Document Z42o0a4130byGQBJ9j2YXob77

FILE NAME DuPont Remington DRM DATE 1982 Feb DOC DRM023 DOCUMENT DESCRIPTION EPA Report - Asbestos Substitute Performance Analysis Prepared for U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances Washington D.C. 81-32 Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of Contract No. 68-02-3168 Technical Service Area 3 Work Assignment Nos 7 and 18 EPA Project Officer James Bulman ASBESTOS SUBSTITUTE PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS Revised Final Report February 1982 Prepared by Nancy Krusell David Cogley GCA CORPORATION TECHNOLOGY DIVISION Bedford Massachusetts DISCLAIMER This Revised Final Report was prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency by GCA Corporation Technology Division Burlington Road Bedford Massachusetts 01730 in partial fulfillment of Contract No. 68-02-3168 Technical Service Area 3 Work Assignments No. 7 and 18. The opinions findings and conclusions expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Environmental Protection Agency Mention of company or product name is not to be considered as an endorsement by the Environmental Protection Agency a ii CONTENTS Figures Tables .......+4.- Acknowledgments ...... vi xi 1 Introduction .... References 2 Paper Products Introduction . . Flooring Felt . Roofing Felt . Beater Gaskets Pipeline Wrap Millboard and Rollboard . . Specialty Papers . . . Commercial Papers e . Electrical Insulation Beverage and Pharmaceutical Cost Comparison Current Trends . Conclusion . . . References .. . 3 Friction Materials . Asbestos Product Substitute Products Cost Comparison . Current Trends Conclusion References . .. 4 Asbestos Cement Pipe Asbestos Product Substitute Product Cost Comparison Current Trends . Conclusion .. References .. 5 Asbestos Sheet Asbestos Product Substitute Products Cost Comparison Current Trends Conclusion . References .. iii CONTENTS continued 6 Flooring Products Asbestos Product . Substitute Product Cost Comparison Current Trends Conclusion . References ... 7 Gaskets and Packings Asbestos Product . Substitute Product Cost Comparison Current Trends Conclusion ... References . 8 Paints Coatings and Sealants Asbestos Product . Substitute Products Cost Comparison Conclusion .... References ... 9 Reinforced Plastics Asbestos Product . . Substitute Product Cost Comparison Current Trends . Conclusion . References 10 Textiles . Asbestos Product Substitute Product Cost Comparison . Current Trends Conclusion References .... 11 Miscellaneous Uses Introduction . . Drilling Muds Fluids Cost Comparison : Current Trends . . Conclusion . Shotgun Shell Base Wads Asphalt Asbestos Cement Foundry Sands . . . Sprayed Insulation Artificial Fireplace Ashes References . . and . . e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Artificial Snows 12. Discussion Results Discussion and Conclusion Results ... Conclusion .... 172 172 176 179 179 179 181 183 183 187 210 212 214 216 221 221 226 240 243 245 248 248 250 258 258 262 264 266 266 271 284 287 287 289 292 292 292 298 300 301 301 301 303 304 305 306 309 309 311 317 FIGURES Number 1 Section through a slim line pipe . ......545 588 e. 2 The effect of temperature on the tensile strength of Kevlarfi 29 Aramid 6 6 6 6 ee ee ee we ew ew te el A circulatory system for a rotary drilling rig . TABLES Number 1 Estimated Current Annual Consumption of Asbestos Fiber in Paper Products Manufacturers of Asbestos Roofing Felt Asbestos Roofing Company Production and Market Shares 1975 14 Manufacturers of Asbestos Beater Gasket Paper 20 Industrial Commercial and Residential Use of Asbestos Mill- board and Individual Applications 28 Manufacturers of Asbestos Specialty Paper 37 Manufacturers of Nonasbestos Specialty Papers . 41 Manufacturers of Asbestos Beverage and Pharmaceutical Filters Roofing Costs . . . . 57 10 Cost of Asbestos Millboard and Substitute Products $ per square foot . . . 58 11 Unique Properties of Asbestos Applicable to Friction Materials .. . - . 76 12 Typical Ingredients Used for Some Friction Materials In Weight % . . . 78 13 Property Modifiers in Friction Materials 79 14 Uses of Containing Friction Materials 81 15 U.S. Manufacturers of Asbestos Friction Materials 83 16 Asbestos Consumption by the Friction Materials Industry Thousand Metric Tons . 85 17 Value of Asbestos Friction Material Shipments In Millions of 1979 Dollars . . 85 vi Number TABLES continued 18 Reinforcing Fibers and Other Materials for Friction Materials . 2. 1. 6 2 we we ew we ew we ee ee te he 19 Brake Lining Treatment Formulation for Vermiculite Brakes . 2. ' 2 0 2 we oe ew ew ww ww ew et we tk tw 90 20 21 Cermet Friction Materials Wt % 2... 2 ' ' ' ' ' w@ Passenger Car Brake Pads and . . Light 2. 2. 2 Truck 2 6 6 Usage @ se of Nonasbestos Disc ' @ 6 oe ew et ee 93 94 22 Police and Taxi Usage of Nonasbestos Disc Brake Pads on Fronts 2. 2. 2 6 2 2 6 6 6 we we ee ew ke ke lk 98 23 Nonasbestos Brake Manufacturers . . . 1. 2. 1 2 0 ' w@ we we 103 24 Costs of Materials Proposed Friction Materials . 2. 6. as Substitutes for Asbestos 6 61 1 6 www ee we ee in 104 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Types of Water Main Pipe Now in Projections of Mileage . 2. Place 2. 2. 1 -National ew ew we we ew ee 117 Water Main Size Totals 1975 Ranges by . . 1. 1 6 Type of ee ee Pipe Now in we we we we te Projected eh we th tt 118 Type of Sewer Main Pipe Mileage 1975 . 2. 1. Now 2 6 in National Projections ew ew ew ew we ww ee ee of 119 Sewer Main Size Totals 1975 Ranges by . 2. 2. 1 Type of Pipe Now in Projected we ee ew ee ew te we te te 120 Properties of Various Fibers for Use in Pipe Products ... 124 Vitrified Clay Sewer Pipe Production Figures 1973-1978 .. 129 Typical Physical Properties Materials . 2. 1 1 1 6 we of Major Thermoplastic Piping ew ew ew ww ee ee ee we 131 32 Chemical Resistance Guide at Ambient Temperatures ..... 33 Total Plastic 1960-1978 . Pipe and Fittings 6 6 we we ee Production Volume ww ee we ee we Estimates we ee 132 134 34 Estimated Production Volumes for Various Types of Pipe - 1974-1978 . . 6 we ee ee ee he ee 135 35 36 GRC Pipe Forms . .... 2. ' 6 ' 6 ' ' ' ew ee we we ee 137 Properties of Ductile Iron Pipe ........... 5.2.64. 137 vii TABLES continued Number 37 Production Volumes for Cast Iron Pipe and Fittings 1973-1978 38 Pipe Price Estimates 1980 39 Major Manufacturers of Asbestos Sheet Products . 40 Performance of Possible Cement Sheet 2... Fiber Substitutes for 6 2 ee ew ee we ee Asbestos in 151 155 41 Comparison of Ebonized A with Hardboard .... 42 Cement Sheet Product Comparison ......... 43 Substitute Product Manufacturers ........ 157 159 163 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 Comparison of Cement Sheet Product Prices . Comparison of Siding Product Costs Major U.S. Manufacturers of Asbestos Flooring ry Manufacturers of Substitutes to Asbestos Floor Tile U.S. Asbestos Gasket and Packing Manufacturers Chracteristics of Fibers . 2. .. 2 2 ' 6 we we we Fiber Usage Chart . . 2... 2 2 6 ee we ew we ew PV Factors . . 2. 6 6 ' 6 se we ew ew we ew ee we 166 166 175 179 188 192 193 197 52 pH Factor Determines Correct Factor Materials . . 53 Experimental Preference Rating Chart ..... 54 Chemical Resistance of Yarn of Kevlarfi 29 Aramid 198 199 203 55 56 57 58 59 Nonasbestos Raw Materials for Gaskets and Packings Nominal Physical Properties of Board 1800 . Typical Uses of Board 1800 .........-. Gylon Physical Properties Cost Comparison Between Asbestos Fibers 1976 Dollars ...... 6+ ' ' ' and ' ' Substitutes we wo . 205 207 207 208 210 viii Number TABLES continued 60 Costs of Asbestos and Substitute Gasketing 61 Cost of Various Packings ....... 4.4654 e6-e we 62 Unique Properties of Chrysotile Asbestos ......... 222 63 Asbestos Uses in the Sealants Category . 224 64 National Manufacturers of Asbestos Sealant Products ... 227 65 Substitutes for Asbestos in Resistant Linings and Coatings 235 66 Costs of Fibrous Materials for Roofing Coatings Compared With Grade 7 Chrysotile . 6. 2. 6 2 1 ew ee we ees 240 66a Pulpex Versus Asbestos Prices 115 241 67 Costs of Substitutes in Resistant Linings and Coatings . . 241 68 Costs of Some Substitutes for Asbestos in Texture Paints 242 69 Primary Manufacturers of Phenolic Molding Compounds 70 Cost Comparison . 1. 1. 2 2 6 ee ew ew ew we ew we ew we wh th 71 Forms of Asbestos Textiles Used in Asbestos Products 72 . Asbestos Textile Grades ....... oe ew ee 250 259 267 267 73 Asbestos and Substitute Fiber Property Comparison for Textile Products . . 2. 6 6 6 ' ' ' 6 ' oe we ew ee hh hl hl 74 Characteristics of High Temperature Materials ..... 75 Manufacturers of Nonasbestos Textile Fibers ....... 75a Weavers and Fabricators of Textured and Other Fiber Glass Yarn Products . 2. 6 16 6 6 es 6 ee ee ee we ew we ew 274 276 278 279 75b 76 Composition of Glass Fiber Substitute ......... Production Volumes of Nonasbestos Textile Materials 281 282 77 Substitute Product Property Comparison . .....-...-. 78 Manufacture of Nonasbestos Textile Products ....... 283 285 ix Number TABLES continued 79 Cost in Comparison Between Asbestos Textiles . . 2... 6 1 1 6 Fibers and Substitutes 6 ee ew ee we th ww Used 80 81 Viscosifiers Used in Drilling Muds . Circulation Materials . 2. 2. 2. 6 1 es ee we ee 82 Cost Comparison of Drilling and Mud Viscosifiers . 83 Costs of Common Circulation Materials 84 Potential Substitute Products ...... +. + 85 Substitute Product Characteristics . ...... + ' ' 286 297 299 300 300 318 321 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many Technology Division personnel contributed to the preparation of this report We wish to acknowledge the assistance of Ronald Bell Gene Bergson Dave Cook Timothy Curtin Samuel Duletsky Thomas Henderson Robert McInnes E. Fred Mussler and Lester Pilcher The following U.S. EPA personnel reviewed the manuscript and provided technical guidance Richard Guimond Robert Liss and James Bulman xi SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION Asbestos is a generic term for a number of naturally occurring hydrated silicate minerals that when crushed or processed separate into flexible fibers made up of fibrils There are six common asbestos forms chrysotile or white asbestos anthophylite amosite crocidolite or blue asbestos actinolite Chrysotile asbestos is the form most commonly used since it asbestos is in ample supply It commercially consumed accounts for In addition about 95 percent to the different of all the forms of asbes- tos there are varying grades as well Chrysotile asbestos is graded accord- ing to the length of its raw fiber The fibers are distinguished by separation into eight groups numbered 1 through 8. Group 1 contains relatively long fibers up to 6 inches in length while successive groups contain progres- sively shorter fibers The length of the fiber as well as the form of the asbestos determine the specific properties of the asbestos and therefore the uses to which the fibers are put All forms of asbestos exhibit proper- ties which make them useful in the production of industrial commercial and consumer goods Specifically asbestos fibers are strong durable resilient chemically and thermally stable and resistant to heat corrosion rot vermin and chemicals This diversity of properties has led to the widespread use of asbestos in select produced consumer items Today an average United States resident could expect to find asbestos around his home in such products as floor tile house siding automobile brakes appliance insulation roof- ing sealants municipal water supply pipe sewer mains and fireproofing for the family wood stove In all approximately 1.6 kg 3.6 lbs of asbestos are used in the country annually 1980 for every man woman and child Asbestos use is typically reported by major product categories These categories and their relative asbestos consumption rates are as follows Product category Asbestos paper Friction products Asbestos pipe Asbestos sheet Floor tile Gaskets and packing Paints coatings and Sealants Plastics Textiles Miscellaneous Total Metric tons consumed 1980 90,020 90,020 43,700 144,000 7,900 36,080 12,300 10,900 1,500 1,900 10,400 358,700 Percent of U.S. consumption 25.1 12.2 40.2 2.2 10.1 3.4 3.0 0.4 0.5 2.9 100 Assumes 1980 U.S. population of 210 million 1 These data were extracted from the Bureau of Mines asbestos consumption figures for 1980.1 It should be noted that 1978 figures were 619,400 metric tons total,, consumption or a 42 percent decrease in asbestos consumed during this year period Individual product categories differ slightly from those reported by the Bureau of Mines For this report the paper category includes paper products thermal and electrical insulation and roofing felt In addition that portion of the flooring products asbestos consumption which is attributable to flooring felt approximately 60 percent has also been de- fined here as paper products These changes were made to consolidate the presentation and group together all products which are manufactured by conventional making equipment Public health concerns over excessive exposure to asbestos fibers and increasing regulation of the handling and use of raw asbestos have prompted manufacturers to seek substitutes for asbestos containing products These substitutes take the form of fiber replacement in the original asbestos product or a completely new asbestos alternative This report details the status of these substitutes A section of this report is dedicated to each major product category Each section considers both the asbestos product and the potential substitutes For both the substitute and the asbestos product the following items are addressed r) Special qualities required e Product composition e Uses and applications and Product manufacturing summary including a description of the manufacturing process plant locations and production volumes In addition each section lists e Methodology including search strategy and a summary of contacts ' Cost comparison asbestos and nonasbestos product fi Current trends Conclusion and ' References Substitutes are grouped into both fiber and product descriptions for each category Sections which discuss multiple containing products first address each product its manufacturing description and its substitutes independently The cost comparison information trends and conclusions for all products is kept apart and discussed at the end of the section 2 When available the cost data are reported in 1980 dollars These data should be used for comparison purposes only as actual costs are dependent upon a variety the major of locally influenced factors Every asbestos product substitutes that are efforht as been made to commercially available include How- ever due to constant changes in this area the list of substitutes for any section may not be exhaustive Nonetheless this report covers in detail the current status of asbestos product substitutes REFERENCES Clifton R. A. U.S. Bureau of Mines Mineral Industry Surveys in 1978. August 22 1979 and Clifton R. A. Preprint from the Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbook Asbestos p 4 Asbestos 1980 The Resilient Floor Covering Institute Comments on the Advanced Notice of Proposed Rulemaking on the Commercial and Industrial Use of Asbestos Fibers Submitted to the U.S. EPA Washington D.C. February 18 1980 SECTION 2 PAPER PRODUCTS INTRODUCTION Asbestos Paper Products are many of nine general categories listed in consumption rates and varied but may be defined in terms order of descending annual 1980 e Flooring felt e Roofing felt e Beater gaskets e Pipeline wrap e Millboard and rollboard e Specialty papers e Commercial papers e Electrical insulation e Beverage and pharmaceutical filters U.S. Bureau of Mines estimates indicate that as a whole asbestos paper products consumed 90,020 metric tons of asbestos in 1980. This represents 25 percent of all asbestos consumed in the United States for this year.1 Each category within the general paper products scope is covered separately in this section commercial papers include general insulation muffler paper and corrugated paper specialty papers covers cooling tower fill transmission paper chlorine electrolytic diaphragms and decorative laminates The only available estimate on relative asbestos use in the paper products category is presented in Table 1 Note the breakdown of descending annual consumption rates given on this page is derived from this table TABLE 1 ESTIMATED CURRENT ANNUAL CONSUMPTION OF ASBESTOS FIBER IN PAPER PRODUCTS : iat Fie aah. aes :: fives Category Metric tons consumed Percent of consumption Flooring felt Roofing felt Beater gaskets Pipeline wrap Millboard Electrical insulation Commercial paper General insulation Muffler paper Corrugated paper Specialty papers Cooling tower Transmission paper Chlorine electrolytic diaphragms Decorative laminates Beverage and pharmaceutical filters 40,500 29,700 8,100 5,040 2,700 360 1,170 --- 810 360 990 -- 30 45 33 9 5.6 3.0 0.4 1.3 NA 0.9 0.4 1.1 0.03 Total paper products 90,020 90,020 100 NA = Not available but considered small Total should be increased slightly to include subcategories without figures Based on data from a 1979 report Gordon & Riddle a 1976 A. D. Little report industry contact in 1979 and 1980 Bureau of Mines figures Assumptions include the postulation that the percentage breakdown for consumption remained approximately