUCTION* AND CONSUMPTION* Tabu: 29.--Consumption of asbestos in selected countries, 1048. in metric tons .59 Confinrnt mid mmntry Africa: AlmTi'a... ... . Hcluian ( oiiko I'.Kypi Southern Itlmde-ia Swaziland Union of South Africa A-ia: India.............. Japan........ Turkey............ An-! rala-ia: Au-tralia. New Zealand. Unrope: Austria.. .. lielmuni-I.IISClnluiiiru, (`ypru.-.......... nenmark-.. Finland France, i "lerniany.. Iceland.. . Italy____ Neiiierland- N'orway.. For! uttal Spam.. Sweden. . .Switzerland.. I niti'd Kiuiulom North America. ( `ai.ada M.-Siro .. United State- S.et'l. and Central VneT'ea" Holtv-.a.. lirazil.. < "lli'le ('olotnl.ta.. ('..-la litca \'eiiiv.tie|a Total Protluction 1 Imports i ] Exports * Apparent con* , sumpthm i 1, 625 62. 505 29, 421 41, 490 1 455 . 508 . 457 . 61, 474 .................... 1 .................... J ' 58. 043 28 4, 809 203 3.702 . 1,348 15. 095 1,813 282 21 8. 106 10.818 104 13.044 414 35 1. 588 17, 386 6, 181 525 20. 696 5 3, 000 10 2. 098 4. 184 1.333 1. 534 218 3. 620 2. 095 93. 957 . . . . . 29 37 8. 108 2, 512 268 3. 355 8 175 9 50 1.802 650. 239 "33. 649* 626. 261 5 3. 500 . 585. 304 5, 924 147 1. 304 150 192 4, 972 9U0 . 14 . 500 . 142 51 859. 631 455 508 2. 082 1,031 12. 868 3, 730 4. 809 203 16. 161 1.792 1. 559 17. 349 _2 6. is! 8. 831 20. 532 3. out) 10 11. 7S7 4. 176 1. 333 1. 773 244 3. 620 2. 045 92. 155 23. 878 3. 500 613. 029 5 6. 225 150 900 14 99*2 866. 625 ! v i.".1 iP I >iviiu!i. Burtuu of Mini'*'* ; 1 > i* t M\ r at |{-'oufc> - 1 ' Bnt:-*i . Colonial `"locical >urvcy, $Mti<ticoI Summary of the Mineral Industry*. Production. Import? K\p.*ri !*'*, ]... bn;* :n report convcm-d to metric lou^ ' ProtSiju'i'ri. .nip<*r( mmu* <`\port. 4 v,,ij'h \fnr-j. Annual Stotcmunt of Trade and Shipping, K'tnuat.-1, iv -I mi mi|>ortN of previous year*. N*re -- Kvl'id"' K U"<i i. its satellite countrie*. and Yugoslavia. (irdirriiphy. University of Maryland, from fliiin supplied by the Bureau of Mines, United Sttiles Department of the Interior, and ap peared in the Atlas of the World's Resources, Mineral Resources of the World (vol. II), published hv Prentice-Hall. Figure 10 shows the output in the three leaditu: foreign asbestos centers anti in the United States for a .'10-year period. The loca tion of the Russian curve since 1938 is prob lematical. The minor position of the United States among leading world producers is appar ent. On the basis of value of output, Africa holds a relatively stronger position than is indicated on the chart, because Canada pro duces a preponderance of the lower priced short fibers. FREE WORLD CONSUMPTION It is more difficult to determine the con sumption of asbestos than its production. Production plus imports minus exports of raw asbestos for any year may not give a true icture of consumption, because stocks may be eld over for use in a following year, or material consumed may consist of stocks imported in a previous year; however, apparent consumption i ASARCO ALV 0006022 60 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY (production plus imports minus exports) is an approximate measure of true consumption. Table 29 shows the approximate consumption for 1948. Because of the unavailability of figures from beyond the Iron Curtain, table 29 is confined to countries of the Free World. The excess of consumption over production, as indicated in the totals of table 29, is due in some measure to substantial imports of as bestos from the U. S. S. R. into the United States and other countries, which swell con sumption by that amount, while the unknown U. S. S. R. output is not included under production. In 1948 the United States consumed about 71 percent of the total Free World consump tion, the United Kingdom about II percent, Canada 3 percent, Australia and New Zealand, Belgium-Luxembourg, and France about 2 percent each, and Italy and Switzerland about 1 percent each. These figures are on a tonnage basis. On the basis of value, the United States percentage would be somewhat lower. ASARCO ALV 0006023 WORLD RESERVES Current production throughout the world is an important element in the asbestos-supply situation, but consideration of the availability of asbestos fibers cannot be confined merely to the present. Even though immediate supplies may be adequate, the question inevitably arises. What are the prospects for obtaining equal or larger quantities of suitable fiber in the years to come ? The answer depends largely upon the extent of reserves of commercial fiber in the various asbestos-producing areas of the world. A knowledge of reserves is so important in planning future operations that the larger companies nave spent large sums on geologic surveys and prospect drilling in order that adequate reserves may be definitely es tablished as a solid basis for investment in mining and milling facilities. Much of the information thus assembled is confidential, but enough is available to afford a fair measure of overall world reserves. UNITED STATES The Federal Geological Survey and the Bureau of Mines estimated in 1944 that United States reserves of all grades of chrysotile amounted to about 750,000 short tons. Since that time considerable prospect drilling has been conducted in the deposit operated by Vermont Asbestos Mines near Eden, Vt., to a depth of about 800 feet; as a result, a 20-year supply at the current or even an enlarged production rate seems to be assured. This would imply a reserve of at least 800.000 to 1.000.000 tons of fiber in that area. A large percentage of the asbestos mined in the Ver mont region is of the shorter grades, but further exploration in that State may uncover deposits of longer fibers. Long fibers of chrysotile of good spinning quality are available in Arizona, but the known reserves are small. Estimates of reserves are generally confined to the vicinity of producing areas, but there is always the possibility of discovering new de posits that may supplement those already known. Promising samples of chrysotile of spinning made have been found in several pluces in Snasta, Trinity, and Siskiyou Counties, Calif., in an extensive serpentine area that merits exploration. Prospect drilling by a pri vate company was conducted on a deposit north of Redding, Calif., in 1950, but the re serves were evidently found to be too limited to justify large-scale operations. Exploratory work, financed chiefly by the United States Government, under supervision of Defense Minerals Exploration Administration, was be gun in Trinity County in 1951. Reserves of considerable size may be found in this extensive serpentine belt. Known reserves of spinning fibers in the United States are very small. Aside from those in Vermont, there are no known large deposits of short-fiber chrysotile. Many deposits of amphibole asbestos are known, particularly in Georgia, North Carolina, and California, and they are probably adequate to supply the limited demands for this type of fiber for many years. There are no known reserves in the United States of either amosite or crocidolite. CANADA Estimates of Canadian reserves are incomlete. A great deal of prospect drilling has een done, but only in some instances are the results available. Asbestos Corp., Ltd., the second largest producer in Quebec, has pub lished quite complete data in its annual reports. The company estimates its ore reserves, as of 1953, as follows: King mine 5.975.01)0 Beaver mine________ ________ _____________ British Canadian mine________ _______ ___ Vimy Ridee mine._____ _________________ Normandie mine 35, 000. 000 Other properties______ ________ __________ Sftou fun* 10. 000. 000 43.375.000 3.000.000 7, 300. 000 Total...................................................... 104,650,000 Assuming a 6-percent fiber recovery, this would indicate a fiber reserve exceeding 6 million tons. Drill exploration at the King mine shows asbestos-bearing serpentine to a depth of 1,700 feet. Johnson's Co. has increased its reserves greatly by diamond drilling. Bell Asbestos Mines has purchased a new property in range 4, Thetford Township, on which it has developed a high-grade 2,000- by 800-foot ore body, which is at least 300 feet deep. The Johns-Manville Corp. has conducted ex tensive prospect drilling for many years. From information supplied by drill cores, the company has constructed large models of its undeveloped areas showing quantity and grade of fibers, both laterally and vertically, as a guide to future de velopment. The comprehensive data thus as sembled have enabled the company to estimate that it has, within its present holdings, enough available fiber to last at least 100 years at the present rate of mining. These extensive de posits at Asbestos are predominantly short-fiber occurrences. The overall picture of reserves in the Quebec area is indefinite. The heavy investment in facilities and their substantial current enlarge ment indicate that the principal producers have 61 ASARCO ALV 0006024 (12 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY assured themselves of reserves adequate for continuous operation at the current rate, or on an enlarged scale, for at least 25 or 30 years. As current production is at a rate exceedin': POO,tint) tons of asbestos a year, a reserve in the Quebec area of at least 30 million tons seems to he assured, simply on the basis of expectation implied by capital investment and current rate of production. In view of the supplies avail able for a much longer period than 30 years, established by exploration conducted bv the largest producer, together with probable re serves in unexplored areas, the figure of 30 million tons could probably be doubled or even trebled. Of greatest interest are the reserves of crudes and spinning fibers. In 1948 and 1949 these groups comprised about 4 percent of the total production. Accordingly, if total reserves are tentatively estimated at a minimum of 00 million tons, the reserves of crudes and spinning fibers would appear to be about 2.400.000 tons. .'Mich a figure is based on the assumption that tin- proportion of longer fibers will be approxi mately the same in the future as in 194S and 1949. Production by grades was not pub lished from 1933 to 1947. hence no definite figures are available for that period. For 192S to 1932. during which such figures were pub lished. the proportion of crudes and spinning fibers to total production averaged about 0 per cent. Accordingly, the figure of 4 percent for 194'' and 1949 indicates a decline, which may be more apparent than real. Consideration mu.'t la- given to tin- great recent increase in recovery and sale of the very short fibers. This aeei--ion to the total will automatically lower the percentage of crudes and spinning fibers, although the actual quantities of these fibers piodueed may be as high as in earlier years. There is no statistical evidence that would imply a reduction in output of spinning grades in the le-ar future. From the foiegoing, it may be concluded that Quebec reserves are adequate for a half century of production, even at an increasing late. The new development in Munro Township, Ontario, provides a supplementary supply. The reserves are probably extensive but are not of the magnitude of those in Quebec. This development has not produced grades and qualities of fiber suitable for textiles. Reserves in British Columbia may be tentatively esti mated at 6 million tons running about 7 percent fiber. SOVIET RUSSIA In the early 1930s. when information con cerning Russian minerals was more readily available than at present, a statement was published that extensive and systematic core drilling had established a reserve, for the entire Bajenova district, of more than 3 million metric tons of fiber within 50 feet of the surface. This estimate was based on a 2-percent recovery, and as recovery is probably about 4}j percent, the estimate of reserves given above might easily be doubled. As the deposits extend far below the 50-foot level, a further substantial enlargement of the figure would be justified. In 1939 the reserves of asbestos in the Soviet I'nion were estimated at 18 million metric tons.1 SOUTHERN RHODESIA According to an estimate made in 1928. the reserves of asbestos in the Southern Rhodesian deposits totaled about 7 million tons. During the ensuing 22 years about 1 million tons has been mined, which would reduce the reserves to about 6 million tons; however, the rate of depletion probably has been reduced to some extent by enlargement of established reserves through prospect drilling. The 170 and Birth day fiber-bearing rock masses, which are approximately 2.000 feet long and 100 feet wide and dip 25. have been proved by drilling to a vertical depth of 1.000 feet. One diamonddrill hole in the Birthday section intercepted rock of good grade at a depth of 2.300 feet. The Xil Desperandum deposit has been proved to a depth of 850 feet. The proportion of fiber of spinning grades produced in the Shabani area is exceptionally high. An estimate as high as 25 or 30 percent has been made, but in 1949 it was said that 20 percent of the output would satisfy stockpile specifications, which call for the spinning grades that are designated as C & G Xos. 1 and 2. As the largest known Rhodesian re serves are in the Bhabani area, a reserve of spinning fibers that exceeds 1 million tons may be assumed. UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA TRANSVAAL Moderate reserves of .chrysotile occur in the Carolina district, but the Xew Amianthus mine near Barberton, a prolific producer in past years, ceased operation about 1940 because of reported depletion of reserves; however, it has recently been reopened. The nearby MunnikMyburgh mine, idle for some vears", has been reopened, and it is claimed that reserves of considerable extent are still available. Chrysotile reserves of considerable extent are known also in certain other properties in the Barberton area. > Imiusinya (Moscow), May 10,1830. .1 ASARCO ALV 0006025 WORLD RESERVES 63 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE The crocidolite deposits of the Cape extend over an area 240 miles long, with a maximum wilili of .`50 miles. The area is so large and the filter veins are distributed so generally through out it that the reserves are undoubtedly very great, but no definite figures are available. OTHER DEPOSITS SWAZILAND The reserves at the Haveloek mine are said to comprise 14 million tons of rock carrying 4 percent of asbestos. This would indicate the presence of over half a million tons of fiber. The reserves may. in fact, be greater than these estimates would indicate, because recent ex ploration has revealed the presence of an ex tension of the serpentine belt from the Havelock mine south-southwest to the Transvaal border, a distance of 17 miles. A newly developed property adjoining the Havelock mine is said to have a reserve of 2 million tons of rock carrying 5 percent asbestos. CHINA China may have large reserves of asbestos. It was estimated in 1935 that Hopeh Province had a reserve of 400,000 tons. SUMMARY The world as a whole appears to have ade quate asbestos reserves for at least 25 or 30 years at current or moderately enlarged rates of output. United States reserves of the shorter fibers are small compared with domestic needs. Of the longer grades the reserves are very small. The chief suppliers of United States markets-- Canada and Africa--appear to have adequate reserves for long-range planning. The Soviet Union probably has reserves large enough to supply its domestic economy for many years. To provide for a possible downward scaling of reserves for greatly enlarged consumption, the discovery and development of new deposits, especially in the United States, are highly desirable. ASARCO ALV 0006026 POLITICAL AND COMMERCIAL CONTROL Asbestos deposits of commercial importance are not abundant and are widely scattered over the earth. The demand for this mineral lias, at times, exceeded the supply; therefore, both political and commercial control of deposits is of primary interest, not only to individual con sumers but to national governments, because asbestos is regarded as a mineral of strategic importance. POLITICAL CONTROL The Russian deposits are under absolute control of the Soviet Union. All other pro ducing areas of primary importance--those of Canada. Southern Rhodesia, Union of South Africa, and Swaziland--are within the political orbit of the British Commonwealth. Moder ately important deposits in Cyprus, Australia, New Zealand, and India also are under British political control. Deposits of moderate im portance outside the British Commonwealth are in the United States, Venezuela. Italy. Finland. China, and Japan. Relatively small deposits are controlled politically by Argentina, Bolivia. Brazil. Portugal. France, Turkey, French Morocco, and several other countries. COMMERCIAL CONTROL The only large asbestos producer in the United^ States--Vermont Asbestos Mines--is a sub sidiary of the Ruberoid Co. of Xew York City. Nearly all of the smaller United States com panies are financed by domestic capital. Commercial control of the Canadian asbestos industry is diverse. Several mines are owned by United States manufacturers of asbestos products. The largest operation in Quebec, Canada--in fact, the largest operation in the world, that of Canadian Jolms-Manville Corn., Ltd.--is a subsidiary of the Johns-Manville Corp. of Xew York City. This company also operates a new property--the Munro Mine-- near Matheson, Ontario, which began produc tion in 1950. The mine and mill ofthe Quebec Asbestos Corp.. Ltd., are owned by the Philip Carey Manufacturing Co. of Cincinnati, Ohio. The Xicolet Asbestos Mines operation is owned by Xicolet Industries, Inc., of X'ew York City, and Flintkote Mines, Ltd., is owned bv the Flintkote Co., also of New York. The Bell Asbestos Mines, a large producer, is controlled by Turner & Xewall, Ltd., of Man chester, England. Asbestos Corp., Ltd., the second largest producer in the Quebec area, is financed by British and Canadian capital. The Johnson's Co., one of the pioneer operators, is wholly owned by Canadian capital. Two British companies, Turner & Xewall. Ltd., and the Cape Asbestos Co., control the major output of asbestos in Southern Rhodesia, the Union of South Africa, and Swaziland. As Africa is an important source of asbestos (particularly of special grades and varieties, such as amosite, crocidolite, and low-iron chrysotile, found in limited quantities elsewhere in the world), this restricted ownership is a limiting element. These companies have ex tensive asbestos-products-manufacturing plants whose raw-material needs claim first priority. European and Australian customers also are favored at times over United States consumers. Accordingly, a shadow of uncertainty always rests upon the L'nited States users of these highly important foreign fibers. Recent trends have been in the direction of larger demands and smaller supplies of low-iron chrysotile. However, the continuing shortage of supply has stimulated research on substitute materials that may eventuate in a decreasing demand for the foreign fibers. The one company operating in Cyprus is controlled chiefly by British, Swedish, and French capital. The Australian mines are controlled bv British and Australian interests. The blue asbestos mines of Bolivia are owned by Bolivian interests. A French company formerly held a 48-percent interest in the Venezuelan asbestos industry at Tinaquillo, but in 1953 the property was taken over by a new company controlled by Venezuelan capital. The Soviet Union controls, both politically and commercially, the activities of the asbestos industry of the Urals. 64 ASARCO ALV 0006027 INTERNATIONAL TRADE WORLDWIDE MOVEMENT OF ASBESTOS With one notable exception, the countries that are large producers of asbestos are rela tively small consumers, and the more important consuming countries have relatively limited supplies of asbestos within their borders. The exception is the Soviet L'nion, which is both a large producer and a large consumer. What are normally the important asbestos consuming countries outside the Soviet Union-- the United States, England, France, Italy, Germany, Belgium. Japan, and Australia-- produce no asbestos or only relatively small quantities. Canada, the Union of South Africa, and Southern Rhodesia are becoming increas ingly important asbestos consumers, but they use far less than they produce. Because of this situation, a large proportion of all asbestos mined enters international trade, and all the principal nations are profoundly interested in foreign sources of supply and their availability. Figure 11 presents a general picture of the export and import situation for selected coun tries in 1950, which may be regarded as a representative year. As the United States depends so extensively on foreign asbestos, sources of supply are of the utmost importance to national economy. FOREIGN TRADE OF THE UNITED STATES The United States is the largest consumer of asbestos in the world. Table 30 shows domes tic production, imports, exports, and apparent consumption for a 10-year period. Imports comprise 92 to 96 percent of the annual re quirements. These imported supplies con stitute the major part of the raw materials employed by more than 100 asbestos-products plants that manufactured goods valued at over $332 million in 1952. CANADA EXPORTS 0 OF LEADING PRODUCERS THOUSANOS OF SHORT TONS 200 400 600 800 1 1 11 | '1 SOUTHERN RHODESIA HU UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA HU UNITED STATES UN1TE0 KINGDOM IMPORTS OF LEADING CONSUMERS L"H HI 1000 Figure 11.--Asbe-to> Exports and Imports, by Leading Countries, in 1950. Table 30.--Axbtxfn* production and consumption in the United States, 1944*53, in short tons Year Production sold or U5H}| Import? Exports Apparent consumption Yew Production (sold or used) Imports . Exports Apparent consumption ltm........ 1915........ ... 1916........ ... 1917........ ... 1918____ ... 6. 667 12,226 11,075 21.035 37,092 383. 019 371. 199 456, 688 591, 839 647,881 , 475 8,550 11,011 2, 680 9,227 l 389,241 1949____ ... 377, 875 1950____ ... 458, 727 ; 1951____ ... 616,194 1952____ ... 675, 746vio, 1it9o53_ __i_.o.o.'- | 43,387 ! 509,366 ' 42,434 705, 458 ' 51,645 ` 761, 873 j 53,864 1 709, 469 ! 5o4t,,4to56o Ii 7tu0a2, 8o3oo8 j lI 20, 045 20, 890 16, 526 < 10,724 , 3o,,0u7/o6 i i 532, 708 727. 002 796, 992 752. 609 754, 218 65 ASARCO ALV 0006028 00 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY T.\nu. :il.-- I nitid States Imports of asbestos, by country of origin, 1944-53, in short tons (I)at i cottipiM by M B Price :<r! E. D Page of the Bureau of Mines, from record? of the t\ -* Department of CommerceJ Country 1 1044 Africa Sunthcrti HinxlcMa Union uf Sum h Africa Swaziland Australia Hoi i via Canaria Italv r. s. s. n... l*nttcd Kirmdom : Total ' ...... ........................ ........................ ... . ... . -. 7,966 19. ID6 15 353. 247 2. 610 1 383, 049 1943 2, 545 13. 247 2 355, 768 2, 625 374. 354 1946 5, 463 6, 050 24 442, 073 8 2. 750 1 456, 688 1947 1948 i 8, 992 ! 10. 513 20,034 I 19. 551 692 3 68 559,279 ' 602.216 8 10 6, 524 15. 514 i ................ 594, 839 047. 881 1040 |!TV. 1951 1952 I'**; Africa. >uni!irr:i lihudf'ta l'l;iun nf Solltii Africa .................. Swaziland ... \*Mralia . .... .... Unlit.:i .................. Canada ........................ ft ah' .................. . . r > I! U:..t d Kss-udtci, .. Total ' 13.722 22. 730 407 249 HO 470. 788 100 1.221 5 500, 366 0. JsJ2 14. S05 1, 522 273 30 678. 358 10 426 5 7. 725 23, 583 712 311 324 726, 770 23 ___2_. 237 .. 705. 253 761, 873 10. 543 26, 902 607 274 413 668, 900 11 1, 761 5 709, 469 1 000 37, 023 610 1, 750 Js2s 652. 117 4 325 120 702. '3' "t:: i. . iv* t.rTi u*-t xp.ir i,,:, I J:. ' I* "ik* 1'u'k' \. .;<! V* :< ij. ). from Br.iz:!. cub i * hil . China, Cyprus Finland. France, India. Mozambique, Morocco. .. .......... \ i:s *. ! K'j;j I-cn '-r -haMv <].! ii-l t*iiit* r m ftlirdcnj or Cmo i of ^outh Af* tea. hid' v f-r* f *u y* c* -n: iV. nu .utv * :::ii-ir:--1 horn 1 or mor*- of tIn- 'ountrii-' m nt.om-d m footnote i Table :;i shows United Si;i.ics imports of i-- for ilio piTtml 1 ti-f-f-Ti. Iy countries of <>ri"iti. On :t tonmiee liasis. over 00 percent ordinarily i- imported from Otimtdu. Inn a large pari of it coiHi-~t< of tlie shorter crudes. Of greale-t siL'iiificaucc. particularly at times of mut<uiaI emersreiiey. are the imports of crudes and 'pinning fibers, of which the United Slates produce-; very small quantities. Imports of 'iK'h irrades from Canada during recent years arc indicated in table 02. A.' referred to eUcwhcrc in this report, there i' a demand for substantial quantities of n-bc~io- with a lower iron content than that produced in Canada. The low-iron types are needed, in partieular. for electric-cable insula tion. The principal types are the so-called C. & G. Xos. I and 2 grades obtained from Southern Rhodesia. Table 33 shows imports of these grades during recent years. The relatively small quantities obtained dur ing the early 1950's created a critical situation. Demands became less urgent by 1953. and the situation was relieved further >y shipments of satisfactory low-iron fiber from the Cassiur Asbestos Co. mine in British Columbia. Canada. Crocidolite (blue asbestos) is used in large quantities in the United States, particularly in the manufacture of asbestos-cement pipe. Small quantities are used for gas and air filters. A Tvui.i. :;2. Imports off sjiiiioioy grades of asbist"' mto tin Uitiled Stales from ('ana<la. y.u.f/i-.'/O, //( J,nrt tons [B.i'*-d <ni lmiim>n Btrcau of Sciti.'tic* dat i( Tahoe 33.-- Imports of chrysolite asbestos into the United States from Southern Rhodesia, by grades, 1949-53, in short tons (V. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Cen^U'J rirclex Crude N. 1.................... Crude No 2.................... panning and texiil-,.. . Trial...................... 1949 19.Vl 1951 1952 1953 215 417 12.9*7 :p* 2ui ISO 24.417 25.247 122 217 :u>2 22.4*.l Si, 1M 144 312 W) 24.112 24.668 168 2U7 467 19.417 20.259 Grades 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 C. & O. So. 1............ ........... 1.270 2.124 C. <fc O. No. 2............ ........... 2.905 1,844 Other........................... ........... 9.547 4.950 Tot'l................. ......... 13.722 9.474 678 461 1,239 1.363 5.7M 8,296 7.725 10.297 1.IM9 014 7,304 9.687 1 Includes imf>orts from Mozambique. ASARCO ALV 0006029  INTERNATIONAL TRADE 6/ type of blue filler mined in Bolivia is preferred for lids specialized use. No blue fiber is pro duced in North America. Aniosite fins specialized uses that create a stnuis: demand for it. This variety is mined exclusively in the Union of South Africa. Imports of these varieties are presented in table 34. T.\ in.i. :-:4.--('riiciilnlitf and amoxite importid into tin t 'nd, d Stnh by country of oriyin. 1940--53. Ill n/tnll ton < Yew r,'n'"*i nf <"Ht \fr< - , \ u'tralu i Bolivia \! Total I'mori *f South Africa 4. SHI .. I'm < VO 7.7M 27J 34S 274 1.745 5.2AH 104 5.423 327 fi. *05 413 7.572 7'iT 10. ** !4>yJ V Io5 15.H! 1" 2i\ 15.21.1 Although llie United States produces only a fraction of its requirements of asbestos, it nevertheless exports substantial quantities, as indicated in table :{(). Small quantities of Vermont and Arizona asbestos are exported at tinie<. but exports from the United States eoifd-i principally of foreign fillers, chiefly Canadian, blended in various ways to suit the ........ of Latin American or European countries. South America has over 20 asbestos-products plants. Some of then; are supplied in part from -mall local asbestos mines, and fiber -hipnieiti' are sometimes received from Africa, but the plants must depend primarily on direct shipments from Quebec or on imports of prepared fibers from United States suppliers. FOREIGN TRADE OF CANADA Although Canada is attaining considerable importance as an asbestus-products-munufae- turing country, domestic requirements amount to only 3 to 5 percent of domestic production. Foreign sales of asbestos are therefore important elements in the Canadian national economy. The value of asbestos exports exceeded SS6 million in 1952. All exports of asbestos from Canada consist of chrysotile, except, possibly, small quantities of other varieties that are imported and later shipped to other countries. Canada is the principal source of supply of asbestos for the United States and a sub stantial source for many other countries. Table 35, showing exports for a 10-vear period of crudes and milled fibers fGroups 1 to 5). indicates the destination of shipments. Of the total exports of these grades during the period I94S to 1952. the United States received 03, continental European countries 13. United Kingdom 10, Latin American countries 7. and all other countries 7 percent. Since 1949 relatively larger proportions of the crudes and milled fibers are being shipped to countries other than the L'nited States. Of the shorter grades exported fGroups 6 and 7). which are not included in table 35, the United States receives SO to 90 percent. FOREIGN TRADE OF SOUTHERN RHODESIA Southern Rhodesia has a small asbestosproducts-manufacturing industry, which is ex panding. One new plant was built at Salisbury during recent years. Accordingly, a large percentage of the asbestos produced is ex ported. Of total shipments from Southern Rhodesia during the period 194S to 1952. the United Kingdom received 56 and the United States 15 percent. Australasia is next in im portance to the United States as a consumer of Rhodesian fiber. Destinations of exports fur several years are indicated in table 36. Tutu. --A'bi'ton crude-* and milhd fib,r-. ixjiortnl from Canada, by dirtination of ihipmtnt*. 1043--52. in *hort ton [Data trnm Trade of Canada] United Kingdom Continental Europe Latin America Other Totil HUH lull ..................................... ltU.'i . ..................................... 1940. ]`.U7 . 1948 19-t'i 1950 1951 .................................................................... 1952 .................................................................... 1(50.906 1-45,852 135,432 150,099 161,835 168,855 126,797 181,409 199,632 192,811 1 27. 541 16, 027 28, 799 23, 063 20,418 24,435 : 19, 058 . 29, 912 30, 807 , 36, 726 1,973 1, 130 19, 682 23, 289 . 19,661 20, 627 18, 996 38, 847 45, 339 59,221 . 12, 470 9, 251 18, 904 10, 325 14, 769 14, 418 8, 958 20, 848 23, 451 23, 941 9, 932 10, 948 7, 811 9, 096 7, 963 9,614 8,463 19, 627 26, 025 27,811 210. 837 181, (H*S 210, 628 215. 372 224. 646 237, 949 182. 272 290, 643 325. 254 340, 510 ASARCO ALV 0006030 GS THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY Table 3(>.--Axbixtnx tspurted from Southern Rhodesia, by destination oj shipments, 1943-52, in short tons (I >ata Trnd<> of Southern Rhod^ia; 1050-52. Economic and Statistical Bulletin of Southern Rhodesia] War United Status United Continental ! Latin Kingdom Europe America Australasia Other Total ISM 3........................... .. ................ 1944................................ ................ ................ 1940............................. ____ 1947.............. . .. HUS..................... ... 1949....................... . .. 1950......................... ................ 1951.............................. ................ 1952............................. ................ 32. 503 i 6, R06 ; 2. 281 1 4, 470 10,982 10. 142 13,574 11,310 9.032 10. ISO 11, 553 17, 637 17, 499 26, 438 25. 705 35. 766 37. 354 39. 971 39, 521 51,600 600 | 980 | 12,313 1 14, 908 6. 971 6. 577 * 7, 204 (') (0 (') 1, 950 3, 915 3, 700 2. 865 2. 463 3, 104 1,310 (') (') (') 8, 800 16, 281 13, 808 11,660 9. 947 10, 895 10. 994 (') (') (9 976 1, 136 650 1, 398 257 1, 279 2, 372 22, 492 19, 781 21, 355 56, 382 46, 755 50, 251 61, 745 56, 325 67, 763 72, 808 73, 779 68. 334 83, 135 Included under 'Other." FOREIGN TRADE OF UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA Throe varieties of asbestos are exported from the Union of South Africa--chrysotile, crocidolito. and amosito. The Union is the world's principal source of crocidolite (blue asbestos) and the only source of amosite. Although there are several asbostos-products-manufact tiring plants in the Union, a large percentage of the asbestos output is exported. Exports, by destination, are shown in table 37. The figures in this table include not only asbestos produced in the Union but also substantial quantities of chrysotile produced in nearby Swaziland and shipped through Barberton. Of the total quantities exported during 1946 to 1950 the United States received 24, the United Kingdom 38, continental Europe IS. Latin America 4, Australasia 9, and other countries 7 percent. Increasing shipments to continental Europe and Australasia, with rela tively smaller quantities to the United States, have characterized recent years. T\blk 37.--Asbestos exported from Union of South Africa, by destination of shipments, 1943-51, in short tons 1 (Data from Union of South Africa Annual Statement of Trade aod Shipping y 1 *r fnllrd Matt** United Kincdom Continental * Latin Europe * America Austral* asia i Other Total 1943 . I'm HU 5. l 11147 r.Ms HU" IllfiU 1951 ....................................... ..................................... ..................................... .......................................... .......................................... ............................ ........................ .................. .......................................... 23.250 18.846 9,674 9.933 18. 190 18.950 20.637 16. 115 24,810 20, 078 25. 932 23. 119 12, 089 27, 593 27.611 37, 158 37. 324 40, 020 410 | 5, 190 I 1,212 15,471 6. 070 7, 073 17, 136 21,821 28, 412 | 292 908 6, 003 213 1, 107 1, 955 4, 417 7, 265 6, 632 878 . 1,902 184 7, 906 : 4, 121 ; 4, 030 ! 6, 479 : 12, 537 13, 283 5, 274 5, 500 109 2, 282 7, 685 4. 363 , 6, 286 ' 6, 516 13,343 ' 50. 182 58, 278 40. 301 47, 894 64, 766 63. 