the same for 1980 This table has been revised from original 1979 format to agree with the noted downward trend in asbestos consumption In 1979 for example flooring felt accounted for 118,000 metric tons of asbestos roofing felt for 82,000 and total consumption for the paper products category rested at 260,000 metric tons One year later Bureau of Mines figures report total paper consumption at only 90,020 metric tons with flooring felt decreased to 40,500 mt and roofing to 29,700 mt This table carries the same percentages of use into 1980 as data on varied percentages does not currently exist However figures should be used accordingly Asbestos consumption appears to be declining a noted downturn in the U.S. economy as a whole slump which further reduces the need for asbestos competition from the expanding substitutes market for several reasons One is This has led to a building materials In addition cannot be ignored Within this section each individual category is broken down into e Asbestos product - Special qualities composition - Uses and applications - Manufacturing process name and number of manufacturers and production volumes e Substitute product - Methodology strategy and summary of contacts - Special qualities composition - Uses and applications - Manufacturing summary name and number of manufacturers and production volumes In addition an overall cost comparison presented at the end of the section current trends and conclusion are FLOORING FELT Asbestos Product Special Qualities-Asbestos is used in flooring important properties necessary in felts to flooring add dimensional stability and other such as high moisture rot and Figures arrived at by product mix of BOM figures by GCA heat resistance These qualities have allowed asbestos to successfully compete with previously successful flooring felt materials and jute such that asbestos has now largely replaced them as a backing material It should be understood that this category covers the asbestos paper product underlay felt which in the past was used extensively by itself as an for other flooring surfaces but now is used mostly in a combined form as flooring carrier to asbestos sheet flooring This sheet flooring | product is covered under the Floor Tile section of this report as substitutes to the floor tile and sheet products are similar Product Composition-- Asbestos flooring felts are composed of about 85 percent asbestos and 15 percent latex binder.3 The latex binder is normally a butadiene type although acrylic latexes have been used in the past Chrysotile asbestos is used with the shorter fibers grades 5 through 7 predominating These grades are normally obtained from Canada although limited quantities are available domestically The domestic grades are mostly used however to make asbestos floor tiles in which the asbestos fibers are used as a reinforcing agent for the vinyl and not as a backing see Floor Tile section Uses and Applications-Most asbestos flooring felt is sold commercially and is used in residential applications Due to its special qualities asbestos felt backing is used with vinyl sheet flooring as a general floor surfacing medium Asbestos backing is particularly useful in prolonging floor life when moisture from below the surface is a problem A small quantity of flooring felt is produced for use without vinyl coating 4 The rolls are made in smaller sizes than the rolls intended for vinyl coating This uncoated asbestos flooring felt is directly bonded with adhesives mopped on to the floor deck at the job site and the final flooring which may be vinyl tiles sheet vinyl or carpeting is applied on top of the felt This particular use of asbestos felt is normally associated with concrete bases where moisture exists The asbestos paper helps to transfer the water to the walls The use of asbestos flooring felt without a vinyl coating appears represents only a small fraction of its total that this use is becoming more popular 6 use However it Asbestos Product Manufacturing Summary-Manufacturing Asbestos flooring felt is formed on conventional papermaking machines with the end product in latex coated rolls The felt is then manufactured into a final consumer product by coating one side of the felt with a resilient vinyl type surfacing typically a plastisol or an organisol Plastisols are dispersions of homopolymers and vinyl acetate copoymers of vinyl chloride in conventional polyvinyl chloride plasticizers an organisol is a plastisol containinga volatile diluent that lowers viscosity These vinyl surfaces are applied to the asbestos felt by various extrusion coating laminating and spread coating methods The basic operations steps in coating asbestos flooring felt with vinyl include the following The base asbestos felt roll is unwound and fed continuously into the coating asbestos felt by the coaters machinery The vinyl this process may also surface include is placed onto the various printing techniques to enhance the appearance of the final flooring surface The vinyl plastisol which is surface applied can be colored by various additives or techniques coated felt is passed through a fusion oven because plastisols cannot air dry they require fusion temperatures of at least 121 for the copolymers and 149 for the homopolymers Most of the heat from the laminate is removed by chill rolls made of plated steel within which velocity water is circulated The sheet surface may be further decorated by various chemical or printing methods before or after cooling The vinyl sheet structure is then trimmed by razor score or shear cutting and wound into a roll which is sold to customers primarily in the construction and laying industry Name and number of manufacturers major producers of asbestos flooring felt are listed below Manufacturer Location Armstrong Cork Congoleum Industries Fulton New York Cedarhurst Maryland Armstrong Cork ships its product to their Lancaster Pennsylvania factory for vinyl coating The bulk of Congoleum's felt is sent to other Congoleum plants for coating although some is sold to a number of independent flooring companies Brown Company of Berlin New Hampshire made asbestos flooring felt in the past but terminated their production a few years ago GAF Corporation formerly manufactured asbestos flooring felt in Erie Pennsylvania but announced a commitment to end sales of asbestos paper products effective April 1 1980.8 This has been confirmed by April 1981 phone contact.9 Production Asbestos flooring felt is consume about 40,500 metric tons or approximately used in this product category each year placing it products in annual fiber consumption currently estimated to 45 percent of the asbestos topmost among paper Nicolet Industries plant at Norristown PA once manufactured asbestos flooring felt but is now closed New owners have bought out Nicolet and apparently working mainly on the production of no,, asbestosproducts such sheet packing millboard and monolithic products 7 are as From this phone contact it can be assumed that this means 1975-1976 Substitute Product Methodology-- Search Information about asbestos flooring felt was through both a literature search and phone contact with industry representatives obtained Summary of contacts following companies were contacted in the process of researching this section of the report Attempts were made to reach other industry representatives such as GAF Erie Pennsylvania and Glass Incorporated Moline Illinois but were unsuccessful e Mr. M. Schaum Congoleum Incorporated Cedarhurst Maryland August 1979 fi Mr. H. Davies Nicolet Industries Norristown Pennsylvania July 1979 r Mr. E. Morse Brown Company Berlin New Hampshire July 1979 Special Qualities-The advantage of asbestos vinyl as mentioned previously lies in its dimensional stability and moisture resistance Dimensional stability refers to the ability of the flooring to stretch and contract with temperature changes and settling of the floor deck The flooring should be able to withstand these conditions without cracking warping or otherwise deteriorating The recent development of backless vinyls is putting market pressure upon asbestos vinyl Backless sheet vinyl is actually a sheet flooring with a special vinyl backing this special backing has excellent elastic properties which allow the flooring to stretch and contract under the most severe applications Also this backless vinyl is easier and faster to install than asbestos vinyl It requires a minimum of adhesive deck bonding usually only around the edges and can be stapled into place cushioned backings formed by attaching a cellulose foam layer to sheet vinyl surfacing are also actively competing with asbestos backings Here again the backing has very good dimensional stability and moisture resitance Also produced is a flooring system sandwich consisting of a vinyl surface a foam cushion midsection and an elastic vinyl backing Backless vinyl and cushioned backings appear to be good commercially available alternatives to asbestos vinyl flooring Lextar reports that they have a very active program to felt in roll vinyl flooring and have designed a performance this purpose Information on the composition and potential product may be found in subsequent sections replace asbestos effective felt for cost of this 10 The choice between carpeting and wood floors is usually made by customer preference Linoleum is rarely used at this time there are no domestic producers of linoleum only importers Residential customers also have the option of buying the successful place and press vinyl tile squares instead of a system which may include asbestos vinyl An alternative such as organic floor backing has proven unacceptable where moisture is present and cannot be recommended for on or below grade use Product Composition-- Industry sources have begun research on other fibrous materials that could replace asbestos potential substitutes that have been studied include fiberglass cellulose Nomex and other polymeric fibers At present none of these have been found to be an acceptable substitute for asbestos and therefore there do not appear to be any commercially available substitutes for asbestos flooring vinyl at this time However Lextar of Wilmington flooring Delaware reports active research towards production of of their Pulpex fiber glass fiber fillers and binder resins.10 felt resins.10 composed Uses and Applications-As previously discussed asbestos substitute materials are used as flooring coverings replacing the need for asbestos felt backing in vinyl floors either by providing a complete covering in and of itself as in carpeting wood floors and vinyl tile squares place and press or by providing another type of backing as in cushioned backings and even backless sheet vinyl These floor coverings all display various properties which must be considered and weighed by the customer before final product selection Substitute Product Manufacturing Summary-Name and number of manufacturers to flooring felt include the various types of flooring systems commercially available Fiber substitutes are not a viable option at this time however companies such as Lextar a Hercules Company are performing extensive research in this area Such options as carpeting backless vinyl flooring foam cushioned vinyls wood asbestos floor tiles and linoleum all act as readily available substitutes to asbestos flooring felt The consumer choice between these products and asbestos for flooring rests on personal tastes availability ease and type of application cost etc. There are many different manufacturers of these competitive products Production volumes production volumes of each of the substitute products were not available at this time For widely used floor coverings such as carpeting and wood floors the production volumes are expected to be high In contrast production volumes of the newer replacement products are only sufficient for testing purposes at this date 11 ROOFING FELT Asbestos Product Special Qualities-Asbestos is used in roofing felts because of its dimensional stability and resistance to rot fire and heat Rot resistance is particularly important due to roofing felt's use on flat or nearly flat roofs with poor drainage Given the rapid heating and cooling of roof surfaces some cracking may occur allowing for water penetration particularly in damper climates or in areas where snow subject to periodic melting has accumulated on the rooftop Asbestos felt resists cracking perhaps better than any competing product Asbestos roofing is considered by many roofers to have an exceedingly long life Some contractors contacted estimated that it would last indefinitely.11,12 To date it has been in use for over 100 years with many individual applications lasting up to 40 years.13 Product composition-Asbestos roofing felts are composed principally of asbestos fibers 85 to 87 percent .3 Other materials such as wet and dry strength polymers kraft fibers fiberglass and mineral wool are also often used as fillers Sheets are saturated with coal tar or asphalt The paper is made in either single or multilayered grades and may have fiberglass filaments or wire strands embedded between paper layers for reinforcement Usually grade 6 or 7 chrysotile fiber imported from Canada is used in roofing felt Uses and Applications-Two types of built roofs are used on flat surfaces The most common system sometimes called a hot roof involves the application of several plys or layers of roofing felt alternating with asphalt or tar often with a top layer of gravel imbedded in the asphalt The layers used may be organic fiberglass or asbestos felts The second system is a cold roof not requiring the application of hot tar or asphalt Another newer system of roofing which has been marketed in the United States for only 3 to 4 years is a single membrane made of rubberized asphalt PVC or butyl rubber Gravel may be applied on the top surface as a ballast Asbestos roofing is primarily used for built roofing and as an under layer for other roofing products Roofing the top cover of building structures includes the roof deck insulation if any and the overall weather protection surface Asbestos roofing felts the orginal product line produced by H. W. Johns go back to the 1870s and In 1968 the American Society for Testing and Materials issued a recommendation for the use of asbestos felt on built roofs which helped asbestos felts penetrate the roofing market However the growth of asbestos roofing felts has tapered off and is expected to continue to decline due to competition from substitute materials 12 Built roofing is commonly prepared at the job site by cutting lengths from product rolls to the required sizes and shapes Built refers to the practice of layering paper lengths on top of each other while hot roofing tar is mopped between layers for adhesion and additional weather protection Built roofing if the roof deck roofing gravel is attached to the roof deck can accept nails There are surface surface and by adhesive tars or by nailing three basic types of built mineral surface.15 Gravel surface roofs and surface roofs are constructed similarly except in the final surfacing instead of the light mopping of asphalt used in surface roofs for gravel roofs a flood coat of hot asphalt is applied and covered with aggregate gravel which serves more for appearance than for actual protection In mineral surface roofs roofing paper is sealed with weather grade asphalt embedded with opaque noncombustible mineral granules resulting in a roof in a choice of colors In all built asbestos roofing saturated roofing felt is further coated with asphalt and tar during installation minimizing any potential fiber release during the roofing life cycle As an under layer for other roofing products asbestos roofing paper is attached to the roof deck again by tar adhesives or by nailing It is then covered by shingles cement sheets or other forms of common roofing Asbestos paper used as an underlayer is generally applied in commercial roofing rather than for residential use industrial and According to various industry sales persons at least 60 percent of asbestos roofing is applied during reroofing jobs while the remainder is applied to new construction In reroofing removal of the old roof is contingent upon several factors the type and condition of the old roof and customer perference Aggregate roofs such as gravel surface must normally be removed because they lack a smooth surface onto which the new roofing can be attached A badly damaged or warped roof must be removed for the same reasons and because of the possibility that the roof deck itself has been damaged and requires repair On roofing jobs where the new roof may be built over the old roof the customer may want the old roof removed to reduce roof weight Conversely the customer may not want the old roofing removed due to added costs of disposal Asbestos Product Manufacturing Summary-Manufacturing Roofing paper is a felted asbestos sheet manufactured with varying formulations on conventional papermaking machines then converted into roofing felt by saturation with asphalt or coal tar The felt is pulled through a bath of hot asphalt or coal tar until it is thoroughly saturated After saturation the paper passes over a series of hot rollers to set the asphalt or coal tar into the paper It may on occasion be coated with extra surface layers of asphalt The felt's thickness or grade and the amount of asphalt coating required depend upon the product's intended use After saturation and coating the paper passes over a series of cooling rollers that reduce the paper temperature and provide a smooth surface finish Paper given extra coats of asphalt must be treated to prevent adhesion between layers when the paper is rolled The felt is then dried rolled and packaged for marketing 13 Name and number of manufacturers are two major domestic manufacturers of asbestos roofing felt as seen in Table 2. and Manville also manufactured roofing felt but this been discontinued.9,17 Plants listed make base felt which In the past GAF product line has is later saturated with asphalt Saturation plants are not sites where the base felts are made manufacturers necessarily located at of base felts may have the a number of saturation plants TABLE 2. MANUFACTURERS OF ASBESTOS ROOFING FELT Manufacturer Celotex Corporation A subsidiary of Jim Walters Co. Lockland OH Linden NJ Manville * Corp. Nicolet Industries Ambler PA Production Production of asbestos roofing felt in 1980 was estimated at 29,700 metric tons or 33 percent of the asbestos paper market Table 3 gives estimated company production and market shares for 1975 Manville Corporation and GAF Corporation which together produced thirds of the asbestos roofing felt in 1975 will no longer produce asbestos paper products after 19808,16,18 19808,16,18 however as stated previously M will continue to saturate asbestos felt TABLE 3. ASBESTOS ROOFING COMPANY PRODUCTION AND MARKET SHARES 1975 Company Estimated production metric tons Market share percent Manville Corporation Celotex Corporation Nicolet Industries GAF Corporation 80,000 17,200 12,500 10,300 120,000 67 14 10 100 Manville does not produce asbestos roofing felt in the U.S it is produced in a Kinsey Falls Montreal M plant However M does saturate asbestos felts from Canada with asphalt at the following U.S. locations Manville NJ Waukeegan IL Pittsburg CA Los Angeles CA Savannah GA 14 Substitute Products Methodology-Search strategy methodology utilized to research substitutes for asbestos roofing felt consisted of both primary and secondary data collection In primary data collection major manufacturers distributors and roofing contractors dealing with organic fiberglass and single membrane roofing systems were contacted by phone Manufacturers were a primary source of technical data on roofing systems including the composition qualities and performance of roofing felts single materials historical trends market characteristics and material costs Roofing contractors within the Boston area were contacted to determine regional costs construction practices market demand and perceived health problems associated with various roofing felts A building distributor was called to check regional trends of demand for these products and to identify contractors using organic asbestos and fiberglass felts Summary of contacts following individuals were contacted by phone to obtain information for this section e Mr. Charles McLaughlin Estimator Card M. Roofing Somerville MA e Mr. Andy Noble Assistant Sales Manager Koppers Company Eastern Division W. Orange NJ e Mr. Greg Perkins 625 Products Marketing Manager Corning , Company Toledo OH e Representative Water Guidance Systems Brainford CT e Representative Carlisle Tire and Rubber Division of Carlisle Corporation Carlisle MA e Mr. Bob McIntyre Gates Engineering Company Wilmingon DE e Salesman Bradeo Supply Corporation Woburn MA e Mr. S. Mullincamp Research Director for Roofing Products Corning Company Granville OH e Sales Manager Asbestos Roofing Felts Manville Corporation Manville NJ e Estimator Gilbert and Becker Roofing Dorchester MA , e Estimator McGrath Roofing Company Dorchester MA e Dr. Philip Enterline University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh PA 15  Mr. A. Padavani Manville Corporation Denver CO e Mr. Jim Contorno Bird & Son Co. Chicago IL e Mr. Henry Molvt Koppers Company West Orange NJ e Ms. Jayne Porter Monier Company Orange CA e Mr. Henry Chess PPG Industries Pittsburgh PA Mrs. McKinney Reichold Chemical Co. Irwindale CA Special Qualities-Alternatives to asbestos roofing felt include organic felt fiberglass felt and a rubberized single membrane roofing system A installed built roof with an organic felt good insulation and proper expansion joints may last 20 years or more As single membrane systems are new to the market their durability is not yet assured Organic felts fiberglass felts and asbestos felts are all saturated with coal tar or asphalt before use Fiberglass felt is stronger more durable longer wearing and more heat resistant than organic felt but according to some because manufacturing the material is so new conversion will experience and applicator training 19 require both Single membrane roofing is applied to the roof deck cold an important attribute when city ordinances or other considerations prohibit hot tar Some central business districts have ordinances to prevent installation of built roofing due to the dangers associated with tar kettles At 343 to 399 the tar or asphalt mixture will burn and has in some cases exploded causing damage to property and pedestrians In these instances only the newest of the systems the single membrane system could be applied because it does not require hot tar or asphalt Manville produces the Glas Ply built roofing system a specially constructed three membrane with exceptional uniformity and natural venting characteristics The impregnated fiberglass ply felts meet the 200 psi at -18 tensile strength preliminary performance criteria recommended by the National Bureau of Standards It requires less mopping asphalt than other systems because more asphalt is impregnated during manufacturing The material is compatible with asbestos base felts and Manville Asbestile flashing system Uniform porosity allows deep penetration of asphalt leading to improved interply adhesio2n0 Product Composition-Organic felt is made machines and as with all primarily from roofing felts cellulose fibers on papermaking is saturated with coal tar or asphalt Fiberglass roofing felt is made of glass or refractory silicate mixed with binder The exact composition is not available There are three 16 basic manufacturing processes Corning invented the continuous filament process in 1964 blown process and The the other other processes employs a involve shorter fibers one uses a steam wet slurry process similar to the basic papermaking process Single membrane roofing is a laminate of a modified bitumen or rubber and plastic or PVC Typical is Koppers KMM System a mil layer laminate composed of a thick plastic core protected on each surface by a layer of modified bitumen and an outer film of polyethylene Such a membrane is loosely laid i.e. without layers of tar with a covering of loose gravel or with a base surface where protection from the elements is afforded by other means The edges of the membrane are sealed together through the application of heat essentially ironing them together or through the application of a cold adhesive Uses and Applications-Organic felts have been used in the United States in built roofing systems for 25 years Fiberglass roofing although invented more than 15 years ago has only recently has been accepted for widespread use The rubberized single membrane roofing system has been used in the United States for only 5 to 6 years but has been employed in Europe for 20 to 25 years Although in terms of strength and durability organic felt rates lowest of the three felts it is still the most widely used Of the small sample of roofing contractors contacted it was estimated that 80 to 90 percent of their built roofs utilized organic felts Four or five other roofing companies contacted used organic felts exclusively The primary reasons for this include the fact that organic felt is the lowest cost system and has been on the market longest Its qualities are well known Currently there are at least four companies manufacturing single membrane roofing systems 22-24 One of the chief advantages of this system as mentioned earlier is that it can be applied to the roof deck cold and thus avoids the need for hot tar or asphalt Due to the dangers associated with hot tar roofs in central business districts some cities have considered prohibiting the use of hot tar encouraging the use of cold membrane systems Tile roof becoming more common in the west and southwest can be installed when the roof surface is pitched but is unsuitable for flat built roofs Where tiles are used there is no need for any type of , underlay Substitute Product Manufacturing Summary-Name and number of manufacturers present the fiberglass roofing felt market is dominated by Corning Other companies such as PPG Industries and Reichold Chemical Company manufacture the basic fiberglass strand and sell this to the paper manufacturers Most of the producers of asbestos roofing felt have diversified to manufacture competing nonasbestos products along with their original output Both Manville and Celotex produce organic 17 felts with Manville being one of the biggest manufacturers Bird & Son of Chicago Illinois Koppers Company in West Orange New Jersey and CertainTeed Corporation also make organic roofing felts The three major companies produce both types of and consumer demand.25 felt products depending on market conditions Single membrane roofing is made by Carlisle Tire and Rubber Company a Division of Carlisle Corporation in Carlisle Massachusetts Water Guidance Systems a subsidiary of Plymouth Rubber Company in Brainford Connecticut Koppers Company Eastern Division West Orange New Jersey and Gates Engineering Company Wilmington Delaware Production Corning is the largest producer of the nation's fiberglass roofing felt When the company's organic felt sales are included it is responsible for a good portion of the total roofing felt market 26 Corning has presented a continuous filament Permaply product called 265 which was developed in 1964.21 Several other companies apparently imitate this product with their own BEATER GASKETS Asbestos Product This subsection considers beater gaskets so named because of the process used in their manufacture fibers and binders are added in the beaters of the papermaking process Other types of asbestos gaskets such as compressed sheet gaskets are not paper products and are discussed elsewhere in the Packing and Gaskets segment of this report Special Qualities-- Asbestos is used in beater gaskets because of its unique combination of qualities It is not only heat resistant resilient and strong but is also chemically inert which is important for many chemical applications Metal sheathed or jacketed gaskets take particular advantage of the resilience of asbestos characteristics No other material currently available possesses all of for beater gasket applications However Rogers these reports that there are several commerically viable substitutes for asbestos gasket papers available at the current time see the Substitutes section both through their company and the other companies listed in the Substitute Product Name and Number of Manufacturers section other comments to the Draft version of this report such as those from Victor Products Division of the Dana Corporation substantiate this finding Due to the competitive nature of this industry phone contact with Corning 11-17-81 indicated that the company prefers not to relate production volume percentages Therefore adjectives are used to describe production versus specific percentages Information from unpublished OSHA document on asbestos 18 Product Composition-- Beater gasket papers are composed of 60 to 80 percent asbestos fibers and 20 to 40 percent binders usually latex The latex polymer used determines the material's suitability for use in water aqueous solutions oils fuels or chemical environments Polymers used as binders in addition to latex include natural rubber and other elastomers various synthetic rubbers neoprene nitrile , Nearly all domestic beater gaskets are formulated with various grades of chrysotile asbestos although in the past small amounts of crocidolite asbestos were used on customer request since crocidolite is preferable to chrysotile in applications involving strong mineral acids and alkalis At present no domestic manufacturers report using crocidolite asbestos in gasket paper Uses and Applications-Gaskets are installed to obtain tight nonleaking connections in piping and other joints Asbestos gaskets are used mainly by the automotive industry in a variety of applications including heat gaskets carburetor gaskets manifold gaskets and oil and transmission gaskets In addition asbestos gaskets are widely used in other transportation applications such as trains airplanes and ships Further they are used in industrial and commercial equipment of all varieties including heat exchangers boilers furnaces and pipe connections The chemical industry uses asbestos gaskets extensively for piping reactors and equipment connections because of the high chemical inertness of asbestos Chrysotile gaskets are used when hostile environments require glass reactors and piping the gaskets are sometimes jacketed with a polytetrafluoroethylene teflon sheath A small number of crocidolite gaskets have been made in the past primarily for use in the chemical industry because crocidolite or blue asbestos is even more inert to certain chemicals than chrysotile Blue asbestos gasket paper has also been used as a layering material in sulfuric acid towers chrysotile asbestos is no longer believed to be used in this application Asbestos Product Manufacturing Summary-Manufacturing process gaskets are manufactured on papermaking machines as described previously and are considered paper products Beater gaskets are so named due to the fact that the binder is added during the beater process in the production stages Compressed sheet gaskets are covered in the Gaskets and Packings section of this report Beater asbestos gasket paper is usually produced in a sheet or a sheet roll that can vary in thickness from that of very thin paper to that of millboard The manufacturing process is similar to that of all asbestos paper products Gaskets fall into a product category along with insulation paper flooring carrier commercial and specialty papers and electrical insulation paper requiring no further processing after the original paper forming process other than cutting to size 19 While some manufacturing plants making beater gasket paper may convert this intermediate product into a final product most production is sold to fabricators who make the final gasket Gasket fabrication takes many forms cutting is normally the first step Here the gasket sheet is machine cut to customer specified sizes and dimensions However cut gaskets may be further processed by reinforcing the gasket with wire insertions or by sheathing the paper with various metals foils plastics or cloth Specific fabrication is of course dependent upon the final use Name and number of manufacturers manufacturers of beater gasket paper are listed in Table 4. Most gasket paper produced is sold to fabricators who make the final consumer product The 1978 edition of the Thomas Register lists almost 200 fabricators of asbestos gaskets but this includes fabricators working with compressed sheet gaskets in addition to those working with beater gaskets : TABLE 4 MANUFACTURERS OF ASBESTOS BEATER BASKET PAPER Armstrong Cork Fulton NY Hollingsworth & Vose E. Walpole MA Boise Cascade Beaver Falls NY Colonial Fiber Company Covington TN Nicolet Industries Manville Rogers Corp. Norristown PA Manville NJ 30+ Rogers CT * Manufacturers asbestos gasket paper but not the final product Some lines have been discontinued plans are to convert to nonasbestos in the near future Telecon April 1981 Production volumes asbestos fiber consumption in beater gasketing was approximately 9 percent of the paper total making it the third largest use of asbestos in the paper products group Only flooring felt and roofing felt use more asbestos Demand for asbestos gasket paper was expected to increase in the future but due to the downsizing of automotive engines there may be a downturn in the use of asbestos gasket paper rather than growth The annual growth rate through the 1970s was developed through technological change to asbestos paper gaskets from metallic gaskets This change technological is complete and cannot be counted on to bring about further growth 13,31 Although a recent study expects an upward trend to continue industry sources anticipate slightly lower growth assuming the market to be for asbestos free of competition gasket paper in the from late substitute 1970's was products one of the The growth rate highest of all asbestos products 20 Substitute Products Methodology-Search strategy search stategy used in compiling gasket information included a literature review and telephone contacts with several leading producers of substitute products Summary of contacts following companies were contacted by phone for this subsection e Mr. Bill Brunner Customer Service Manager Chicago Gasket Co. Chicago IL e Mr. Barry Reznic Applicatons Engineer Cotromics Corp. Brooklyn NY e Sales personnel Carborundum Corporation Niagara Falls NY Special Qualities-Alternatives to asbestos