982 92, 113 101, 578 126, 500 1 I tit lul' |iro<JutvJ w Swaziland. i ASARCO ALV 0006031 PROSPECTING AND EXPLORATION GENERAL FEATURES OF EXPLORATION Asbestos is usually associated with serpen tine, a mineral easily recognized by its green or yellowish green color and greasy luster; therefore, the formations in which asbestos occur are traced easily when exposed. The exposure nmv be widened by stripping or trenching and the quality of the fiber judged by visual inspection. Surface fiber may be discolored by weathering, but such effects usually are confined to a depth of a few feet only. Geologic mapping of the serpentine and associated formations is a desirable prelude to intelligent prospecting. Exploration at depth may be conducted with diamond or shot core drills. Deposits are commonly explored by means of test pits, which may be enlarged into active quarries or mines if favorable results are obtained. URGENT NEED FOR EXPLORATORY WORK During recent years, nearly all grades of chrysotile have been in short supply, but shortages have been most acute in the spinning grades. An imperative need for discovering new sources of supply has become apparent; the United States Government recognized this need and took steps to stimulate active search. The Defense Minerals Exploration Adminis tration of the L'nited States Department of the Interior, under the provisions of the Defense `Production Act of 1950. made available explora tion-assistance funds on a participating basis to encourage a search for strategic and critical minerals. For asbestos exploration the ratio of contribution originally was 90 percent by tbe Government and 10 percent by the operator, l.ate in 1955 the ratio was changed to 75 and 25 percent, respectively. Several asbestos com panies were granted assistance under the terms of this fund, and exploratory work was begun during the latter part of 1951. The Federal Bureau of Mines and the Federal Geological Survey rendered assistance in this exploration program. Help was also received from some State geological surveys. Several asbestos com panies conduct exploratory work continuously a^ a part of their regular development programs. METHODS AND PROBLEMS OF EXPLORATION Methods of exploration are governed, to some extent, by the character of the deposit. Most of the commercial asbestos deposits of the world, like those in Canada, are associated with massive serpentine, serpentinized peridotite, and similar rocks that extend to great depths. A more unusual type, like that of Arizona, consists of fiber zones bedded in altered limestone. The former, which might be called the three-dimensional type, requires exploration, both laterally and vertically. The bedded deposits are predominantly two-di mensional, and the mam problem is to deter mine the areas of the fiber-bearing zones. However, occasional exploration at depth is desirable to determine the presence or absence of additional fiber zones at other levels. The magnetometer, which has proved useful in prospecting for other minerals, has recently been applied, with some success, to prospecting for asbestos. Serpentine masses, with which chrysotile asbestos is generally found, can be detected with a magnetometer, even though they may be blanketed deeply with overburden. The magnetometer will not detect the presence of asbestos, but it enables the prospector to delineate the areas where serpentine--the host rock of the asbestos--exists, and thus it nar rows the field for later core-drill prospecting. The magnetometer is less effective in prospect ing the sheetlike deposits occurring in limestone. If, by the use of the magnetometer or other means, a promising area has been delineated, more intensive prospecting may be pursued. If the deposit is covered with a moderate depth of overburden, pits or trenches may permit wide exploration of surface and near-surface rock. The modern bulldozer is a useful tool for stripping or trenching. Exploration at depth is best accomplished with diamond-bit core drills. Survey lines are commonly run at 100-foot intervals and in 2 series at right angles to each other. Drill holes are spotted at the intersections of the grid thus formed. The spacing may be more or less than 100 feet, depending upon circumstances. The holes may be either vertical or inclined. A direction is chosen that will furnish the most useful in formation concerning the rocks intersected. A study of the cores will give information on the spacing and thickness of the fiber veins and the length and quality of the fiber. The evaluation of cores by visual study has attained remarkable refinement during recent years. The width of fiber veins in increments of one-sixteenth inch is determined by measure ment. A 5-foot section of core contains 960 sixteenths, and it is within the realm of accuracy to assume an even 1,000. Therefore, by adding the total number of sixteenths of fiber contained in a 5-foot section and dividing this number by 10, an uncorrected percentage of fiber content is obtained. This figure may be corrected according to the angle at which the veins inter sect the axis of the core. The fiber may be 69 ASARCO ALV 0006032 70 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY evaluated l>y determining the proportions of (lie various lengths timt appear in the veins. The proportion of fiber to roek may also be determined by proper sampling of the cores and by crushing the roek and screening out the fiber. If the cores are badly broken, as they commonly are in fractured and veined serpen tine. a method for sampling the drill sludge has been devised. The findings of the fiber con tent of the rock by the drill-core or sludge methods should be cheeked by determining the fiber content of representative bulk samples taken from outcrops, pits, or drifts. Labora tory or pilot-plant mills may be used for such determinations. If a commercial mill is available, a test run of several hundred tons of average mill roek would indicate the total recovery and recovery by grades that may be expected. However, each deposit has its peculiar features, and mill ing processes and equipment must be adapted to suit the prevailing conditions. A mill ad justed to treat most efficiently the rock of a certain deposit may not be suited for the best treatment of rock brought in from another source. Therefore, the percentage of recovery obtained on the sample may be lower than could be obtained when, as a result of experi ence. maximum mill efficiency was attained. The length, strength, and flexibility of the fibers are of first importance. For fibers one- fourth inch long or longer, a simple test is to bold firmly a wisp or filter between the thumb anil finger, using both hands, and to twist it by rotating the hands. Weak filters will break readily under such treatment. If the asbestos can be twisted for some time without breakage, it has high strength, and. if the fibers are long enough, they are probably suited for spinning uses. Fibers one-fourth inch long and longer are much more valuable than the shorter grades. However, for weak fibers, like those of anthophyllite. fiber length has little signifi cance because the milling process will break them into short lengths. Authoritative information on methods of exploring and evaluating asbestos deposits has been presented by stafr members of two asbestos-producing companies.1 Mi<s i. Muh tel J.. Examination .uvl Valuation of Chrysoill** Asbes tos 1M Omirrinein Massiw .*rrpriniiir Trans. AIM ME, vol.173, 1W7. (; :.* M Kostt r. >ii'orgc K .and Borror. Sharksr.. Ashesto$-Fiher Exploration and Produr U*n Kuncasts by Con* Drilling. Jcilrvy Mine, Asbestos, Qui'tac: 1 rails. AIM ME. vnj, 173. IW7, pp. &5-U3. ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR NEW DISCOVERIES Certain conditions must be satisfactorily met before successful commercial operation of a new asbestos deposit can be reasonably assured. 1. Quality of Fiber.--Chrysotile fibers of commercial grade must be strong and flexible. These qualities are adequate in most occur rences. Surface weathering tends to weaken the fibers; accordingly, samples should be taken below the weathered zone. Minability depends upon the adaptability of the fibers to use. Thus filtration qualities, harshness, flex ibility. and brittleness bear directly upon commercial application. 2. Length of Fiber.--Some asbestos deposits are worked profitably, even though virtually all of the fiber is below spinning grade, because there are extensive uses for short fibers. How ever. the presence of fiber of spinning length is highly desirable, especially in times of national emergency. Even a small proportion of fiber veins three-eighths inch or more thick is a favor able factor. Deposits furnishing both spinning and nonspinning fibers are more likely to prove profitable than those producing short fibers only. Proportion of Fiber in the Rock.--In general, the fiber recovered should be not less than 4*; or 5 percent of the rock cobbed or milled. If the percentage drops below 4* the project probably will be unprofitable. However, a deposit with smaller yield might be workable if the fibers were of exceptionally high value--if. for instance, the deposit fur nished a substantial proportion of spinning asbestos. Fiber yield can best be determined by making a commercial mill run using a large representative sample. 4. Extent of Reserves.--Asbestos milling is a costly process that requires a heavy invest ment in equipment. The investment is justified therefore only if the workable deposit is large enough to insure adequate supplies of com mercial-quality. fiber-bearing rock for at least 20 years of operation at an established rate, and with average profits. Prospect core drilling to determine the extent of reserves is a necessary forerunner of any asbestos milling project. 5. Economic Factors.--Mining and other operating costs, power and water supply, transportation facilities, and availability of labor are important factors in determining minability. ASARCO ALV 0006033 MINING METHODS Asbestos deposits throughout the world differ, widelv in character: and. as the mining method must he adapted to the prevailing conditions, a great variety of methods is followed. Openpit quarry methods, gloryhole. underground room-and-pillar. shrinkage stoping, block cav ing. and other methods are represented. A brief description of mining operations in the principal localities follows. UNITED STATES ARIZONA In Arizona there is no massive fiber-bearing rock, as in Canada. The serpentine with which the asbestos veins are associated is in bands from a few inches to a few feet thick, paralleling the Mescal limestone. The mines are entered from cliff faces or the steep sides of canyons. The veins pinch and swell irregularly and are so erratic in size and direction that develop ment cannot be planned as definitely as in the mining of many other minerals. The fiber is mined in drifts and tunnels, and conditions are most favorable where two or more veins of workable size are close enough to be worked on one drift. Modified room-and-pillar methods an- followed. Mining is so costly that a high price must be obtained for the fiber if any profit is to be earned. VERMONT The chrysotile asbestos deposit of Vermont is on Belvidere Mountain about 15 miles from Hyde Park. About 1944 a new quarry opening was made over the ridge about 1 mile from the quarry that was formerly worked. Overburden i- not heavy: and, as the asbestos veins occur in massive serpentine as in Canada, open-pit methods are employed. In 1953 the quarry was operated on 3 benches, each about 600 feet wide and 125 feet high. A series of 7-inch blast holes is sunk with churn drills, and about 511.000 tons of rock is thrown down with each multiple blast. The rock is loaded with 3-yard electric shovels into 15-ton Euclid trucks, which dump into a 48- by 60-inch jaw crusher. The crusher will handle such large masses that very little secondary blasting is necessary. Secondary crushing is accomplished in Symons cones, which reduce the rock to walnut sizes. The product of the cones is carried on a conveyor belt about one-fourth mile to an open stockpile at the mill site. Material from the stockpile is conveyed to a drier and thence to a dry-storage bin. from which the mill feed is drawn. When the present Lowell quarry was first opened, the rock was carried up hill 1 mile by overhead cableway to the old mill at the Eden quarry, but this operation was abandoned when the new mill began producing. CANADA Canadian asbestos occurs in irregular veins in massive serpentine deposits that are exten sive both laterally and at depth. Accordingly, well-ordered, large-scale mining operations have been developed. For many years asbestos rock was obtained from large open-pit quarries served by massive overhead cableways. About 1927 methods were modified by the introduction of cranes or power shovels for loading, locomotives for hauling cars on the quarry floor, and cable cars for removing rock from the pits up inclined planes or through tunnels. Crudes were handcobbed on the quarry floor or removed from picking belts after the rock was crushed. The Jeffrey mine of Canadian Johns-Manville Corp., Ltd., was operated as an immense open pit, with circular spiral benches that permitted powershovel loading and locomotive haulage. A de tailed discussion of the open-pit method has been published.1 A still later development was the introduction of slirinkage stoping. Slopes 40 feet wide and about 200 feet long were equipped with steel chutes through which the broken rock was drawn into cars trammed through drifts to the open pit from which the material was hoisted by high-speed cableways. The most recent mining method is an elab orate block-caving system first introduced at the King mine of Asbestos Corp.. Ltd., about 1932. A haulage system was established 500 feet below the surface. The overlying fiberbearing rock was worked in blocks 160 feet square. Four grizzly drifts 40 feet apart were driven beneath the block 40 feet above the haulage level. The drifts were timbered and provided at 20-foot intervals with heavy steelrail grizzlies with 16-inch openings. Finger raises were driven upward at each side of the drift, and 20 feet above the drifts the block was undercut completely by driving drifts and blasting out the intervening pillars. The finger raises were funneled to permit access to large pieces of rock that were broken at the grizzlies. The boundaries of the block were weakened by projecting raises and connecting drifts. The entire block sank and was broken by its own weight. Rock was worked through the grizzlies until the block was exhausted. Satisfactory i Chellson. H. C., Operating tbe World's Largest Asbestos Mine; parts I and II: Eng. and Min. Jour., vol. 142,1941, No. 9, pp. 43-46; No. 10. pp. 49-62. 71 ASARCO ALV 0006034 72 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY results were attained. and mining costs were considerably lower than by the shrinkagestopirifr method. The method has been em ployed also by Johnson's Co., and Canadian Jolins-.Manvill'e Corp.. Ltd., has been develop ing an extensive block-caving system at the Jeffrey mine for several years. In this mine each biock is 200 feet square. The crushing plant is situated at an underground level of 816 feet and loading facilities at a 950-foot level. Several blocks were being worked in 1952. A detailed description of the method followed has been presented.5 Other companies are preparing for or have adopted similar processes and considerable de tail concerning their methods has been pub lished.3 Both the open-pit and underground methods followed in Quebec have been covered in a series of articles in the magazine Asbestos. ** separate shaft. The shafts were also used for disposal of waste and for drainage. A shrinkage-stoping method was introduced about 1926. The fiberrbearing rock is removed in blocks 80 feet square, leaving pillars 20 to 30 feet wide, which are subsequently reclaimed. It was reported in 1949 that conditions had developed underground that made it necessary to change from a room-and-pillar to a caving system of mining and that mining had to be pursued with care to avoid excessive caving that might obstruct operations. The pre cautionary measures designed to preserve the safety and integrity of the mine tended to restrict output. As the areas affected are sources of long fibers, the modification in min ing method mav account in some measure for the shortage of Rhodesian spinning fibers in 1951 and 1952. SOUTHERN RHODESIA The largest asbestos mines in Southern Rho desia comprise the Shabani group. They are classed among the most important asbestos mines in the world, having attained a produc tion rate of over 72.000 metric tons of fiber a year in 19-19. The most important ore bodies are the 170. Birthday. 177. and Nil Desperandum. The 170 and Birthday ore bodies have a length of over 2.000 feet and a width of about 100 feet, and dip about 25 south. Mining is concentrated on the 400- and 500-foot levels (vertical depth). The Nil Desperandum ore body has a length of 500 to 600 feet and dips abmit 45. Two mining methods--quarrying and shrink age sloping--have been used in the Shabani mines. The quarrying method, as described some years ago. was unusual in that the rock was broken in open pits but was removed through vertical shafts. Shafts or winzes were sunk in rows 50 to 60 feet apart and connected with crosscuts at a lower level. The rock around them was drilled and blasted, and the longer fibers were cobbed from the broken fragments. For the fiber to be broken as little as possible, light powder charges were fired in shallow holes. The broken rock was thrown into the shafts (which were kept nearly full), drawn into cars on the level below, am] taken to the mill for extraction of the short fiber or recovery of the long fiber not removed in cob bing. The cobbed fiber was thrown down a * Llnd.-ll. Karl V., World's Larsrpst Asbestos Producer I'ses Block Cavtnc and Concreted blusher Drifts: Min. Eoe., vol. 4, No. 3, March 1052. pp. 255 271. * Ross. J, O.. Block Cavlne at the Kin* Mine of the Asbestos Corp., Ltd.. Thetford Mines. Quebec: Canadian Min. and Mel. Bull. 264, April 1034. pp. 1&4-21*. Sherman,Jerald, Review of Procrvss In the Cavlne of Asbestos Ore: Min. and Ene., vol. 187. No. 4. April 1950. pp 407-474. * Smith. C. V., Asbestos-Mlnln? Methods Asbestos, vol. 26. 1944, No. 3. pp. 3-8. No. 4, pp. 3-10: No. 5, pp. 3-12. UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA The largest asbestos mines that have been worked in the Union of South Africa are the New Amianthus and the Munnik-Myburgh in the Barberton district. Both were idle for some years but have been reopened. The Munnik-Myburgh mine was said to have had 3,300 feet of underground workings in 192S. but no data are now available on the extent to which the old workings will be utilized or the nature of the new developments. Several chrysotile mines are in operation in the Barber ton district, but descriptions of the mining methods followed are not available at this time. In the Carolina district of the Transvaal chrysotile occurs in cross-fiber veins occupying a 5-foot zone of altered dolomite dipping 8 to 15. Mines have been operated since 1905 and were said to have reached a depth of 300 feet in 1936. As production has never been large, the workings probably have not been extended greatly during subsequent years. Amosite of the Lyaenburg district of the Transvaal occurs in banded ironstones that have been highly folded and contorted. The fiber-bearing beds usually stand at angles ranging from 15 to vertical. As they are unsuited for open-pit working, underground mining is generally followed. Where the beds are intersected by transverse valleys, tunnels are driven along the strike, and the fiber-bearing rock is stoped out at various levels. Outcrops are numerous over a wide area, and fiber is obtained from many mines worked at relatively shallow depths. The largest mines are the Egnep and the Amosa, near Penge. In this region the fiberbearing zone dips from 15 to 22 . The Egnep mine was worked on seven levels. A vertical shaft 215 feet deep served the seventh level and ASARCO ALV 0006035 MINING METHODS 73 in 10:i0 was connected with the sixth hv a crosscut. The Amosn mine, ns described bv Hati in 1030. comprised 11 drifts, starting from the outcrop and ranging from SO to 1,140 feet iu length down tiie dip. Its inclined shaft. 320 feet loii". corresponded to a vertical depth of 20(1 feet. The followin': information on mining methods was supplied bv the Cape Asbestos Co. in 1945.5 From the adits and levels the rock is stoped overhand. Material from the upper band is dropped to the haulage way on the main band. To mine the asbestos, the entire band is knocked down with blasts in drill holes placed in the waste rock between the seams of asbestos. Coarse waste is sorted out and used for stope filling. The asbestos and finer size waste are conveyed to the mill. It was stated in 1952 that a haulage tunnel in one of these mines had been driven to a length of 3.500 feet.5 Crocidolite occurs over a wide area in the Prieska and Kuruman districts of the Cape of Good Hope. The veins are so irregular and discontinuous that systematic mining is dif ficult. Simple surface workings in early days were later supplemented by shallow adit tunnel openings. Much of the work was_ done by native labor on a contract basis. Where fiber veins persisted at depth and were reasonably dose together, underground methods were developed. Within the past 15 years, compressed-nir drills have been introduced in most mines. Some mines have vertical and others inclined shafts. Waste material discarded un derground is used as packing for roof support. Further sorting is conducted at the surface to eliminate rock too lean for profitable milling. Mill rock may be collected from many scattered working*. A few mines have been worked to depths of 250 feet with drifts over 1.000 feet long. Hnil7 described asbestos mining in the l"tlion in some detail in 1930. In the Transvaal all mining was by contract iu opeiictit workings along the exposures for many years. Underground mining was intro duced later. Compressed-air drills are now used extensively. The demand for asbestos during the past few years has stimulated interest in the search for new deposits, and large numbers of pros pectors and individual miners are operating in the asbestos areas. Where mining is conducted it consists essentially of stripping outcrops and operating at shallow depths limited by their i Asbestos, Amosltc Mines, South Africa: Vol. 27, No. 2, Aucust ms. p. i. * Isuics. H. Sailtne. The Story of Amoslte: CAC Maraitne, The Cape Afl*st* Co. fLondon . vol. 2. No. 1, Decvrolter 1952. p. 26. * Hall. A L . Ashf-stos in the Cnlon of South Africa. (Jeol. Purvey of South Africa Mem. 12. 21. ed.. 1930. rt::-jr.fw r,r,---- 0 small financial resources. Such a scale of oper ations is not conducive to production of asbestos of uniform grading or quality. SWAZILAND At the Havelock mine about one quarter of the rock is obtained from open-pit quarries and three quarters from underground stopes. After crushing, the fiber-bearing rock is passed through a rotating grizzly with 4-inch openings. The minus-4-inch product passes through a trommel with 2Jj-inch circular openings. The plus-4-inch and the minus-l-inch plus^U-inch products are carried on a picking belt, where fiber-bearing and barren rock is separated and the latter carried to waste. SOVIET RUSSIA The asbestos deposits of the Bajenova dis trict have a thin overburden. Hand methods of removal were first employed, but power shovels or hydraulic methods have superseded them to quite an extent. More than 20 shallow, open quarries were worked for many years. Up to 1929 drilling was the only mechanical process used, and all other operations were conducted with hand tools. Owing to inadequate milling facilities, hand picking became an important concentra tion process, and only one-fourth to one-fifth of the rock quarried was sent to the mill. The average fiber content of the rock mined was only about 6 percent; but, because of the con centration attained by hand picking, rock sent to the mill contained 22 percent. The first steps toward more complete mech anization were taken in 1929. with installation of 2- to 4-ton-capacity overhead cableways with fixed foot towers and traveling head towers, supplemented by inclined haulageways served by electric hoists. The rock was blasted in benches 5 to 6 meters high and classified into crudes, mill feed, and waste. In 1929 two shafts were sunk and con nected with a haulage level at a depth of 50 meters. They were designed for gloryhole mining, which proved uneconomical. This method was supplemented and largely super seded in 1930 by electric-shovel loading in open pits, with transportation by locomotives to inclined haulagewavs, up which cars were taken by electric hoists. Rukeyser8 has de scribed quarrying and mining methods in some detail. These conditions prevailed in the early 1930's, and no data are available as to what has transpired since that time. It is a fair Rukevser. Walter A.. Mlnlne Asbestos In U. S. S. R.: Eng.and Min. Jour., vol. 134. September 1933, pp. 375-381. I ASARCO ALV 0006036 74 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY assumption Unit tin1 scope of mining lifts been enlarged mid methods improved. CYPRUS Clirvsotile nsbestos occurs on the slopes of Mount Troodos in irregular veins traversing serpentine formed hv alteration of olivine. The expansion accompanying metamorphism of the original olivine resulted in excessive fracturing, which makes excavation easy. Cy prus Asbestos Mines. Ltd., is the sole operator. The workings consist of open-pit terraces reach ing a maximum height of 2f>0 feet. Much of the rock is so fractured and decomposed that it can be broken with picks without the aid of explosives. Before 1027. when compressed-air drill- were introduced, the harder rock was drilled for blasting by hand methods. The larger masses of barren rock are removed as waste. Fiber-hearing material is sun-dried and then passed over gravity screens. That passing through an lS-mm.-mesh screen and retained on a .i-mni. screen (about otic-fifth of the total material quarried> is sent to the mills. Oversize rock retained on the upper screen and sand passing the lower screen are trammed to waste heaps. As the quarries are at an eleva tion of about ]..'>( If) feet above sea level, they can be worked only from March to December. Further details of quarry methods followed in the late 1920`s have been given by Whitworth.' Mining activities of a later date have been recorded briefly.10 CHINA Before World War II mining methods in the Laiyuan district, where the most important asbestos deposits of the country are situated, were primitive. The mining tools used were hammers, chisels, picks, and shovels. Xo machinery or explosives were employed. Small inclined tunnels were sunk along the veins to a maximum depth of about 30 meters. The fiber was cobbed and sorted by hand. During the war production increased greatly under Japanese stimulation, and it may be presumed that more modern methods were introduced. ANTHOPHYLLITE AND TREMOLITE MINING Both tremolite and anthophyllite usually occur in pockets or lenses of relatively small size and are generally confined to nearlsurface zones. Most of the mines, therefore, are shal low open pits. There are workings of this type in Georgia. X'orth Carolina, California. Montana, and some other States. Exception ally, the fiber is mined in drifts or tunnels. * Whitworth. M,, Cyprus and Its Asbestos Industry Mining Mjc. (London;. vn|. 39. .-September 192*. pp. 143-15". it Mining Journal (London), vol. 240. No. 5653. May 22,194S. p. 3SA ASARCO ALV 0006037 MILLING METHODS DEFINITIONS Asbestos filters fall into two main groups-- erttdes and mill fibers. The term "crude" in Canada and Vermont is applied to fiber of spinning grade, measuring three-eighths inch or longer, which is hand cobbed and not passed through a mill. In Arizona the term is used more loosely. There are four grades of Arizona "crudes" that include all fiber lengths. Al though some are lmnd-cobbed, most of them are produced by simple mechanical cobbing and screening. In other countries also the term is used more loosely. In both Soviet Russia and Africa it includes fibers prepared by hand cobbing alone or in conjunction with simple mechanical crushing, disintegrating, and screen ing processes. Mill fibers are obtained by crushing and beating the fiber-bearing rock until the asbestos is freed and then removing the fiber from the rock by screening and air separation. GENERAL FEATURES Chrysotile. the principal asbestos of com merce. is a fibrous form of serpentine and is always associated with massive serpentine. The concentration process is therefore unique in that it involves separation of a fibrous mineral from a massive form of the same min eral. .Neither chemical composition nor specific gravity can therefore be used as a basis for separation. The property that makes mechani cal separation possible is the fibrous structure, which permits it to be opened or divided into filaments amenable to separation from the gangue by air suction or screening. The value of chrysotile asbestos depends largely upon the length of the fibers, as the long fibers are worth several times as much as the short ones. A most important principle underlying asbestos milling is separation of fiber from rock with a minimum of fiber breakage, rn/ieccssarily rough treatment is to be avoided. Modern mills are designed to remove the separated fiber after each crushing process. If tbe fiber already freed from rock enters the next crushing unit along with sand and rock fragments, it will be broken into shorter grades. Asbestos milling consists essentially of coarse crushing, drying, and recrushing in stages; each step is followed by screening and air separation of fiber from rock. Fiber processing consists briefly of separation of the aspirated fibers according to length and cleaning of the respective grades for removal of granules and dust. The process is flexible enough to provide finished fibers of varying text ures. Milled fibers of spinning grade require con siderable further processing at the asbestostext ile-manufacturing plant. Crude asbestos retains more or less of the natural solid form in which it occurs in the veins, and several successive opening processes are required. These processes are conducted at the textile plant. The development of improved processes whereby fiberization (fiber opening) mav be accomplished with minimum breakage of fibers is a profitable field for research. Some success has been attained by using dispersing agents to supplement or replace mechanical means. Im pregnation with air at high pressure, followed by sudden release of the pressure, has been tried.1 This is essentially the same process as that followed for fiberizing wood. When ap plied to masses of crude asbestos, the method gave satisfactory fiberization but is said to be uneconomic.2 The milling process can break tbe longer fibers into snorter lengths and weaken the fibers; this is avoided as far as possible. Meth ods have been devised whereby the tensile strength of asbestos fibers can be tested and the results expressed in terms of pounds per square inch.3 Although this is a slow and tedious process, it has at least one important application. It has been found possible to submit bundles of crude asbestos to processing equipment such as crushers, rolls', hammer mills, etc., and to test the tensile strength of the fiber before and after processing. By comparing; the degree of weakening of the fiber one can determine the type of equipment best suited for opening the fiber with minimum effect on the fiber strength. Mill design varies greatly because it must he modified to suit the nature of the fiber, the ease or difficulty of fiberization, and the hardness or toughness of the enclosing rock. An approved design may represent many months or even years of testing and experi mentation. CANADA Canadian milling practice is described first because the Quebec operators were pioneers in milling and established a pattern that is followed with some modifications in many other regions.* i Joyoe, William J. (assignor to Raybestos-Maohattan, Luc.), Method of Flberiiine Asbestos- U. S. Patent 2.386.401, Oct. 9.1946. t Information supplied by Jesse M. Weaver, Raybestos-Manhattan. Inc., 1951. * Badollet. M. S., Research on Asbestos Fibers: Canadian Min. and Met. Bull., vol. 51, 1948, pp. 213-216. 75 ASARCO ALV 0006038 7G THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY RECOVERY OF CRUDES Before- the mid-lflRO's most of the Quebec fiber was obtained from open pits. It was enstomarv (lien to sledge the rock on the quarry floor ami to separate the masses of longer fiber by hand. With gradual conversion from open-pit to underground mining, conditions became less favorable for cobbing. In some instance's the crudes an- collected from picking holts. Much of the fiber formerly handpicked as crude-s now pusses through the mill and appears as mill fibi-r, The handpicked chunks of crude asbestos are taken to cobbing sheds, where they are manually processed by flattening with ham mers. thus freeing any adhering rock. The separated rock. dust, and short fibers are dropped into a receptacle under the bench, and tin- remaining high-grade fibers are classed as Crude No. 1, material three-fourths inch long and over, and Crude No. 2. material three-eighths to three-fourths inch long. To separate further the short fiber and rock dust, Crude No. 1 is screened on a flat shaking screen with \-inch holes and No. 2 on one with s(6inch holes. After being screened, the fibers are packed in jute hags of 100 pounds capacity. Crudes constitute a very small proportion of tin- recovered fiber, but they are the most valuable products. MILLING PRACTICE Primary crushing is the first step in milling. Rock from the mine or quarry is dumped into an ore skip and conveyed to the crusher by controlled apron feed. A jaw crusher with a 4 s- by CiO-inch opening set for a (i-inch dis charge is a popular primary breaker, but smaller units may be used. To avoid un necessary milling, obvious barren rock is discarded before, or both before and after, primary crushing. The crushed rock is passed to trommel screens--large revolving cylinders with open ings that permit the finer sizes to pass through but retain the sizes too large to be fed to the driers. The oversize lumps, which may be 4 to 0 inches in diameter, are fed to secondary crushers, usually of the gyratory or cone type. The secondary-crusher product joins the screen product of the trommels and is conveyed to drier bins. Mill rock, especially during the winter or rainy seasons, contains considerable moisture, which must bo removed because efficient mill operation requires dry rock. The rock is dried in vertical or rotary driers; the latter may be 50 or GO feet in length and 5 to 7 feet in diameter. The rock is cascaded through a current of air heated by oil or coal furnaces. The dried rock is conveyed to large dry-storage bins. From dry storage the rock is carried through a third crushing stage in crushers of the gyra tory or cone type; the product is fed to shaking screens equipped with suction hoods, where the first step in fiber removal occurs. The free fiber is lifted by air suction. The rock, which passes over the end of the screen, and the undersize, which passes through the screen, are carried forward for further treatment. The rock is reduced in a fourth and last crush ing stage to about one-fourth-inch size and is again passed over shaking screens to remove fiber and fines. Up to this point size has been reduced by crushing; for subsequent reduction fiberizers are used. The difference in action of crushers and fiberizers is significant. Reduction by crushers is accomplished by pinching or com pressing. The fiberizer, however, is a high speed hammer mill that breaks the rock by impact. The falling rock is struck by hammers revolving at a speed up to 10,000 feet per minute. Either method releases the fiber from the rock, but the impact method is more intense and ordinarily is not used until the longer, more valuable fibers have been separated. It follows also that fiber produced during primary milling stages tends to be "crudy," a condition preferred by some users. During subsequent processing the fibers become more and more "opened"; that is, the fiber bundles are separated into finer bundles--the fiber spicules are of smaller diameters. The product of the fiberizers. like that of the crushers, is fed to shaking screens from which the fiber is collected by air suction, and the rock and screenings are carried forward for further treatment. The three steps--fiberizing. screening, and air suction--are the major elements in asbestos milling. The accompanving flowsheet, figure 12, which is essential)y that prepared by Kelleher,4 may assist in visualizing the progress of rock and fiber through a modern mill. On this flowsheet only two fiberizer stages are shown, but there may be several such stages. The complexity of detail, including many repetitive processes, is too involved for discussion herein. A mill may be 10 stories or more in height and may have hundreds of shaking screens. Fiber processing and cleaning merit brief mention. Fibers are fed to duplex (two-deck; shaking screens equipped with suction hoods, where they are separated into long, medium, and short fractions. The long fiber remains on the top screen and is picked up by air sue-* * Kelleher, J. C., Milling Asbestos: Asbestos, vol. 27, No. 3, September IMS. p.4. I asarco alv 0006039 MILLING METHODS Mill rock 1 Pnmory crusher l Trommel screen * ....... ... Overs ......... j ......... ___________ -- Seeondory crushers i ** Driers I_______ Dry storoge bins 1 Third stoge crushers ........ i..... Shaking screens, suction hoods i Throughs 77 Fiber Cleaning Groding _ Fiber Cleaning i Groding ______ :________1 Fiber _______________ 1 Cleaning I.. Grading Overs i Fourtn stoge crushers ............. * Shaking screens, suction hoods i ________ _____ Overs fT"............ ............. Fiberizers i Shaking screens, suction hoods _____ i i______ Overs l Fiberizers I Shaking screens, suction hoods Throughs i_____ ______ Throughs 1 Throughs 1 Tailings Figtre 12.--Typical Flowsheet of a Canadian Asbestos Mill. tion and delivered to a fiber collector. The medium-length fiber, which collects on the lower screen, is fed to a single-deck shaking screen, where it, in turn, is picked up by suction and delivered to a separate collector. The short fibers pass through the lower screen and are conveyed to bins for further grinding and cleaning. There are five major classifications according to fiber length, namely, Spinning or Group 3. Shingle or Group 4, Paper or Group 5, Stucco and Plaster or Group 6, and Shorts or Group 7. Each group has several subdivisions, and an average mill produces at least 24 separate grades. Barren screenings, which constitute about 90 percent of the rock milled, are con veyed to waste areas. ASARCO ALV 0006040 7S THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY Fiber cleaning is an important process. It consists essentially of screening and air separa tion. Screens are used in preference to tables. Tin1 screen permits the dust to pass through. Well-opened fibers tend to cling together in masses which do not pass through a screen readily. This is an advantage, as it permits the use of coarse screens which drop out the rock without loss of fiber. Several repetitions of the cleaning process may be needed. Grading is done in long, rotary screens covered with screen wire of various size mesh. The grader is driven by a five-lobe cam which imparts a bumping action to the screen. The fiber is fed into one end of the slowly rotating grader. The short fibers pass through the fine me'li at the entering end, longer fibers pass through the larger mesh in the second half of the screen, and the longest materials pass out at the end. Experienced operators obtain desired grades by blending materials of two or more screen sizes. Graded fiber may be con veyed to bins or mechanical mixers before bagging. It is placed in jute or paper bags of 10(1 pounds net weight. Manual bagging has been largely replaced by mechanical bagging units in recent years. In 1951 Canadian Johns-Manville Corp.. Ltd., developed a pressure packer. The paper seeks are enclosed in steel during packing. Each rectangular sack, containing 100 pounds, occupies only about 2 cubic feet. Storage and shipping space is thus conserved. Disposal of the extremely fine fibers and rock dust i< an important phase of milling. The enormous volume of air handled in the collect ing systems is hcavilv laden with fines, which arc controlled not only for their intrinsic value but to remove dust hazards from workers and the surrounding community. The fan exhaust is discharged into a large chamber known as a float shed. As the velocity of the air drops, the solid particles settle. The shed is divided into several compartments at varying distances from the air inlet. The heavier materials will settle first, and the finer particles will be carried to more distant points; hence, each compartment collects floats in a different range of particle size. The finest dust is collected by electric precipitation or in filter bags. Further detail on milling processes is given in several publications.5 A new-type air-swept mill designed to proc ess the fiber-bearing rock in a single stage has* * Kelleher. J. C.. Milling Asbestos: Asbestos, vol. 27, 1945, No. 3, pp. 2-10: No, 4. pj>. 