gaskets are made by the paper process with asbestos being replaced by some type of mineral filler and fiber and a high temperature organic fiber Three basic alternatives to asbestos beater gaskets exist ceramic paper teflon and metal products Silicone rubber is also a potential substitute as it is serviceable to 316 however its applications are limited because it cannot be used in the presence of certain oils and fluids It should also be noted that many facings may be made using the beater Fourdrinier process with other materials used in conjunction with this to produce a final gasket product which metal reinforced etc. may be found in the Gaskets and Packings section of this report Specifically this includes information on recent developments in this field by Victor Products a division of Dana Corporation Ceramic paper has the heat resistance of asbestos but is not particularly resilient and is deteriorated by 32 oil effectively eliminating it from possible use in automobile gaskets Ceramic paper does have good resistance to some chemicals and in some high temperature applications has even been shown to outlast asbestos paper as a layering paper in sulfuric acid production 33 Fiberfrax paper composed of ceramic fibers inert fillers bonding and organic asbestos gaskets 34 agents can be used as a direct substitute for some Teflon is not a resilient rubbery material as is asbestos rather it is plastic tending to deform and flow under loads Due to its nonsticking properties teflon is difficult to retain in joints so it is commonly used with an asbestos paper filler As with teflon metal limited applications Because cannot be substituted directly gaskets are not resilient but are usable in of the lack of resilience metal gaskets in most automotive applications Reports currently indicate that test results show asbestos materials work very adequately in asbestos gasket applications and compare favorably 21 with the asbestos product Alternative materials that are commercially reliable are being approved by OEM manufacturers and are equal in service life to asbestos beater 31 gaskets Product Composition-- The substitutes for asbestos gaskets discussed include ceramics teflon and metals Teflon material is used especially by the chemical industry The Teflon Envelope Gasket manufactured by the Chicago Gasket Company is composed of fluorocarbon resins.35 For metal gaskets a surface seal is accomplished by a ribbing in the metal surface which creates an airtight connection when sealed Ceramic papers such as those produced by Corporation are based on aluminum oxide 33 but exact formulas are Cotromics an industry secret Fiberfrax paper is composed of ceramic fiber inert fillers and organic bonding agents Rogers is reported to have offered the first nonasbestos gasket paper to the market in January 1979. This grade was NOBESTOS 7102 designed as a nonasbestos substitute for Rogers duroid 3102. In June 1979 a second grade was introduced NOBESTOS 7280 designed as a substitute for Rogers duroid 3280. At present Rogers has a total of ten grades of NOBESTOS gasket materials four of which 7101 7201 7301 7701 are designed_to designed_to replace compressed asbestos see also Gaskets and Packings section 27 Hollingsworth and Vose reports similar developments in the nonasbestos beater gasket field This company has developed and supplied a wide variety of nonasbestos beater papers to all of its gasket manufacturing customers In the Hollingsworth and Vose product asbestos is replaced with other materials which completely meet the physical requirements for gasket papers At this time Hollingsworth and Vose H & V is commerically producing a variety of gasket materials as asbestos substitutes along with exploration on applications of these products in other fields The U.S. Patent Office has recently granted a patent to H & V covering the technology used to produce these alternative products.36 products.36 Substitute Product Manufacturing Summary-- Name and number of manufacturers are several manufacturers of nonasbestos gaskets made from ceramic fiber papers teflon and metal Three prominent manufacturers of these products were contacted Cotromics Corporation of Brooklyn NY Carborundum Corporation of Niagara Falls NY and Chicago Gasket Company of Chicago IL The Cotromics Corporation product is called simply ceramic paper Carborundum's is called Fiberfrax and Chicago Gasket's is called Teflon Envelope Gasket In addition Rogers Corporation provided comments to this report along with information on their product Other reported producers of nonasbestos beater gaskets are Garlock Armstrong Nicolet Hollingsworth and Vose Manville.27 Also Victor Products Div of the Dana ; IL makes asbestos 37 gaskets and Corp. in Lisle Production Production voluems are thought to be small but increasing This will be subject to a greater increase as substitute products gain market hold Company representatives 33,35 were not willing to reveal present production volumes 22 PIPELINE WRAP Asbestos Product Special Qualities-Asbestos paper has been successful as pipeline wrap due to the ability of asbestos to resist soil chemicals rotting and decay while maintaining dimensional stability throughout its lifetime These qualities are very important for underground pipeline wrap as well as for the few times that asbestos pipe wrap may be applied above ground Product CompositionAsbestos pipe wrapping papers contain a minimum of 85 percent asbestos are commonly reinforced with parallel strands of fiberglass for strength and are saturated with either coal tar or asphalt They also may contain cellulose and starch binders Uses and applications-Asbestos pipe wrap protects underground pipelines from corrosion The wrapping paper is normally attached to the outside circumference of the pipe by machine winding On occasion it is attached via hand winding during special field fabrication of damage repairs The wrap can be attached or bonded to the pipe surface by special adhesive coatings or by hot enamels that are coated onto one side of the paper The coatings or enamels also aid in the corrosion protection of the pipe The oil and gas industry is the largest user of asbestos pipe wrap for their underground piping networks The chemical industry also uses pipe wrap in underground protection of hot water and steam piping conventional organic rot away quickly in this function ground applications are minimial piping in cooling towers is one such use Asbestos Product Manufacturing Summary-- Manufacturing Asbestos pipe wrap is manufactured in similar fashion to asbestos roofing paper For pipe wrap the felt is commonly reinforced with parallel strands of fiberglass and saturated with either coal tar or asphalt The final product is normally a roll containing less tar and coating than conventional asbestos roofing paper Pipe wrap is sold directly to pipeline construction companies such as Williams and Mapco and to pipe coating yards.3 Name and number of Manufacturers of asbestos pipe wrap and their plant locations are listed below Nicolet is reported to produce pipe wrap in much larger quantities than is Celotex Manufacturer Nicolet Industries Celotex Manville29 Location Amber PA Lockland OH Waukegan IL 23 Production Asbestos pipe wrap consumed 5.6 percent of asbestos fiber used in paper products in 1979 placing it between millboard and gasket use among the asbestos paper subcategories for that year Exact production volumes of individual manufacturers are not known Substitute Products Methodology-Search strategy contacts and were the two main approaches used to obtain an extensive information literature search Summary of contacts is a list of contacts made for this paper category e Mr. Tony Silva Manville Corporation Denver CO e Mr. Bentle New England Tape Company Hudson MA e Mr. Bob Smith Pyramid Plastics Incorporated Hope AR e Mr. Richard Dokmo Tapecoat Company Evanston IL e Mr. William Tinsley Kelly Company Houston TX e Mr. Terry Wright D. E. Stearns Company Houston TX e Mr. Chuck Lang H. C. Price Company Fairless Hills PA e Mr. Bill Power PolyKen Pipeline Coating Divison of Kendall Company Boston MA Special Qualities-Saturated fiberglass is becoming more and more competitive with asbestos in pipe protection because it has many of the characteristic advantages of asbestos A comparison of the pipeline protection of fiberglass and asbestos is very similar to the discussion of fiberglass roofing felt versus asbestos roofing felt Fiberglass is more dimensionally stable rot resistant and stronger than organic materials yet asbestos still enjoys slight advantages in these qualities Asbestos also has a better fire rating than fiberglass Fiberglass has the advantage of requiring less asphalt saturation than asbestos and given the escalating cost of petroleum products this may eventually mean a lower cost In addition to fiber replacement in pipeline wrap there are a variety of asbestos coating materials which are potential substitutes These coating materials which are discussed in Section 8 include e Enamels e Extruded polyethylene and polypropylene 24 e Fusion bonded thermosetting powder resins e Liquid epoxy and phenolics e Tapes e Wax coatings r) Polyurethane foam insulations e Concrete Several of these materials have been on the market for years while others have been introduced fairly recently Although wax coatings polyurethane foam insulations and concrete may be used only in special situations other coatings such as extruded plastics provide excellent moisture rot and chemical resistance as well as strength and therefore can be used in most general applications Another potential substitute in this area is Fibercoat by Textured Products Inc. which lists pipe coverings as a potential application in fact this company reports that they have had major indications for Fibercoat use in the duct and pipe installation industry 39 Information on this product may be found under Electrical Insulation Plastic tapes although not adapted for use as pipeline wrap to date display excellent moisture resistance However some can be attacked by various soil chemicals depending upon application Research in this area may be applicable in the future if the use of plastic in pipe wraps looks viable as an alternative plastic has been used in this area in the past Product Composition-Alternative systems include saturated extruded epoxys and resins More specific this time fiberglass plastic coatings and compositions are not available at Uses and Applications-- Saturated fiberglass is used for the same applications as asbestos pipe wrap Plastic tapes have been used in pipeline protection for more than 20 3 years although by themselves they would probably not be a total substitute for asbestos pipe papers because they can be attacked by various soil chemicals in some instances and can crack or warp in others Piping layered with an extruded coating of epoxy resin has only recently become commercially available It must be proven during actual use if potential users are to be convinced of its advertised properties Substitute Product Manufacturing Summary-Name and number of manufacturers to asbestos pipe wrap include saturated fiberglass extruded epoxy resins and possibly in the future a type of plastic tape wrap Plastic coatings are now available 25 Saturated fiberglass is made by Manville corporation which headquarters at Denver Colorado Pyramid Plastics Incorporated in Arkansas produces extruded epoxy resin coatings and the New England Tape Company makes plastic tapes but to date these are not applicable to pipeline use instead they are for coating smaller tubes and yarns It is believed that plastic tape coatings are available through other sources such as Polyken Pipeline Coating Company a Division of Kendall Company in Boston MA MILLBOARD AND ROLLBOARD Asbestos Product Special Qualities-- Due to the presence asbestos paper products of asbestos fibers in millboard it provides protection from fire heat like all and corrosion as well as similar resistance to a heavy to rot In cardboard structuarned texture Asbestos millboard can most millboard is be cut or drilled and nailed or screwed to a supporting structure Millboard varieties differ in their ability to withstand elevated temperatures millboard is good to 427 and high quality millboard is rated to 538 Above 566 even high quality millboard becomes brittle The chrysotile fibers used to impart resilience strength and heat resistance suffer of major loss of strength in the region of 302 to 496 It is rare that a continuous working temperature in excess of 566 can be withstood even in unstressed situations Differences between grades are due largely to the different fibers used longer higher quality fibers can resist higher temperatures Also high quality millboard uses a calcium silicate binder as opposed to the starch binder used in less expensive boards However premium grade millboards capable of withstanding higher temperatures attain increased thermal resistance at the expense of reduced strength As evidenced in numerous thermal insulation applications millboard has a long service life For example once installed behind or beneath a wood stove for heat and flame protection millboard is expected to last indefinitely Similarly in industrial uses such as linings for refractory brick in furnace floors long lasting thermal insulation is required so millboard is frequently used Rollboard differs from millboard in that it is thin enough to be rolled to its thickness It is usually sold in flat sheets.13 Both millboard and rollboard contain a starch binder Rollboard being thin is flexible but has a lower upper temperature limit of 177 Insulating board a high temperature resistant millboard manufactured with amosite rather than chrysotile fibers has better board integrity and Lower shrinkage when exposed to fire The boards are light weight acid resistant and easily machined 26 Product Composition-- Asbestos millboard is composed primarily of asbestos fibers asbestos 41,42 content typical 41,42 from 68 to 95 percent by weight with 70 percent considered Group 5 chrysotile fibers are preferred Binders which may be starches elastomers or silicates or less frequently glue cement and gypsum usually account for 3 to 25 percent by weight Mineral wool fiberglass and cellulose are commonly used as filler Insulating board is a similar paper product consisting of asbestos with a calcium silicate silica binder In this product amosite is used instead of chrysotile because it provides a higher degree of reinforcement at low board densities and has favorable drainage properties Uses and Applications-Asbestos millboard is resistant will stand up to many corrosive gases and liquids and is fire and temperature resistant This makes millboard particularly important as a lining in floors partitions ceilings and fire doors and as an insulating barrier in stoves ovens and heated appliances It has important uses in metal and chemical industries as well Table 5 illustrates industry applications each use is discussed in more detail in the paragraphs that follow Asbestos Product Manufacturing Summary- Manufacturing Millboard is considered an asbestos paper product because it is manufactured in essentially the same process as paper using a wet cylinder paper machine usually equipped with one or two cylinder screens conveying felts pressure rolls and a cylinder mold While paper produced on a cylinder machine is made as a continuous sheet millboard is not A cylinder rotating in a vat of slurry picks up a thin coating of fiber which is removed from the cylinder and drawn through a press for partial dewatering The sheet is wound continuously onto a cylinder mold a drum about 4 feet wide and usually about 4 feet in circumference The cylinder mold rotates collecting layers of fibers until the desired thickness is obtained The cylinder is then momentarily stopped as workers cut the built layer of material lengthwise removing one thick sheet of damp millboard Once the sheet is removed the cylinder starts rotating to build up another sheet The wet millboard containing about 50 percent water is dried or moved into an autoclave or oven for rapid curing to 6 percent wate4r1 Finished millboard usually contains 5 Millboard is produced in a standard size in the United States 42 ^ 48 inches and ranges in thickness from inch The most popular thicknesses are 4- and inch Thicker sheets are produced by laminating sheets together Rollboard is a lamination of two inch or thinner sheets millboard.29,43,44 Name and number of manufacturers Manville IL and Quin Corp. Tilton NH manufacture asbestos millboard.29,43,44 GAF discontinued production of asbestos paper and rollboard as of April 1 1980.8,18,45 Nicolet has closed their Norristown PA plant but may still manufacture millboard elsewhere.7,43 Asbestos millboard products are considered to be a mature or aging product group sales growth is expected to be slow to nonexistent.3 27 TABLE 5 INDUSTRIAL COMMERCIAL AND RESIDENTIAL USE OF ASBESTOS MILLBOARD AND INDIVIDUAL APPLICATIONS ere oe eee See aees 3.2 3.2 : ia Ste .7 - == Stay eee Ge ee eee User Individual application Industrial General Electrical Appliance Aluminum Marine shipyard aircraft Foundry Steel Metallurgical Ceramic In boilers as gaskets which may be metal reinforced as flame and heat barriers as slipplanes for furnace linings as rolls or discs to convey a material from one point in the manufacturing process to another Thermal protection in large circuit breakers proofing agent for commercial and home security boxes safes and files Pouring trough cover and trough liner Liner for container that catches hot metal from cutting operations Trough liner and iron trough cover Backup insulation for furnace lining Used between the hot mandrel and the bearing shell in molten babbitt operation Low mass kiln cars Glass Commercial As insulation in glass tank refiner sidewalls etc. crowns melter Metal doors Between outside metal and wood core Office partitions Soldering fixtures and soldering blocks Spark and glare shields in welding shops Fireproof wallboard Washers in electrical apparatus Linings for safes dry- cleaning machines incin- erators heater rooms Between metal sheets valued as a fireproofing and sound deadening material Very large potential market Garage paneling Residential Linings for home safes stoves heaters and electric switch boxes Tent shields Stove pipe rings Stove mats table pads Perfume rings for oil lamps Millboard is no longer used in toasters as element boards for wire insulation It has been replaced by reconstituted mica 28 Production volumes current level of asbestos millboard production is estimated to be about 3 percent of paper products asbestos use Research Triangle Institute has estimated annual tons 1360 metric 46 tons 1980 figures 1979 used use for millboard to total 1500 here indicate that this figure may be 2700 metric tons.1 Substitute Products Methodology-Search strategy on asbestos and substitute millboard were gathered through contacts with a number of companies that provided useful data on product specifications uses prices and market trends In addition secondary sources provided information on general product trends and substitute materials An extensive literature search was also conducted Summary of contacts following individuals and companies were contacted in the course of researching asbestos millboard e Mr. Carl Weber Market Manager Industrial Products Division Manville Sales Corp. Denver CO e Mr. Gary Morganson Customer Services Insulation Division Carborundum Corp. Niagara Falls NY e Ms. Carol Stein Sales Representative Pars Manufacturing Co. Ambler PA e Mr. Edmund Fenner Director Environmental Services Manville Corp. Denver CO c) Mr. William F. Kiser Marketing Manager Ceraform Products Manville Corp. Manville NJ e Mr. Peter Heckman Nicolet Ambler PA e Mr. Neil Newell Pyrotex Carlisle PA Special Qualities-- The principal substitutes for asbestos millboard and rollboard are fiberglass mineral wool and ceramic boards When considering the substitutes to asbestos millboard it should be kept in mind that direct comparisons are difficult since the substitute specifications do not always mesh exactly with the particular asbestos product specifications for a given use in terms of temperature resistance to corrosion etc they may instead not match up to the asbestos product or in some cases surpass the asbestos product For example even though Carborundum's Fiberfrax boards can be seen as an asbestos substitute in actuality they can outperform asbestos at temperatures above 538 and thus fill a need that asbestos cannot All of the Fiberfrax millboards named Duraboard GH Boards and Hot Board have low thermal shock and chemical corrosion GH Board and Duraboard can withstand continuous temperatures of 1260 without is good to C.47 shrinking Hot Board 29 Pars Manufacturing Company also makes a nonasbestos product called No. 9 millboard This is good to 850 which is comparable to asbestos millboard Industry respects sources have indicated to asbestos millboard that this product but more specific is comparable in many other data are not available 48 Manville Corp. produces a substitute to asbestos millboard named Ceraform 102 Board which has a continuous use limit of 1260 Other Ceraform boards are Types 103 126 130 141 and 143. In addition to the differences in the binder used the other products may be stronger than Type 102 or have other specialized characteristics that make them suitable for specific applications such as in molten metal containment.49 Ceraform board applications overlap with the uses of the asbestos millboard but also fulfill more diverse higher temperature uses for which asbestos millboard is not suitable Manville has designed a Ceraform type board that is suitable for temperatures up to 816 to 871 Ceraform 102 possesses low heat storage is corrosion resistant and has excellent thermal shock resistance much as the Carborundum Fiberfrax products Babcock and Wilcox manufacture a ceramic substitute for asbestos in millboard Kaowool For applications where thermal conditions are not severe enough to warrant ceramic products are available.50 fibers several types of mineral Ceramic board uses overlap with block those and slab of asbestos but may also be used in higher temperature range applications for which asbestos is unsuitable the Nicolet of Ambler name of Millboard PA is marketing two nonasbestos products both under Details on their qualities are not known 51 Pyrotex of Carlisle PA is also manufacturing asbestos millboard but details on this product were not available.52 Ceramic fiberboards mentioned here millboard in most gasket applications are deteriorated by oils cannot substitute for asbestos They are not resilient enough and also silicate boards made by Pars Manufacturing Company and Carborundum are available in thicknesses of up to 50 mm If purchased with a special high temperature silica binder these boards may be used successfully in applications such as process rollers for plate glass manufacture as a direct substitute for asbestos millboard Vermiculite may be a substitute in insulation boards as insulation and protection properties Usually it is combined to achiever greater structural integrity it has both with glass fiber Another possible replacement for areas such as duct insulation is Fibercoat by Textured Products described in Electrical Insulation 30 Janos Industrial Insulation Corporation calls its asbestos millboard replacement NuBoard It will not burn and is resistant to temperatures up to ' 982 depending upon application Victor Products Division of Dana Corporation markets a Mineral Board which when used with overlaps flanges and grommets to enclose the board is resistant to fluids as well as heat and pressure Typical applications include cylinder heads manifolds and other areas where pressure resistance is required.54 Product Composition-- The substitute product Fiberfrax by Carborundum is composed of silicate ceramic fiber and inorganic binders The Pars Manufacturing Company's nonasbestos No. 9 millboard is made of an alumina high temperature refractory material More specific on these products are not available data Manville's Ceraform 102 Board is similar to the other substitutes composed primarily of a refractor fiber consisting of silica and alumina with a small amount of organic material Ceraform boards are vacuum formed from a slurry of raw materials and dried to a predetermined hardness Organic materials present in the Type 102 board burn out at 260 but a more expensive board containing only inorganic binders and suitable for temperatures up to 816 to 871 is available for applications where this may present a problem The mineral board produced by Victor Products contains mostly inorganic materials with minimal organics present It is white in color Vermiculite encompasses a group of hydrated alumina silicates resembling mica in appearance Bulk material costs are low but costs rise after vermiculite undergoes exfoliation an expansion that occurs upon heating Exfoliated granules may be delaminated to form vermiculite plates for insulation boards or resistant glass fibers may be added in silica matrix to combine the insulation and fire protection properties of vermiculite with the structural integrity of glass fibers Perlite similar to vermiculite may also be used as a substitute for this application It is a naturally occuring noncrystalline silicate of volcanic origin Information on the composition of both the Pyrotex and the Nicolet products was not available to the writers at the time of issue of this report Uses and Applications-- ; Carborundum's Fiberfrax is used in a variety of ways to substitute for asbestos paper products including millboard rollboard commercial paper textiles and insulation fibers covered in other sections Various boards differ in density thicknesses hardness and strength uses of these products 31 vary according to the need is currently being used in applications for strength and hardness.55,56 Fiberfrax board place of asbestos millboard in the following e Thermal protection in large circuit breakers ' Fireproofing agent for commercial and home security boxes safes and files ' Molten aluminum pouring trough covers and liners e Liners for catching hot metals being cut in shipyards fi Trough covers and liners in the steel and foundry industries e Backup insulation for furnace linings Heat shields for personnel protection e Rigid temperature gaskets e temperature baffles and muffles C) Chimney and furnace linings e Hot gas duct linings e Expansion joint material Pars Manufacturing Company's No. 9 millboard has uses similar to asbestos millboard The Manville product Ceraform 102 Board is similar to Fiberfrax Typical applications include furnace and kiln linings and as backup insulation Special applications for the Pyrotex and Nicolet products are unknown at this time Substitute Product Manufacturing Summary- Name and number of manufacturers companies have developed substitutes for asbestos millboard and similar asbestos paper products Examples are ceramic fiberboards by Carborundum Company Kaowool by Babcock and Wilcox Manville and and ceramic Pars board with Manufacturing also have nonasbestos millboards The Manville product is trade named Ceraform 102 Board Nicolet has also developed nonasbestos millboard substitutes as well as the Pyrotex Company of Carlisle Pennsylvania In addiiton Janos Industrial Insulation Corp. of Moonachie NJ makes NuBoard as an asbestos millboard replacement and Victor Products Division of Data Corporation makes a mineral board replacement 32 Production Nonasbestos substitutes for asbestos millboard are being used in place of asbestos millboard in some applications As there are many individual uses each with individual requirements the current production volume of substitute products could not be quantified at this time although it is expected to grow SPECIALTY PAPERS Asbestos Product Special Qualities-There are six major classes of asbestos specialty papers e Cooling tower fill e Transmission paper Beverage and pharmaceutical filters e Electrolytic diaphragms e Decorative and industrial laminates e Metal linings These classes were chosen after extensive discussions with industry representatives although other types of specialty papers may be produced quantity of asbestos used in their manufacture is minimal the Asbestos is used in specialty papers primarily due to its chemical and heat resistant properties Asbestos is used in cooling tower fill for its heat and chemical resistance In applications where high heat resistance is necessary asbestos paper will continue to be used because of its proven durability and heat resistant qualities Extensive government testing at governmental facilities at Oak Ridge found asbestos fill Asbedek superior in performance to alternatives Asbestos is used in transmission papers for its excellent friction characteristics and oil resistance as during use the paper disks are normally coated with transmission oil Asbestos has been found to be durable in this application Covered separately in last Paper Products section 33 For beverage and pharmaceutical filters asbestos represents a mineral medium that does not degrade or otherwise affect liquid quality while acting as a suitable filter In the electrolytic diaphragm it provides strength and the appropriate properties needed for manufacturing this product In the electrolytic process cathode surfaces are generally lined with a layer of asbestos either in the form of paper or as deposited fibers.59 The asbestos maintains the caustic strength and minimizes the diffusional migration of hydroxyl ions All diaphragms gradually clog with residual impurities in the brine and particles of graphite from the anode and therefore days must be renewed at regular intervals approximately every 100 pressure industrial laminates are a significantly more durable form of the decorative product Asbestos is no longer being used in any significant quantity in making decorative laminates Asbestos paper was used to produce a speical retardant decorative laminate fire retardant laminates are used for interior surfacing and paneling in public buidings buses railcars and ships requiring a Class 1 resitant rating Decorative laminates are thin rigid sheet materials that have been resin saturated to press the layers together They are faced with decorative colors or patterns and characterized by showing resistance to damage from scuffing or scratching Industrial laminates are sheets produced from asbestos electrical paper fused at high temperatures Asbestos electrical paper is used here to allow for effective insulation and to protect the conductor from fire Asbestos is used in metal lining paper to provide resistance and strength Product Composition-The base for cooling chrysotile asbestos bound percent asbestos and 9 to fill MNA is composed of thermosetting resin 63 tower fill consists of a blend of two grades of with DuPont neoprene 10 percent binder latex the Baltimore content is 90 to 91 Air Coil asbestos a base asbestos paper saturated with melamine a Asbestos transmission paper is a bound product currently made with chrysotile asbestos Although it has been reported in a survey of consumers that this paper was made with crocidolite blue asbestos 64 it is currently believed to be made solely with chrysotile asbestos due to supply and health problems associated with crocidolite.65 Electrolytic diaphragms are made from mixing asbestos fibers and water to form a slurry Decorative laminates are produced by impregnating asbestos electrical paper with thermosetting resins and then fusing multiple layers together at high temperature and pressure They are made up of asbestos paper which contains asbestos and a phenolic or melamine resin and is formed in thin rigid sheets and then colored or patterned accordingly Industrial laminates consist basically of asbestos fibers combined to make electrical paper with thermosetting resins added 34 Metal lining paper is manufactured like commercial asbestos paper that the metal lining paper contains a higher percentage of binder and percentage of clay except a small Uses and Applications-The major use of asbestos fill in cooling towers is in applications where high heat resistance is necessary One such application is in gaseous diffusion as performed at the governmental facilities in Oak Ridge The Munters Corporation produces a fill Asbesdek used mainly in mechanical draft towers Automobiles equipped with automatic transmission get their drive metal transmission disks covered with a tough asbestos 64 paper from Four six and eight cylinder autos with power shift contain from 8 to 12 of these paper disks Asbestos beverage filter paper is used by beer wine and liquor distilling industries to remove microorganisms and fine solids from the medium Pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries use the paper as well liquid Asbestos is used as a diaphragm in production of chlorine via brine electrolysis Asbestos paper sheets were used in diaphragm cells through the 1930s and 1940s but now slurry 66 of water mixed almost all diaphragm cells with asbestos rather than made as a with asbestos use a paper The slurry is deposited onto a cathode pole and the diaphragm is built inside the electrolysis cell Decorative laminates can be bonded to plywood fiberboard or metals and can be sawed drilled or sanded with conventional woodworking equipment Decorative laminates appear generally in wall or ceiling paneling desk tops counter tops and worktable tops Asbestos is only one of many materials from which decorative laminates can be made the bulk of decorative laminates are made with kraft papers Industrial laminates are used for telephone switchboard construction television circuit boards and other electronic applications Tube and rod laminate can also be used as core or winding barriers for such equipment The sheets can also be stamped or fabricated into specialty spacers or washers Metal lining paper is used as sidings and culvert pipe Culvert and water treatment applications a corrosion liner for both metal pipe is in turn used for landfill drainage Asbestos Product Manufacturing Summary-Manufacturing process wet cooling tower dissipates heat from water by maximizing the water interface either with splash fill or with film fill Splash fill which can consist of asbestos paper polyvinyl or polypropylene plastics cellulose asbestos sheets aluminum or steel creates small liquid droplets which drip down onto another surface splash and reform.63 Film fill made of similar materials spreads the water over large areas in a thin film exposing it to the