3-Hi No. S. pp. 6-12. Deoovan. K. A . Operating the World's Largest Asbestos Mlne--III: Eag. and Min. Jour,, vol. M2, No. 11, November 1941. pp. 51-55. been introduced at several plants. Its capa bilities have not yet been thoroughly explored. The most pronounced recent trend in the Canadian asbestos industry is the greatly in creased use of shorts for such products as asphalt floor tile. Some of these products contain 35 percent or more of asbestos, which is said to impart exceptionally high qualities. All companies now operating mills in Quebec have introduced additional screens and suc tion facilities to recover part of the shorts for merly regarded as waste. The dry process is universally employed in asbestos milling. Wet methods were tried experimentally many years ago but were not adopted commercially. Recently, however. Johnson's Co. has erected a new wet-process plant for re-treating mill tailings to recover shorts. The process was developed by Selec tive Treatment Co., Ltd., under patents now expired. If operation of this mill proves ad vantageous, it may mark the beginning of a trend toward wet milling in the Quebec area. It is claimed, however, that a wet process tends to remove certain fractions of the fiber mass, the retention of which is desirable. Tramp iron can be removed easily with magnetic devices, but no mechanical means of removing wood fragments has yet been de vised. Because of its flammability, wood fiber is a serious impurity in a product whose fire resistance is an outstanding asset. Accord ingly. the utmost care is taken to keep wood fragments out of the mill rock. Steel mine supports and steel ties are substituted for wood. The use of matches in mines, quarries, and mills is prohibited. In some of the arid African asbestos areas contamination of the fiber by wind-blown vegetable matter has become a serious problem. CAPACITY Table 38 shows the milling capacitv of the Canadian asbestos industry, as recorded in a recent report.5 Such mill capacity, on a 300day basis, would represent an annual capacity of 10.260.000 tons. The actual quantity of rock milled in the peak year of production (1951) was 10,219.658 short tons. According to this report, milling capacity in Quebec will be increased considerably in the near future. Johnson's Co. was building a new mill at Black Lake in 1952 with a daily capacity of 4,000 tons of rock. Hayes, F.T. (Drafting Officer),and Cross. Cecil M. P. (U. $. Consul General', Notes on the Canadian Asbestos Supply Situation (submitted J.tn. 16. 19511: Bureau of Mines, Mineral Trade Notes, February 1951. ASARCO ALV 0006041 MILLING METHODS 79 Tahle 3S.--Caninlian milliny capacity, 1950 Daily ro(k Companv and mill: A, 'inMix ,l.orp., fL.tdi.:. *hort tons iicawr and Kim: milN.................................. 6,000 Hnti'll Canadian mill . 4.000 Vitny Ridue mill............ ................... 2. 800 Canadian Jolm^-Mativillc C'orp , Ltd.: Dan ville mill............................................................. .. 12. 500 Jolim-on'* ( Tlietfnrd Mine? mill................................... 2.000 Col.'raine mill......................-.................... 1.200 Hell A.-he-tos Mines, Ltd. (Turner & Newalli: Hell mill............................................ LS00 Nienlet Asliesto? Mines, Ltd. (Nicolet In dustrie.'. Ine.i: Danville mill........................... 1.500 Quebec Asbestos C'orp., Ltd. (Philip Carey Manufaeturim: Co.i: Last Rrounluon mill)..................................................................... L500 I'lintkme Mines (Flintkote Co.): Thetford Mine- mill................................................................ L 200 34. 200 Mill rapacity ns indicated in this mlile is lieint: increaset! coiiMderably. ( anadian Jolms- Maiiville Corp.. Lid., is completing an extensive remodeling program at its Jeffrey mill, increasimr its capacity to 10.000 tons u day. A new mill, the Normandie, of the Asbestos Corp., Ltd., was scheduled for production on a scale nf ."i.nno tons a day in 10.54. This company is uLii expanding its facilities at Black Lake. ( nnlincutu) Asbestos Co.. Ltd., has a mill of i'iIIO tons a day capacity at Coleraine, but pro duction to the end of 1952 was small. 1 he Dominion Asbestos Co. new mill of 2.200 tops a day capacity near Saint Adrien, (Quebec, began production in 1953. UNITED STATES ARIZONA In 1952. in mills were in operation in Arizona. .! in Globe, and the others at various mines. Only the carefully hand-cobbed rock is milled. Such rock may contain as high as 50 percent liber. It is passed through a jaw crusher and over shaking screens. At some mills they are dc'ismatcd "bumper" screens, because the screen si pikes a post at the end of each stroke. Such action is said to improve screening effi ciency. Fiber that passes over a H-inch mesh is designated No. 1. that which passes over b-incli mesh and through ^-inch mesh is designated No. 2. while Grades 3 and 4 pass through the h'-ineh-mesh screen. The above milling process is known locally as "cruding." Several mills have equipment for further proc essing. including hammer-mill reduction, screen ing. and air separation. No. 1 is spinning-grade fiber if not too harsh. No. 2 contains some spinning fiber. Grading equipment is less efficient than that used in Canada or Vermont, and the grades sold com monly lack consistency of quality or classifi cation. VERMONT A new mill recently built about one-fourth mile from the new quarry of the Vermont Asbestos Mines is said to be one of the most modern and complete asbestos mills in exist ence. (See fig. 13.) The rock, of walnut sizes, delivered to the mill is broken in a series of vertical hammer mills with separation of fibers by air suction at each stage. Table screens are used. The fiber is classified in regular graders, as in Canada. The major output falls in Groups 5 and 6 of the Canadian classification, although substantial quantities of Groups 4 and 7 are produced. Limited quantities of Group 3 are obtained. Groups 4. 5. and 6 are used in the company asbestosproducts plants and supplemented by purchases from outside sources. In 1953 the company introduced an improved pressure-packing system in its bagging depart ment. Further details on milling practice in Vermont have been published.7 UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA General principles underlying milling prac tice. particularly in relation to the African asbestos industry, have been discussed in some detail by Sinclair.8 Crocitlolite and amosite are the principal varieties of asbestos mined in the Union. Hand cobbing, much of it by native women, is em ployed to recover crocidolite fibers over threefourths inch long. Mechanical cobbing was introduced during recent years. The shorter grades are recovered by milling processes differing considerably from those used on chrvsotile. The blue fiber occurs in an ex tremely hard rock, and much study has been devoted to methods of milling that will mini mize attrition during crushing. The rock is first broken with jaw crushers, followed by gyratorv crushers. Crushing to finer sizes is accomplished with high-speed rolls. Fine dust is removed at each stage. Trommel screens are used to remove grit and fine gangue and to retain the asbestos, which is fluffed without beitig excessively beaten. Eccentric-drive shaking screens are used at times instead of trommels. It has been stated that the fiber cannot be removed satisfactorily by aspiration through a hood placed over screens, as in chrvsotile milling, but the more recent descrip- * Messrl. Michael J.. Recent Trends in Mining and Milling Practice: Trans. AIME. vol. 184.1949. pp. 52-55. Traufler, Walter E.. Ruberoid Co.'s New Vermont Asbestos Operation Sets New Standards for Industry: Pit and Quarry, vol. 45, No. 8, Febru ary 1953. pp. 70-76. . . m, , Sinclair. W. E.. Milling Asbestos Ore* Asbestos, vol.33. No.9, March 1952. pp. 8-18: No. 10, April, pp. 4-12; No. 11, May, pp. 4-10; No. 12, June. pp. 2-10. ASARCO ALV 0006042 so THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY Figvre 13.--Mill of Vermont Asbestos Mines Near Eden, Vt. tions of processes mention the use of suction hoods. In tiie Transvaal amosite occurs with the blue fiber in places, and is milled with it. Further detail on milling is given by Sinclair.9 Methods of milling crocidolite vary greatly in different localities. In the southern belt of the Cape Provinces the workings are nu merous, and many are relatively small. At the smaller workings all the fiber is hand-cobbed and hand-sorted into grades according to length, but at the larger workings, the handcobbed asbestos is graded by machinery. A hand-turned trommel of perforated sheet iron covered with wire netting usually is employed. Cobbed fiber from several workings may be shipped to a central screening plant, where asbestos h inch and over is recovered, and the minus-li-inch product is taken to a mill for crushing and grading. At one mill the rolls travel at slightly different speeds to subject the fiber to a tearing action. In the northern belt, material over threefourths inch long is hand-cobbed. At first the mill grades were not standardized, but later a large mill was erected at Kuruman, and the Sinclair. W. E.. Production of Crocidolite or Blue Asbestos In South Africa. Asbestos, vol. 33. No. 1. July 1951, pp. 4-10; No. 2, August, pp. 4-12. grades manufactured there followed established standards that offered decided marketing ad vantages. In this mill rock carrying the shorter fibers is passed through crushers, heavy rolls, and disintegrators. The fiber thus sepa rated is classified on grading screens. In 1953 a new mill to process blue fiber, de signed by Giorgio Marchioli, was built near Petersburg. It is claimed that the new design furnishes a high-quality, well-fluffed fiber rela tively free from unopened splinters, grit, and dust and that the percentage of recovery is high. Because of its unusual length, much of the amosite produced is hand-cobbed to remove a large part of the waste remaining after the underground coarse sorting. Picking belts fa cilitate the hand sorting. The fiber thus freed from adhering rock is passed through a series of rolls and disintegrators and then graded on shaking screens or trommels. The principal amosite-milling facilities are at the Amosa and Penge mines, but the Kremellanboog and Malips mines also have mills. No descriptions of the individual mills have been noted in litera ture. During 1951 over 50 mills, with daily capacities ranging from a few tons to several hundred tons of rock, were in operation in the asbestos fields. ASARCO ALV 0006043 MILLING METHODS 81 SOUTHERN RHODESIA At the Shabani mines as much as possible of the asbestos is separated from the rock close to the working face to avoid damage to the fibers. Hand cobbing is therefore an important part of th(> operation. Fiber-bearing quarry rook is first broken in jaw crushers and rolls and sorted into three groups on a picking belt. Rock con taining little or no fiber is left on the belt and conveyed to the waste dump. Rock containing large seams of fiber is carried on a second belt to the cobbing sheds. Rock carrying small fiber seams is conveyed to the mill on a third belt. Cobs from both the cobbing sheds and the quarries and stopes are fiberized and graded in one mill, and the fiber-bearing rock is reduced in another. After primary crushing in the mill the rock is dried and reduced in a series of small grinding pans operated like pug mills. Fiber is sepa rated from rock with shaking screens and air suction, as in Canada. Undesirable brittle fiber is ground in the pans and passes through the screens with the waste. One type of disintegrator is the Cloasens impaetor. which consists of a series of revolving horizontal plates enclosed in an hourglassshaped casing. The rock particles carried on the plates are thrown against the walls by centrifugal force, which reduces them to smaller sizes, and they pass downward to successive revolving disks. The fiber is removed by suc tion as soon as it is released. Fiber carried by air current from the dis integrators is deposited in a centrifugal settler, and the air passes on through a dust trap to an outlet. The recovered asbestos is freed further front dust and graded in trommels. Cylindri cal trommels have the disadvantage of causing the fiber to roll and form balls in its line of travel around the screen. This tendency is overcome by using hexagonal trommels in which the fiber is thrown from one panel to the next. Fiber recovery is said to represent about 3 percent of the rock milled. Further information on Rhodesian milling has appeared in the technical press.10 In general, the smaller mines have less efficient milling equipment than the larger operations. In 1953, when demands for fiber fell to some extent and became more selective, quality of fiber assumed increasing importance. To fur nish fiber of higher grade a newly designed asbestos-cleaning plant was established at the Lanninhurst mine in the Gwanda district. It is claimed that when asbestos that is virtually unsalable because of its content of dust, grit, and short fibers is treated in this mill, high- Sworder. E. H.. Fllwrlzlne and Conditioning: Rhodesian Min. Jour., vol. 18. N'o. 4. April N53. pp. 21-26: No. 5. May, pp. 2S-35. grade products can be made. The cleaning plant consists of a rotary impactor followed by airlift, shaking screens, and grading trommels. SWAZILAND At the Havelock mine the minus-2K-inch product from the primary crusher is dried and the fiber removed by suction fans. The rock, with hand-sorted materials from the picking belt mentioned under Mining Methods, is crushed and the fiber removed in successive stages by air suction. Initial reduction is by a 16- by 10-inch jaw crusher, but the later stages of reduction are accomplished with least damage to the fibers by the use of edge runners. The longest fibers, known as HVL, correspond with the C. & G. grades from Rhodesia but are of somewhat poorer qualitt-. More detailed information on milling methods has been published.11 SOVIET RUSSIA At the Russian quarries most of the crude fiber is hand-sorted on picking belts after the rock is crushed. At a mill that began opera tion in 1932 the quarry rock was reduced to about 6-inch size with a gyratory crusher. It discharged to a picking belt, where 20 percent or more of the primary feed was thrown out as waste, because it consisted of rock too lean to justify milling. The asbestos-bearing rock was reduced to 1 h'- to 2-inch size in 2 gyratory crushers discharging to heavy shaking screens. The oversize passed to picking belts, where more barren rock was eliminated. The good rock from the picking belt was reduced to about 1inch size in a jaw crusher and joined the under size from the shaking screens in a wet-storage bin. Moisture was thereafter reduced in three rotary driers and the product convej'ed to a dry-storage bin. The most noteworthy feature of the pre liminary milling stage was the concentration on picking belts. Because the serpentine tends to break cleanly along the borders of the fiber veins, effecting a more or less distinct separa tion of barren and fiber-bearing rock, conditions particularly favor this method of concentration. Of the original mill feed, consisting of 2.400 tons a day, about 1,400 tons was eliminated as waste, leaving only 1,000 tons for the later milling processes. Thus picking belts saved operators a great deal of useless milling. In the more advanced milling stages the dried rock was passed over heavy shaking screens, from which four products were ob tained: (1) Fiber removed by suction fans; (2) oversize rock conveyed to a set of rolls; (3) t> Starkey, Roland, Recovery of Raw Asbestos at the Havelock Mine: Asbestos, vol. 28, N'o. 11, May 1947, pp. 4-4. I ASARCO ALV 0006044 82 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY middlings that bypass the rolls and arc carried to the next screen; and (4) fines conveyed to a disintegrator. By means of a series of such rolls, screens, suction pipes, and disintegrators, virtually all of the fiber was recovered. Fiber from the collecting hoppers was sent to a series of shaking screens for cleaning. The cleaned fiber was collected again bv suction fans and classified by length in slowly rotating grading trommels. A large, new mill designed to handle 2 million tons of rock annually and produce 80,000 tons of fiber in 6 grades was nearing completion in 1984. This mill, with other Russian facil ities. would, it was estimated, provide the nation with a total millin': capacity of approximatcly 17.5.000 tons of fiber a year. Production in 193H was reported to be 125.117 metric tons; in 1987. 125.000 metric tons; and in 193S. only Stl.ooo metric tons. Much of the information herein has been abstracted from an article by an engineer who was employed for some time in the Russian asbestos industry.1-' SUPPLEMENTARY MILLING IN ASBESTOS TEXTILE FACTORIES As pointed out in preceding pages the millint: process is designed to remove impurities and to separate the fibers from each other (liberize- eireetively. but the milled fibers ri'Hinre considerable subsequent processing befntv they are in satisfaetorv condition for use. Crude libers are not milled before delivery to tin- user and are opened in the asbestosproducts manufacturing plant. Tiie pivliminarv opening of crude fibers is generally accomplished in a pan crusher, also known as a chaser mill or edge runner. A steel wheel with a 14- to 18-inch face runs in a circle in a pan to which a batch of crude fiber is added Scrapers push the fiber inward from the circumference and outward from the center to keep it under the roller. Conical mil-; running in a circular trough are sometimes |{u.>r. W a . A5^hc{i Millsnc m the Vrals: Eng and Min. . wii i.H. uuoUt 1933. pp -M'.'-nv used to reduce the grinding action between the surface of the roller and the bottom of the pan. The running time required to complete a batch varies greatly, depending upon the ease or difficulty of" fiberization of the particular asbestos under treatment. It may range from 2 to 12 minutes on milled fiber and 12 to 20 minutes on crudes. The time of completion is determined by the operator who, by long experience, caniudge the condition of the fiber by its feel. To conserve fiber length and strength, excessive crushing and grinding are avoided. Separated impurities are removed by screening. Some milled fibers, which are more or less completely opened, do not require pan-crusher treatment; others require some degree of "pan softening.'' The extent to which pan treat ment is needed depends entirely upon the character of the fiber. Some milled fibers may bypass the pan, while others bearing the same brand and grade may require "pan softening." Milled fibers that require no pan treatment are passed through a vertical opener or some other type of equipment that disin tegrates the fibers. A rotating toothed cylinder may be used. The next stop in treatment beyond the pre liminary pan crusher or other fiberizing machine is conducted in a grader. It consists of a sheet-metal enclosure with a horizontal rotating shaft in the center, equipped with steel paddles set at intervals and in spiral positions. These paddles beat the fiber, sep arating iron minerals, rock particles, or dust, as well as splinters of unopened fiber. The latter are returned to the openers for further treat ment. The fluffy fiber is picked up by an air current and carried away for further treatment in ceiling condensers and breaker cards. Fiber ization is one of the most critical operations in the textile plant, for it involves as complete separation of the fibers from each other as can be accomplished without sacrificing their length or strength. These processes have been de scribed in some detail.13 :J BlnonifMri. Oerrt M.. Speakine About Ashostos Yam: Asbestos, vol. 31. No. 12. June 1950. pp. 4-lu: vol.32, No. 1. July 1950. pp. 6-12: No. 2. Aucusi 1950, pp. 10*13. ASARCO ALV 0006045 GRADING AND CLASSIFICATION CANADA AND VERMONT Vermont classification is the same as the Canadian. covered in tin* following pages. Canadian asbestos is graded into nine major groups, most of which are divided into several subgroups. Group 1 consists of Crude No. 1, and Group 2 of Crude No. 2. Crude Run-ofMine. and Crudes, Sundry. Groups 3 to 7, milled fibers, are classified according to tests made with a Quebec standard testing machine. A description of the machine, essentially as given by Ross.1 follows: The machine consists of a nest of 4 aluminum boxes measuring 24b by H'f inches and 3b inches in depth. The boxes, which are super imposed one above the other, are numbered, from the top down. 1.2. 3. and 4. The bottoms of boxes 1. 2. and 3 consist of bronze screens of the following specifications: Box 1: lb-inch opening, diameter of wire--0.105 inch. Box 2: 4-mesh opening, wire--0.063 inch. Box 3: 10-mesh opening, wire--0.047 inch. Box 4 is a receptacle for the fines that fall through the three other boxes. The nest of four boxes or trays rests on a table to which an eccentric with a throw of inch gives a movement of lV-ineh travel. To make a test. 16 ounces of fiber is put on the top tray, which is covered. The machine i- run at the rate of 300 revolutions per minute at tin' shaft of the eccentric, giving the nest a rapid horizontal shaking movement. By auto matic control it is kept running exactly 2 minutes. At the end of this time the filter that remains on each tray is weighed, and these weight' give the grade of tile fiber. The longest fiber naturally stays on the top tray, whereas the shorter fibers, according to their length, remain on screens 2 or 3 or drop into tin- pan or lowest tray. The more fiber re tained on the first screen and the less fiber in the pan. the higher the grade and therefore the greater its value. If. for instance, a customer buys spinning fiber of the specification 4--7--4--1, it means that, in a sample of 16 ounces, repre senting the average of the lot shipped, 4 ounces will remain on the top screen, 7 on the second, and 4 on the third, and 1 ounce will go through all the screens into the pan. This, of course, is a more valuable fiber than paper stock, for fin!! \ *. Cl.rjsoiil*- AsUst>$in Canada: Canada Dept, of Mines istji. i example, testing 0-0-10-6. Such a designation indicates that, out of 16 ounces tested, nothing is retained on the first 2 screens, 10 ounces remain on the third, and 6 ounces go through all the screens into the pan. It is evident that the figures of the test represent the pro portion, in ounces, of the different lengths of fiber in a pound of asbestos. Samples for control testing usually are taken at the bagging machines every half hour or oftener. Owing to unavoidable variations in fiber as it comes from the pit the quality of mill-run fiber usually is maintained a little higher than its designation. For many years each Canadian company graded its fiber according to its own standards and sold the products under its own trade designations. This practice led to much con fusion in marketing, because different mills employed similar marks for grades unequal in quality and value. It was frequently necessary for buyers to have samples tested before placing orders. In 1931 producers in Quebec agreed upon a uniform classification of fibers whereby, they were divided into nine groups, and each group was subdivided into grades. Crude asbestos was defined as "hand-selected cross vein material essentially in its native or unfiberized form.'' and milled asbestos as "all grades produced by mechanical treatment of asbestos ore." Except for the very lowest grades, which are based on the weight per cubic foot, all milled grades are based on the results of tests in the standard testing machine previously described. "Shipping test" is the average, for each carlot or smaller shipment, of tests of repre sentative samples taken at the time of shipping. "Guaranteed minimum shipping test" is that below which the actual shipping test shall not fall. The standard grades as agreed upon in 1931 and revised effective January 1, 1949, are as follows: Group 1: Crude N"o. 1--Consists basically of crude Vinch staple or longer. Group 2: Crude Xo. 2--Consists basically of crude 3s-inch staple to Vinch. Crude Run-of-Mine--Consists basically of un sorted crudes. Crudes Sundry--Consists of crudes other than above specified. 83 ASARCO ALV 000604.6 S4 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY Mill .fibers Standard divianation of eradc'*: ^ o. ^unrnnfeed minimum thipoino i<if, Canadian iiandnrd ttvtnc machine 3K ................. 4 - 7 - 4 - 1 31? ................ 2 - S - 4 - 2 3T.................... 1 - 9 - 4 - 2 3Z.................... 0 - 8 - 6 - 2 Group 4: 4H................... 0 - 5 - 8 - 3 4K................... 0 - 4 - 9 - 3 4M.................. 0 - 4 - 8 - 4 41?.................... 0 - 3 - 9 - 4 4T.................... 0-2-10-4 4Z.................... 0 - 1.5- 9.5- 5 Group 5: oil................... 0 - . 5 - 10.5 - 5 5K................... 0-0-12-4 oM.................. 0 - 0 - II - 5 51?.................... 0-0-10-6 Group 6: 61).........0 -0 - 7-9 Groun 7: 71)................... 0-0-5-11 7K.................. 0-0-4-12 7H................... 0-0-3-13 7K................... 0-0-2-14 7M................ 0 - 0 - 1 - 15 71?.................... 0-0-0-16 7T.................... 0-0-0-16 Group 8: 8S_____ Under 75 pounds per cubic foot loose measure Group 9: 9T......... More than 75 pounds per cubic foot loose measure The suffix "F" designates "floats" in all subsections of Group 7. Floats consist- of dust, collected in chambers and bagged. It may be sized by screening before bagging. Following are the qualities and uses of the various groups: Group 1 (Crude No. 1).--Asbestos fiber greater than three-fourths inch in length. It should be silky and have enough tensile strength to permit its use for making asbestos yarn, tape, cloth, earth'd fiber, and other textiles. Group 2 tCrude No. 2).--Generally referred to us fiber that has not been milled and that has n length of K to 3f inch. It must have good tensile strength. Unsorted and Sundr\` crudes are included with Group 2. Group 3.--Milled spinning or textile fiber that tests 0-8-G-2 and over. Group 4.--Known as shingle fiber; includes fiber suitable for the manufacture of asbestoscement products, such as pipe, shingles, and siding, compressed sheet packing, ana 85-per cent magnesia and high-temperature molded pipe covering. These fibers are also used with Portland cement for manufacturing asbestos corrugated and flat interior and exterior sheets, wallboard, switchboard panels, and other prod ucts. This grade tests below 0-8-6-2 and includes 0--1 >2--9>^--5. The better known grades for asbestos-cement shingles are 4H, 4M, 4T, 5R, and 6D. Group 5.--Known as paper stock; includes fibers testing below O-lJj-9^-5, including 0-010-6. They are used chiefly for the manu facture of asbestos paper and millboard and sometimes are mixed with higher grades for the manufacture of asbestos-cement shingles. Group 6.--Known as stucco or plaster fiber; has only one grade (namely 6D), testing 0--0--7--9. Group 7.--Includes all fibers having a mini mum shipping test of 0-0-5-11 and below. These are known as refuse and shorts and are used in manufacturing asbestos boiler and roofing cements, roofing paints, asphalt floor tile, and occasionally for making millboard. Groups 8 and 9.--Known as sand and gravel and stone, respectively. They contain a pre ponderance of rock and sand. " These materials are used chiefly in manufacturing asbestos flooring, wall tiles, and similar products. ARIZONA In Arizona the fiber-bearing rock is reduced in jaw crushers and rolls, and the fiber is sepa rated by screening into the following grades: Xo. 1, inch long and longer; Xo. 2.3i to 3( inch; Xo. 3, K to % inch: Xo. 4, less than K inch long. Filter fiber consists of grades 3 and 4. further processed. Grades 1 and 2 are classed as spinning fibers. UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA CHRYSOTILE In general, the chrysotile produced in the Union is marketed as a milled run-of-mine fiber. It is said to have less talc associated with it than is present with Canadian asbestos, and fibers from the two countries, possessing com parable end-use characteristics, may not neces sarily yield similar or compatible results in a standard testing machine. Various publica tions on asbestos include the classification of the Xew Amianthus and Munnik-Myburgh mines in the Barberton district; but, as these mines were idle for many vears, such classifi cation has been omitted. They have recently been reopened, but a classification of their out put has not appeared. There are several chrysotile producers in the Union, but the grading of their products is not available at this time. 1 ASARCO ALV 0006047 GRADING AND CLASSIFICATION 85 CROCIDOLITE Followin': is the classification of Cape blue fcrocidolitc) recognized by the Cape Asbestos Co.. Ltd. Ltneth of fihrr. Grade: X..................................................................... Minus l*. No. 3or S or MS.........................................L to 4N o. 2 or A.................................................. H to 4. No. 1 or li..................................................4 to I4Lons or C\D,and K................................. Plus 14. Almost all of the imports are of Grade S or MS (mixed short). Grades of Transvaal blue, as given by the Department of Mines. Union of South Africa, are as follows:-' FiN'fited | Grade Leneth of At inrhv* T.\ ............. .................... Tl.................... To .................... ............... T3.......................... .................... T4.......................... .................... TON TIM TD2 TD3 TD4 Plus 14. 4 to l1;. l: to 4. 4 to Minus 4. AMOSITE The following classification was in effect until 1952. B-l was the longest and best grade. The second grades were B-3 and D-3. They were virtually the same grade but came from different sources, the B-3 originating in the Penge mine and the D-3 in the Amosa mine. However, it has been stated recently that material formerly classed as B-3 is no longer produced. Other designations applied to this grade are 3.B, 3, D, 3/BX, and 3/DX. Another grade nearly as good as B-3 or D-3 was designated 3l)M I. Although called 3DMI. it wa~ really 3 D Mi. the "Mi" meaning "mix ture.'' It consisted chieflv of D-3. In 1952 an entirely new classification was set up by the Cape Asbestos Co., as follows:3 Symbol 1 Range of : average fiber length.', f Inches J Designation D3................................................ D11.............................................. MD.............................................. DX.............................................. M................................................. S2................................................. R.................................................. K3................................................ SK................................................ RK.............................................. \V3.. SW._. RW.. WEC. 2-6 ' Long. 4-2 4-2 Do. Yr-2 Do. 4-2 ! Do. M-i Shorts. ,4-4 Residue. ,4-2 > Medium. 4-i Shorts. Vr~l2 Residue. 4-2 Medium. 4<r-l Shorts. 4~4 Residue. .4-3 Medium. The fibers range to color from brown to gray. SOUTHERN RHODESIA Milled fiber: CHRYSOTHE C. & G. 1--high-grade textile fiber (equivalent to Canadian Crude No. 2). C. & G. 2--high-grade textile fiber (equivalent to Canadian 3F). C. A G. 3--shingle stock. C. <fc G. 4--shingle stock. VRA 2--comparable but not equivalent to C. & G. 2. VRA 3--comparable but not equivalent to C. & G. 3. VRA 4--comparable but not equivalent to C. & G. 4. SWAZILAND CHRYSOTILE Havelock mine Milled fiber: HVL 1--long-spinning fiber. HVL 2--short-spinning fiber. HVL 3--comparable but not equivalent to C. & G. 3. HVL 3.XX--comparable to C. & G. 4 (by 1 man ufacturer). Ms p I*. .\'t Mr nl*# in South Africa Vo! *10. No 6, December 1 t>.iu tarnished hy Mineral Development Office. Dept, of Mims, r.eul. Survey. Union of South Africa. ASARCO ALV 0006048 M) THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY SOVIET RUSSIA CHRYSOTILE Crude: AA--not Icve than min. in length. Milled fiber: 0-1--textile fiber (comparable to Canadian 3F or 3K 0-2--textile fiber (comparable to Canadian 3R). 1-2--textile fiber (comparable to Canadian 32i, (-3--textile fiber (comparable to Canadian 3Z>. 0-3--'hittulo fiber (comparable to Canadian 4IP. 0-4-->liimzle fiber (comparable to Canadian 42b 1-4--rdumde fii>er 'comparable to Canadian 4IP. 0-4--'himtle fiber (comparable lo Canadian 42). W'S--^liturie fiber. R--5--paper fiber `comparable to Canadian 6Db 1-o--paper fiber (comparable to Canadian til) plii'-*. S-4--paper fiber 'comparable to Canadian 51)'. K--(*-- '|jrt*'. l-(i--'hort-. fiA--hurt-. j<i1 W* .tr- onmpMolj.* ojn'iml cr.ilt*s n:irk*5 1 ir -Q t*n: um n l\ ut.irk*l f5 mr> tjii-.fn:;. d credo-, crjdo ciarki d " and R coulaiu imicb bard. tru-J* INDIA CHRYSOTILE Crude: Siii-r:al \ --cmnparab'f to ('anadian Ouch* No. 1. Regular A -- comparable to Canadian Crude No. 1. Reudlar It--comparable to Canadian Crude No. 1. STOCKPILE GRADES AND SPECIFICATIONS In 19.3.') low-iron chrysotile. South African amoritc. and Bolivian crocidolitc or its equiva lent were the only types designated for stock pilin':. CHRYSOTILE Chry'oiile for stockpiling is the low-iron type. It must eonfomi with National Stock pile ''iii-rilication P-3-RI. dated June 10. 1953. and must he equal to that obtained at the Shahani mines. .Nmthern Rhodesia. The Rhode.-ian grades deriunuted are C. & G. 1, C. A G. P. 1. C. A G. 2. and (.'. A G. P. 2. The use of the letter P simply indicates a processed rut her than a crude fiber. The fiber-length requirement of C`. A: G. I and C. <fc G. P. 1 is that a minimum of lo ounces shall he retained on the first and second screens of the Quebec standard testing inueliine. The requirement of A G. 2 and C. A G. P. 2 is that a minimum of 10 outlet's shall be retained on the fust and second screens of the Quebec standard testing: machine. Arizona Crude No. I and No. 2, as well as nonferrous crudes from other sources, are accept a ble for stockpiling when strong anti 'silky." The .Arizona "harsh" type is not acceptable. It is presumed that Canadian fiber will satisfy the specification if the iron content can be reduced enough. Accordingly, the fiber lengths of acceptable Canadian fibers are also specified as follows: Crude No. I. consisting of fibers at least 85 percent of which shall be three-fourths inch in length or longer. Crude No. 2, consisting of fibers at least 85 percent of which shall be K to '< inch in length. Spinning fibers of the following grades, ac cording to Canadian standard tests: 3F.................................................. 7. 0 - 7. 0 - 1. 5 - 0. 5 3H................................................. -t. 0 - 7. 0 - 4. 0 - 1. () 31$........................................ 2. 0 - 8. 0 - to - 2.1) 3".................................................. 1. 0 - 9. 0 - 4. 0 - 2. 0 On the basis of iron content, the filter shall be commercially nonferrous and conform with the following limitation: Total iron, maximum percent by weight 3.5; magnetic iron, maximum percent by weight 2.0. The specification in cludes items on impurities, moisture content, sampling, methods of test. etc. Five-pound samples shall be inspected by commercial users whose manufacturing re quirements represent at least 50 percent of the total United States consumption of the grades of asbestos covered by these specifications and, in any event, by not less than 3 users. Accept ance shall be based upon the written statements from a majority (normally 2 out of 3) of these users that the lot of asbestos conforms to the applicable requirements. AMOSITE Amosite for stockpiling must conform with National Stockpile Specification P--1-R dated September 14, 1953. The specification simply states that the material shall conform to tinstandard commercial Grade D-3, D-X, or D-l 1. Inspection is made under the same conditions as specified for chrysotile. CROCIDOL1TE Crocidolitc (blue asbostosi shall conform with National Stockpile Specification P-SO-R. dated April 17, 1952. which designates that the ma terial purchased shall be Bolivian crocidolitc asbestos or its equivalent. Three grades are covered, as follows: Crude No. 1, a minimum of 85 percent (by weight) of which shall be in fibers 3< inch in length, or longer; Crude No. 2, a minimum of 85 percent of which shall con sist of fibers ft to ?