air 35 The Munters process for fill production impregnates fluted sheets of asbestos paper with about 20 percent of a saturant formulated on a chlorinated rubber base The fluted sheets are bonded together with neoprene latex to form packs with inch deep neoprene reinforced edges The maximum size of individual packs is 12 x 12 x 72 inches.63 The cooling tower fill made by Munters is trade named Asbesdek and looks like a stack of corrugated sheets Baltimore Air Coil manufactures asbestos fill MNA use mainly conditioned buildings machinery and computers The base asbestos is saturated with the thermosetting resin Melamine in paper . In transmission paper the base paper is saturated with phenolic resins to create a very hard and resilient product in a saturation process similar to that described for cooling tower fill The saturated and hardened paper product is then cut to the required size Beverage and pharmaceutical euqipment metal lining paper is discussed previously paper is made on conventional papermaking manufactured similarly to commercial paper Currently almost all commerical instead of the paper sheets mentioned asbestos diaphragm cells use a slurry previously The slurry is made by mixing fibers with water then vacuum depositing the slurry through a perforated plate onto the cathode pole Happ Hasker asbestos Plus Polymer diaphragms are basically the same but add a fluoropolymer resin to the slurry to help diaphragm bonding while reducing voltage load The use of paper sheets has diminished because the voltage load is significantly higher with paper as opposed to vacuum deposited slurry Decorative laminate sheet is formed by saturating successive layers of paper with either a phenolic or melamine resin The layers are then pressed and cured Industrial laminates are made by impregnating asbestos electrical paper with thermosetting resins and then fusing multiple layers together at high temperature and pressure Name and number of manufacturers are reported to be approximately 11 domestic manufacturers of asbestos specialty papers Munters Corporation of Fort Myers FL and Baltimore Air Coil of Baltimore MD are secondary manufacturers of cooling tower fill but the base asbestos paper stock is manufactured by Nicolet in Ambler PA and GAF Corporation in Erie PA A large amount of asbestos transmission paper is sold to the Moran Division of General Motors for fabrication Manville was to have discontinued manufacturing of specialty asbestos paper in April 1980.67,61980.867,68 Westinghouse's Decorative Micarty Division markets decorative laminates but reports that asbestos is no longer used in any significant quantity 61 The manufacturers of individual asbestos specialty products may be found in Table 6 In addition to the manufacturers listed Manville makes specialty papers in Manville NJ and Waukegan IL and Lydall Colonial Fiber produces them in Covington TN and Rochester NH M and Nicolet produce asbestos paper which is sent to secondary processors for further fabrication 36 TABLE 6 MANUFACTURERS OF ASBESTOS SPECIALTY PAPER Type of specialty paper Cooling tower fill Transmission paper Electrolytic diaphragms Decorative laminates Industrial laminates Metal lining paper Manufacturer Munters Corp. 69 Baltimore Air Coil MD NA Westinghouse - Decorative Micarty Div NA Jim Walter - Armco Steel Co. of Ohio Celotex Linden NJ and Lockland OH GAF H. H. Robertson Co. Erie PA NA = Not available Secondary Secondary processors ** No longer produced in any indicate that asbestos is location 70 significant quantity fact no longer used in this product reports at this The first company listed manufactures the base product to the second company which uses it to felt line and sells pipes this 37 Production volumes major use of asbestos fill has been in general cooling tower applications however the asbestos fill is becoming too expensive compared to readily available plastic fills and the volume of asbestos paper used for cooling tower fill is 58 decreasing It has been estimated that several thousand tons of asbestos annually to make cooling tower fill.3 used in cooling tower applications Currently fiber about were formerly consumed 810 metric tons are Other specialty paper products use much less asbestos In 1980 an estimated 360 metric tons of asbestos fiber were consumed in the production of automatic transmission paper updated from 1977 estimate referenced This figure was probably only 360 metric tons in 1980 see Table 1 As indicated decorative laminates made with asbestos are no longer produced in any significant volume The specialty grade of asbestos paper manufactured for use as a asbestos.71 diaphragm in electrolytic cells While no production volumes for uses this minor quantities of specialty item are available it is estimated that less than 990 metric tons of asbestos are used annually 1981 data About 0.54 kg of asbestos is electrolytic cell operations to produce 0.9 metric Annual production of chlorine is on the order of 9 consumed during tons of chlorine.59 million metric tons and process percent about 70 73 of the American chlorine is produced by the diaphragm cell indicating that approximately 38 thousand metric tons of asbestos were estimated to be consumed annually in electrolytic cells 1977 Almost all of this asbestos is in the form of slurry not paper In sum with estimated tower fill consumption of about 810 metric tons transmission paper use of 360 metric tons electrolytic diaphragms requiring approximately 990 metric tons decorative laminates and other miscellaneous categories with no available figures but considered small by industry sources the most recent estimate of total consumption of specialty papers would be about 2106 metric tons annually.1 Substitute Product Methodology-Search strategy combination of a literature review survey of industry representatives was used to gather data specialty papers and their potential substitutes and a telephone on asbestos Summary of contacts-- e Mr. J. Skold Munters Corp. Fort Myers FL August 1979 Mr. M. Lai Hooker Chemical Co. Niagara Falls NY August 1979 @ Mr. B. Pedersen Sales E.I. DuPont de Nemours Co. Wilmington DE March 1980 e Mr. D. Cannady Decorative Mircarty Division Manager Westinghouse Corporation Hampton SC August 1979 38 e Mr. J. F. Reis Manville Corporation Denver CO r Mr. E. M. Fenner Manville Corporation Denver CO July 1979 e H. H. Roberston Co. sales personnel Special Qualities of Substitutes for Product-- specialty papers include Specialty paper cooling tower fill Substitute product polyvinyl cellulose aluminum steel and polypropylene plastics transmission paper beverage and pharmaceutical filters electrolytic diaphragms none but research and development currently underway in this area cellulose and glass fibers section for detail see next Nafion PTFE membrane cell laminates chemically treated papers glass and ceramic papers kraft papers metal linings paper Veriscore Asbestos sheet use as cooling tower fill is rapidly decreasing due to its potential for wear and fiber release under extreme conditions A wide variety of substitute materials are currently available for cooling tower fill polyvinyl including steel 58,63 and polypropylene plastics cellulose aluminum and Metal substitutes are more durable fire resistant metal laminates are economical and are now on the marketplace Fill substitutes must be chemical resistant as well as flame resistant Tests have shown it to be difficult to find a material capable of substituting for asbestos in diaphragms for brine electrolysis which can perform as well At present an asbestos diaphragm has a useful life of 6 or 7 74 years Electrolytic diaphragm substitutes have been tested by Hooker Chemical in Tacoma Washington and by Diamond Shamrock Chemical in Muscle Shoals Alabama 75 and show the new membrane cell to have a number of advantages over the asbestos diaphragm It produces a stronger caustic solution reducing evaporation required to make a concentrate lowers the salt content of the caustic and the chlorine produced contains no hydrogen impurities However the membrane cell developed by DuPont is not as efficient electrically as asbestos diaphragms This ion exchange method has 39 shown less energy efficiency than the percolating diaphragm method used in the past For example Hooker's electrolytic cell with membrane consumes 3110 metric ton of chlorine produced compared with 2780 metric ton for asbestos Membrane materials are not interchangeable with asbestos diaphragms Such modification would be feasible only when a new plant is being built or an entire plant is being reworked Similarly mercury cells which eliminate asbestos diaphragms entirely are available but are not interchangeable with existing electrolytic diaphragm cells About 0.5 percent of chlorine is thought to be produced by ion exchange and 19.5 percent by a mercury method Product Composition-For most applications any of the materials mentioned for cooling tower fill substitutes are adequate An alternative to asbestos electrolytic diaphragms is DuPont's Nafion membrane mentioned previously It consists of a film of perfluorosulfonic acid resin copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene and another monomer to which negative sulfonic acid groups are attached Promising results have also been obtained with a layer diaphragm polypropylene PTFE This cell has a resistance inside the electrolysis cell which is comparable to that of asbestos Tests carried out over a period of 1100 hours did not show significant deterioration As for metal linings H. H. Robertson Co. has produced Veriscore which is manufactured in the same manner as their Galbestos siding which contains asbestos paper except that the asbestos paper lining is replaced with a 3 mil thick layer of epoxy resin Various types of specially painted sheets can also be used as a siding substitute for Galbestos Economical resistant laminates that use chemically treated papers as a laminated substrate and laminating resins containing retardant chemicals are available Also glass and ceramic paper substrates are used when the extra cost is acceptable For decorative laminates asbestos papers have been replaced by Kraft papers The fiber size distribution of specialty paper substitutes varies from product to product Most substitutes mentioned such as the Nafion membrane aluminum tower fill and glass paper substrates do not contain fibers Specific fiber sizes for substitutes containing fibers were not available Uses and Applications-Nonasbestos cooling tower fill is a direct substitute of the asbestos product New diaphragm products substitute for asbestos products and supply some advantages such as a stronger caustic solution for producing concentrate to offset the disadvantage of higher energy costs Metal lining substitute products enjoy uses similar to their asbestos counterparts as do decorative laminates No substitutes for asbestos transmission paper appear to be available 40 Substitute Product Manufacturing Summary-Name and number of manufacturers manufacturers of nonasbestos substitutes are listed in Table 7. An alternative to asbestos diaphragms in eletrolytic cells is a membrane cell formed from DuPont's Nafion membrane which has been developed and demonstrated by Hooker Chemical Company TABLE 7. MANUFACTURERS OF NONASBESTOS SPECIALTY PAPERS Asbestos product diaphragm metal lining paper Substitute membrane cell- ' Nafion Versicore Manufacturer DuPont de Nemours & Co./ Hooker Chemical Co. H. H. Robertson Co. The H. H. Robertson Company has developed and markets Veriscore as a substitute for their containing Galbestos sheet siding Data on manufacturers of nonasbestos transmission paper and cooling fills are not available Production volume information is available on the production volumes of substitute products for specialty paper COMMERCIAL PAPERS Included under this heading are the following types of products ' general insulation paper e muffler paper e corrugated paper Only small amounts of asbestos muffler paper are now thought to be produced and asbestos corrugated paper is no longer believed to be manufactured Asbestos Product Special Qualities-- Asbestos is used in commercial papers because and corrosion It provides commercial papers with needed for numerous applications of its resistance to fire the strength and durability Commercial asbestos paper exhibits fine durability properties allowing it to meet Federal Specifications requirements For example commercial grade 41 paper is good for temperatures up to 316 or 427 where loss of strength is not critical Nonburn paper is suitable for continuous service at temperatures of 316 and doublex asbestos paper has high wet strength and a slightly elevated temperature limit of 427 or 649 where some embrittlement and loss of strength is not critical Nearly all of the current production of commercial asbestos paper falls into the subclass of general insulation papers include Types of insulation available e Commercial Grades A medium length fiber paper with minimum 95 percent fiber content Available in 10 12 16 32 and 64 100 sq ft weights in widths of 18 36 and 72 inches in 25 50 and 100 lb rolls Suitable for most general purposes in industry Good for temperatures up to 316 or 427 where loss of strength is not critical Meets Federal Specification 1784 e Nonburn Paper A medium length fiber paper with high fiber content Available in a weight of 4 100 sq.ft. 36 inches wide in 50 and 100 lb rolls Suitable for continuous service at temperatures of 316 ' Long Fiber Paper Made with a grade long asbestos fiber minimum fiber content 98 percent on 6 lb and heavier papers For use as a thermal insulation gasketing and base sheet for saturating ' Doublex Asbestos Paper Completely inorganic will not burn char or smoke Has high wet strength Available in a weight of 10 100 sq ft 36 inches wide in 50 or 100 lb rolls Developed for use as a neon sign pattern paper Also used as liner for foundry funnels and pouring gates Temperature limit 427 or 649 where some embrittlement and loss of strength is not critical Product Composition-The commercial asbestos paper category encompasses a broad range papers that differ primarily in weight and thickness The product is composed of 95 to 98 weight percent asbestos fiber and 2 to 5 percent binder.3 Short and medium grades of chrysotile are used of normally starch Muffler paper a small percentage indented contains a very high percentage of asbestos fiber and only of starch binder The surface of the product is waffled or Corrugated asbestos paper is a commercial paper product corrugated and cemented to a flat paper backing sometimes laminated with aluminum foil Corrugated paper is manufactured with a high chrysotile asbestos content and a starch binder 42 Uses and Applications-- The principal use of commercial asbestos paper is to provide maximum insulation against fire heat and corrosion with minimum product thickness Commercial papers fall into three subclasses based on use 1 general insulation papers 2 muffler paper and 3 corrugated paper General asbestos insulation papers have the following major uses in steel and aluminum factories e Thermal insulation in annealing furnaces e Trough lining for smelting process e Refractory lining e Expansion joints between brick layers of furnace e Backing insulation e Insulation to catch molten metal drippings and hot metal In foundries asbestos paper is used as mold liners as refractory liners and as expansion joint material on induction coil heaters In the ceramic industry commercial paper is used for kiln insulation linings and as a separator for hot and cold flat glass sheets GAF Corporation makes a grade of commercial paper that is laminated to fireproofing Manville sells commerical steel paper decks for to a large electric parts and appliance manufacturer for electrical insulation not requiring the high purity of asbestos electrical insulation Commercial paper is used for dielectric and thermal protection of transformers for fluorescent tubes and in mercury vapor lamp housings Muffler paper is used by the automotive industry primarily in the construction of catalytic converters for exhaust emission control systems The paper is applied as a wrap between the inner and outer skins of the converter or muffler for two reasons First it maintains the high temperatures required for pollution control within the converter reaction chamber second it insulates the outer skin preventing it from becoming too paper hot In a less common application muffler between the muffler and the automobile body is used as a heat shield Corrugated asbestos paper is used as a thermal insulator for pipe coverings block insulation and specialty panelings Applications of corrugated asbestos paper include appliance insulation up to 149 water and pressure steam pipe insulation process line insulation such as paneling in elevators 5,71,78 insulation and panel It should be noted that a large portion of the commercial paper produced is sold to distributors and converters who in turn sell to their 43 customers Thus due to the large number of people involved in and conversion process it is nearly impossible to identify all specific end uses which might arise the production of the Asbestos Product Manufacturing Summary-Manufacturing process asbestos insulation and muffler paper are manufactured on conventional papermaking machines producing sheet rolls or tapes as end products The manufacturing operation for corrugated paper also employs conventional papermaking equipment but adds a corrugation machine to produce the desired corrugated molding of the paper suface Name and number of manufacturers paper is manufactured in the United States by Nicolet Ambler and Norristown PA and Celotex Lockland OH and Linden NJ GAF and Manville were due to discontinue the manufacture of commercial paper in 1980.8,18 Commercial asbestos paper is normally sold by the manufacturer to independent distributors converters and some original equipment manufacturers There are about 300 distributors and converter companies in the U.S.3 Two of the larger distributor are Grant Wilson Chicago IL and Janos Industrial and Insulation Moonachie NJ Original equipment manufacturers include General Electric Ford and Caloric.79 present Muffler paper is made by Celotex in Lockland OH At quantities are being manufactured primarily for export 5,71 only small Corrugated paper was formerly produced by Manville Corporation and Nicolet Industries but is not being manufactured at present apparently due to the availability of reasonably priced substitutes and customer desires to avoid products containing asbestos Production volumes noted above it is is no longer produced 5,71 and asbestos muffler small amounts believed paper is that only corrugated paper produced in In 1975 paper making 3500 tons of asbestos were used to manufacture it the fastest growing segment of the asbestos asbestos muffler paper industry at that time It is also estimated corrugated asbestos paper declined to 2500 tons that about 3500 tons of asbestos went 3 By 1977 corrugated asbestos paper demand Presently the entire category of general into had commercial insulation papers are believed to consume 1170 tons annually available individual muffler and but production volumes corrugated paper production are believed to be minimal figures are not Substitute Products Methodology-Search Information on asbestos commercial papers was gained both from contact with industry representatives and literature review 44 Summary of contacts-- e Mr. E. Cavicchio GAF Corporation Erie PA August 1979 Mr. B. Reznick Cotronics Corporation Brooklyn NY March 1980 e Representative Manville Corporation Denver CO March 1980 r) Representative Celotex Corporation Linden NJ March 1980 Special Qualities-- Substitutes which may be used in place of asbestos commercial paper include ceramic cellulose and fiberglass products Applications vary and those products demonstrating high temperature resistance appear to lack the ability to couple this with sustained strength Ceramic paper can be used at higher temperatures than of 1260 At 1760 it asbestos it will melt.81 can withstand a continuous temperature However it has not been proven to be as strong or resilient as asbestos paper Cellulose and fiberglass papers generally lack the heat resistance and dimensional stability required for heat and flame resistance A Manville product called Cerafiber may be used for general insulating and flameproofing applications to 1316 These density papers do not store heat and thus may be heated or cooled almost instantaneously In addition they possess unusually low thermal conductivitiy can be safely cycled from cryogenic temperatures to their highest operating temperature and offer outstanding tensile strength flexibility and resiliency bent or wrapped 82 They can be easily die rolled folded In addition Fibercoat by Textured Products Inc. is suggested as a possible alternative for some commercial papers including aircraft engine exhaust system wrap and furnace linings.39 Detailed information on Fibercoat may be found in the secton titled Electrical Insulation Product Composition-- Substitutes may be made from ceramics cellulose or fiberglass Cotronics ceramic paper is made from high purity refractory fiber8s1 Despite the widespread public belief that ceramic products are hard and brittle these ceramic papers can be cut with scissors folded wrapped rolled and formed into free standing shapes The M product is also made from pure depending refractory fibers the binder upon the type of 82 paper content varies from 5-6 percent Uses and Applications-- Commercial asbestos paper is heat and flame applications For could be substituted for asbestos primarily used as a general insulation for many of these applications ceramic paper paper but the cost would be greater 45 Specifically ceramic paper can be substituted for asbestos papers in the following applications 56,83 1 liners covers and insulation for the aluminum and steel industry 2 molds liners and insulation in foundries 3 similar applications in the glass making industry 4 fire protection barriers and 5 welding insulation Domestically ceramic paper has already replaced asbestos paper in mufflers and catalytic converters It is being used in kiln and furnace construction high temperature filters lab ovens arcing prevention high temperature gaskets instant crucibles acoustical insulation inside mufflers expansion joints casting alloys lamphouse insulation and chromatography Glass ceramic chemical electrical metal optics welding and instrumentation applications have all been developed.50 Ceramic materials display advantages over asbestos commercial papers primarily an ability to withstand a greater temperature range and a lack of any identified negative health effects Yet they also have disadvantages including greater cost and second less dimensional stability Substitute Product Manufacturing Summary- Name and number of manufacturers present the only commercially available alternatives to commercial asbestos paper are ceramic mineral fiber papers and glass papers The ceramic papers are marketed by such companies as Carborundum Corporation Niagara Falls NY Cotronics Corporation Brooklyn NY in and Manville Denver 24 in and 36 in 28 CO The M product comes in rolls of 12 Production volume exact production for asbestos commercial paper is not known paper paper has already replaced asbestos converter applications domestically in 5,7,8 volume of products substituting However it is known that ceramic many muffler and catalytic ELECTRICAL INSULATION Asbestos Product Special Qualities-Asbestos is used in electrical paper insulation because of its high thermal and electrical resistance which permits the paper to act effectively as an insulator and protects the conductor from fire However despite the special properties of asbestos utilized in electrical insulation it appears that substitutes are now available which retain these properties while reducing the associated risk of asbestos fiber exposure to employees Product Composition-- The composition of absestos electrical insulation paper varies with the intended application but generally contains chrysotile asbestos fibers and cellulose bound with latex polymers Small amounts of amosite and tremolite are also used occasionally Quin high purity asbestos paper uses chrysotile impurities fibers trace obtained from Manville elements .71 chemically treated to remove 46 Electrical insulation is frequently impregnated with solid resins to increase dielectric strength improve mechanical propertiaensd provide proofing characteristics offsetting the hygroscopic property of asbestos fiber Depending upon the expected temperature of service bonded papers or boards may epoxy or silicone resins Glass use phenol formaldehyde polyvinyl acetal or other fibers may also be present 50 Uses and Applications- Asbestos is widely used in the electrical industry in the form of paper tape cloth and board It may be applied as a felted material or as a filter for natural and synthetic insulating resins The largest use of asbestos electrical paper is as insulation for dry and cross insulation.84,85 insulation.84,85 Asbestos transformers for layer paper tapes are used as insulation a general wire wrap as turn insulation for various industrial equipment and to a much lesser extent in appliances Electrical equipment subjected continuously to high temperatures is the most typical use of asbestos paper insulation For example electrolifting magnets used in steel mills to pick up and move billets have asbestos paper as turn insulation and steel mill drive motors have asbestos insulation Asbestos materials are not suited for voltage insulation nor for frequency insulation due to a high dielectric loss even when dry Therefore their main electrical use is temperature situations and for confinement of arcs in voltage high Appliances that use asbestos papers for wire insulation include stoves and toasters The extent to which asbestos paper is currently used for these applications is not clear but use has dropped significantly due to asbestos concern from manufacturers and the availability of substitutes For example toaster boards made with asbestos in the past are currently being made with board or some other substitute material Asbestos paper is used in grade A industrial laminate for voltage applications such as household current.86 Other uses include voltage transformers armature slot wedges furnace parts and equipment.48 equipment.48 Industrial laminates generally refer to insulating materials produced by impregnating fibrous domestic heating a class of electrical webs of materials with thermosetting resins and then fusing multiple layers together under high temperature and pressure Asbestos paper is only one of many materials used to make these laminates other materials include cellulose paper cotton 87,88 nylon and glass Grade A paper currently has only limited applications for thermoset resin products The sheets may be stamped or fabricated into specialty spacers and washers used in small appliances for electrical and thermal insulation where temperatures are too high for cellulose based laminates Asbestos Product Manufacturing Summary-Manufacturing Asbestos electrical insulation paper is formed on conventional papermaking machines The paper products include rolls tapes tubes or sheets all of various thicknesses and various sizes Electrical papers are sold to fabricators in the electrical and electronics industries who sanaan the paper with resin to produce an industrial laminate 47 Name and number of manufacturers paper for electrical insulation is currently manufactured by the Quin Corporation Tilton formerly owned and operated by Manville Nicolet Industries NH Norristown PA and Hamilton OH no longer produces asbestos electrical paper The Norristown PA plant has closed Production Electrical insulation accounts for approximately 0.4 percent of the asbestos consumed in the paper products category annually placing it sixth in asbestos consumption behind flooring felt roofing felt gaskets pipeline wrap and millboard Estimated consumption in 1980 for this category is 360 metric tons Substitute Products Methodology-Search Strategy a literature review substitute manufacturers were used to discover and telephone interviews with more about asbestos electrical insulation and available or potential replacement products Summary of contacts following companies were contacted in researching this topic Mr. J. Hayman DuPont Wilmington DE July 1979 e Sales Secretary Carborundum Corporation Niagara Falls NY September 1979 r Mr. N. Highes Quin Corporation Tilton NH July 1979 ' Mr. R. Wilmore National Electrical Manufacturing Association NEMA Washington DC August 1979 e Mr. W. Lair NVF Company Yorklyn DE August 1979 e Mr. L. Heid Manning Paper Company Green Island NY March 1980 and Mr. S. Wong July 1979 e Mr. S. Delheim Crane and Co. Inc. Dalton MA March 1980 ' Mr. B. Hardy DuPont Wilmington DE September 1979 r) Mr. A. W. McGowen Masonite Corporation Laurel MI February 1980 Special Qualities-Substitute products presently available include DuPont's Nomex paper Carborundum Corporation's ceramic Fiberfrax paper Manning Paper's Manniglass and Masonite's Benelex 402. in addition a product called Fibercoat is produced by Textured Products Inc. and as its main use currently appears to be in this category it will be discussed here 48 Nomex papers have qualities of thermal stability flame resistance and electrical properties that allow it to compete directly with asbestos paper Underwriters Laboratories UL recognizes Nomex paper as suitable for continuous use at temperatures up to 204 it can also be used for short durations at much higher temperatures 84 Other polymeric materials used as cable coatings may be suitable for temperatures as high as 260 and can withstand soldering temperatures for short time intervals Fiberfrax 110 ceramic paper exhibits good dielectric strength is somewhat stiff and can be cut and handled easily Ceramic fiber cloth excellent temperature resistance operating well up to 524 has Glass fabrics like Manniglass are not affected by temperatures up to 204 At 343 however their strength is halved Glass fabrics wrapped tightly onto wire and treated with resins are more vulnerable to abrasion than most other wire coverings and are not suited for applications involving severe flexing Benelux 402 is a mechanical grade able to withstand abrasive action acidic conditions and steam cleaning 89 It weighs half as much as aluminum and sixth as much as steel It also holds precise dimensions despite temperature and humidity fluctuations Special qualities of Fibercoat a knitted glass product include its ability to fuse with ceramic coatings applied for industrial uses becoming a dense true ceramic at 1093 2000 or greater with no combustion toxic fumes or gases It can also be coated with abrasion resistant materials such as urethane while still retaining fire retardant and insulating properties Fibercoat can be produced in an essentially dimensionally stable configuration or with a built stretchability of as much as 5 percent This stretchability is vital for important uses such as wrapping of pipe and electrical cables Fibercoat can be made considerably more flexible than typical asbestos weaves Insulating factors of Fibercoat vary with the type of knit and the thickness of the inorganic coatings they are however reported to be comparable or superior to asbestos of similar thickness and cost Fibercoat like asbestos will resist flame temperatures of 1093 2000 or more and its inorganic binder is not affected by organic solvents most acids or water In addition Fibercoat can be tailored to withstand a temperature of 2200 4000 or higher at a higher cost One example of this is to knit Kevlar then coat with a alumina ceramic mix Fibercoat maintains its heat insulating ability after prolonged exposure to flame in the 1200 2200 range where after 3-5 minutes of exposure it changes to a ceramic as described and maintains this structural integrity indefinitely Even if the fire is brought under control with water foam or Halon gas the strong but now brittle Fibercoat wrapping protects and insulates the cable There is no afterburn with Fibercoat and no propagation of flame by the material Glass loses some strength at 315-430 600-800 49 Other specific properties of Fibercoat include the fact that it does not absorb water either before it does pass water vapor in or after exposure to high temperatures although small amounts in most applications For toxicity no material used in Fibercoat is considered highly toxic The component remain tightly bound together in use Cleanup after a fire is facilitated by the coating's tendency to pull cleanly away in dry chunks Tensile strength is reported to be fundamentally the same as the glass fiber from which it is knit which is superior to asbestos Fibercoat can be laminated to some substances including ceramic cores Hydrofluorous and phosphoric acid and concentrated alkalis are the only substances Fibercoat will not resist It does resist oxidation and reduction and all common organic solvents dielectric strength is similar to asbestos in 220V applications Its and is thought to be similar at much higher voltages but has not yet been tested Abrasion resistance is similar to asbestos weaves and paper but it may not be used in highly resistant applications such as automotive brake linings Another potential substitute is wet ground mica which meets Standard Specifications 607-42 Wet ground mica is extensively dry powder and in various products due to its dielectric and heat properties.90 ASTM used as a resistant Polyimide and polyethersulphone are also examples of high temperature polymeric materials which may be used in place of asbestos In addition ceramic fibercloth tape or sleeving used with glass filament inserts to high maintain temperature strength may be used in cable and wire insulation 91 Product composition-- Nomex paper is an aramid paper composed mostly 85 percent of a highly aromatic polyamide synthetic material formed on a Fourdinier machine.92 The smallest fiber size used in Nomex paper is inch long Fiberfrax is a composed homogeneous product with an organic binder.91 binder.91 primarily of silica and alumina held together Benelux 402 is a dense lignin cellulose laminate Manniglass is a glass fabric Fibercoat is a fabric of knitted versus woven glass representing what is reported to be one of the world's few production uses for knitted glass in a process developed by Textured Products Inc. The glass fiber is coated with a proprietary blend of ceramic and inorganic binder3s9 Uses and