< inch in length; and Run-ofMine (crude or milled), a minimum of 90 ereent of the lumps and fibers of which shall e retained on a No. 16 sieve. The material asarco alv GRADING AND CLASSIFICATION $7 shall contain not more than 2 percent of moisture and not more than 5 permit of foreign matter. The specification includes items covering samplinir. marking, methods of test, etc. The supplier of the material shall submit, before or with his bid. a 25-pound representative sample of the material he proposes to furnish. This sample shall be tested by either the Chief Technical Command, Army Chemical Center, Edgewood, Md., or the Director. Naval Re search Laboratory. Washington 25. D. C.. to determine whether the material is suitable for the purpose intended. If the material is suit able, the contractor at the time of signing a contract will guarantee that material he fur nishes is of the same quality as the sample submitted for test. If the material contains moisture, foreign matter, or fines in excess of that stipulated in the specifications, the material may be ac cepted at the option of the Government, but payment therefor shall be adjusted according to the amount of acceptable material actually contained in the lot. ASARCO ALV 0006050 MARKETING GENERAL FEATURES Asbestos is used in so many diverse products that its markets are numerous and widespread and its marketing complex. It is emploved ex tensively in the United States, England, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Soviet Russia, Japan, and Australia. Soviet Russia at one time ex ported most of its production but later became an important manufacturer of asbestos products. Exports from the Soviet Union are erratic but at times are substantial. Many other coun tries use small quantities. Latin American demands are increasing and have attained sub stantial proportions. With growing diversity in use and great expansion in long-established uses, the consumption of asbestos is increasing steadily. Some fiber is handled by agents or jobbers, but most of . it is shipped direct from mine to consumer. Fiber length and quality are usually established by standard tests. The larger manufacturers of asbestos products have their own testing machines and can check a producer's classification. The producer is gen erally so familiar with manufacturing condi tions that he can prepare the material to suit each particular use. Asbestos is sold in 100-pound or, rarely, 125pound bags on a short-ton basis, bags included. Canadian quotations are f. o. b. mines. Quota tions on African fibers are usually f. o. b. port of embarkation, such as Beira or Laurenco Marques. The weight of a given volume varies with fiber length; the longer fibers are bulkier. The volume of a short ton ranges from 60 to 90 cubic feet. A minimum carlot of fiber is 20 tons and of refuse and shorts 30 tons. Market requirements are based principally on length of fibers, but strength, flexibility, color, chemical composition, and cleanliness may have an important bearing on use. The princi pal market outlets are indicated in the following brief summary of uses. The longer and more valuable crudes and mill fibers are employed in manufacturing woven brake linings, electrical insulation products, textile fabrics, packings, and gaskets. The next lower grades are used in making asbestoscement products, such as pipe for underground use, fluepipe. roofing and siding, shingles, lum ber, and corrugated sheathing. Other im portant uses are for molded friction products and filtering. Shorter fibers are used for paper and millboard manufacture and the lowest grades for heat-insulating cements, molded ar ticles. and fillers in such products as asphalt tile. There are multitudes of other uses. Most of the world supply of raw asbestos is in strong hands and is distributed to asbestosproducts manufacturers, most of whom are also well-organized concerns. Most of the large producers, such as JohnsManville Corp., Bell Asbestos Mines, Vermont Asbestos Mines, Turner & Newall, Ltd., and the Cape Asbestos Co., are of the vertical type; that is, they mine and mill the raw materials and fabricate the finished products. The asbestos from these so-called captive mines pro vides, first of all, raw materials for the com pany-owned manufacturing plants; and the sur plus, with grades that cannot be used, is sold to other consumers. These companies also pur chase fibers from other producers, because Generally they do not produce the full range of bers in the proportions that they use. Some important producers, however, such as Asbestos Corp., Ltd., and Johnson's Co., are producers only, having no asbestos-product-manufactur ing facilities. NECESSITY FOR A BALANCED MARKET In any asbestos deposit the length of the fibers varies considerably. Thus, when the total fiber recovered is classified into grades accord ing to length, quite a number of grades may result. Canadian asbestos, for instance, falls into seven major grades, ranging from the longest (Crude No. 1) to the very short fibers in the classification "Refuse and Shorts." Most of the major groups are divided into several subgroups. Tne proportions falling in the several grades are fairly constant for any one deposit; and. as the miner has to take the rock as it comes, he has little control over the proportions of the various grades in his mill product. The demand for certain grades may be stronger than for others; during some periods in the past, when the supply of most grades ex ceeded the demand, producers were obliged to stock up on the less salable types or let them go to waste. Success in an asbestos-mining enterprise under such conditions depended to some extent upon developing a balanced market that would absorb all grades, roughly in the proportion in which they were produced. When heavy demand arises for some grades, while others are overabundant, specifications should be modified as much as possible toward easing the pressure on those most in demand. For certain uses grades are interchangeable to some extent, and in such instances tne maxi mum use of the most plentiful grade is to be encouraged. Where grades are interchangeable, a price differential favoring the more abundant 88 ASARCO ALV 0006051 MARKETING 89 ~ typo will tend to keep demand in stop with supply. For several years up to 1952. however, the demand for all prudes exceeded supply, and marketing problem:- were therefore simplified; but such conditions are unlikely to be sustained over long periods. In 1952. 1955. and 1954 the demand for some of the shorter grades declined and became more selective. DISTRIBUTION PRACTICES Virtually all of the important asbestos deposits of the world, except those in Soviet Russia, are within the political orbit of the British Commonwealth of Nations. Deposits in this category are those of Canada. Southern Rhodesia, Union of South Africa. Swaziland, Australasia. India, and Cyprus. British Com monwealth needs naturally receive first at tention. but large quantities of asltestos are shipped to outside countries. During recent years demand has exceeded supply. Many new plants for manufacturing asbestos products have liia'ii built throughout the world. Even though product ion of asbestos lias mndeenormous gain-, the available supply of certain grades for l'nit<-d Stales industry has not increased proportionally. The inadequacy of supply has been most in evidence for low-iron ehrysotile of spinning grade front Southern Rhodesia. Supplies of umosite from the Union of South Africa and of spinning grades of ehrysotile from Canada have been in short supply at times. >oine years ago marketing problems pertained primarily to finding adequate outlets for raw e-he-ios: hut. with changing conditions, the problem evolved into one of finding supidies of a-be<io- large enough to satisfy the demands of customers wholly or in part. Statistics of imernaiional trade indicate that, during the po-iwar stringency. Great Britain and central European countries received proportionally huger quantities of Rhodesian and Canadian 'Miming fibers than they received during World War II. The United States receives at all times a large proportion of the shorter grades of Canadian asbestos. Canadian dolms-Manville Corp., Ltd., is the leading producer in the Quebec area, but there are four other large and several smaller inde pendently owned companies. The Quebec Miners'Association is an industry organization. The distribution of Canadian asbestos is strongly influenced by control of individual companies. Most of the output is from cap tive mines whose products are used partly in the manufacturing plants of the mine owners. The unused fiber from these mines and the out put of independent producers enter normal distribution channels. The way in which cus tomers' orders are filled may seem arbitrary at times; but the rejection of orders, or alloca tions on a reduced basis, has been due in large measure to the shortage of supply that has characterized recent years. One authority in the asbestos-production field claimed late in 1950 that world production of Canadian Group 4 or its equivalent was less than two-thirds of that needed to supply plants in the world then using these grades, even for operation at 85 percent of capacity. During this stringency of supply, the establishment of new asbestosproducts industries was difficult, because new customers were at a disadvantage in having orders filled for raw asbestos as producers customarily gave preference to old customers, and when supplies were short the newcomers received nothing. African asbestos distribution is controlled more rigidly than Canadian. Southern Rho desian production is mainly in the hands of a single company--Turner A- Xewall. Ltd., of Manchester. England. This company has large asbestos-products plants in Great Britain and several other countries, and the needs of these plants receive first consideration when rawasbestos is allocated. As the requirements of these plants are constantly increasing, the United States has been receiving progressively smaller quantities of the better grades. Similarly, the major production of amosite and blue asbestos in the Union of South Africa is in the hands of a single firm, the Cape Asbestos Co. of London. England, which also has its own manufacturing plants and allocates its surplus asbestos to customers throughout the world. At times, supplies of amosite have been inadequate to satisfy United States requirements. There is some prospect of a change in the African situation. Several new companies have begun or are about to begin production in Southern Rhodesia and the Union of South Africa, hence increasing quantities of asbestos may become available from independent sources. Continental European demands have be come important factors in asbestos marketing. The asbestos-products industries of France. West Germany. Italy. Netherlands, and other nearby countries that were virtually paralyzed during World War II were reestablished during postwar years. As there are little or no fiber resources in these countries except in Italy, they depend chiefly upon Africa and Canada for supplies. Russian asbestos is imported at times, especially by the Scandinavian countries. Imports from all sources were inadequate for several years. Canada allocated available sup plies on the basis of the prewar consumption of ASARCO alv 0006052 90 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY each plant. Obviously, this condition dis couraged the building of new plants. Enlarged demands for raw asbestos to supply newly created manufacturing facilities in Canada, Australia, and Latin America have also placed an additional load on the producing mines. As a result, the United States supply situation has become difficult at times, even though world production has made substantial gains. Supply and demand were, however, in approxi mate balance for most types and grades by 10M. Uses arc expanding so rapidly, however, that, even with increasing production facilities, shortages may occur in the future. SAIAC (Switzerland Society Anonyme In ternationale de l'Asbestos Cement) has been mentioned as an organization that exerts some influence over asbestos distribution. Accord ing to a press report,1 this international organi zation, established in the 1920's, had among its objectives a provision for mutual assistance among its members in procuring the necessary raw materials on the best terms. The organi zation is said to be concerned primarilv with the grades of asbestos used in making asbestoscement products. ' Rook Products. Great European Asl-ost-.? Carirt Formed Vol. 33. No. 21, Oct. 11. IV3U. p. 45. ASARCO ALV 0006053 PRICES HISTORY Prices of Canadian asbestos fluctuatedgreatly for several veal's after the close of World War I. In. 1920-. because of war stimulation, prices attained unprecedented heights, Crude So. 1 selling for more than $3,000 a ton. In 1921 the price dropped to less than half that amount, and bv 1925 the highest grudes were selling for only about one-eighth of the price received in 1920. Since that time, except for the de pression years of the early 1930's, the price trend has been generally upward. The ad vances have been most pronounced since 1945. Figure 14 shows graphically the price history of Canadian asbestos, by ' principal grades. Table 39 shows average prices per short ton of Canadian fiber f. o. b. mine from 1926 to 1953. Table 40 gives prices of Vermont asbestos (f. o. b. Hyde Park or Morrisville, Vt.) during recent years. The recent wide demand for all grades of chrysotile and the general inadequacy of supply during recent years have tended to elevate prices to high levels. Chrysotile from Southern Rhodesia and amosite and crocidolite from the Union of South Africa are not quoted in the open market. Contracts are made by negotiation at un published prices. In 1950 Rhodesian C. & G. No. 1 was selling at S418 and Xo. 2 at $385 per ton f. o. b. U. S. port. DOLLARS PER TON 8 01 ASARCO ALV 0006054 02 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY Table .'59.--Prict history { asbtxios sold in Canada. 1026-53, in dollars per short ton1 Year 1 ` Crude No. 1 Crude No. 2 ' Spinning fibers ' Shlnele fibers Millboard and paper fiN*r< >2f, '>: ;i2s U2`. *130 031 . U32 033 031 M.V, `3S . 37 m3\ 3" 'Mm Mi i '> M 3 M 1 *M5 mo m: l|s " i" i:,u *:i i.V* 53.. ................................................................ ........................................................................ ........................................................... .................................................................................. .................................................. .............................................. .......................................... .............................................. .................................................. ......................................... .............................................. .............................................. ........................................... ......................................... ............................................................... . ....................................... .............................................. ............................................................... ................................................................................ .............................................. . , ............................................................. ............................ .......................................................................... ................................................................... ...................................................... ........................... .................................................................................. S504. 16 525. 00 575.00 575.00 570. 83 466. 67 450.00 450.00 450.00 500. 00 545. S3 725. 00 725. 00 725. on 725. 00 725. 00 700, 00 700. 00 700. 00 700. 00 S00. 00 S00. 00 02S. 00 1.005.00 1.005.00 1.300. 00 1.300.00 S289. 58 312. 50 375. 00 375. 00 362. 50 241. 67 200. 00 200. 00 200. 00 200. 00 200. 00 250. 00 250. 00 250. 00 250 00 250. 00 275. 00 275. 00 275. 00 275. 00 385. 00 423. 75 447. 50 475. 00 475 00 602. 50 750. 00 750. 00 $185. 00 193. 75 225. 00 225. 00 216. 67 135. 00 110. 00 110. 00 120. 00 120. 00 120. 00 155. 00 155. 00 155. 00 155. 00 155. 00 178. 75 17$, 75 178. 75 192. 00 220. 50 262. 50 291. 25 328. 50 337. 50 362. 50 412. 50 412. 50 S65. 00 70. 83 80. 00 80. 00 78. 33 65. 00 60. 00 60. 00 60. 00 60. 00 60. 00 66. 75 t>/ Vo 67. 75 71. 25 71. 25 72. 50 72. 50 72. 50 76. 25 88. 75 104. 15 106. 25 118. 25 130. 00 143. 00 175. 00 175. 00 $45. 00 39. 17 35. 00 35. 00 34. 17 30. 00 30. 00 30. 00 32. 50 32. 50 32. 50 42. 50 42. 50 42. 50 44. 75 44. 75 46. 75 46. 75 46 75 48. 50 bo. io 65. 75 73. 75 S3. 25 91. no 107. no 120. 00 120. 00 f S'o- ,r I Rr- m fYearly avvrac*for iv?:-13 are from themacazine. Asbestos, and are furnished by Cana* . \ r* v. r *-f I c** n.l* r r n.s- f--r jMi >*-ar. Tabu. -in.--Pr!nx of Yirnutht asbtsfn*. 1031-53. in dollars per short ton1 jV-'ar fibers Pap- r f.M-rs CenV't t k* Year 1, 1 Shingle fibers j Paper fibers Cement stock ,,... -i * *3 5 *3*i .. . . . . *5. '..T ..;s 4 *.-5 * MM . Ml..................... ............... 845. 00 42. 50 45. on 45. 00 37. 5(1 47. 50 57 00 57. 00 57. 00 58. 50 04. UU 835 no 32. 50 35 00 35. 00 35 00 35. no 40. 00 40 00 40. 00 44. 00 44. 00 4\ 50 ?2o. on 2o. On 23. 00 23. 00 23. 00 23. 00 25. 00 25. 00 25. 00 30. 00 30 00 33. 00 1943................... ____ 1944................... ____ 1945................... ____ 1946................... ____ 1947................... 1946................... ____ 1949................... ____ 1050................... 1951................... 1952................... 1953................... ____ 864. 00 64.00 64. 00 79. 00 102. 00 117. 75 164.50 S49. 00 49. 00 49. 00 OO. t 0 69. 00 76. 75 i6 96. 50 9S. 25 121. 00 121. 00 v ; 1 . - K.\ M M- \ : M . '! M rk'i* {". A'b is. 939-13. averaee of I > si her range for each year. - < *. d `MVu'te" -uni' S33. 00 33. no 33. on 39. 00 48. 50 56. 00 59. 00 64. 90 71. 40 7$. 00 78. 00 ASARCO ALV 0006055  PRICES 93 PRICES IN 1953 According to a consular report.' prices of Rhodesian and South African chrysotile closely approximated those of similar Canadian grades in 1953. Table 41 shows a comparison of cer tain typical grades. Late in 1953. however, lack of demand led to a strong downward trend in prices, and in 1954 several marginal mines in the Union of South Africa ana Southern Rhodesia suspended operation. The average value per ton of the total out put of Rhodesia and the Union of South Africa can be determined from the tonnage and value M irrh **.. Ir.. Current Triers for Oirysnflk AsU-stos. rn Khixli-M.i i<i 'm<i *>f -nuili Urira. Juhamit-shuro, June 24, 19.'-3. "2 pp given in tables of production appearing in the discussion of asbestos in the several countries. Table 41.--Comparable prices per short ton of African and Canadian chrysotile in 1953 Orade African chrysotile. f. o. b. Beira and Durban Canadian chryso tile. f. o. b. mines Crude No. 1........ .. ! $1, 260-$l, 400 3F............................... 630 3Z............................... 350-36*1 4H............................... 200 4T............................... 182 5K.............................. 126 ____________ I_________________ 1 Pounds converted to dollars on basis of l-$2.S0. $1, 300. 00 514. 00 321. 00 200. 00 156. (HI 122. 50 ASARCO ALV 0006056 SUBSTITUTES FOR ASBESTOS A fibrous material resembling cotton, silk, or wool but having the added quality of non flammability satisfies a multitude of needs so admirably t'liat it is difficult to find satisfactory substitutes therefor. A shortage of asbestos is a strong incentive for seeking substitutes. Germany's virtual isolation from sources of asbestos during World War II prompted a great deal of experimentation on possible substitutes. Materials tested included glass wool, steel wool, iron wire, synthetic rubber, organic plastics, cellulose, and treated paper. Some of the so-called substitutes were so un satisfactory that no further mention will be made of them. The worldwide shortage of asbestos during and after World War II led to extensive research on possible substitutes in the I'nited States and other countries. Con sideration is given to individual substitutes as follows: SODA-LIME-SILICA-GLASS FIBERS The development of a fiber-glass industry opened up a promising field for substitution because glass fibers, like asbestos, will not burn. However, as will be pointed out later, glass fiber- may lack certain physical or chemi cal characteristics inherent in asbestos and cnn-oqiicnily fail to satisfy the exacting specificutions thiii must be met for most uses. For other u<es they may be satisfactory. Glass and related fiber* are manufactured in two basic fortn* --a wool-like material and a filament. Rock wool, glass wool, and slag wool arc used primarily as lightweight thermal insulation, such it* iiou*e fill. Such applications in general arc not substitutes for asbestos. Glass fila ments made by more refined processes, involv ing the use of platinum dies, are of high quality and uniform size. Some are less than one-half micron in diameter and are adaptable to highly specialized uses, such as weaving into fabrics. Attempts have been made to use glass fibers in place of asbestos in asbestos-cement products; imt such tests have given unsatisfactory results, chiefly because of a chemical reaction between tlie glass ami cement, which decomposes the filters and destroys their effective strength. Neither glass filaments nor cloth woven from them resists high temperatures. The fibers will not burn, but they will soften and coalesce when the temperature reaches a certain point, and this (joint varies, depending upon the com position of the glass. The organic film used on woven-glass textiles will decompose and volatilize at about 300 C\, and its loss impairs the effectiveness of the fabric to some extent. Normally, glass resists weathering very well. Windowpanes generally show no weathering effects, even after many decades of use. How ever. the surface area per unit volume of very fine glass fibers is so great that exposure to water vapor results in relatively rapid deterioration. Glass and mineral-wool fibers are efficient thermal insulators in various types of equip ment, such as stoves and refrigerators, where temperatures are moderate and corrosive con ditions are not encountered. The high tensile strength, the greater thermal stability compared with organic fibers, and the electrical resistance of glass fibers make them suitable for electrical insulation, such as sleeving for wire and tapes for the construction of seme types of motors. Fiber glass is used to some extent in conjunc tion with, or as a substitute for, asbestos in Navy cable insulation. It is claimed, however, that" asbestos insulation permits greater flexi bility in finished cables than can be obtained with fiberglass insulation. Glass fibers are said to be unsatisfactory for cable filler (material that fills in the spaces in a group of insulated cables), but recent improvements in glass fibers promise future satisfactory use. Yen' thin glass-fiber paper may find advantageous use in condensers for electronic equipment; for in stance. its use may make it possible to reduce the size of the condensers. A glass-asbestos cloth was designed during World War II to extend the supply of asbestos textile fibers. It has continued in use as a covering on thermal insulation applied to piping on naval vessels. It is woven with a plied yarn having one strand each of glass and asbestos yarn. United' States Rubber Co. has announced production of a new fabric named "Asbeston," consisting of interwoven glass and asbestos yarns. It is said to be well adapted for theater curtains as well as for fireproof draperies in schools, hospitals, libraries, hotels, and ships.1 Coarse glass fibers compressed into batts are efficient lightweight air filters that are used extensively for cleaning large volumes of air. Asbestos is not widely used in this field, but blue asbestos has found important use in gas mask filters. The Naval Research Laboratory has found that glass fibers make superior gas filters. In recent gas-mask tests in a smokefilled room, only 1 particle in 100,000 passed through the filter; at the same time, the mask caused no increase in normal breathing resist ance. Glass filter paper is said to be "5.000 times more effective than present commercially i Asbestos, Draperies of Asbestos Glass Fabric: Vol. 31, Xo. 10, April 1950, p. 8. 94 ASARCO ALV 0006057 SUBSTITUTES FOR ASBESTOS 95 available filters." The filter paper can be made in any ordinary pnper mill.1 Fiber glass may. therefore, displace blue asbestos in Navy pas masks. It has been claimed, however, that blue asbestos is more satisfactory than glass fibers for civilian gas masks and for those used by the Army. A considerable part of the present production of fiber glass is being applied to military uses. Many manufacturers of electric insulating materials are listed as users of fiber glass, for instance, manufacturers of asbestos cloth and tapes, laminates, varnished tubing, magnetwire covering, and mica insulating products. Fiber glass was widely used during World War II for heat, sound, and electric insulation on aircraft. Over 90 percent of the output during World War II was used for military or essential civilian use. The use of fiber glass as a substitute for asbestos in friction equipment has. in general, given unsatisfactory results. Xo published information on comparative tests of fiber glass and asbestos in brakebands appears to be available, but verbal statements by those who have made such tests indicate that the prin cipal objection to fiber glass is its rapid abra sion of brake drums. As fiber glass can replace asbestos in certain fields of application, its future availability is of first importance. It had been claimed that the process of manufacturing fiber glass is controlled by a single company--the OwensC'orning Fiberglas Corp. Such a claim is not now correct. Glass Fibers. Inc.. Waterville, Ohio, has its own process for making fibers suited for glass-fabric manufacture, and Glass Floss C'orp.. Long Island. X. V.. has developed a proce.-s for making bonded mats and air filters. In addition to these independent con cerns. the following companies operate under license from Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corp.: (iustin-Bacon Manufacturing Co.. Kansas City, Mo.; Libbey-Owens-Ford Glass Co.. Parkers burg. W. Va.; Pittsburg Plate Glass Co., Shelbyville. Ind.; and Ferro Corp., Xashville, Twin. The parent company. Owens-Corning Fiber glas Corp.. has increased its capacity greatly. It now has plants manufacturing fiber-glass textiles at Ashton. R. I., Huntingdon. Pa., and Anderson, .'5. C., the latter plant came into production in July 1951. The company also has four plants making nontextile fiber glass products, such as block and blanket insulation and pipe covering. These plants are at Xewark, Ohio; Kansas City, Kans.; Santa Clara. Calif.; and Sarnia, Ontario, Canada. The expansion in fiber-glass manufacture * OfTier <i( Public Information, department of Defense, Glass*Flber Filter Insulator Developed by X&i&l Laboratory: Dec. 7, 1950. indicated in preceding paragraphs would in dicate a growing capability of the industry to provide for prospective future needs. A question has been raised as to the limita tions on fiber-glass manufacture imposed by the need for platinum. At one stage in the principal process of fiber-glass manufacture, the molten glass is drawn through perforations in a platinum-bottomed cell or bushing, and it appears that no other substance can be substituted for the platinum so used. Because platinum is produced in limited quantities-- a world production of about 500,000 troy ounces a year--and has wide scientific and industrial uses, its availability for wider appli cation in this industry deserves careful con sideration. Platinum is a critical material during war periods. Three important cir cumstances tend to relieve, to some extent, the threat of a possible shortage. 1. There is very little loss of platinum during fiber-glass manufacture. The holes through which the fibers are drawn will gradually enlarge, and the platinum bushing will accord ingly have to be rebuilt, using the same plat inum. Care is taken to recover any dust or fragments of platinum. The first installation is the important consideration, but subsequent replacement of losses is very small. 2. Research is being conducted constantly to find ways of reducing the quantity of platinum required in each bushing. Presumably some saving will be accomplished. 3. Research is also underway on possible substitution of some less costly and more abundant substance for platinum. Limited progress has been made, and there is at least some promise of success. Another raw material essential to fiber-glass manufacture that may be in short supply in times of emergency is cryolite, sodium-alumi num fluoride (Xa3AlF6), which is mined only in Greenland. The supply, however, is aug mented by artificial cryolite manufactured from fluorspar. If supplies of both these materials are limited, sodium silicofluoride may be sub stituted; but, as this commodity also is a de rivative of fluorspar- it may likewise fall in the category of scarce materials. Under normal industrial conditions the sup ply of both fluorspar derivatives and platinum would appear to be adequate for a moderate expansion in fiber-glass manufacture. Most of the raw materials used are plentiful. HIGH-SILICA GLASS FIBERS Glass fibers approximating vitreous silica in composition are superior to soda-lime-silica glass fibers in resistance to deterioration from the action of water vapor and to high tempera ASARCO ALV 0006058 96 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY tures. I)tit their manufacture is a difficult prob lem, Fused silica is so viscous, even at tem peratures as high as 1.700 C., that its manu facture into thit) filaments is almost impossible. To overcome this high viscosity, fluxes are added, the fibers are made, and the fluxes are then removed. Several methods are used, but they are similar in principle. First, filaments are formed from an easily workable composition, such as an alkali silicate. Second, the alkali or flux in the filament is removed by leaching or ionic substitution. The resulting fibers are relatively porous and of high silica content. They will withstand, with little deterioration, tempera Hires exceeding 1,000 C. The mini mum diameter of high-silica fibers on which data are now available is about 2 microns, and the average is much greater. On the other hand, natural asbestos fibers are only a fraction of 1 micron in diameter. Correspondingly, the silicn fillers are much less flexible than natural ehrysotile. If finer fibers can be made by im provements in processing, this difficulty may nc overcome to some extent. Because of their hiirh moisture resistance and ability to with stand high temperatures, the vitreous silica fila ments undoubtedly can be substituted for as bestos in some applications, but it is doubtful that they can replace asbestos where flexibility or elasticity is a prime consideration. Further more. the cost of manufacture is very high. Dr. Rudolf Leutz claimed to be the inventor of a process for making synthetic asbestos in Germany. His product, however, could not be called synthetic asbestos because'its base was sodium silicate, and an analysis of the final product indicated that it consisted of over 97 percent SiO.. It was, in fact, a silica-glass fiber. Three companies were licensed to manufacture this product in 1943. but because of the military reverses suffered by Germany no progress was made.3 OTHER SILICEOUS FIBERS A new series of aluminum silicate fibers, made by the mineral-wool process after fusion by inruns of an electric are. has been developed. This process has the decided advantage of eliminating the use of platinum. The products, which are available under various trade names, have thermal stabilities in the order of 2.300 F. They have been successfully employed where extremely high temperatures are encountered and where glass fibers are unsatisfactory, as in jet aircraft. Possible substitution of these new fibers for asbestos in cable coverings and elec tronics is being explored. Uses extensive * FIAT, Technical ami Scientific Developments Related to the As bestos Industry to Germany: Final Report 1070, 1947. enough to justify commercial production have been established.4 Both high-silica glass fquartz) and ceramic (aluminum silicate) fibers have been used suc cessfully by the Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D. C., for making paper that has superior properties for electrical insulation. A regular papermaking machine can be used if the fibers are of fine sizes and properly purified. Quartz paper is said to withstand temperatures up to 3,000 F. and ceramic paper 2,500 F., whereas the upper limit of asbestos paper is not more than 1,000 F.5 Hydrous calcium silicate is another insulating material used to quite an extent during the past 10 years, particularly as an alternate for 85-percent magnesia where high temperatures are involved. It will give satisfactory- service up to 1.200 F. It was reported in February 1952 that Glass Fibers, Inc.. Toledo, Ohio, had developed a process for making pure quartz fibers in sub micron sizes. ORGANIC SUBSTITUTES German scientists attempted to manufacture varn using short-fiber asbestos mixed with long organic fibers such as cotton, cellulose, or synthetics, but the product obtained was very weak.4 Cardboard with an organic plastic was used in Germany as a substitute for asbestos packing in flanges of steam and water pipes. This packing was satisfactory for pressures up to 5 atmospheres and temperatures up to 160 C. It is stated that substitutes for asbestos in high-pressure packings have not been suc cessful and that all substitutes developed and used up to 1944 were inferior to asbestos.7 A diaphragm of Perlon paper coated with barite paste was tried by I. G. Farbenindustrie as a substitute for asbestos cloth as a diaphragm in a_ Siemens-Billiter cell in the manufacture of XaOH by electrolysis of XaCl solution. It failed within 30 minutes. Perlon is a German synthetic fiber similar to nylon. However, a polyvinyl chloride diaphragm gave results equal to those obtained with asbestos cloth.' Although reports are somewhat conflicting, polyvinyl fibers appear to be inferior to asbestos in asbestos-cement products. Silicone rubber has been used successfully as a wire covering in certain applications. * Chemical Engineering. Ceramic Fiber Resists 2.300 F.: Vol. 59, No. 9, September 1952, p. 198, > Chemical Engineering, Insulating Papers vs. Asbestos: Vol. 59, No. 7, July 1952, p. 248. < Blakely, J. D.. Dawson, E. L.. Gaze, R., and Henderson, M. B,, BIOS Final Report 404 PB 34022. 1945. 1 Kianntch. w,, I. O. Farbenindustrie A.-G., Ludwlgsbalen, PB 52025, 1944. pp. 176-181. * Llebenwirth, I. G. Farbenindustrie A.**G1., Ludwigshafen, PBL70305, FIAT Reel--, B-31 Fr 40694-5. ASARCO ALV 0006059 SUBSTITUTES FOR ASBESTOS 97 SUBSTITUTES FOR AMOSITE As indicated elsewhere, an important use for amosite is for the manufacture of light, fluffy insulation for use on marine turbines and jet planes. The fluffiness appears to be a function of fiber diameter; the finer fibers show the higher degree of thermal efficiency per unit weight. Accordingly, it has been found that fiber glass having diameters of less than 1 micron has a thermal efficiency comparable with that of amosite. However, an ordinary lime-soda glass has too low a thermal efficiency for the specialized insulation uses of amosite. Aluminum silicate fibers mentioned in a pre vious paragraph have melting points as high as 2..'?00 E., which is much higher than the temperature at which amosite disintegrates. Such fibers, now being made in submicron sizes, are said to be satisfactory substitutes for amosite. but their cost is 5 or 6 times as great. Some progress has been made in substituting fiber glass for amosite in making So-percent magnesia insulation. SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS ON SUBSTITUTES Other materials may be substituted for asbestos in some fields of use. Glass fibers are satisfactory thermal insulators for low-tempera ture equipment and other applications in which the fibers are not exposed to water vapor or continued flexure. Glass fibers are good electric in-ulators and therefore are used to some ex tent for wire covering and similar applications. Vitreous silica fibers will withstand more severe weathering conditions and higher tem peratures than the soda-lime-silica glass fibers, but their manufacture is difficult. Moreover, their flexibility is much inferior to that of asbestos but is improved as processes for making finer size fibers are developed. Glass fibers are now substituted to some ex tent for long-fiber chrysotile in cable coverings and fabrics, and more extensive substitution is anticipated. Shortage of platinum might, in an emergency, limit the available supply of fiber glass. The glass fabrics, or the combined glass-asbestos fabrics, have some advantages over asbestos fabrics in lighter weight per square yard and in strength, but they are generally inferior to asbestos fabrics in resistance to high temperatures, flexure, and chemical action. The processing of combined glassasbestos fabrics introduces problems affecting the comfort of workers, because glass fibers cause skin irritation. Extremely fine fibers create less irritation than the coarser ones. Glass fibers in submicron sizes are much more costly than asbestos. With improvement in quality and substantial reduction in cost of manufacture, a wider substitution of fiber glass for asbestos is forecast. In some applications where the temperatures encountered are low and where chemical re sistance is not important, organic fibers are satisfactory substitutes.9 Data on substitutes included in this discussion were supplied In pin tv Jay E. Comcloro. Electrotechnical Laboratory, Bureau of N'orrls, Tenn. ASARCO ALV 0006060 BENEFICIATION OF ASBESTOS A critical situation existed during and after World War II owing to a short supply of chrvsotile low enough in iron to satisfy the requirements for uses involving high dielectric resistance. For instance', electric cable cover ings on shipboard must not only he fireproof but must have insulating qualities high enough to obviate the risk of current leakage or short circuit. Asbestos of spinning length is a satisfactorv cable covering if the iron content is low. The National Stockpile specification for low-iron chrvsotile calls for material con taining not more than 3.5 percent total iron and not over 2.0 percent magnetic iron. The principal supply of asbestos that will satisfy this specification originates in Southern Rho desia. and supplies from this source during and for a few years following World War II became smaller year by year. The softer varieties of Arizona asbestos are satisfactory, but the sup ply is small. The iron content of Canadian or Vermont asbestos is too high to conform with the specification. REDUCTION OF IRON CONTENT A logical approach to the problem of obtaining adequate supplies of the low-iron type is to find a way to reduce the iron content of Canadian fiber to a point low enough to meet the require ments. Sporadic attempts were made some years ago to remove magnetite from the Canadian fibers, but with small success. Recently the asbestos industry has conducted extensive research on this problem. QUINTERRA PROCESS The Johns-Manville Corp. has obtained results in its laboratories promising enough to justify the erection of a special plant at Tilton, X. II.. for manufacture of an asbestos-base, inorganic, electric-insulating paper or tape named "Quinterra" paper. Tilton was chosen because it has a dust free atmosphere, is within ea<y reach of the Canadian asbestos mines, and i< favorably located for marketing. Another reason was an abundant water supply. Water i.- a prime necessity, as 7,500 pounds is required in the manufacture of each pound of Quinterra paper. Short-fiber Canadian asbestos is beaten and agitated in water to separate the magnetite from the fiber. The purified asbestos, blended with clay, is fabricated by a special paper making process. The paper has a closed structure; that is, it has neither holes nor interstices, such as are present in woven prod ucts. It is said to withstand temperatures as high as 800 C. The severe mechanical treat- ment required to free the magnetite tends to weaken the asbestos fibers considerably. To give additional strength, the paper is reinforced with an open fiber-glass fabric or grid. The resulting product is a satisfactory substitute for Rhodesian fibers in various nonferrous applica tions. Silicone-treated Quinterra paper is now applied to electrical-insulation uses.1 TERRATEX PROCESS The General Electric Co. has conducted much research on developing thin fiber-glass sheets of high dielectric strength. It was found, however, that asbestos fibers are more flexible than those of glass, but are relatively impure. Means were found for separating the asbestos into extremely fine filaments and removing the impurities. The resulting paper, known as "Terratex.'' has satisfactory thermal and electrical resistance for many uses. The research work paralleled the Quinterra process already described.2 NOVABESTOS PROCESS Raybestos-Manhattan. Inc., is also con ducting experimental work on a wet-process method that differs from that employed by Johns-Manville in that longer fibers, even up to spinning grade, are used. To free the magnetite from the fibers, a method has been devised whereby fibers are separated with a dispersing agent. Manv agents were tried, and several were finally found that would disperse or separate the fibers from each other with minimum mechanical force. In other words, a chemical process for separating fibers is substituted for the mechanical beating or crushing method. Thus, the magnetite is set free so that it can be removed magnetically, with very little damage to the fibers. The fine fibers are made into papers and tissues known as "Xovabestos." Some are reinforced with fiberglass. Thev are employed commercially for several nonferrous uses. VORTRAP PROCESS The Naval Research Laboratory has demon strated the ability of a papermafcer's Vortrap to remove free magnetite from a wet slurry of asbestos. Essentially the separation is effected by the swirling action that arises when rapidly flowing water is introduced into a pipe tan gentially. The concomitant centrifugal action tends to throw the heavy magnetite against* 1 Asbestos. Quinterra Type 3: Vol. 33, No. 3. September 1951, p. 6. The Qulnterras: Vol. 33. No. 5. November 1951, pp. 10-20. * Walters. T. R.. '`Terratex''--A Thin Flexible Inorganic Insulation: Trans. Am. Inst. Elec. Eng., vol. 67. May 1948, pp. 452-154. 98 ASARCO ALV 0006061 BENEFICATION OF ASBESTOS 99 the walls, while the asbestos fibers, freed from magnetite, remain suspended and ultimately pass up and out of the instrument to a decker or other fiber-recovery apparatus. Fibers of spinning: length have been cleaned with fair success in a laboratory-size Vortrap (1%-inch). As the magnetite grains tend to be intimately attached to the fibers, some asbestos is carried away with the heavy fraction; on the other hand, some fibers to which fine grains of magnetite are attached are light enough to be carried upward with the iron-free asbestos. In accordance with plans formulated by the Xaval Research Laboratory and the Bureau of Mines, larger scale tests with Canadian asbestos were made in 1952. but the results were incon clusive. This preliminary work indicated a need for a more comprehensive study of the problem. The Bureau of Mines has under taken a program of research in this field, including petrographic studies, fiberization by selective grinding, and possibly supersonic vibration and iron separation by Vortrap or magnetic means. FAULTY SPECIFICATIONS Some investigators believe that the actual quantity of total iron and magnetic iron present in asbestos or its products is a faulty criterion of its electrical resistance because much depends upon the condition of the iron present. For instance, a large fragment of magnetite would lie more detrimental than the same quantity of magnetite in the form of numerous small fragments, because the large mass might constitute an uninterrupted path for the electric current, whereas the small particles, separated from each other by comparatively resistant materials, would provide a less ready pathway along which the electric current could travel. Accordingly, removal of the larger fragments would improve the electrical resist ance of the product more than removal of the -ame quantity of iron in the form of small fragments only. It is recognized in the spec ifications that magnetic iron is more detri mental than the nonmagnetic forms, but the actual quantities of each may still be a faulty measure of electrical resistance. MEANS OF MODIFYING INCLUSIONS It has been pointed out that, if the ironhearing asbestos were carried between the terminals of an electric arc, the short circuit created when a relatively large piece of magne tite reaches the space between the terminals would not only break up the fragment into small particles but would reduce the magnetite to ferrous forms, which are less harmful. Methods of modifying the form and particle size of the iron minerals present in asbestos have not yet been fully explored. Possibly the best results can be obtained by combining processes of iron removal with methods of modifying the form and grain size of the iron particles that remain. About 1925 the Jeffrey Manufacturing Co. developed a method whereby woven asbestos tapes were passed between electrodes, with the result that the larger particles of magnetite were volatilized or converted to nonmagnetic compounds of iron. The resulting perforations in the tape were sealed by a following treatment with resins. When nonferrous tape became available, this practice was discontinued, but recently it has been applied successfully to Novabestos sheet made by Ravbestos-Manhattan, Inc.3 It is pertinent in this connection to point out the desirability of a more complete investiga tion of types of asbestos that may be high in iron but in which the iron is present in silicate forms that are relatively resistant to the pas sage of electricity. Crocidolite, for instance, is high in iron, but little free iron oxide is present. The possibility of using crocidolite for fabrics suitable for wire covering has not been fully explored, chiefly because supplies of crocidolite of spinning quality are relatively small. ELONGATION OF SHORT FIBERS During recent years there has been great need for a larger supply of long spinning fibers of both the low-iron and the higher iron types. As pointed out elsewhere in this report (p* 62), spinning fibers produced in Canada constitute only about 4 percent of the total production. If some method could be devised for converting short fibers into long ones, the situation might be relieved. To make short fibers out of long ones is easy; all mill operators wish that it were not so simple, but elongation of short fibers is much more difficult. Fortunately, the research scientist is not terrified by apparently insurmountable barriers, and some investiga tions have already been conducted in this field. Driscoll and Bruce 4 claim that an improved product can be made by mixing a slightly soluble metal compound, such as lime, with the short asbestos fibers. A soluble silicate is then used to impregnate the asbestos mass and cause precipitation of a bonding agent such as calcium silicate. Liidke5 claims that short fibers can be con verted into long fibers. The fibers are oriented by some means, such as electrostatically, into *Data supplied by Jesse M. Weaver. 4 Driscoll. James, and Bruce. Donald S,, Treated Fabric and Process of Making the Same: U. S. Patent 2,033.028, Mar. 17, 1036. 1 LUdke, W.. Asbesten mit l&ngeren Fasernaus Kurtfasrigen symhetiscben Asbesten: German Patent 740,011, Nov. 1, 1043. ASARCO ALV 0006062 100 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY parallel position and arc then exposed to water ami fluorine vapors at elevated temperatures. Callinan 6 has devised a method of improv ing the structural and mechanical properties of asbestos. It is claimed that the reaction be tween asbestos and silicon tetrachloride results in a product that has a higher silicon content and greater tensile strength. It is postulated that the silicon tetrachloride reacts with the terminal hydroxyl groups of ehrysotile and ` Mailman. T. I>. MiiutiI Products and Method of I'rvjxmition: L\S. Patvui Frt. A, |y40. causes a condensation which leads to a sub stantial increase in chain length. Brandenberger et al.7 found that, when sepentine synthesis was conducted in the presence of natural serpentine fibers (chrysotile), no enlargement in the grain size of the natural fibers took place.8 7 Brandenheraer, E,, Epprecht, \V,, and N'lecll. F. fThe Serpentine Minerals and Their Synthesis, llj Helv. Chlm. Acta, vo|. 30. 1W7, pp. 1H4 (trans. by Frank Riordan, Jr.). 1 Data on treatment of short fibers supplied by Jay E. Comeforo. Electrotechnical Laboratory, Bureau of Mines, Norris, Tenn. ASARCO ALV 0006063 SYNTHESIS OF ASBESTOS Mineral synthesis is a well-established art. . Synthetic sapphires ami rubies have been used as jewel bearings for many years. Recently remarkable success has been attained in mak ing synthetic quartz crystal, and some progress has been made in synthesizing mica. As the United States mines only a small fraction of its total requirements of asbestos and an even smaller fraction of its needs of the spinning grades, the development of a process for mak ing long-fibered ehrysotile is highly desirable, for it would tend to overcome our major de pendence upon foreign countries in times of emergency. Some progress has been made in svnthesizing amphibole asbestos, but ehrysotile svmliesis appears to be much more difficult. Following is a review of the status of the problem. Acknowledgement is made to Dr. .lay E. Comeforo. Electrotechnical Laboratory, Bureau of Mines. Norris. Tenn., for a substan tial part of the data presented herein. SYNTHESIS OF CHRYSOTILE In 1020 Wells 1 synthesized "a hydrous mag nesium silicate very similar to serpentine" by the interaction of a sodium silicate solution with MgC'CL at 37o5 *to 475 C. under pressures of 200 to 230 atmospheres. Under similar conditions. Ipatiev and Muromtsef*f*2 claim to have prepared ehrysotile from a silica gel ami magnesium salt solutions. Using MgO and an alkali-free silicic acid, lander and Wulirer 1 synthesized serpentine at temperatures below the critical point of water. Nothing was said concerning the fibrous char acter of the synthesized serpentine. Noll ' reduced the number of nuclei formed during the synthesis by carefully introducing the reactants into nickel or silver tubes in the form of solutions in two layers or strata. One layer was composed of waterglass and caustic soda while the other consisted of a magnesium salt, such as Mg('l2. A gel soon formed at the interface, which served us a diffusion membrane and hindered the rapid mixing of the solutions. The tube und its contents were rapidly heated to 300 ('. under a pressure of 100 atmospheres. By this means, groups or pockets of ehrysotile fibers were formed. The greatest length of the filaments was 0.2 mm., which is longer than the i Wells, F. O.. The Hydrothermal Alteration of Serpentine: Am. Jour. Science. vo|. IS. 1V2V. pp. 35-52. > Ipatiev. \\\. and Muromtseff. B., Bull. Soc. Cblm. Er., vol. 41.1927, pp. 1.588-1, AM. t Jander, Wilhelm, and Wuhrer, Josef. (Hydrothermal Reactions, the Production of Mameslum H vdrosljlcates}: Ztschr. aoorg. u. allgem. Chemle. vol. 235 (4). March 1938. pp. 273-294. Noll. \V,, (Serpentine Asbestos. Me(OH)tSUOu.HsO)J:I. O. FarbenIndustrie A. ti., June 30. 1942 Inorronlc Scientific Laboratory. Lever kusen. Germany, PB L748S9. FIAT microfilm reel T-14. Frames 58-67. fiber length of the product obtained without the diffusion process. Recent studies of the MgO-SiOj-HjO system by Bowen and Tuttle5 haveshown that ehrysotile can be synthesized at temperatures below 500 C. and at pressures of 2,000 to 4,000 p.s.i. The ehrysotile fibers formed, however, were verv small. (3'Daniel and Hahn-Weinheimer5 have re ported the synthesis of a long-fibered material by recrystallization of ehrysotile, antigorite. or mica from an ammoniacal solution. The prop erties determined on samples of synthetic ehrysotile are found to be similar to those re ported for the naturally occurring mineral. For example, both exhibit similar dehydration curves. X-ray patterns, and refractive indices.7 Recently Bates and coworkers8 have re ported ehrysotile fibers to be actually hollow tubes. Electron micrographs show synthetic chrvsotile to have the same tubular structure.9 Noil and Kircher 10 *have synthesized garnierite. a mineral in which the divalent magnesium ions are isomorphically replaced by divalent nickel. The synthesis was carried out in a similar man ner to ehrysotile, except that NiCL was used in place of SlgCL. On the basis of crystal evi dence. the structure of garnierite is also be lieved to consist of curved double layers, analogous to those of ehrysotile. The hydrothermal synthesis of ehrysotile is being studied at the New Jersey Ceramic Re search Station. Rutgers University. A printarv objective is to determine the factors that will promote growth of the fibrous habit. Best results have been obtained with gels. The effects of variations in pressure, temperature, duration of run. and composition were investi gated. The ehrysotile filaments made were of submicroscopic size.11 The universal difficulty to date has been the inability to develop crystals of ehrysotile in sizes suitable for commercial utilization. SYNTHESIS OF AMPHIBOLES As early as 1935, Dr. Werner Liidke claimed to have made synthetic amphibole asbestos.15 1 Bowen. S. L.. and Tuttle. O. F,, The System Mg0-S10t-H:0: Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol. 60.1949. pp. 439-460. * O'Daniel,--.and H3hn-Welnhelmer. P. (Fiber Growth In Serpentim J N'eues Jahrb. Mineral. Monatsh., 1952. pp. 213-16. Soli, W. (Svnthesls In the System MgO-SlOi-HiO]: Ztschr. anorc. Chem.. vol. 261. 1950. pp. 1-25. * Bates. T. F., Sand. L. B., and Mink. J. F.t Tubular Crystals of Chrysotile Asbestos* Science, vol. 3, May 12. 1950, pp. 512-513. * Noll. \V,, and Kircher, H. (The Morphology of Chrysotile Asbestos]. Naturwlsaenschaften. vol. 37.1950. pp. 540-541. u Soli. W., and Kircher, H. (Synthesis of Qamierite]: Katurwlssenachaften. vol. 39. 1952. pp. 233-34. n Communication from Shaw, Myrfl C,, 1953. it LOdke, Werner (The Scientific Basis of the LQdke Asbestos Syn thesis, and Properties of Synthetic Asbestos]: Relchber. Chem., vol. 1, No. 2 (Prdf-Nr 015); PB. 52025.1944, pp. 121-40. 101 ASARCO ALV 0006064 102 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY Lildke's process was a type of pneumatolitic synthesis; that is. it involved the reaction re sulting: from the passage of heated vapor over compounded mixtures. Gerd M. Bloomfield,13 who made a thorough review of all attempts to make synthetic asbestos in Germany, was present at a meeting in 1935 at which the representatives of the asbestos industry ex pressed the opinion that Dr. Lildke's product, at the current state of development, was an unsatisfactory replacement for natural asbestos. Faced with a shortage of asbestos, however, the Anhultiselie Studiengesellschaft supported Dr. Liidke; and a pilot plant was built in Bernburg in 1940. where attempts were made to develop the process to a commercial scale. The syn thetic asbestos fibers produced, however, were of inferior quality and were never improved. An attempt was made to manufacture high- pressure gaskets, but the synthetic material was chemically unstable and did not withstand the mechanical handling necessitated by quan tity production. The requirements demanded for these gaskets could not be satisfied by the experimental samples made of synthetic as bestos. Asbestos paper and millboard made of Lildke's synthetic amphibole asbestos did not compare favorably with those made of natural asbesiiform minerals. Sitz 14 has described Ludke-process asbestos, which, in a somewhat later stage of develop ment. came from the furnace in the form of a large plate about .'100 mm. thick. He states that it was broken up, shredded, and used in hiirh-pressurc packings, brakebands, insulation, airplane coverings, and paints. Sitz's report shows no improvement over the previously stated results attained by Dr. Liidke. Liidke's most successful experiments are being reinvestigated at the Electrotechnical Labora tory of the Federal Bureau of Mines to deter mine more precisely the effect of variations in the conditions during synthesis on the quality of the product. This research has resulted in the synthesis of an alkali-containing amphibole at a temperature as low as 400 C. in an open system. A review and critique of previous syntheses of amphiboles by both reactions in the solid state and by crystallization from melts are given by Comeforo and Kolin.15 * *In the syn thesis of amphiboles. a promising technique is to replace the hydroxyl normally present in natural amphiboles by fluorine, just as in the more familiar phlogopite-mica synthesis. By this means, it is possible to produce large Bloomfield, Oerd M,, Technical and Scientific Developments Re lated to the Asbestos Industry In Germany- FIAT Final Rept.lOTu, 1947. 14 8IU. G,, The Technical Development of the Ltldke Asbestos Syn thesis. PB L 52025, 1941, pp. 141-U7. n Comeforo, J. ., and Kohn, J. A., Synthetic Asbestos Investiga tions. I: Study of Synthetic Fluor-Tremollte: Am. Mineral., vol. 39. Nos 7 and July-Aueusi 1954. pp. 537*545. amounts of synthetic amphibole by crystalliz ing a melt of the amphibole composition in a closed container to retard volatilization of fluo rides. Unfortunately, all synthetic amphibole fibers are weak and brittle. To improve the flexibility of synthetic amphiboles and to deter mine the most satisfactory compositions for crystallizing them relatively free of impurities, an extensive study of the isomorphism of syn thetic fluor-amphiboles has been made at the Electrotechnical Laboratory of the Bureau of Mines. This work has resulted in the syn thesis of amphiboles of widely varying chemical compositions, many of which are unknown in nature. Controlled thermal gradients can be used to induce alinement of the crystals, first, by cooling the melt from the bottom, and second, Invarying the shape of the container so that cool ing'will bedn at one small area. Figure 15 shows the definite vertical orientation of am phibole crystals that may be obtained by these techniques (scale on photograph in millimeters). Except for their fibrous habit, the proper ties of synthetic amphiboles are almost identical to those of their naturally occurring analog. The replacement of hydroxyl by fluorine does not result in any appreciable change in its X-ray or optical properties. A study of well-formed, single crystals of synthetic fluor-tremolite showed that the in dices of refraction of the synthetic mineral were slightly lower and the extinction angle slightly higher than those of the natural mineral. To show bow closely the crystal structure of the synthetic compares with that of natural tremolite, the unit cell dimensions are compared in table 42. SYNTHESIS OF ANHYDROUS ASBESTIFORM MINERALS In addition to research on the synthesis of chrvsotile and amphiboles--the two naturally occurring asbestiform minerals of commercial interest--experimentation is in progress on the synthesis of other inorganic, crystalline fibrous materials. Progress is being made on the svnthesis of a potassium-lead silicate which Las appreciable flexibility and crystallizes in a fi brous habit. The method of synthesis and chemical and certain physical properties of this promising material have been recently dis cussed.18 The potassium-lead silicate has been shown to be isomorphous with lead-aluminum silicate, which also crystallizes in a fibrous habit. Aside from possible practical uses, these min erals should prove valuable in the general theo retical study of inorganic, crystalline fibers. > Shell, H. R., and Brown, D. L., Synthetic Asbestos Investigation, H: Synthesis and Properties of Fibrous K*Pb<SiiOn and Isomorphs. (In press.) ASARCO ALV 0006065 SYNTHESIS OF ASBESTOS 103 Fici-re 15.--Rjmln-iir Amphibole Ashesios Made at Electrotechnical Laboratory, Bureau of Mines, Norris, Tenn. Tabu: 42.--<\U diincnxionn of natural and artificial trnnolitf N\tur! if-nmlur W irr. ii Arisfiru! trcmnlitc tC`ofn-f'ro jwI Ki*lu : a <J.7*A;.. .................... 9.781 A*. I, 17.S ............................. 18.007. 5.20 ........................... 5.207. Ii 735&'........................... 75*2!)'. ;\Virrti. B K (Thr Htruitun- of Trt*moHt\ H:C 7.w S.r. K.'s.-s . w.l T2. ItfJO. p. 44 'm 15 102;. SUMMARY OF ASBESTOS SYNTHESIS Reseureh on asbestiform minerals since the early Hi.iO's has firmly established the fact that clwysotile and amphibole can be syn thesized. However, a product of commercial value as a replacement for the natural minerals has not vet been made. With chrysotile a means of increasing: the length beyond a feu- tenths of a millimeter has been a major dif ficulty, while with synthetic amphiboles ex cessive brittleness has made them unsuitable except for limited applications. All results to date indicate the need for find ing ways of increasing the length of the fibers and, in the case of synthetic amphibole, of in creasing the flexibility. One of the promising new developments in the search for a new type of inorganic, crystal line fiber is a potassium-lead-silicate compound that exhibits flexibility, can be produced in lengths of several millimeters, and has good dielectric properties. The synthesis of an asbestiform material is a problem that must necessarily be approached from the long-range viewpoint. Most of the work to date has been in the establishment of fundamental facts upon which the ultimate development research will be built. Those who have worked in this field are uniformly convinced that a suitable product will eventu al!}- be synthesized, but success will demand unremitting and vigorous pursuit. ASARCO ALV 0006066 MANUFACTURE OF ASBESTOS PRODUCTS A WIDESPREAD AND DIVERSIFIED INDUSTRY The fire resistance of asbestos, combined with "its fibrous character, adapts it admirably for the manufacture of flexible, heat-insulating products, packings, and gaskets for use in places where fabrics of animal or vegetable origin would be less enduring and would create fire hazards. The addition of asbestos to various fireproof building materials gives them strength and flexibility; furthermore, manu facturers of many miscellaneous products find that asbestos, when used as an ingredient, imparts superior qualities. The United States lends all countries in the manufacture of products of which asbestos is a major or an essential constituent. The industries are cen tered chiefly in North Atlantic. Southern, Mid western. and Pacific Coast States. The value of asbestos products manufactured in the United States during recent years is indicated in table 4d. The articles listed as "other products'' are very numerous; some manufacturing com panies sell more than 200 different articles. Most of the output enters the domestic market; le'S than 4 percent, in value, is exported. Nevertheless the export trade is of considerable magnitude, as indicated in table 44. Although Canada uses less than 5 percent of the asbestos produced within the country, its asbestos-products industry is expanding. Ac cording to an official report.1 there are 4 com panies making asbestos-cement products, 14 manufacturers of molded asbestos automotive' products, asbestos-paper companies, and 3 manufacturers of asbestos textiles. T mile 43.--Valin nf ash st$ productx manujac(urid let tin I'nltid States, 1950--52 [lat t from t\ > iMursmen? of Commerce! tic l'7i 1951 V*S2 r* \* ' \w{.;. ! ||.M,r if. r\tl'....... r* ilf lit ''Lius:!"- and litiit-.n* 1........ .W- S- ''fit Hi* uvl FUJ 0* ! '!.* u. l u.i]I!.<ur<: ............................... T-i.ll *'* llVsUil O no. 431. nm 21.177.<* S*. 74v*i 276. 1*5.1**! .W. 01*1 >2.935.01*1 87.634.000 57.SS9.000 32.125. 000 *77.000 334.463.000 $2 *5, Wl, IRNI *0, 194. (KKJ 70.077. UW 28.454. (*ki 33.215.1*10 332.203.000 I>.it i nu-h-'iUAie valur included under "Other products." FABRICATION OF ASBESTOS PRODUCTS The manufacture of asbestos products in volves many diversified and complex processes. i Forrlzn Tni'lf. Ilcpt. of Trade aod Commerce, Ottawa, vol. H, .Vo. HO. July 1#53, pp. 17-30. 104 Only a brief summary of the principal operations is presented herein because this report pertains primarily to raw materials. Table 44.--Value of manufaciured-asbestos prod ucts exported from the United States, 1950-52 [Data from C. S. Department of CommerceJ Product ` 1950 1951 1952 Brake blocks............................. . Brake linine and clutch facing.. . Construction materials............... . Pipe corerine and cement.......... Textile* yarn and packing......... . Other............................................. Total..................................... . *396.654 3.592.291 1.755.149 2HS. 15 1.814.105 333, 8.097.192 *680.989 7.614. 860 2.526. 784 453.367 2.391.942 652.407 14.320.389 *4W. 537 6.078,614 2.822. )2 655.254 2,428.123 58*. 409 13.027. 739 FABRICS The preliminary treatment of asbestos be fore it is made into textiles has been described in the chapter on Milling Methods (see p. 82). The processes involved in manufacturing fabrics follow, in general, those employed in spinning and weaving cotton, wool, or silk. The asbestos fibers are generally shorter than those of organic origin, but they differ from them mainly in the nature of the surface. Wool fibers are covered with scaly bands known as imbrications, and cotton fibers are rough, twisted, and irregular. On the other hand, asbestos fibers have no nodules, twis.ts, or irregularities on the surface that will enable one fiber to cling to another. They are more nearly akin to silk but are smoother and more rodlike. This smooth, slippery condition creates such difficulties in spinning that the manufacture of a 100-percent asbestos yarn is slow and costly; therefore a percentage of some other fiber, usually cotton, is added to act as a vehicle to carry the asbestos through the manufactur ing process. The proportion of cotton added varies with the character of the asbestos and with the nature of the finished product. Asbestos used in the manufacture of fabrics may consist of a mixture of varieties from different localities. The proportions depend upon the cost and quality of raw materials and the requirements of the finished product. Most manufacturers in America prefer Canadian fiber as a base, although many products now are made of African fiber alone. The blended fibers, with the necessary addition of cotton, are mixed thoroughly with revolving beaters. Some manufacturers, however, introduce the cotton at a later stage. Carding is the next step in the manufacturing process. Carding rolls are covered with leather and fitted with sharp steel bristles. They comb ASARCO ALV 0006067 MANUFACTURE OF ASBESTOS PRODUCTS 105 the fibers parallel and remove short fibers, bits of rock, and dust. After passing a succession of carding rolls the fiber emerges as a loose blanket, which may be turned 90 and passed through another carding machine. The blan ket then is separated into rovings, which are gathered in a roll on a Jack spool and spun into yarn, as in ordinary textile mills. Yarns are made in various sizes; a "5-cut" yarn measures about 500 yards to the pound and a "30-cut" yarn about 3,000 yards. When twisted exceptionally hard, it is known as asbestos thread, which is used in sewing gas mantles, asbestos theater curtains, and as bestos clothing. The spindles of single-plv yarn are transferred to twisting machines and twisted into 2- or 3-ply yarn, which is wound on spools. Asbestos cord and rope are made by twisting a greater number of strands together. Where yarn is to be used for brake bands or packings, it usually is reinforced with fine copper, brass, or lead wire. Thus, for brake bands. 3 strands of single-ply yarn and 2 strands of brass wire of gage Xos. 0.006, 0.007. or 0.008 may be twisted together. For packings, a single lead wire or 1 to 3 strands of brass wire are twisted with 2 or 3 strands of asbestos yarn. Products prepared in this way are known as "metallic yarns." Yarns are woven into' fabrics by well-known processes employed in cotton- or woolentextile mills. Asbestos cloth is used for theater curtains, fireproof clothing, and many other textile products. .Single-ply asbestos yam also is braided into tape. For electrical in sulation, it should contain not more than 7 percent carbon and not more than 14 percent cotton. Metallic yarn containing about 16 percent cotton is woven into strips for brake band linings. .Standard widths range from 1 to 6 inches and standard thicknesses from % to Is inch. Thev are processed with rubber and other ingredients. The manufacture of woven brake linings for automobiles is an im portant branch of the asbestos-products in dustry. but it has become relatively less important since molded brake linings have been introduced. Asbestos packings are made in various ways. The yarn may be twisted or braided into valvestem packings, the braided forms may be compressed into rings, or asbestos cloth may be cut into gaskets or other desired forms. They may be coated or impregnated with rubber compounds, oil, or flake graphite. Metallic yarn is used in some packings. Fur ther details on the uses of asbestos in fabrics have been published.2 * * Asbestos Textile Institute, Handbook of Asbestos Textiles: New Brunswick, N. J., 1053. 78 pp. SHINGLES AND LUMBER Asbestos roofing shingles and sidings consist of portland cement to which is added about 15 percent of shingle-grade asbestos and color ing matter as desired. When manufactured by the so-called "dry process," the cement, asbestos, and coloring agent are mixed dry in a cylindrical mixer provided with paddles. The mixture is spread evenly on an 18-inch convevor belt and sprayed with water at 180 F. Rollers compress it to the required thickness, and a rotarv cutter separates it into individual shingles. The shingles are piled in stacks separated by steel pallets ana squeezed in a hydraulic press at a pressure of 20.000 pounds per square inch, after which they are cured, trimmed, and punched for nailing. Asbestos lumber, sidings, ana shingles are also made by a wet method known as the laminated or "Hatschek" process first used in Austria. Cement, shingle-grade fiber, and color ing matter are mixed with a large quantity of water, agitated thoroughly with a beater, and pumped to a so-called Hatschek machine (named after the inventor) that builds up sheets in successive laminations to the desired thickness. Portland cement thus mixed with a large quantity of water does not lose its ca pability of setting at a later stage when most of the water is removed. Steam curing hastens the setting. For shingle manufacture, thin sheets are made. Lumber consists of thicker and larger sheets. Corrugated sheets are made by crimping flat sheets. The laminated process is also used for making cementasbestos pipes, but the building up of tube shaped articles is more complicated and requires special equipment. Asbestos lumber is also made by the dry process described previously, but more time is needed for compression and curing than is required for the thin sheets used for roofing. PAPER AND MILLBOARD Asbestos of paper-stock grade is mixed with a large amount of water to make a thin slurry, which is agitated thoroughly in 5-foot drums covered with slats. Starch, flour, or size and sodium silicate, derived partly from the over flow squeezed out of the paper at a later stage, are added to the slurry. This is then conveyed to a paper machine similar to that used in manufacturing paper from rags or wood pulp. All particles of stone or other impurities are eliminated in a sand-catching and knot-remov ing machine. The sheets of paper pass between rollers to remove most of the water, are dried on hot cylinders, and are wound in rolls. If a 2-ply paper is desired, 1 side of a sheet is coated lightly with sodium silicate, and the 2 sheets ASARCO ALV 0006068 106 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY arc run together over several hot rolls. Crimped paper is made by passing it over corrugated rolls. In the manufacture of aircell pipe covering, the tips of the corrugations are coated with sodium silicate, and a flat sheet is added. When this process is repeated, a 2-plv. 3-ply, or thicker air-cell covering may be made. Millboard is generally classed with paper beeause it is manufactured by the same general process. It is simply a thick paper; it bears the same relation to asbestos paper that card board bears to wrapping paper. The board usually is built up on rectangular screens rather than on drums. The manufacture of millboard gaskets is important. The high speeds, temperatures, and pressures attained in modern automobiles and other machinery demand very exacting qualities in the millboard used. It must have uniform density and high strength, and varia tions in thickness in any part of the sheet must not exceed 0.002 inch. ASBESTOS-CEMENT PIPE In one method of pipe manufacture a slurry of asbestos, cement, and water is collected on a felt-covered belt and the water removed by suction. The sheet is then wound on a rotat ing metal cylinder having an outside diameter equal to the inside diameter of the pipe to be made. After it has been built up to the desired thickness, it is steam-cured. Such pipe is used extensively for wafer and oil lines, as it resists corrosion, compression, traction, or shock. An admixture of sulfur and asbestos is also used for making pipes or for lining steel pipes. Sulfur has remarkably high resistance to chemical action, and the asbestos fiber sup plies the desired strength. ASBESTOS-MAGNESIA INSULATION A light, fluffy form of magnesium carbonate combined with asbestos fibers makes an effec tive heat insulator for steam pipes. The magnesium carbonate is commonly recovered from dolomite, which is a double carbonate of calcium and magnesium. By means of a complex chemical treatment, the magnesia is separated in the form of a light, fine-grained, basic magnesium carbonate. Magnesium car bonate is also obtained from bitterns (the residual brines at salt works) and from sea water. About 15 percent, by weight, of asbestos is added to the magnesium carbonate and the mixture agitated thoroughly in water. The solids are collected on a filter press and cast in the form of pipe insulation, generally 1 to 4 inches thick. Such products are designated "85-percent magnesia." The asbestos used is commonly a mixture of Canadian chrvsotile and amosite. The pro portions may "be 40 to 60 percent amosite and the remainder chrvsotile of Group 4 or 5. When fibers of fair length are used, the propor tion of fiber may be reduced--possibly as low as 11 percent. If shorter fibers are used, the percentage must be increased, possibly to 15 percent or more. The shorter the fibers, the greater the breakage loss in the finished prod uct. Amosite furnishes long fibers at lower cost than those obtained by emploving Cana dian chrvsotile. One product, "I'nibestos," consists almost entirely of amosite. The 85percent magnesia is used for temperatures up to about 550 F., above which the magnesia disintegrates. Unibestos is used for tempera tures of 550 to 900 F. Another hightemperature insulating material, named "Calsilite," consists of amosite, Canadian 3Z, and a siliceous binder. It is said to withstand temperatures up to 1,200 F. COMPOUNDED PACKINGS Packings are used to prevent the escape of steam or compressed air around the moving parts of machinery. Compounded packings are made of asbestos mixed with fillers and binders. Ordinary fillers are clay, barite, magnesia, iron oxide, graphite, and cellulose. The binding materials are gums, resins, lac, or rubber dissolved in a volatile solvent. Highgrade packings contain about 2 parts of asbestos to 1 part of filler. The mixture is molded into sheets of any desired thickness and may be reinforced with copper or lead foil. ASBESTOS CEMENT A covering used widely for boiler insulation consists of short-fiber asbestos. Cementing material such as plastic clay is sometimes used. The ingredients are mixed with water to form a paste, which is applied with a trowel. The fibers employed for such cements are the shortest and lowest priced grades. MOLDED ARTICLES Increasing quantities of short-fiber asbestos are used in manufacturing electrical fittings and household appliances. Mixtures of as- l ASARCO ALV 0006069 MANUFACTURE OF ASBESTOS PRODUCTS 107 bestos, gilsonite, cement, and oil are ground together and compressed in molds; these are baked in ovens, polished, and lacquered. Gilsonite imparts a brown color; if gray is desired, the gilsonite is omitted. Short-fiber asbestos mixed with synthetic resins, vegetable oils, or other ingredients may be compressed in molds to make so-called "asphalt" floor tile. Such tiles may contain 40 percent or more of short-fiber asbestos, and the industry has grown to such proportions that it has created a market for large quantities of the shorter fibers that formerly were discarded as waste. NONCORROSIVE FILTERS Amphibole asbestos, which, in general, is more resistant to chemicals than cnrysotile, is washed, thoroughly fiberized, acid-treated to remove soluble impurities, and otherwise pre pared for use in Gooch crucibles or for other filtering processes that employ strong acids and alkalies. 332098*--55------9 ASARCO ALV 0006070 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Allen, M. A., and Butler, 0. M. Asbestos. Univ. of Arizona Bull. 113, 11)21, 31 pp. 2. Asbestos. A magazine devoted to the asbestos trade, published monthly since July 1911), 808 Western Saving Fund Bldg., Philadelphia 7, Pa. 3. Becker 4 Haag. Asbestos. Book published by Becker 4 Haag, Berlin, 1928, 88 pp.; 2d ed., 1952, 234 pp. 4. Badollet, M. S. Research on Asbestos Fibers. Canadian Min. and Met. Bull., vol. 51, 1948, pp. 213-216. 5. ---------- . Asbestos, A Mineral of Unparalleled Properties. Canadian Min. and Met. Bull., vol. 54, April 1951, pp. 237-246. 6. ----------. Asbestos Floats. Canadian Min. and Met. Bull., vol. 55, May 1952, pp. 185-189. 7.---------- . Asbestos Fibers: Production and Usage. Canadian Min. and Met. Bull., vol. 56, August 1953. pp. 477-479. 8. Berlinr\ut, L. Asbestos Mining Reviving in Russia. ling, and Min. Jour.-Press, vol. 121, 1926, pp. 164-167. 9. Bloomfield, 0. M. Technical and Scientific De velopments Related to the Asbestos Industry in Germany. FIAT Final Report 1070, 1947, 42 pp. 10. Bowles, Oliver. Asbestos: chap, in Political and Commercial Geologv (ed. bv J. E. Spurr). 1920, pp. 388-401. 11. ---------- . Asbestos. Bureau of Mines Bull. 403, 1937, 92 pp. 12. ---------- . Asbestos, a Strategic Mineral. Min. and Met., vol. 19, No. 382, October 1938, pp. 442-445. 13. ---------- . The Silk of the Mineral Kingdom. The Ruberoid Co.. New York, 1946, 39 pp. 14. ---------- . Asbestos--an Elusive Mineral. Asbes tos, vol. 30. No. 9, March 1949, pp. 4-10. 15. ---------- . Varieties and USes of Asbestos. Asbes tos, vol. 32, No. 3, September 1950, pp. 4-12. 16. --------- . Materials Survey--Asbestos. Prepared by National Security Resources Board in co operation with Bureau of Mines, 1952, 146 pp., 3 maps. For sale by U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C., SI.75. 17. ---------- . Utilization and Availability of Asbestos in Electric Insulation. Jour. Electrochemical Soc., vol. 101, No. 3, March 1954, pp. 73C-75C. 18. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Asbestos: World Production and Trade. Trade. Inf. Bull. 20, 1922, 10 pp. 19. ---------- . Asbestos, Source and Trade. Trade Inf. Bull. 442, 1926, 22 pp. 20. Chellson, H. C. Operating the World's Largest Asbestos Mine, Part I. Eng. and Min. Jour., vol. 142, No. 9, pp. 43--46; part II, No. 10, pp. 49-52, 1941. 21. Comeforo, J. E., and Kohn, J. A. Synthetic Asbestos Investigations. I. Study of Synthetic Fluor-Tretnolite. Am. Mineral., vol. 39, Nos. 7 and 8, Julv-August 1954, pp. 537-548. 22. Cooke, H. C. The Composition of Asbestos and Other Fibers of Thetford District, Quebec. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, 3d eer., vol. 29, sec. 4, 1935, pp. 7-19. 23. ---------- . Asbestos Deposits of Thetford District, Quebec. Econ. Geol., vol. 31, No. 4, 1936, pp. 3oo-3 i 6. 24. ---------- . Thetford, Disraeli, and Eastern Half of Warwick Map-Areas. Quebec, Canada, Dept, of Mines and Resources, Geol. Survey, Mem. 211, 1937, pp. 86-140. 108 25. Coulson, A. L. Asbestos in the Ceded Districts of the Madras Presidency, With Notes on Its Occurrence in Other Parts of India. Mem. Geol. Survey India, vol. 64, part 2, 1934, 266 pp. 26. Denova.n, R. A. Operating the World's Largest Asbestos Mine; No. III. Eng. and Min. Jour., vol. 142, No. 11, November 1941, pp. 51-55. 27. Diller, J. S. The Types and Modes of Occurrence of Asbestos in the United States. Jour. Cana dian Min. rnst., vol. 14, 1911. 28. Dresser, John A. The Asbestos Deposits of the Eastern Townships of Quebec. Econ. Geol., vol. 4, No. 2, 1909, pp. 132-140. 29. ---------- . Asbestos in Southern Quebec. Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. 50, 1915. 30. Dresser, J. A., and Denis, T. C. Geology of Quebec. Econ. Geol., vol. 3, Geol. Rept. No. 20, 1949, 562 pp. 31. Fisher, Norman R. The Quebec Asbestos In dustry. Canadian Min. Jour., vol. 44, 1923, pp. 649-655. 32. Foster, George K., and Borror, Charles D. Asbestos-Fiber Exploration and Production Forecasts by Core Drilling, Jeffery Mine, As bestos, Quebec. Trans. AIMME 1947, vol. 173, pp. 85-93. 33. Fra.nkel, J. J. South African Asbestos Fibres. Mining Mag. (London), vol. 89, No. 2, August 1953, pp. 73-83; No. 3, September 1953, pp. 142-149. 34. Gamble, William B. Asbestos: A List of Refer ences to Material in the New York Public Library. 1929, 72 pp. 35. Hall, A. L. On the Asbestos Occurrences Near Kaapsche Hoop in the Barberton District. Trans. Geol. Soc. South Africa, vol. 24, 1921, pp. 168-181. 36. ---------- . Asbestos in the Union of South Africa. Union of South Africa Geol. Survev, Mem. 12, 2d ed., 1930, 324 pp. 37. Hopkins, Oliver B. Asbestos, Talc, and Soap stone Deposits of Georgia. Geol. Survev Geor gia, Bull. 29, 1914, 319 pp. 38. ----------. Asbestos Deposits of Georgia. Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. 50, 1915, pp. 964-973. 39. Howling, G. E. Asbestos. Imperial Inst. (Lon don), Mineral Resources Dept., Bull., 2d ed., 1937, 88 pp. 40. Imperial Institute. The Mineral Industry of the British Empire and Foreign Countries. Statis tical Summary, 1933-35, London, 438 pp. 41. Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau. Asbestos, War Period (1913-19). London, 1921, 34 pp. 42. ----------. The Mineral Industry of the British Empire and Foreign Countries. Asbestos, Sta tistics (1919-21), London, 1924, 16 pp.: Statis tics (1920-22), 1925, 23 pp. 43. Jenkins, G F. Chapter on Asbestos: Industrial Minerals and Rocks. AIMME, 2d ed., 1949, pp. 55-76. 44. Jones, Robert H. Asbestos, Its Properties, Occur rence, and Uses. London, 1890, 236 pp. 45. Keep, F. E. The Shabani Asbestos Deposits. South African Min. and Eng. Jour., Mar. 3, 1928, pp. 5-6. 46. ---------- . Geology of the Shabani Mineral Belt, Belingwe District. Southern Rhodesia Geol. Survey, Bull. 12, 1929. 47. ---------- . Geology of the Chromite and Asbestos Deposits of the Umvukwe Range, Lomagundi and Mazoe Districts. Southern Rhodesia Geol. Survey, Bull. 16, 1930, 105 pp. ASARCO ALV 0006071 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 109 48. ---------- . The Chrysotile Asbestos Deposits of Shabani, Southern Rhodesia. South African Min. and Eng. Jour., Apr. 12, 1930, pp. 168-170. 49. Kelleher, J. C. Milling Asbestos. Asbestos, vol. 27, 1945, No. 3, pp. 2-10; No. 4, pp. 3-10; No. 5, pp. 6-12. 50. Koiin, J. A., and Oomeforo, J. E. Svnthetic Investigations II: N-ray and Optical Data on Svnthetic Fluor-Richteritc, Edenite, and Boron Edenite. (In press.) 51. Kupfenberger, \V. Mining Amosite Asbestos in the Pioterc-burg District, South Africa. Eng. and Min. Jour., vol. 130, 1930, pp. 571-574. 52. Li.vuell, Karl V. World's Largest Asbestos Pro ducer Use- Block Caving and Concreted Slusher Drifts. Min. Eng., voi. 4, No. 3, March 1952, pp. 265-271. 53. Marcuse, B. Asbestos (chap, in Marketing of Metals and Minerals, ed. bv J. E. Spurr and F. E. Wormser). 1925, pp. 235-242. 54. ----------. Pierre a Coton. Canadian Geog. Jour., vol. 1, No. 6, 1930, pp. 497-522. 55. Messel, Michael J. Examination and Valuation of Chrysotile Asbestos Deposits Occurring Jn Massive Serpentine. Trans. AIMME, vol. 173, 1947, pp. 79-84. 56.----------. Recent Trends in Asbestos Mining and Milling Practice. Min. Eng., vol. 1, No. 2, February 1949, pp. 52-55. 57. Miles, Keith R., and Fokall, J. S. Part I, The Blue-Asbestos-Bearing Banded Iron Forma tions of the Hamersley Ranges, Western Aus tralia: part II, The Blue Asbestos Deposits of the Hamersley Range and Their Economic Im portance. Western Australia Geol. Survey, Bull. 100, 1942, 61 pp. 58. Mineral Industry (The) (G. A. Rausch, ed.). A series of volumes published annually from 1892 to 1931: statistics, technology, and trade; chapter on asbestos each vear. 59. Mineral Production of Canada. Prepared by Dominion Bureau of Statistics; published an-, ntially. 60. Mineral Resources of the United States, Part II. Nonnietals. Statistical and economic compilation. Published each yearfrom 1924-31 by the Federal Bureau of Mines: before 1924, by the Federal Geol. Survey: since 1931 published as Minerals Yearbook, chapter on Asbestos each year. 61. Minerals Yearbook. Statistical and economic compilation published each year since 1931 by the Federal Bureau of Mines; before 1932 pub lished as Mineral Resources of the United States, chapter on asbestos each year. 62. Mineral Trade Notes. Published by the Federal Bureau of Mines: indexed annually in December issues. Contains many items on asbestos. 63. Noakes, L. C. Mineral Resources, of Australia: Asbestos. Commonwealth of Australia, Dept, of Supply and Shipping Summary Rept. 17, Aug. 28, 1945, 26 pp. (with tables and maps). 64. Proud, John S., and Osborne, Georce D. Stress-Environment in the Genesis of Chryso tile, With Special Reference to the Occurrence at Woodsreef, Near Barraba, New South Wales. Econ. Geol., vol. 47, No. 1, January-February 1952, pp. 13-23. 65. Quebec Bureau of Mines. Annual Reports. Mining operations and statistics. 66. Rabbitt, John C. A New Study of the Anthophvllite Series. Ain. Mineral, vol. 33, Mav-June 1948, pp. 263-323. 67. Ross, J. G. Chrysotile Asbestos in Canada. Canadian Dept. Mines, Mines Branch, No. 707, 1931, 146 pp. 68. ---------- . Block Caving at the King Mine of the Asbestos Corp., Ltd., Thetford Mines, Quebec. Canadian Min. and Met. Bull. 264, April 1934, pp. 184-218. 69. Ross, J. G., and Jenkins, G. F. Asbestos, chap. in Industrial Minerals and Rocks. AIMME, 1937, pp. 75-96. 70. Rukeyser, Walter A. Mechanical Cobbing of Chrvsotiie Asbestos. Eng. and Min. Jour., vol.'134, No. 6, June 1933, pp. 235-237. 71. ----------. Chrysotile Asbestos in the Bajenova District, U.'S. S. R. Eng. and Min. Jour., vol. 134, 1933, pp. 335-339. 72. ----------. Mining Asbestos in U. S. S. R. Eng. and Min. Jour., vol. 134, 1933, pp. 375-381. 73. ---------- . Asbestos Milling in the Urals. Eng. and Min. Jour., vol. 134, 1933, pp. 415-419. 74. ---------- . New Uses for Low-Priced Fibers Vital to Canadian Asbestos. Eng. and Min. Jour., vol. 151, No. 3, March 1950, pp. 76-80. 75. ---------- . Asbestos Industry Strives to Meet Increasing Demand. Eng. and Min. Jour., vol. 151, No. 5, May 1950, pp. 94-99. 76. Schaller, W, T. The Chemical Composition of Tremolite: Geol. Survey Mineralogical Notes Series, Bull. 610, 1916, pp. 133-136. 77. Shell, H. R,, and Brown, D. L. Synthetic As bestos Investigations. IV. Synthesis and Properties of Fibrous KjPbtSisOji and Isomorphs. (In prep.) 78. Sherman, Gerald. Review of Progress in the Caving of Asbestos Ore. Min. Eng., vol. 187, No. 14, April 1950, pp. 467--474. 79. Sinclair, W. E. Asbestos in East Africa. As bestos, vol. 32, No. 7, January 1951, pp. 16-22. 80. ---------- . Production of Crocidolite or Blue As bestos in South Africa. Asbestos, vol. 33, No. 1, July 1951, pp. 4-10: No. 2, August, pp. 4-12. 81. ---------- . Milling Asbestos Ore. Asbestos, vol. 33, No. 9, March 1952, pp. 8-18; No. 12, April, pp. 4-12; No. 11, May, pp. 4-10; No. 12, June, pp. 2-10. 82. ---------- . Asbestos Production in Southern Rho desia. Asbestos, vol. 35, No. 2, August 1953, pp. 6-10; No. 3, September, pp. 8-14. 83. ---------- . Asbestos Production in South Africa. Asbestos, vol. 35, No. 5, November 1953, pp. 4-12; No. 6, December, pp. 10-16. 84. Spence, Hugh S. Asbestos Industry. Trans. Canadian Inst. Min. and Met., vol. 28, 1925, pp. 94-98. 85. Stewart, Lincoln A., and Haury, P. S. Arizona Asbestos Deposits, Gila County, Ariz. Bureau of Mines Rept. of Investigations 4100, 1947, 2S pp. 86. Strack, Lilian Holmes. Asbestos: A Magic Mineral. Harper & Bros., New York and London, 1941, 56 pp. 87. Sworder, E. H. Fiberizing and Conditioning. Rhodesian Min. Jour., vol. 18, No. 4, April 1953, pp. 21-26; No. 5, May, pp. 29-35. 88. Taber, Stephen. The Genesis of Asbestos and Asbestiform Minerals. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Bull. 119, Novemeber 1916, pp. 1973-1998 (includes disc.). 89. Union of South Africa, Department of Mines. The Mineral Resources of the Union of South Africa. 1940, pp. 320-334. 90. U. S. Tariff Commission. Asbestos. Tariff Inf. Surveys, rev. ed., 1921, 56 pp. 91. ---------- . Russian Asbestos; Report to President. Rept. 67, 2d ser., 1933, 11 pp. ASARCO ALV 0006072 110 THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY 92. t\ S. Tariff Commission. Asbestos Ind. Mineral Ser., Kept. M-3, 1951, 46 pp. 93. Van Koven, William, and Bowles, Oliver. At la-' of the World's Resources. Vol. II, The Mineral Resources of the World: chap, on * Asbestos. Prentice-Hall, New York, 1952, pp. 1G6-169. 94- Whitworth, M. Cyprus and Its Asbestos In dustry. Mining Mag. (London), vol. 39, Septem ber 192S. pp. 143-150. 95. Wilson, Eldred D. Asbestos Deposits of Arizona, With an Introduction on Asbestos Minerals by G. M. Butler. Univ. of Arizona, Bull. 126, Min. Technol. Ser. 31, 1928, 97 pp. 96. Winkleman, E. H. The Testing of Asbestos. Asbestos, vol. 31, No. 5, November 1949, pp. 4-10. ASARCO ALV 0006073 INDEX Page A Abraham, Herbert, acknowledgment nr Actinolite, characteristics.......................................... composition............................................................... production................................................................. sales............................................................................. X-ray analysis.......................................................... Africa, amosite, use, as insulation.......................... asbestos, distribution, control............................. types....................................................................... as source of asbestos............................................... crocidolite, uses................. ...................................... 2, 3 3 33 2 2 1 89 1 1 1 See also Algeria; Bechuanaland; Belgian Congo; Egypt; German East Africa; Kenya; Madagascar; Morocco; Mo zambique; Nvasaland; Portuguese East Africa; Southern Rhodesia; Swaziland; Union of South Africa. Alaska, amphibole, deposits______ _______-.......... production............................................................. Arctic Circle Exploration. Inc., operations... chrysotilc. exploration, Bureau of Mines........ deposits.................................................................. Co-tnos Hills area, asbestos, prospecting......... Dahl Creek area, asbestos, prospecting............ tretnolite. deposit........................ ....................... fade Hill- area, chrysotilc. deposits.................. I.enic.-'irier I-land, paligorskite, deposit........... 24 25 24 17 17 17 17 24 17 25 mountain leather, deposit.................................. palieor-kite. composition---------- --------------------- deposit................................................................. Shungttak. ehry-otile, deposits............. ............... tretnolite, composition....................................... 25 25 25 17 8 Albania, a-be-tos. deposits............................ .......... 44 development..................................................... 44 Algeria, asbestos, consumption, table.................... 59 production..................... - 52 Allen. M. A., and Butler, G. M., work cited___ 108 Aluminum silicate fibers, as substitute for amo site, advantages_______ _______________ 97 as substitute- for asbestos, advantages............. "Amismc," as term for asbestos_______________ 96 9 "Amiantos,'' definition___________ ________ ______ 9 uses, ancient............................................................ Amiantos cloth,'' mention by Marco Polo_____ 9 9 Amo-ite, characteristics............................ - colors........................... .......... .......... ......................... 2 6 fompo-itiun............................................................. derivation of name.................................................. import-, from Union of South Africa, table... stockpile grades....................................................... substitutes......... ........................................................ 3.8 10 67 86 97 uses.............................. ...................................... ........ 14 in heat insulation............................................... 1, 14 X-ray analysis........ ...... .......................................... 2 Amphibole, deposits, domestic................................ 24, 28 heat resistance............................................ ............. 7 hornblendes. See Crocidolite. sales, table____________________________________ synthesis________________ _________ ______ ____ 57 101 difficulties__________ _____ __________ _______ 103 Amphibole fibers, physical characteristics, varia tion 3 Page Amphibole group, characteristics____ ___________ 2 composition 2 water content............... 2 water of crystallization....... .................................. 2 See also Actinolite; Amosite; Anthophyllite; Crocidolite; Tretnolite. Amphibolite, origin..................................................... 4 Anderson, A. L., work cited..................................... 27 Anhaltische Studiengesellschaft, support of Liidke amphibole synthesis...................... 102 Anthophyllite, acid resistance________ 14 aluminum, percentage.................................. 3 characteristics........................................................... 2 colors.......................................................................... 6 composition___________________ ______________ _ 3. g crystallization, orthorhombic............................... 3 deposits, domestic...................................... 25.26,27,28 magnesia content..................................................... 3 mining methods........................................................ 74 occurrence............................................... 4.74 origin.......... .................................................. 4 resistance, to chemical reaction.................... ...... 3. 7 sales..... ....................................................................... 2 specific gravity..................................... 7 uses______________ 14 in packing for steam glands________________ 10 Antigorite, characteristics______________ 2 recrystallization, to synthesize chrysotile_____ 101 Argentina, asbestos, deposits_______ __________ 42 production__________________________________ 42 Catamarca Province, asbestos, deposits______ 42 Cordoba Province, asbestos, deposits_________ 42 Mendoza Province, asbestos, deposits________ 42 San Juan Province, asbestos, deposits________ 42 San Luis Province, asbestos, deposits________ 42 Arizona, asbestos, grades............................ 84 sales, table..................................................... 19 chrysotile, Bureau of Mines exploration.......... 19 characteristics..................... 18 composition__________ 8 deposits 18 description.................... 19 early developments________ 19 geology....... .................... 19 origin............... 4 photograph-......................................................... 18 reserves, estimate 61 specific gravity_______________ 7 use. for electrical insulation_________________ 7 Chrysotile-Salt River region, chrysotile, de posits_______________________ __________ 19 Cochise Countv, chrysotile deposit___________ 19 Gi^a County, chrysotile, deposits_____________ 18 chrysotile mines, location, sketch__________ 18 milling methods 79 mining methods.............. ...................................... - 71 Sierra Ancha region, chrysotile, deposits_____ 19 Asbestos, characteristics 1, 94, 104 chemical resistance___________________________ 7 colors 6 composition 8 consumption, compared with industrial pro duction, graph_________________________ 16 compared with new construction, graph___ 15 table 59 111 tt ASARCO ALV 0006074 112 INDEX Asbestos, cross-fiber, characteristics....... .............. occurrence............................................................. Page fi 6 definition................................................................... 1.9 - electrical resistance................................................ fibrous structure, variations ............................... 7 6 heat conductivity.................................................... 7 heat resistance......................................................... 6 history........................................................................ 8 iron content, reduction.......................................... OR. 09 low-iron, demand.................................................... 65 luster.......................................................................... 6 mass-fiber, characteristics..................................... 6 occurrence......... ................................................... 6 origin........................................................................ 6 physical properties.:......................................... production, commercial......................................... 4 10 United States....................................................... 56 world........................... ........................................... 56 map.................................................................... 56 table................................................................... 57 reserves, world......................................................... 61.63 shortages................................................................... I slip-fiber, characteristics....................................... 6 occurrence............................................................. 6 specific gravity......................................................... 7 spinning grades, imports from Canada, table. 66 supplies, deficiency.................................................. 89 synthetic, invention, claim................................... 96 uses________ _______________________ __________ 94 medieval___________________ ________________ 10 varieties..................................................................... 2 Asbe.-tos articles, molded, manufacture................ 106 Asbestos cement, manufacture................................ 106 Asbestos-cement pipe, crocidolite fibers, use____ 15 manufacture............ ................. ................................ by Maria process............... ................................ 106 11 uses, increase.............-........................................ .. 13 Asbestos-cement products, manufacture.............. 11 A.-bestos Corp., Ltd., asbesto-, reserves csti' mate............................................................... commercial control................................................. 61 64 Asbestos products, fabrication................................. manufacture............................................................. exports, table........ ............................................... fir.-t.......................................................................... value, table A.-U-.-tos-products industry, expansion.................. United States dependence on foreign sources.. 104 104 104 10 104 1 1 Asbestos trade, international................................... A.-ia. Nee China: India; Japan: Korea; Philip pines. Republic of: Taiwan: Turkey; Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. 65 Australasia, asbestos, imports, Southern Rho desia.................... ...................................... table ............................................................. Union of South Africa, table....................... See also Australia; New Zealand. 67 68 68 Au-tralia, asbestos, consumption, table................ demands................................................................. production, by Provinces, table..................... table ............................................................... .. as best o- industry, commercial control crocidolite, deposits................................................ exports, to United States, table............. ...... New South Wales, actinolite, production_____ amphibole, depo.-it.............................................. Asbestos Mines Ptv., Ltd., operations chrvsotile, characteristics................................. deposits.............................................................. geological origin........................................... production table............................................................... Gordonsbrook belt, asbestos, deposits_____ Great Serpentine belt, asbestos, deposits.. 59 1 55 57 64 3 67 54 54 54 54 54 54 55 55 54 54 Australia. Gundagai-Wallendbeen belt, asbestos, deposits....................... Orange district, amphibole, deposits.............. tremolite, deposit................ -............................Wunderlich, Ltd., operations........................... Queensland, anthophyliite, deposits__________ asbestos, characteristics_____________ deposits.............................................................. Canoona, anthophyliite, deposits................... Marlborough, asbestos, deposits..................... Princhester, asbestos, deposits...................... _. South, Amalgamated Asbestos Industries, N. L., operations................. amphibole, deposit......... ............ -..................... production......................................................... anthophyliite, deposit...................................... asbestos, production, table......................... Blinman, crocidolite, deposits......................... chrvsotile, characteristics............................... deposits............................................................. Cowell, crocidolite, deposits............................. crocidolite, characteristics..................... deposits.............................................................. mining methods............................................... production, table 55 Hawker, crocidolite, deposit............................. Kenton Valley, anthophyliite, production.. Lyndock, actinolite, deposits______ _______ R'obertstown, crocidolite, deposit........ ........... Truro, crocidolite, deposits............. ............... Tasmania, Beaconsfield district, chrvsotile, deposit_____ __________ ________ .'_______ chrvsotile, beneficiation__________ characteristics 54 deposits...................... production, table____________ Tasmanian Asbestos Pty., Ltd., operations. Zeehan, asbestos, deposits.............. Western, anthophyliite, deposits______________ anthophyliite, production__________________ Asbestos, Molybdenum 4 Tungsten Co., Ltd., operations.................... asbestos, production, table............................... Australian Blue Asbestos, Ltd., operations. chrvsotile, characteristics.............................. deposits_______________ production, table................................... crocidolite, characteristics................................. deposits-............................................................ description 53 mining methods______________ production________________ table......................................... Hamerslev Ranges, crocidolite, deposits___ Marble Bar district, chrvsotile, deposits___ Nullagine district, chrvsotile, deposit......... .. Roebourne district, chrvsotile, deposit......... West Australia Blue Asbestos Co., Ltd., operations 53 Wittenoom Gorge, crocidolite, deposits____ Austria, amphibole, production_________________ asbestos, consumption, table_____ ______ asbestos-cement roofing, first manufacture___ Stvria, asbestos, deposit______________________ Page 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 53 53 53 53 55 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 54 54 54 55 54 54 53 53 53 55 53 52 52 53 52 52 53 53 55 52 52 52 52 53 44 59 II 44 B Badollet, Kay, work cited 19, 23, 35 Bain, G. W. See Keith, S. B. Baker, C. L. See Sellards, E. H. Baker, R. D., work cited________________________ Banknotes, asbestos, proposal__________________ Bates, T. F., Sand, L. B., and Mink, J. F,, work cited______ _______ 32 II 101 ASARCO ALV 0006075 INDEX 113 Pate Bcohauanaland. asbestos mine, development-- 51 chrvsotile, deposit............................................. 51 Marlime Chrysotile Asbestos Corp., Ltd., operations........................... ......................... 5t Beckwith, R. H., work cited. --....................... 24 Belgian Congo, asbestos, consumption, table... 59 Belgium-Luxembourg, asbestos, consumption, table........................................................ Bell Asbestos Mines, commercial control....... 59 64 Beneficiation, discussion............................................ 98 Berlinraut, L., work cited................. 108 Blakely, J. D.. Dawson, E. L,, Gaze, R., and Henderson, M. B,, work cited 96 Bloomfield, G. M., work cited...................... 82, 102, 108 Blue asbestos. Set Crocidolite. Boards, asbestos, use, for book covers............ 11 Bolivia, asbestos, consumption, table............. 59 exports, table................ Chapere Province, crocidolite. deposits...... 57 42 crocidolite. analyses...................... characteristics................................................ 42 42 composition................................................... 8 deposits....................................... 1.3.42 commercial control........... ....... ................. 64 exports, to Vnited States, table............... 67 production....................................................... 42 uses................................................................... 42 Borg-trom, L. H.. work cited............................ 45 Borror, C. D. See Foster, G. K. Bowen, N. L.. and Tuttle, 0. F., work cited____ 101 Bowles. Oliver, work cited................................. 108 See aim Van Royen, William. Brake bands, asliesto., introduction .............. 10 molded, nonspinnitiB aslx'sto' in. use--... 13 Brake linings, asbesto~. introduction.............. 10 types......................................... . 12 Brandeuberger. E,, Epprccht, W., and Niggli, F.. work cited............................................ 7, 100 Brazil, amphibole, deposits................................ 43 as ties t os. consumption, table......................... 59 production, tables................... 43.57 a'liesto--cement plant, proposed construction. 43 Bahia 'State', asbestos, depo-tts........................ 42. 43 Oeara 'Staiei, asliesto-, deposits................. 43 chrysotile. characteri'tics.............. ... . 42.43 deposits....... .............. 42,43 re'erves ..................................... .. .. 42 rhry-otile mines, operators............................ 42 Goiis State', asbestos, deposits.................. 43 Mina' Gerais [state . ashe-tos, deposits.......... 43 mountain cork, examination, Bureau of Mines. Paraiba'State., asbestos, deposits___ .. 43 43 Pernambuco (State!, amphibole, deposit. . 'P.io de Janeiro (State-, asbestos. deposits.. . Rio Grande do Notre (Statej, asbestos, deposits. 43 43 43 Rio Grande do Sul (State1, asbestos, deposits. 43 St. John del Rev Mining Co., operations......... 43 Suo Paulo (State', asbestos, deposits......... 43 S. A. Mincrasao de Amianto, operations . . 42 Brit i'h Commonwealth, asbestos, deposits, political control.................................... 64 Brown, D. L. See Shell. H. R. Bruce, D. S. See Driscoll, James. Bruekman, Prof., asbestos paper, use............. 11 Bry'on, C. H., asbestos lease............................ 27 Building materials, nonspinning asbestos in, use. 13 Bulgaria, anthophyllite, deposits..................... 44 production...'....................................................... 44 Bureau of Mines, anthophyllite, samples, Mada gascar, examination.................................. . 51 Mozambique, examination_________ 52 Portugal, examination............................ 47 asbestos, samples, Colombia, examination___ 44 chrysotile, Alaska, exploration..................... 17 conclusions_____________ Arizona, exploration____________________ 17 19 Bureau of Mines, chrysotile, Maine, drilling program ------------ reserves, United States, estimate.................... samples, India, examination......................... Morocco, examination____________ Montana, tests______ ____________________ New York, tests____ _____________________ Peru, examination_______________________ Turkey, examination.......................... specific gravity, tests______________ Electrotechnical' Laboratory, amphibole, syn thetic, view........................................... amphibole synthesis, tests................................ fluor-amphiboles, synthetic tests.................... potassium-lead silicate, synthesis, study___ Federal exploration program, assistance.......... mountain cork, Mexico, examination................ research, on Vortrap process for separating magnetite from asbestos........................... tremolite, samples, France, examination.......... Burgess, B, C., work cited 36, 39, 51 Butler, C>. M. See Allen, M. A. Page 22 61 49 51 22 22 44 50 7 103 102 102 102 69 43 98 46 C Calcium silicate, as substitute for asbestos_____ 96 California, Alameda County, asbestos, produc tion................................................................. 20, 21 Amador County, asbestos, production.............. 2! amphibole. deposits.................... ............................25,61 production, early___________ 25 Butte County, amphibole, deposits.............. 25 amphibole mill______________ 25 Calaveras County, amphibole, deposits______ 25 asbestos, deposit, development....................... 20 production......................................................... 20,21 chrysotile. deposits, description......................... 20 production................................................. 20 table....... ......................................................... .. 21 reserves.................................................. ................ 61 Contra Costa County, asbestos, production.. 20 Del Norte County, amphibole, deposits______ 25 Fresno County, amphibole, deposits.................. 25 asbestos, production........................................... 20 Inyo County, amphibole, deposits.................. 25 asbestos, deposit 21 tremolite, deposit 25 Kern County, amphibole, deposit____________ 25 Koehler & Chase, operations________ 20 Lake County, asbestos, production.................. 20 Lo Angeles County, amphibole, deposits____ 25 Mariposa County, amphibole, deposits_______ 25 Monterey County, chrysotile, deposit________ 21 Napa County, asbestos, deposits........... ........... 20 Nevada County, asbestos deposit, develop ment...!............................................... 20 Placer County, amphibole, deposits__________ 25 asbestos, deposits............................................... 21 production_______________ 20 tremolite, deposit.............. 25 Plumas County, amphibole, deposits_________ 25 Riverside County, amphibole, deposits_______ 25 asbestos, production________________________ 20 San Benito County, asbestos, deposit, develop ment______ ___________________ 20 San Bernardino County, amphibole, deposits. 25 tremolite, deposit 25 San Diego County, amphibole, deposits______ 25 Shasta County, amphibole, deposits__________ 25 anthophyllite, deposit______________________ 25 asbestos,' deposits 21 production 20 tremolite, deposits 25 Sierra County, asbestos, deposits20. 21 Siskiyou County, asbestos, deposits__________ 21 Sonoma County, amphibole, deposit_________ 25 i ASARCO alv 114 INDEX Pare California, tremoiite, deposits---------------------------- 25 production............................................................. 25 Trinity County, asbestos, deposits..............-- 21 production..............-............................. -............ 20 Tuiarc County, amphibole, deposits............. .. 25 Tuolumne County, asbestos deposits------------- 21 Yolo County, amphibole, deposits.............. -- 25 Cal.-ilite, composition................... -.......................-Callinan, T, I)., work cited........................ .......... 106 100 Canada, asbestos, consumption, table 59 crudes, exports, table- 67 distribution----------------- -------------------------------- 89 exports, graph---------------- ----------------------------- 65 fibers, nulled, exports, table------------------------ 67 foreien trade 67 grades------------------ --------------------------------------- 83, 88 gradine-------------- ----------------------------------------- 83 occurrence, type 71 price hi'tory 91 graph----------------- ------------------------------------- 91 table---------------------- ---------------------------------- 92 production, graph_______________ 58 map--------------------------------------------------------- 56 sales, table-------------------- ------------------------------ 57 short grades, use in paper--------------------------- 11 source............................................ ..................... .. 1 spinning grades, exports to United States, table............................................................... 66 high-grade, use in packing for steam glands............................................................. aslx-tu- industry, commercial control.............. milling capacity, table....................................... Briti-h Columbia, anthophyllite, deposit-------- asltesto-. reserves................................................ Cas-iar A-bestos C'orp., Ltd., operations... chry-ot ile. deposit....................... --................ talus -lope, photograph............................ Western Asltestos <fc Development, Ltd., oiterations.............. -.................................... ' chry-ot ile. composition_______________ ________ cro" filter, view............--............ ................ prices, table.......................................................... specific gravity..................................................... Newfoundland, chrysotile, deposits...... ........... 10 64 79 33 62 33 33 34 33 S 4 93 7 33 Newfoundland Asbestos, Ltd., operations.. 33 Ontario, actinolite, production............................ chry.-otile, deposits............................................. ' companies operating................................. Munro mine, development..................... production, table........................................ value, table .................................................... Cochrane district, chrysotile, deposits.......... 33 32 32 32 33 33 32 John--Manville Corp., commercial control.. 04 o|terations_...................................................... 32. 33 Porcupine area, asbestos, deposits................. 32 Rahn Lake Mines Corp., Ltd., operations.. Taegana Mines, Ltd., operations................... 32 32 Van Packer Mines of Canada, Ltd., opera tions............................................................... 32 Quebec, asbestos, deposits, discovery................ 10 geologic origin........................................... mining........................................................ mining methods.............................................. price-', early...................................................... reserve.-, estimates.............. ........................... 29 10 71 10 61 Asbestos area, asbestos, deposits.................... 29 Asbestos Corp., Ltd., control.......................... 64 mining methods...........................--............ milling capacity, increase.......................... 71 79 table......... ..'...... .......................................... 79 operations......................................................... 30.31 reserves................... .......................................... Bell Asbestos Mines, Ltd., control................ milling capacity, table.................................. 61 64 79 operations........................................ ................. 31 reserves____ ______________ _____ _________ 61 Fare Canada, Quebec, Black Lake area, asbestos, deposits___________ _____ ______________ 29 Canadian Johns-Manville Corp., Ltd., control ..................................................... 64 milling capacity..................................-.......... 79 increase, table____________ 79 mining methods____________________ 71,72 operations............................................. 31 pressure packer, development........ ............ 78 reserves.......................................................... 61 chrysotile, deposits............................................. 29, 32 characteristics........................... 29 companies operating........ ......................... 30 favorable position....................................... 31 origin.............................................................. 4,29 markets 31 production, table________________________ 31 types__________ 30 value, table............................ 31 recovery, percentage..________ 30 veins, photograph........................... 30 Coleraine area, asbestos, deposits.................. 29 Continental Asbestos Co., milling capacity. 79 operations________________________ _____ - 31 crocidolite, deposit____________________ 32 crudes, recovery__________________ 76 Dominion Asbestos Co., milling capacity___ 79 operations.............................. 31 East Broughton area, asbestos, deposits___ 29, 30 Eastern Asbestos Co., Ltd., operations.......... 32 fiber, classifications_____________ 77 cleaning_________________________ 78 fine, disposal 78 grading___________ 78 Flintkote Mines, Ltd., control...................... 64 milling capacity, table.................. 79 operations.......... ............................................... 31 Johns-Manville Corp., asbestos mines, con trol.................................................................. 64 Johnson's Co., control............................... 64 mill capacity, increase_____ ______________ 78 table____ '. 79 mining methods--........................................ 72 operations_____________________ 31 reserves________________________ 61 wet-process plant, for recovering shorts__ 78 Lafayette Asbestos Co., Ltd., operations___ 31 Lake" Asbestos Co., operations....................... 31 mill, air-swept, for single-stage processing, introduction_____________________ 78 milling methods, description 75, 76 flowsheet____ 77 Nicolet Asbestos Mines, Ltd., control.......... 64 milling capacity, table___________________ 79 operations___ ______ Nicolet Industries, Inc., asbestos mines, 31 control-_____ ________________ 64 Philip Carey Manufacturing Co., asbestos mines, control________________ 64 Provincial Asbestos Co., Ltd., operations___ 31 Quebec Asbestos Corp., Ltd., control_______ 64 milling capacity, table____________________ 79 Robertson area, asbestos, deposits__________ 29 St. Lawrence Asbestos Co., Ltd., operations. 31 shorts, recovery 78 Thetford Mines area, asbestos, deposits_____ 29 tremoiite, deposit 32 Turner & Newall, Ltd., asbestos mines, control 64 United Asbestos Co., operations___________ 31 Quebec-Labrador Railway, crocidolite, de posit 32 Cape of Good Hope. See Union of South Africa. Cat's-eye, deposits 37 Charlemagne, asbestos tablecloth------------------------ 9 Chellson, H. C., work cited_____________________ 71 ASARCO ALV 0006077 1XDEX 115 Put Chile, amphibole, characteristics------------------------ 43 deposits......................................... 43 production............................................................. 43 asbestO', consumption, table................. C'autin Province, asbestos, deposits.................. 59 43 chrvsotiie, deposit........................... -..................... 43 C'ttfio Province, asbestos, deposits..................... 43 Valdicia Province, asbestos, deposits............... 43 China, asbestos, characteristics..... ......................... 49 deposits________________________ 49 production....... ............ --.................................... 49 map..................................................................... 56 table..................... 49 uses.......................................................................... 8 Chahar Province, asbestos, deposits.................. 49 Chihli Province, asbestos, deposits.................... 49 chrvsotiie, deposits.................... 49 Hopeh Province, asbestos, deposits................... 49 reserves........ ............ ...............-....................... 63 Hupeh Province, asbestos, depiosits................... 49 Jehol Province, asbestos, deposits...................... 49 K want unit Province, asbestos, deposits............ 49 I.aiyuan district, mining methods.................... "4 Manchuria, asbestos mines................................... 49 Shensi Province, asbestos, deposits.................... 49 Suiyuan Province, asbestos, deposits................ 49 .Szechuan Province, asbestos, deposits________ 49 Chrvsotiie. association with serpentine................. 75 characteristics....................... 2,75 chemical resistance................ 7 colors........................................................................... 6 composition............................................ 2,8 cross fiber, Canadian, view................................... 4 characteristics...................................................... 4 deposits, domestic................................................... 17 electrical resistance................................ 7 forms........................................................................... 4 heat resistance......................................................... 7 imports, from Southern Rhodesia, table............ 66 origin..... ................ 4 properties, physical................................................. 2 slip fiber, characteristics...................................... 4 specific gravity........................................................ 7 stockpile grades........ ......................................... -- 86 synthesis........................................ -...................-- 101 by reerystallization...........................................- 101 difficulties............................ 103 hydrothermal................................................... -- 101 uses, ancient....................................... -.......... -- early....................... 9 9 water content, dual nature..................... 2 Chrvsotiie veins. Quebec, photograph---------------- 30 Cirkcl, Fritz, work cited............................................ 7, 29 Cloasens impactor, use. in disintegrating fiber.. SI Cloth, asbestos, rubber-treated, uses................... uses, in chemical laboratories.......................... 13 14 as polishing agent......................................... 14 Colombia, Antioquia (state), asbestos, deposits. 43 asbestos, consumption, table................................ 59 samples, examination. Bureau of Mines____ 44 chrvsotiie, characteristics...................................... 44 deposits................... 43 development................. 44 exploration.................... 43 Caides (State), asbestos, deposits................. 44 Eternit Colombia, operations........................... 44 Institut de Fomento Industrial, work............... 44 Johns-Manvilie Corp., operations....................... 44 nemalite, deposit......... ............................................ 44 Colton, D. T,, acknowledgment.............................. Ill Comeforo, J. E., acknowledgments 97, 100, 101 work cited.-------- ------------------------- 97 iSee also Kohn, J. A. Comeforo, J. E,, and Kohn, J. A., work cited.. 102,108 Connecticut, amphibole, deposit............................. 28 p* Construction, new, compared with asbestos con sumption, graph.......................................... 15 Cooke, H. C., work cited................................... 8, 29, 108 Costa Rica, asbestos, consumption, table---------- 59 Coulson, A. L,, work cited...........................-.......... 108 Crocidolite, characteristics........................................ 15 colors........................................................................ 6 composition................................................ ............... 3, 8 deposit, domestic......................................... 28 electrical resistance......................................... 7 heat resistance......................................................... 7 imports, Australia, table......................... 67 Bolivia, table.............................................. 67 Union of South Africa, table.................... -- 67 long-fiber, use, in gas filters.................................. 15 in yarn................................................................ 15 short-fiber, use, in asbestos-cement pipe_____ 15 sources..................................................................-- 3 specific gravity................... 7 stockpile grades........ ............................................... 86 uses............................................................................ 1, 15 Crocidolite fabrics, manufacture.................................. 15 Crocidolite varn, manufacture.................................. 15 Cross, C. Nf. P. See Hayes, F. T. Cryolite, use, in manufacture of fiber glass_____ 95 Cummingtonite, X-ray analysis............................. 2 Cyprus, Amiandos, chrvsotiie deposits.................. 9 asbestos, consumption, table_______________ 59 production, table............................................. 57 asbestos industry, commercial control__________ 64 as source of asbestos........................................ -- chrvsotiie, characteristics......................................... deposits________ ________________ ________ -- exports................................................................... production.............................................. transportation, by ropeway............................... chrvsotiie mines, operators........................................ Cyprus it General Co., operations.......................... Cyprus Asbestos Mines, Ltd., mining methods. 9 44 44 45 45 45 45 74 operations........................................... Cyprus Trading Corp,, Ltd., operations........... Tunnel Asbestos Cement Co., Ltd., operations. Czechoslovakia, "Asbest" Bergbau u. Industrie A.-G., operations..................................... "Asbest" Gewinning und Verwertung von Asbest G. m. b. H., operations___________ Slovakia, asbestos, production__________________ 45 45 45 45 45 D Dawson, E. L. See Blakely, J. D. Defense Minerals Exploration Administration, exploratory work, financing61, 69 Wisconsin chrvsotiie deposit........... ........... 23 Defense Production Act, provision, for explora tion-assistance funds................................... 69 Denis, T. C. See Dresser, J. A. Denmark, asbestos, consumption, table................ 59 Denovan, R. A., work cited....... ........................... 78,108 Deposits, asbestos, control, commercial................63, 64 political.............................................................. 64 distribution........................................................... 17 domestic.......................... 17 foreign........................ 28 new, development, economic factors govern ing.................................................................. 70 world, map__________________ 16 Diller, J. S,, work cited-------------- --------------------8, 24,108 Discoveries, successful, prerequisites...................... 70 Distribution practices, discussion_______________ 89 Dreaser, J. A., work cited......................................... 108 Dresser, J. A,, and Denis, T. C., work cited------ 32,108 DrUl cores, evaluation.......... .................................... 69 test milling........................ 70 Driscoll, James, and Bruce, D. S., work cited.. Dunite, as source of asbestos--------------- -------- -- 99 4 45 45 asarco ALV 00607Q 116 INDEX Egypt, anthophvllite, deposit.................................. 51 production.................................... -................. 51 asbestos, consumption, table............................... 59 production, table................................................. 57 uses.......................................................................... 8 Elford, H. S., work cited.......................................... 52, 53 Epprecht, W. See Brandenberger, E. Europe, asbestos, demands................................. 1 central, asbestos-products industries, revival.. 1 continental, asbestos, demand............................. 89 imports, Canada, table....................... 67 Southern Rhodesia, table......................... 68 Union of South Africa, table--.......... 68 See also Albania; Belgiiim-Luxembourg; Bul garia; Cyprus; Czechoslovakia; Den mark; Finland; France; Germany; Greece; Iceland; Ireland; Italy; Nether lands; Norway; Portugal; Spain; Sweden; Switzerland; Turkey; Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; Yugo slavia. Evans, .1. W., work cited......................................... - 9 Exploration, assistance. Defense Minerals Ex ploration Administration.......................... 69 Exploration methods, discussion............................. 69 F Fabrics, ashostos, asbestos content, table............ 12 characteristics...................................................... 12 cla--ification, standard code, table................ 12 table........ .......................................................... 12 heat re-i.-tance, table--------------------- -- 12 manufacture, process....................-................... 104 ii-o-...._________ - 12 Fiber, asbestos, use, trends....................................... 15 classifications, Canada_________ _____ -.......... - 77 cleaning................................................................... 78 contamination, by wood and tramp iron......... 78 crude, definition....................................................... 75 fine, disposal............................................................. 78 grading....................................................................... 78 length, specifications............................................ 70 mill, definition.......................................................... 75 -pinning-grade. proce-sine............................... 75 phy-ieal characteristics.......................................... 70 proce-sing, steps----------- ---------------------------------- 75 proportion, limit...................................................... 70 quality, specifications to be met......................... 70 -liort. elongation........ ............................................. 99 Fiber gla.--, a- substitute for amosite, progress.. 97 manufacturers, list.................................................. 95 use-, military............................................................ 95 Filter-, noncorrosive, manufacture......................... 107 Finland, anthophvllite, composition...................... 45 deposits.......................... 45 production..................... 46 uses....................... 46 anthophyllite mines, mining method................. 46 operator........... ..................................................... 45 a-be.-to-', consumption, table.............................. 59 production, table............ .................................... 57 asbe-tos flour, production, table........................ 57 Kuusjarvi Commune, anthophyllite mine------ 45 Suomen Mineraali Ov., operations..................45. 46 Tuusniemi Commune, anthophyllite mine___ 45 Fisher, N. R., work cited_________ 108 Fisher, R. B., Thorne, R. L., and Van Cott, H. C-, work cited______________________ 25 Floor tiles, asbestos, short grades, use__________ 14 Fluor-amphiboles, synthetic, tests, Bureau of Mines 102 Fluor-tremolite, synthetic, cell dimensions, table. 103 Formosa. See Taiwan. Foster, G. K., and Borror, C. K., work cited.. 70, 108 Foxall, J. S. See Miles, K. R. France, asbestos, consumption, table___________ production-------------- table-----------------Corsica, chrysotile mine, development_______ Hautes-Alpes Department, asbestos, deposit. tremolite, characteristics______________________ deposit_________ samples, examination, Bureau of Mines____ Frankel, J. J., work cited._____ ______________ .. Free World, asbestos, consumption_____________ French Morocco. See Morocco. Page 59 46 57 46 46 46 46 46 108 59 G Gamble, W. B., work cited 108 Garland, Michael, prospecting, Alaska, chryso tile.................... 17 Garnierite, synthesis____________ ________ _______ 101 Gas filters, c'rocidolite, long-fiber, use_____ _____ 15 Gaze, R. See Blakelv, J. D. Geological Survey, chrysotile. reserves, United States, estimate........ .................................. 61 Federal exploration program, assistance______ 69 Georgia, amphibole, deposits................................... 61 anthophyllite. composition.................................... 8 deposits___________________________ ________- 25 mass fiber, occurrence______________________ 6 production________________________ ________ - 26 Barrow County, amphibole, deposit__________ 26 Cherokee County, anthophyllite. deposit......... 26 Corveta County! amphibole, deposit_________ 26 Coweta County, amphibole, deposits.............. 26 Habersham County, amphibole, deposits......... 26 Jackson County, amphibole, deposits.............. 26 Meriwether County, amphibole, deposits........ 26 Rabun County, amphibole, deposits................. 26 Troup County, amphibole, deposits__________ 26 White County, amphibole, deposits.,_________ 26 German East Africa, anthophyllite,occurrence. 52 Germany, asbestos, consumption, table................- 59 chrysotile, deposit 46 East Bavaria, chrysotile, deposit_____________ 46 Girard, Baron, development, Russian asbestos deposits_____________________ 41 Glass, high-silica, as substitute for asbestos____ 96 Glass-asbestos cloth, use___________ 94 Glass fibers, as substitute for asbestos__________ 94, 97 high-silica, as substitute for asbestos95, 97 manufacture_______________________ 96 Glass filter paper, advantages___________________ 94 Greece, asbestos, production, table_____________ 57 Karvstos. chrysotile, deposit_________________ 9 Grunerite, composition__________________________ 2 See also Amosite. Gumucio, J. F., work cited--------------------------------- 8, 42 H Hahn-Weinheimer, P. See O'Daniel, --. Hall, A. L,, work cited................ .. 8, 36. 38, 39, 73, 108 Hatschek, Ludwig, invention of asbestos-cement roofing 11 Hatschek process, for manufacturing lumber and shingles 105 Haury, P. S. See Stewart, L. A. Hausmann. J. F. L,, work of------------------------------ 36 Haves. F. T,, and Cross, C. M. P., work cited.. 78 Heat insulation, nonspinning fibers in, use______ 13 Heat insulators, asbestos, manufacture_________ 11 Heide, H. D., Wright, W. S., and Rutledge, F. A., work cited 17 Henderson, M. B. See Blakely, J. D. Hendry, N. W,, work cited_____________________ 33 Hewitt, D. F., and Satterlv, J., work cited_____ 33 Hornblende group. See Crocidolite. ii ASARCO ALV 0006079 INDEX 117 Hou, T. F., work cited________________ _________ Howling, G. E., work cited-------------------------------- Pge -19 108 -I Icdand. asbestos. consumption, table............... _. 59 Idaho. anthophyllite. mass fiber, occurrence------ 6 Diatom Products Co., operations...------------- 26 Idaho County, anthophyllite, deposit________ 20 Karniah Asbestos Manufacturing Co., opera tions................................................................ 26 Panhandle Asbestos Co., operations__________ 26 Western Mineral Co., operations_____________ 20 India, amphibole, deposits____________ 49 asbestos, consumption, table.......... ..................... 59 deposits____________________________ ________ _ 49 production, tables.................... 50.57 Bihar (State,, tremolite, production.................. 49 chrysotile. deposits............. .................................... 49 grades......... ............... 86 production................ 49 samples, examination. Bureau of Mines___ 49 Cuddapah. chrysotile. deposits............................ 49 Madras Presidency, chrysotile, deposit............ 49 Mysore >.State!, amphibole. production......... .. 49 Orissa tistatei. tremolite, production............... 49 tremolite. production................. ..........................- 49 Insulation, asbestos-magnesia, manufacture____ 106 electrical, asbestos paper, use.............. 14 heat, amostte. uses________ 14 asiie.-to- covering, use__________ 13 crocidolitc fibers, short, use.......... ................... 15 Ipatiev. \V,, and Muromtseff B.. work cited___ 101 Ireland, asbestos, deposit.......................................... Wicklow (County, asbestos, deposit-.............. 46 46 Iron, inclusions, modifying........................................ 99 Isaac-. H. S.. work cited............................................ 73 Italy, asbestos, commercial use................. 10 consumption, table.............................................. 59 production, map.................................................. 56 table.................................................................. 57 asbe-'tos banknotes, proposal.............................. 11 a.-be-to- board.-, use. for book covers................ 11 asbc~tn~cement pipes, manufacture, by Mazza proce.s-................................ 11 a.-be-to- fiber, carded, use in packing for -team glands................................................ 10 use. in paper......................................................... 11 aebe'to- industry, origin................... 46 chrysotile. use by ancients................................... 9 Lombardy Province, tremolite, deposit............ 47 northern, tremolite, deposit.................................. 9 Torino Province, tremolite, deposits.................. 47 tremolite. characteristics................ 47 deposit-.................................................................. 47 production, table................................................. u.-cs......................................................................... 47 47 tremolite mines, mining methods...................... 47 I Jander. Wilhelm and Wuhrer. Josef, work cited.. 101 Japan, amphibole,characteristics.......................... 50 deposits.................................................................. 50 amphibole fiber, production................................. 50 anthophyllite, milling............................................ 50 asbestos, consumption, table________ 59 production....... ...................................................... 50 tables.................................................................. 50. 57 chrysotile, beneficiation................................. 50 characteristics................................................... 49 deposits................................................................. 49 Hokkaido district, chrysotile, deposits________ 49 Honshu district, chrysotile, deposits........... ...... 49 Kushu district, amphibole, deposits................. 50 Jenkins G. F., work cited 108 See auo Ross, J. G. Johnson's Co., asbestos, reserves, increase, by diamond drilling----------------------------------- control Johns-Manville Corp., Canadian subsidiaries... prospect drilling Jones, R. H., work cited---------------Josephson, G. W., acknowledgment_____________ Joyce, \V. J., work cited__________ Page 61 64 64 61 108 III 75 K "Karpasian flax," as term for asbestos__________ 9 Karst, P. F., Montana anthophyllite property, operation.................................................... 27 "Karvstios lithos," as term for asbestos________ 9 Keepj F. E., work cited....................... ................... 29, 108 Keith, S. B., and Bain, G. W., work cited_______ 23 Kelleher, J. C., work cited............................... 76, 78, 109 Kenya, anthophyllite, beneficiation........ ........... 52 deposits______________ 52 uses.................. 52 asbestos, production, table____________________ 57 Kircher, H. See Noll, W. Kohn, J. A. See Comeforo, J. E. Kolin, J. A., and Comeforo, J. ., work cited... 109 Korea, asbestos, production................................ 50 Krannich, W., work cited_______________________ 96 Kupfenberger, W., work cited__________________ 109 L Laboratories, chemical, anthophyllite, uses, acid-resistant........................*...................... 14 asbestos, uses.......................... 14 Latin America, asbestos, imports, Canada, table.......................................................... 67 Southern Rhodesia, table........................ 68 Union of South Africa, table...................... 68 Lentz, Rudolf, invention of "synthetic asbestos"................ 96 Liebenwirth, --, work cited....................... 96 Lindell, K. V., work cited....................... .............. 72, 109 "Linum asbesti," as term for asbestos............... 10 Lithgow, Andrew, mention of "Amiante" stone. 9 "Lithos amiantos," as term for asbestos............ 9 Liidke, W., work cited........................................ .. 99, 101 Ludke process, for synthesizing amphibole, tests, Bureau of Mines................................. 102 Lumber, asbestos, manufacture.------------------------ 105 M Madagascar, amphibole. deposit________________ production....................................... anthophyllite, characteristics................. deposit............................................... samples, examination..._____ ______________ asbestos, production, table_________ Magnesia pipe covering, asbestos in, proportion. Magnetite, removal from asbestos tapes by Jeffrey Manufacturing Co. process____ separation from asbestos, by Vortrap process. Magnetometer, use, in prospecting for asbestos. Maine, chrysotile, Bureau of Mines drilling program 22 deposits---------- ----------- Johnson's Co., operations-------------------------------- Somerset County, chrysotile, deposits, ex ploration 22 Marcioli, Giorgio, crocidoiite mill, design_______ Marco Polo, reference, to "amiantos cloth"____ Marcuse, B., work cited....................................... Market, balanced, necessity_____________ Marketing, general features_____________________ Maryland, Harford County, amphibole, deposits____ ______ 51 51 51 51 51 57 13 99 98 69 22 22 80 9 109 88 88 27 ASARCO ALV 118 INDEX Pgo Maryland, Powhatan Mining Co., operation?___ 27 ircmoliie. characteristic.-'....................................... 27 deposit ................................. 27 Ma--achu.-ett-, Waltham, a.-be.-to- paper, manu facture.................... _.................................... 11 Matti-on, R. V., introduction of a-hc-to--cement shindies.......................................................... 11 Mazza process, for manufacturing ashc-tos- cetncnt pipes, introduction...................... 11 Melhase, John, work cited ..................................... 19 Mertie, J. B., Jr. See Smith, P. S. Me--cl, M. J.. work cited................................ 70, 79, 109 Motatnorphism, role in oriain of asbestos............ _4 Mexico. aslip-tos, consumption, table.................... 59 chry-otile. characteristics...................................... -12 deposits.................................................................. -12 mountain cork, depo-it.......................... -12 Nuevo I.poii iState) chrysotile. deposits ... Puebla `State), a-bo-tos, deio-it........................ -12 42 San Luis I'otosi 'State), mountain cork, de posit............................................................... 42 Mica, recrystallization, to synthesize chrysotile. 101 Michigan, amphibole, depo-its................................ 28 Mile-, K. R,, and Foxall, J. S., work cited ..... 53.109 Mill. air--wept. for single-stage proces'ind, in troduction................................................................. 78 Millar, W. H,, work cited......................................... 48 XIi!ll*oarri, ashe-tos, manufacture........................ 106 use. in electrical insulation............................... 14 Millboard caskets, manufacture............................. 106 .Milliua methods, discussion..................................... 75 Mine-, asbe-to-. dome-tic, proportion of require ment-furnished.......................................... 1 Mineral-wool fibers, uses, as sub-titute for as- be-tos..................... 94 Minina method-, discussion ................................... 71 Mink, J. F. .8,e Bates. T. F. Montana, authopltyllite. compo-ition.................... 8 depo-it-.................................................................. 27 Carbon County, chrysotile, deposit................... 22 ci.rv-otile. Bureau of Mines tests...................... deposits ...................... , ................................. 22 22 Callotin County, authopltyllite, depo-it.......... 27 Intof-tato Product- Co., operation-................ 27 Kar-ot tie Co., operations . Lincoln County, anthophyllito, deposit......... 27 27 Madi-un County, chrysotile, deposit, develoji- ment........... ................................................... 22 Montana .\-be-tos Co., operations.................... 27 Month,--to- Co., operation- .............................. 22 Moi.ta-ite, characteristic-......................................... 39 .s'.. Amo-ite. Mo,.tano-ite. Sec Monta-ite. Mot.'inarin. G. H., work........................................... 46 Morocco, chry-otile, characteristics........ .............. 51 depo-it- ............................................................... 51 occurrence, with cobalt..................................... 51 production............. -............................................ 52 -ample-, examination. Bureau of Mines___ 51 French, a-be-to-, production, table................... 57 Soeiete Minibre du Siruoa, operations ......... 52 Mountain cork, characteristic-................................ 2 depo-it ...................................................................... 42 Mountain leather, characteristics....................... 2 compo-ition......... ......................................... 25 depo-its, domestic................................................... 25, 27 Mountain wood, characteristics.............................. 2 Mozambique, anthophyllite. depo-it................ 52 samples, examination. Bureau of .Mines_____ 52 Muromtseff, B. See Ipatiev, W. N Napkin, asbestos, display. ...................................... National Bureau of Standards, investigation, asbestos, from naval fittings, possible reclamation_______ ____________________ 10 15 Page Naval Research Laboratory, asbestos substi tutes, use....................................................... 94,96 tests, glass-fiber filters............................................. 94 Vortrap process.................................................... 98 Navy Department, Bureau of Ships, asbestos, possible reclamation................................... 15 Nemalite, deposit......................................................... 44 Netherlands, asbestos, consumption, table............ 59 Newfoundland. See Canada. New Hampshire, Tilton, asl>estos paper for electric insulation, manufacture................ .......... Johns-Manville Corp., Quinterra paper, manufacture................................................. New Jersey, amphibole, deposits......................... II 98 28 New Jersey Ceramic Research Station, hydrothermal synthesis of chry-otile, study.. 101 New Mexico, Luna County, mountain leather, deposit........................................................... 27 New South Wales. See Australia. Newton, Charley, Arizona, chry-otile, discovery. 18 New York, amphibole, deposits................................ chrysotile, Bureau of Mines tests......................... deposits.................................................................. Lake George area, chrysot ile, samples................ tremolite, composition............................................ 28 22 22 22 1 Warren County, chrysotile. depo-it.................... 22 New Zealand, asbesto-, consumption, table 59 production, table................................................. chrysotile, characteristics...................................... 57 55 deposit.................................................................... production............................................................. Takaka district, chrysotile, deposits................... oo Nicolet Asbestos Mines, commercial control......... 64 Niggli, F. See Brandenberger, E. Noakes, L. C., work cited......................................... ; >2. 109 Noll, W,, work cited................................................... 101 Noll, W,, and Kircher, H,, work cited.................. Nonspinning asbestos, u-e, in floor tiles............... in plastics.............................................................. 101 14 14 Nonspinning fibers, ues............................................ 13 North America. See Canada: Mexico; L'nited States. North Carolina, amphibole, depo-its...................... sales........ ................................................................ 61 27 anthophyllite, deposit............................................ 27 preparation.......................................................... 27. 28 Ashe County, anthophyllite, deposits............... 28 Avery County, anthophyllite, depo-it Burke County, anthophyllite, depo-it-............. 27 28 Caldwell County, anthophyllite, deposit.......... 28 Industrial Minerals Corp., operation-............... Macon County, anthophyllite, depo-its......... 27 2,8 Mitchell County anthophyllite, depo-its_____ 28 Transylvania County, anthophyllite. depo-its. 28 Yancey County, anthophyllite. deposits............ 27, 2.8 Norton, C. L.. invention of asbestos-cement roofing process.................................... ........ 11 Norway, asbestos, consumption, table.................... 59 Novabestos process, development, by Raybestos- Manhattan. Inc........ ........ ..................... .. 98. 99 Nvasaland, asbestos, deposits___________________ 52 O Oats. Francis, interest in South Africa crocidolite. O'Daniel, --, and Hahn-Weinheimer, P., work cited........................................................... Olivine, as source of asbestos____________________ Ontario. See Canada. Oregon, amphibole, production, early.......... ........... Baker Countv, tremolite, deposit....... ............... Canadian Johns-Manville Corp., Ltd., opera tions 22 chrysotile, deposits 22 Currv County, tremolite, deposit______________ Grant County, asbestos mine, operation______ chrysotile, deposit.................... 10 101 4 28 28 28 22 22 ASARCO ALV 0006081 INDEX 119 Oregon. Jackson County, treniolite. deposits----Joluis-Manvi'lli' Corp., operations..................... Josephine County, cnrysotile, deposit................... Malheur County, chrysotile. deposit--------------treniolite. deposits--------------------------------------------------- Osborne, G. D. Ste Proud, J. S, Pe< 2s 22 22 2 28 P Packing, asbestos, for steam glands, use................. 10 compounded, composition............................................. manufacture.............................. ............................................ Paints, fireproof, nonspinning asbestos in. use-- 106 lOo 11 Paligorskite. composition.................................................... 25 deposit........... ......................................................................... Paper, asbestos, introduction..-................................ 25 11 manufacture, process............................................... 11. 105 preshrunk, manufacture............................................ II uses, in insulation.................................................. 11 . 13. 11 Parson-. M. Jr., work cited........................... 03 Pansanins. mention of "Karpu~ian (lav"................. 0 Pemisyhania. Ambler, asbe.-los-cement shingles, manufacture.......................................................... amphibolr. deposits........................................................... Pertdottie, association with asbestos.............. ............ a' source of asbestos.......................................................... Perlon. use. a' substitute for asbestos......................... II 2S 60 1 96 Peru, ciirysotile. samples, examination, bureau iif Mines................ --................ Juniu Department), ciirysotile. deposits............ Philippines. Republic of. amphibole. samples. -- 11 11 50 Phillips Asbe.-tos Mini's, ciirysotile deposits, de velopment ............................................................... Pipe, asbestos-cement, croridolite fillers, use.......... manufacture, by Mazza process........................... Uses, increase............................................................................................ Plasties, nonspiniiinz asbestos, use............................... Platinum, use. in manufacture of fiberglass............ Plu.v. asbeto'."application.......... ................... .. -- Plutarch, fibrous mineral from Greece, mention. 10 15 11 13 H 95 8 9 Polyvinyl liber-, as sub-tit me for a-lie-to-. diadvantages......................................... Pontoppnlian. ti-e of a-be-to- paper.. 96 11 Portugal. Alemtejo Province, anthophyllite, depo-it....................................................................... anthnpliiintc, composition.......................................... depo-i:-... .................................... ... produeliou. labie... ... ... samples, examination. Bureau of Mines..,, asin'sto-. consumption, table....... .............................. production, table.............. ......................... 17 17 17 17 17 50 57 Soeiedade Portuguesa de Amianto-. Lda, operations........................................ 17 PortugiK-e Ea^t Africa, chrysolite, occurrence.. Pota-sium-lead ,-ihcaic. as substitute for a-lH-- tos, advantage-............................................... synthesis. Bureau of Mine.-, study......................... Pro"--tire packer, development.................................... 103 102 78 Price-, review............................................................................ 91 Production, industrial, compared with a-be-tos consumption.......................................................... 16 Proud. J. S.. and Osborne, G. D., work cited... 54, 109 Pvrovetiitc. as source of asbestos............................. - 4 Q Quebec. Nee Canada. Quebec Aslx-stos Corp., commercial control____ Queensland. Nee Australia. Quinterra process, description.................... ............. 64 98 R Rabbin, J. C., work cited................................ 2,3, 8. 109 Randall, Roy, asboslo- lease........ ........................... 27 Reserve-', extent, to justify development.............. 70 world_________________ ______ 61,63 Pace Rhode Island, crocidolite, deposit........................... Riebeckite. See Crocidolite. Rock dust, disposal..................................................... Rome, asbestos, uses....... ...................... 28 78 8 treniolite. use........................................................... 9 Roofing, asbestos-cement, manufacture................ 11 Roofing shingles, manufacture............................... 105 Ropewav, transportation of asbestos by, coats.. 45 Ross, J.'G., work cited................................. 8, 72, 83, 109 Ro<s, J. G,, and Jenkins, G. F., work cited........ 109 Rukevser, \V. A., work cited.. 8, 27, 41, 46, 73, 82, 109 Rii'.'ia, Urol Mountains, asbestos, deposits, dis covery_________________ See nhn Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Rutledge, F. A. See Heide, H. D. 10 S "Salamander's wool," as term for asbestos.......... 10 Sampson, Edward, work cited................................. 24 Sand, L. B. See Bates, T. F. Sattorly, J. See Hewitt, D. F. Schaller. W. T., work cited.................................. 2, 8. 109 Scrap, recovery............................................................. 15 Sedgwick, Cabot, consular report........................... 48 Seliards, E. H., and Baker, C. L., work cited... 28 Serpentine, asbestos talus slope, British Colum bia.................................................................. 34 association with asbestos....................................... 69, 75 as stage in origin of asbestos............................. 4 characteristics, physical......................................... 69 delineating, magnetometer, use...................... 60 massive. See Chrvsotiie. synthesis................... iOi Shaw, M. C., work cited.............. 2 Shell, H. R., and Brown, D. L., work cited... 102. 100 Sherman, Gerald, work cited................................ 72. 100 Shingles, asbestos-cement, manufacture............. 11, 105 Shorts, recovery........... ............................................... 78 Sitieria, '`amianto? cloth," mention by Marco Polo............................................................... 0 Siding, asbestos, manufacture........ .......................... 105 Silicone rubber, a substitute for asbestos, in wire covering................................................ 06 Sinclair, W. E., work cited............. .......... 52. 79, 80. 100 Singewald, Q. D., work cited.................................... 43 Sitz, G,, work cited..................................................... 102 Smith, C. V., work cited............................................ 72 Smith. P. S., and Mertie, J. B,, Jr., work cited___ 17 Soda-lime-silica-glass fibers, development, as substitute for asbestos.............................. 94. 97 Solinus, fibrous mineral for Greece, mention____ 9 South America. See Argentina; Bolivia; Brazil; Chile; Colombia; Costa Rica; Peru; Venezuela. South Australia. See Australia. South Carolina, amphibole, deposits................... 2S South Dakota, amphibole, deposits..................... 2S Southern Rhodesia, asbestos, consumption, table............................................................. - 59 exports............................................................ 67 graph.......................................................... 65 table...................................... 68 production, graph....................-.......................... 5S map................................................ 56 tables___________________ 35,57 reserves, grades.................. 62 small producers, mining operations________ 40 value, table 35 asbestos industry, control_____________________ 64 growth__________________________ 34 Asbestos Mining & Supply Corp., Ltd., opera tions__________________________________ - 35 Associated Asbestos Mines, Ltd., operations.. 36 Belingwe district, asbestos, deposits................ 35, 36 British Metals Corp., operations..................-- 35 Bulawayo district, asbestos, deposits-------------- 36 i ASARCO alv 0006082 Page Southern Rhodesia, Capa A"lx'-io- Co.. a,*l>e*to-, com nil. .................. .................... chry-otile, characteristic*. ........... cuttipo-it ion .... depo-it*.................................................................. di-cover.'........................................................... in gold tilino............ ........................ electrical resistance... . .................... 64 34, 36 8 34 10 36 2 export to United State*, table........................ 66 (trades........................ ................................... importance............................................................ markets. ............................................................... prices... .................................................................. table......... -....................................................... reserves................................................................ - chrysotile mine-, development............................ 85 36 36 01 03 36 36 minor, number........................... .. -- 36 Filabu.-i district, asbestos, depo-it*------ 36 .lohn-Man-ville Corp.. operations -- 35 Lmnagundi district, asbestos, production........ 36 Ma-ltaba district, asbestos, deposit-............... 35. 36 Rhodesia Monteleo Asbestos, Ltd., opera tion*............................................................... 35 Rhodesian & General Asbestos Corp., I-td., operations............ ........................................ 34. 36 Rhode-ian A-he-to-, Ltd., operation-............... 35 Shabani area, chrysotile, deposits...................... 34. 36 reserves.............................................................. 62 milliner methods................................................... 81 mining methods............................. ..................... 72 Southern Rhode-ian Chry-otile Corp., Ltd., operation*..................................................... 36 Turner A- Newell, Ltd., a-be-io- market. emitrol.................... ................................. 64. 80 operation-......................... .................................... 36 Vanguard Co., operation.-.................................. 36 Vukwe Hill- area, a-be-to-, depo-it- 35 Soviet Rii--ia. Sn Union of Soviet Seciali-t Republic*. Spain, a.-he-to-, consumption, table...................... production, table.......................'....................... A-be-to- Kspanole*. S. A., operation-............... chry-otile. characteristic.-................................ - depo-it*................... production....................................... -................... La CoruAa Province, asbestos, deposit............. Malaga Province, chrysotile, depo-its............... Spence. H. S., work cited.......................................... Spinning fiber.-, classification................................... non-pinning uses...................................................... u-c-............--------------............ 50 57 48 48 47 48 48 48 100 12 13 12 Starkey, Roland, work cited .................................. 81 Stephen-. K. IL. work cited..................................... 33 Stewart. R. Ib. work cited....................................... 17 Stewart. I.. A., work cited........................................ 10 Stewart, L. A., and Ilaury, P. S,, work cited 10, 109 Stitham. Ray, Oregon chrysotile deposit, di-- coverv............................................................ 22 Stockpile. National Strategic, specification-, amo-ite.............. 86 chry-otile......... .............................................. - 86 croeidolite............ ......................................... 86 Strabo, mention of handkerchief- "oven from stone............................................................... 9 Straek, L. H., work cited.......................................... 109 Substitutes, for asbestos, discussion.................... 94 organic, development....................................... 96 Swaziland, asbestos, consumption, table.............. 59 production, graph............................................... 58 map................ 56 tables........................ 40,57 asbestos industry, commercial control.............. 64 asbesto* mines, operators................................ 40 Cape Asbestos Co., asbestos, control_________ 64 Page Swaziland, chrysotile, characteristics.................... 40 deposit, development......................................... 40 Havelock mine, grades.................................. 85 milling methods.......................... 81 reserves............................................................ - 63 mining methods....................................................... 73 Msauli Asbestos Co., operations......................... 40 New Amianthus Mines, Ltd., chrysotile, operations........................ - 40 Turner & Newall, Ltd., asbestos, control-- 64 operations.............................. 40 Sweden, asbestos, consumption, table.................-- 59 Switzerland, asbestos, consumption, table--------- 59 production___________________ -- 48 chrysotile, deposits................ -- 48 Graubunden (Cantonl, asbestos, deposits------ 48 Orisons (Canton), asbestos, deposits............ .. 48 Tessin fCantom, asbestos, deposits................... 48 tremolite, deposits................... - 48 Valais (Cantom, asbestos, deposits.................... 48 Switzerland Soeiete Anonyme Internationale de 1'Asbestos Cement, asbestos, distribution control_________________ 90 Sworder, E. H., work cited..................................... 81, 109 Synthesis, asbestos, difficulties................................ 103 possibilities.................................. 101 T Taber, Stephen, work cited............................. ........ 109 Tablecloth, asbestos, used by Charlemagne____ 9 Taiwan, asbestos, production, table.................. .. 57 Tasmania. See Australia. Tatarinov, P., work cited....... .................................. 41 Tenax, manufacture, from anthophyllite........... .. 28 Terratex, manufacture, by General Electric Co. 98 Texas, amphibole, deposit.............................'.......... Gillespie County, amphibole, deposits............. Llano County, amphibole, deposits.................... 2S 2$ 2S Textiles, asbestos, manufacture, beginning.......... 10 process............... - 104 Textile factories, asbestos, supplementary mill ing 82 Thorne, R. L. See Fisher, R. B. Tiger-eye, deposits....................... -- 37 Trade, international................ 65 Transvaal. See Union of South Africa. Trauffer, \V. E., work cited. ---------- 79 Tremolite, characteristics......................................... 2. 3 colors.............. .................................. -..................... 6 composition............................................................ 2.3. S deposits, domestic............................................. 25. 27, 28 mining methods......................... 74 natural, cell dimensions, table............................. 103 occurrence_________________ ................... -............ 74 resistance, chemicali----------------- 3, 7 sales____________________________ -- Tremolite glove, Museum of NaturalHistory, London____________________ Tucker, J. L,, work cited............ .............................. Tucker, M. E., Vermont chrysotile deposit, dis 2 9 12 covery_________________ 22 Turkey, asbestos, consumption, table.................. 59 deposits 50 production, tables____________________ 51,57 chrysotile, samples, examination. Bureau of Mines......................... Eskschir region, chrysotile, deposits............. -- Kars, chrysotile, deposit______________________ tremolite, deposit-------- --------- 50 50 50 50 Tuttle, 0. F, See Bowen, N. L. ASARCO ALV 0006083 INDEX 121 Page U Uniho-tn-. compo-ition................... - Union of Som li Africa, aoiinolito, X-ray analy-i-. amosite. coiupo-ition................... -- export-, to t'nitcil States, table ......... (trade*............... .................. ........... market, control. Capo A-bo.-to- (o ... 10(1 2 8 67 85 89 origin____ ... ------ 5 price'___ . .................. 91 production, table.......... X-ray analy-i-.............. ......... ............................ 37 2 asbcsln-, consumption, table............................... 59 exports................................................................... 68 graph.................................................................. 65 table................................................................... 68 production, graph............................................... 58 map '.................................................................. , 56 table'................................................................. *}7. 57 ri-ont-............................... 62 'tnall producers, mining operation'............. 40 tarietie* .................. ... 36 a'be'to' imhi-try, control.... ................... 64 Cape of timid Hope. Cape A.-be.-los Co., ji'bc'to', control........................................ 64 operation'............................... -................... 37 Cape Blue Mines of South Africa Pty., Ltd., operations............................... ---- 37 cat ''-eve. occorrence. .................... ................... 37 croeiijolite. characteristic.'..................... .......... 36 deposit'..................................................... ........ milling method'.............................................. production. table............................................ 36 80 37 re-erve'.............................................................. 63 croetdohte mine'-, operator*...................... ... 37 (impialand Exploration 4 Finance Co., Ltd., operation-......................... . ......... C.rnpialand WY-t, croeidolite, depo-it------- 38 36 Hay di-trict, tiger-eye. depo-it.'..................... 37 Kttr'iman Cape Bine Asbe-to.- Pty,, Ltd., operation-.................................................... Knrtiiian di-trict, croeidolite, deposit.-........ 3S 3S mining method-.............................................. 73 Prie-ka di-trict. mining method-................... tiger-eye, oecnrrence........................................- 73 37 Tnrner 4 Newall, Lttl.. operations........... .. 38 chry-otile, compo-ition.................. ....................... grade-.................... ............................ production, table................................................ croeidolite, compo-ition......................................... 8 S4 37 8 depo-it-.................................................................. 3 di-eovery.................. ........................ 10 exports, to United Stale-, table.................... grade-................... ... ...................... 67 85 market, control, Cape Asia--to- Co................ 89 origin...................................... ...................... 5 price-..... ................................................................ production, table................................................ eummingtonite, X-ray analy-i*......................... 91 37o milling method-, description................................ 79 Natal, chry-otile, depo-it..................................... 40 iremulitc. depo-it...................... -....................... 40 Zululutid, chry-otile, depo-it........................... 40 pro-pceting. increase-- ................................. 73 Transvaal, African 4 European Investment Co., Ltd., operation.-................................. 38 African Chrysotile Astie-tos, Ltd,, opera tion--. '........................................................ 38 amosiic, characteristic-................-.............. . 39 depo-its............................................................. 39 milling method-.............................................. 80 amosite mines, operator-.................................. 39 anthophyllitc, deposits...................................... 40 production. . ., ................................... 40 asbestos, production, table.............................- 37 Page Union of South Africa, Transvaal, Audax Asbe-toHoidings, operations.......................................... Barberton Chrysotile Asbestos, Ltd., opera 38 tions.........................-...................... 38 Barberton district, chrysotile, deposits-------- 38 reserves.......... ............................................... 62 mining methods............................................. 72 Carolina district, chrysotile, deposits............38, 72 reserves____ ____________ 62 mining methods____ _______ 72 chrysotile, deposits......................... 38 origin................................................................. 4 chry-otile mines, equipment............................. 38 operators............................................................ 38 contract mining................................................ 73 croeidolite, characteristics............................... 39 deposits............................................................. 39 production, table............................................. 40 Dovershock Asbestos Mine, Ltd., opera tion?................................................................ 38 Egnep. Ltd., operations..................................... 39 Lvdenburg district, amosite, deposits........... 39. 72 "mining methods.................... 72 montasite, depo-its...... ....................................... Munnik-Myburgh Chrysotile Asbestos, Ltd., operations..................................................... 39 38 New Amianthus Mines, Ltd., operations___ Pieter-burg field, amosite, deposits................ croeidolite, deposits........................................ montasite, depo-its......................................... Rusienburg district, amosite, deposits......... Staltzburg Asbestos (Chrysotile) Holding-, Ltd., operations........................................... Turner 4 Netv3ll, Ltd., operations................ Warmbaths district, croeidolite. deposits... Zoutpansberg district, anthophvllite, de posits.............................................................. tremolite, composition.......................................... Turner 4 Netvall, Ltd., asbestos, control......... 38 39 39 39 39 38 38 39 40 8 64 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, asbestos, characteristics....... ...................................... 41 deposits.................................................................. 41 political control............................................... 64 foreign trade............................................................ 60,89 market................................................................... 40 production.......................................................... - 41 graph.................................................................. 58 map...................................................... .. ............ 56 table............................. ...................................... reserves........ .......................................................... 41 02 asbestos industry, commercial control 64 rank.......................................................................- 40 Bajenova district, asbestos, deposits.................. 4! mining methods................................................... 73 chrysotile, composition_______________________ 8 deposits___________________________________ _ 41 grades___________________ ___________________ 86 Katun River district, asbestos, production... 41 Kuban River, asbestos, deposits...................... 41 Maikop district, chrysotile, deposit................. 41 milling methods............ ........................................... 81 Transbaikalia Province, asbestos, depo-it------ 41 Turkestan, asbestos, deposits........... ............ .. 41 Uralasbest Trust, operations.......... ..................... 41 Yenisei River, asbestos, deposits........................ 41 United Kingdom, asbestos, consumption, table. imports, Canada, table_____________________ graph...... ............................................................ Southern Rhodesia............... ....................... .. table........................ ................................-- Union of South Africa, table --..........-- 59 67 65 67 68 68 London, Museum of Natural History, asbestos glove____________ __________ ____________ 9 ASARCO ALV 0006084 Pies T'niiod State*, amo*ite, imports, I'nion of South Africa..., ............................... atnphibole, consumption, table.............................. r.7 57 sales, faitlo... ...................... 57 asbcsto*. consumption..................... r.o table*........................................... . 50.57. 59. f>5 deposits, control.................................................. 64 foreign trade.............................................................. 65 graph......................................... ................. 65 table ...................... ............................... 65 imports, by countries, table............................... 66 (rraph........................... ............................... 65 Southern Rhodesia............................................. 67 table................... ......................................... 08 I'nion of South Africa...................................... table................................................................... 6S 68 production, graph.............................................-- 58 lii-tory........................................................... -- 56 map......................................................................... 56 table.......................................................................... 65 sale*, tables................................................................ 56, 57 -pinning grade*. imports, Canada, table -- 66 a-),e.sio* crudes, imports. Canada, table............ a'be'to- fiber-, imports, Canada, table.............. 67 67 a-besto* products, manufactured, exports, value, table.............-....................................... chry-otile. import-. Southern Rhodesia, table. reserve*, e-timate.................................................... crocidolite. imports, Australia, table................ Bolivia, table........................................................ I'nion of South Africa, tahlc......................... milline methods, description................................... it,mine methods, di-ct--ion..................................... 104 66 61 67 67 67 79 71 S,< at so Ala-ka; Art/.ona; Connecticut; Geor gia; Idaho; Maine; Maryland; Massa chusetts; Michiean; New Hump-hire; New .Icr-ey: New Mexico; New York; North Carolina; Oreeon; Pennsylvania; Rhode 1-land; South Carolina; South Dakota: Texa-; Vermont; Virginia; Wa-Mngton; Wi-eon-in; Wyoming. Cni'.er-py ,,f Maryland. Department of Geog raphy, Atla- of World's Resources, chart - cited ................... ................................. 16, 56 Cral Mountain-, a-bc-to- deposit.*, discovery___ 10 V Vat. Cutt. H. C. S<i I'i-her. R. B. Vui.Royen William, and Bowie.-,t diver, work cited.. Venezuela. Amianto Venezuela Cotnpania Anoninta. operation*.................................... a-besto-. consumption, table...... ............................ production, table.................. .................................. a-bc-to- mdU'trv, commercial control-............ chr\ -(it tie, characteristics............. ........................... dep(i-it *................................ -........... -....................... re-er\e-........................................................................ u-e, tti a-lie-to--cement products..................... elirv-otile mine~. operator*...................................... Cojrda- State . chry-otilc, depo-it- ................. Conipatiiu Aitotiima Mina- de Tinaquillo, operation'...... .................. .........................-- Vi-rmas. F. 11. S., work cited..................... ................ Vermont, a-he-to-, grades......................................... .. grading.................-..................................................... mining method*...... ................................................. price-...... ..................................................................... table................. ..................................................... A-besto- Corp. of America, operation' chrysolite, characteristic.-......................................... depO'it-.................. ..................................................... origin........................... ................................................. producer*............................................................ .. reserve-, estimate................................... ............. .. slip fiber, occurrence...... ........................... ........... type.-............................................................................. 110 44 50 57 64 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 o 83 83 71 91 92 23 23 22 4 23 61 6 23 Vermont, I.amoiUe County, chrysotile, deposits. Lowell Lumber & Asbestos Co., operations... New England Asbestos Mining & Milling Co., operations....................................... Orleans County, chrysotile, deposits_________ Rnberoid Co., operations...................................... Vermont Asbestos Corp. of America, oper ations....................................................... Vermont Asbestos Mines, control.................... - mill, view.............. milling methods............................................... Vestal Virgins, a-bestos lampwicks, "perpetual". Virginia, amphibole, deposit..................................... anthophyliite, deposit............................................ slip fiber, occurrence.......................................... Bedford County, anthophyliite, deposit........... Clarke County,' antphibole, deposit................... Franklin County, antphibole, deposit................ Roanoke County, amphihole, depo-it............... Vortrap process, te-t*, by Naval Research Laboratory................................................... Page 22 23 23 22 23 23 64 80 79 9 28 28 6 28 28 28 28 98 W Walters, T. R., work cited.............................. 98 Warren, B. E., work cited.................................. 103 Washington, antphibole, deposits.................... 28 Asbestos-Talc Products Co., operations______ 28 Chelan County, ainphibole, deposit............... 28 Okanogan County, antphibole, deposit............. 28 Skagit County, antphibole, deposit*.................. 28 Stevens County, amphibole, deposit.................. 28 Weaver, J. M,, acknowledgment............................ 75, 99 Wells, F. 0., work cited.."...................................... 101 Western Australia. See Australia. Whitworth, M,, work cited________ ________ 45. 74. 1)0 Wil-on. E. D.. work cited............... ....................... 19. 110 Winkleman, E. H., work cited............................... 110 Wisconsin, amphibole, deposits............... 28 chrv.'Otile, deposit, exploration, DMEA........... 23 Wright, W. S. See Heide, H. D, Wuhrer, Jo*ef. See Jander, Wilhelm. Wyoming, American Asbestos Milling& Mining Co., operations............................................- 24 American Fireproofing & MiningCo., opera- tion*................................................................ 24 chrysotile, deposits................................................. 24 producer*......... ...................................................... 24 Fremont County, chrysotile, deposits.............. 24 International Asbestos Mill & Power Co., op- era t ions........ .................. 24 Lincoln County, chrysotile, deposit......... ...... 24 Marinette County, chrysotile, depo-it.............. 23 Natrona County,' chry.-otile, deposits............... 24 North American Asbestos Co., operations------ 24 Patee Asbestos Shingle C`o., operations............ 24 .Star Mining Co., operations............................... - 23 I'nited Asbestos Co,, operations--.................. 24 Wyoming Consolidated Asbestos C'o., opera tions.............................................................. 24 Y Yarns, asbestos, manufacture........................ sizes____________________ weaving, processes....... ................................ -- Yugoslavia, asbestos, production, table_________ Bosnia-Herzegovina, chrysotile, deposit........... chrysotile, characteristics-------- --------deposits 4 mining methods-------- ----------production---------------Macedonia, asbestos, deposit_________________ Serbia, chrysotile, deposits___________________ 105 105 105 57 48 48 48 48 4S 48 Z Zimmerman, E. W., work cited. o ASARCO ALV 0006085