Applications-For dry transformer insulation Nomex can directly substitute for asbestos paper it already enjoys a high market share Nomex papers have also replaced asbestos as wire and turn insulation for most industrial motor and generator applications Substitutes are also available for industrial laminates using asbestos paper Nomex paper can be used to prepare industrial laminates and glass papers are currently being used to replace asbestos in various laminated products.8 products.88 The U.S. Patent for this material was applied for in September 1979 50 Carborundum Corporation stated that their ceramic paper Fiberfrax can be used as dielectric and thermal insulation for transformer coils.56 The extent of any commercial application of Fiberfrax for this purpose is not clear Benelux 402 has been used switching and control devices of oriented electrical for insulation barriers Its properties make it apparatu8s9 in air usable insulated in a wide range Fibercoat has been most extensively tested for use in voltage cable as insulating and fireproofing wrap One major cable manufacturer has found that Fibercoat provides excellent protection for 25 pair 24 AWG insulated control cable It can be wrapped around wire as small as 14 AWG equivalent and can also be used to insulate phone wire It is also approved for use by a major chemical company to protect 600V underground cable see Pipeline Wrap section and is speculated for use in other applications noted briefly in other sections of this report.39 report.39 Wet ground mica is used in the rubber industry as an insulation powder and compounds for electric wire and cables.9cable0s.90 Substitute Product Manufacturing Summary-Manufacturing process fabrics of all kinds cloth tape cords tubes may be woven from yarn and used in bonded laminates as a substitute for asbestos For molded or hand composites glass chopped strand mat may be used in high temperature windings glass fiber is wrapped tightly onto wire and treated with suitable resins Benelux is made from clean wood chips reduced to fibers by a steam explosion process Unwanted elements are driven off leaving only cellulose fibers and lignin a natural bonding agent After processing to refine the fibers and form panels of controlled densities thicknesses and sizes the panels are placed in steam heated and lignin are welded to form the ultra hard high pressure presses smooth laminate.8lamin9ate.89 where the fibers Fibercoat can be produced in a variety of configurations ranging from ribbons less than half an inch wide and as thin as 10 mils to 72 inch wide sheets as thick as a tenth of an inch The same technology used to knit the glass fiber can also be used to knit more temperature substrate materials such as polyimides with appropriate temperature resistant coatings In addition Fibercoat can be built into rigid structures much as a fiberglass and resin composite can be When coated the coatings such as urethane polyvinyl chloride and acrylics form mechanical rather than chemical bonds with the woven glass Wet ground mica is made most often from Muscovite type mica K2A14A12S16020 selected blended and treated to obtain maximum color brightness and purity While several types of wet ground mica are produced nominal 325 mesh is most widely used This is approximately 46 percent silica 36 percent alumina 10 percent potassium oxide and 2 percent ferric oxide 51 Name and number of manufacturers product manufacturers include DuPont Nomex papers Carborundum Corporation Fiberfrax Manning Paper Company Manniglass Masonite Benelux 402 and Textured Products Inc. Fibercoat Production volume exact production volumes of substitute products are unknown specific information is proprietary However it is known that Nomex paper is produced at the rate of several million pounds per year and is readily available BEVERAGE AND PHARMACEUTICAL FILTERS Asbestos Product Special Qualities-Asbestos is used in filters because it has an exceptionally large surface area per unit of weight and a very unusual natural positive electrical charge.95 charge.95 This positive charge is very desirable for removing particles from beverages as the particles are usually negatively charged Although other substances may be used as filter materials asbestos appears to provide one property required by some beverage manufacturers which its competitors that of the removal of haze from liquid beverages The filtering efficiency of nonasbestos sheets is considered about equal to that of asbestos aside from haze removal capabilities Substitutes for asbestos filters are readily available and will likely undergo further improvements as they are developed As far as is known substitutes seem to equal asbestos in durability and service life Product Composition-- The major difference between asbestos beverage filters and other asbestos paper products is the addition to asbestos formula cellulose Asbestos beverage filters may contain in fibers various types of latex resins and occasionally diatomaceous earth The asbestos content varies from a high of 50 percent for pharmaceutical filters to as low as 5 percent for rough filtering applications In general the higher the asbestos content the better the filtering qualities The grade of asbestos used is a very purity grade longer fiber thus in the lower grade numbers obtained when available from Arizona mines a usable grade is also available from Canada This particular purity grade of chrysotile must be free of trace minerals such as iron and calcium Uses and Applications-- Asbestos filter sheets are primiarily used by the beer wine and liquor distilling industries to filter remove microorganisms fine or very fine solids steps from liquids In the beverage industry there are several asbestos filter papers have most commonly been applied for filtration sterile filtration the complete removal of all yeast cells and microorganisms both aerobic and anaerobic that might have survived previous filtration.9filtr6ation.96 Asbestos filters are also used for haze clarification removing cloudiness from the liquid product and giving it a sparkling clarity 52 At present about 30 percent of the wine industry 10 percent of the beer industry and filtration 25 percent of the distilling industry use some form of asbestos Asbestos filter paper is also used for specialty applications in the cosmetics and pharmaceuticals industries and for the filtration of various fruit juices such as apple juice Asbestos Product Manufacturing Summary-- Manufacturing Asbestos filter paper is made on a conventional cylinder or Fourdrinier papermaking machine Because demand for this product is low the machine is used to produce beverage filters infrequently for the most part the machine is employed to produce more popular products Name and number of manufacturers main companies manufacturing asbestos filter paper as part of their product lines are listed in Table 8 TABLE 8. MANUFACTURERS OF ASBESTOS BEVERAGE AND PHARMACEUTICAL FILTERS Alsop Engineering Cellulo Co.99 Ertel Engineering Filter Products Co. K Filters Milldale CT Fresno CA Sandusky OH Kingston NY Richmond CA For the companies listed asbestos filter production represents only a small fraction of their total business For example Filter Products Co. makes asbestos filters only once or twice a year for specialty customers Cellulo Co. is the largest domestic producer of asbestos filters supplying much of the amount needed by the beverage and pharmaceutical industries.97 Production Asbestos filters beverage and pharmaceutical are a subject of the larger asbestos specialty paper category About 30 metric tons of asbestos are used in filters most of the remainder of the metric tons used in specialty papers goes into cooling tower fill and transmission paper Because such a small amount is produced most producers of asbestos filters make filters only once or twice a year then revert to other products that are their main earning staples Thirty metric tons per year is a significant decline from the consumption levels in the late 1960s and early 1970s when over 900 metric tons of fiber were being consumed projections call for a virtual disappearance of asbestos filters Substitute Products Methodology-Search strategy material for asbestos filters consisted of literature sources supplemented by industry contacts 53 Summary of contacts following companies contacted during preparation of this section and individuals were e Mr. Don Wheaton Cellulo Co. Fresno CA e Mr. Rumain Plant Sales Representative Cellulo Co. NJ - efi Mr. Frank Lavery Mr. Hallet Ertel Engineering Co. Kingston NY Mr. John Gusmer President Cellule Co. Waupaca WI Mr. Held Filter Products Co. Richmond CA e Company Representative Alsop Engineering Milldale CT Special Qualities-Substitute fibers which may be used in place of asbestos fibers in filters include cellulose and glass According to industry sources these nonasbestos substitutes have the durability of asbestos filters but above grade 70 an indication of filter porosity asbestos filters are more efficient The service life of any filter is difficult to estimate because of its dependence upon a variety of parameters including viscosity temperature color clogging rate and foreign substances For example Ertel Engineering's filters both asbestos and nonasbestos are made are reported to last longer filtering white wine than red wine.102 The Cellulo Company's Cellupore nonasbestos filter pads have a shelf life of 1 year versus asbestos filters which are believed to have a slightly longer life Chemical treatments can be used to affix a positive electrical charge to substitute fibers but asbestos filters have other characteristics which have not as yet been incorporated filters have been able to be in these filter made with lower substitutes porosity than To date asbestos nonasbestos filters Cellupore filters made from cellulose are available in a variety of tightnesses or porosities up to grade 70 but asbestos filters are available through grade 100.104 Further nonasbestos filters absorb more liquid than asbestos filters and thus operate at a lower throughput Evanite literature describes their product in terms of air resistance air permeability chemical resistance of the C or B glass fiber used acid and alkaline resistance and thermal resistance apparently with satisfactory results Product Composition-- A nonasbestos beverage filter made by Filter Products Company of prepared Richmond CA is made from two types of specially three types of diatomaceous earth and melamine resin 101 cellulose fibers As mentioned earlier the fibers substituting for asbestos must be chemically treated to give the filter the desired positive charge Evans Products Company produces Evanite glass fiber Forest Fiber Products Group in Corvallis from either a standard borosilicate glass Oregon 54 composition or a specially formulated acid resistant grade with significantly higher silica content Formulations are comprised of various combinations of sand feldspar soda ash borax dolomite limestone barium carbonate and zinc oxide These ingredients are first introduced into a glass furnace for melting and glass conditioning The glass stream then passes through an electrically controlled platinum bushing which regulates the flow into a rotary fiberizer or spinner The primary fibers are immediately attenuated by a blast of hot gas into the desired fiber diameter They are then collected under partial vacuum on a moving screen located within a forming chamber From here the fibers are removed compacted to a uniform weight and packaged at a specific density to minimize fiber breakage The Evanite fiber grades have been developed for use conventional papermaking equipment to deal with differences in drainage rates drying time and shinkage characteristics The Cellulo Company produces two lines of nonasbestos beverage filters in addition to their asbestos and washed cellulose filters One trade named Celluporefi is made primarily from cellulose fibers The other the 700 Series combines cellulose nonfibrous filter aids and an absorptive binder system Each is graded by porosity from 10 to 70 in increments of 10 but asbestos filters can attain higher standards Asbestos filters are available graded from 70 to 100 in increments of 5. All beverage filters are inert chemically pure and conform to Federal Food and Drug Regulations for food and beverages . Ertel Engineering manufactures filters in 360 different sizes out of asbestos and cellulose fiber cellulose and diatomaceous earth or a mix of cellulose from wood pulp and paper Each product composition results in different porosity and density level.102 Major purchasers of nonasbestos beverage filters are the pharmaceutical cosmetic and food industries The fiber size distribution in filters used in these industries is not known However grades used vary application and higher grades contain shorter fibers with the intended Uses and Applications-Nonasbestos substitute filters can be used almost interchangeably with asbestos filters in most applications Cellupore filter pads are available in sizes to fit virtually all commerical filter holder assemblies including plate and frame assemblies and stacked disc holders Like asbestos filters the substitutes have high wet strength can clarify polish and sterilize a wide variety of liquids including acids alkalis antibiotics antiseptics aperitifs beer wine whiskies cider cosmetics detergents drinking water fruit juices hair tonics inks insecticides perfumes vaccines and photographic solutions Applications for Evanite include fluid and air filters surgical masks industrial respirator media and high efficiency thermal and accoustical insulation 55 Substitute Product Manufacturing Summary-- Name and number of manufacturers manufacturers of nonasbestos beverage filter products were contacted e Cellulo Inc. NJ and WI and Ertel Engineering Company Kingston NY Evans Products nonasbestos product beverage filters.105 Co. Corvallis Oregon is also known to sell its Evanite to AMF which may manufacture nonasbestos Production volumes production volumes of nonasbestos beverage filters are not known however they appear to dominate the beverage filter industry at present COST COMPARISON Flooring Felt Costs of flooring felt vary widely since the number and type of substitutes themselves differ greatly The range of substitute costs is perhaps the greatest of any of the paper products and rests very much upon consumer taste and choice Substitutes which are less expensive than asbestos and those more expensive are both available An exact cost comparison for each substitute product is not included in this report However it is reported that the Lextar product under development currently costs 10-15 percent more than asbestos felt Lextar is working actively with the major commerical asbestos felt producers to reduce this cost to an equivalent asbestos cost.10 Roofing Felt the and Table 9 provides two cost comparisons basic roofing material costs of organic the membrane material Since rolls come First there asbestos and in different is a comparison of fiberglass felts sizes and the number of layers installed on the roof will vary the basic unit of comparison in this table is the square a 100 square foot area of roofing In terms of material cost per completed square only organic felt is less expensive than asbestos More meaningful comparisons however are the costs for installed units Asbestos and fiberglass are nearly equal in quality and durability but a fiberglass square is 5.6 percent more expensive than a comparable asbestos square A membrane roof is 13 percent more costly than an asbestos unit Thus although the membrane roofing is considerably more expensive than any of the felts the considerable savings in labor and other materials such as tar or asphalt is evident in the comparisons between material and installed costs A company that manufactures both conventional organic asphalt roofing and the membrane systems estimated that the cost difference between the two systems installed is only 5 to 10 percent.106 percent.106 56 TABLE 9ROOFING COSTS11,12,21,106,107 COSTS11,12,21,106,107 Retail cost per roll $ Squares Single square one layer $ Material cost per square $ Organic 10.00 4 felt 2.50 7.50 three layers Asbestos 23.50 4 felt 5.75 11.50 two layers Fiberglass 28.50 5 felt 5.60 16.80 three layers Single 35.70 1 35.70 35.70 membrane one layer Installed cost per square $ Range Average 100-160 126.00 115-160 132.50 110-160 140.00 - 150.00 Beater Gaskets Currently substitutes for asbestos gaskets are more expensive than the asbestos product Both ceramic and teflon gaskets fit this description The cost of Cotromics Corportation's ceramic paper varies depnding on the desired thickness from 20 to 50 cents per square foot eighth inch thick Fiberfrax is available for 50 to 85 cents per square foot or 3.5 to 5.9 mils per square inch with the exact price dependent upon the quantity ordered.108 ordered.108 Comparable teflon gaskets may be purchased for about per square inch placing them at the high end of the cost scale.35 8.5 cents Hollingsworth and Vose reports however that although currently more expensive as substitute products obtain wider acceptance and use manufacturing volumes will increase the materials.36 thereby diminishing the price gap between ; Pipeline Wrap In future years it is thought that the cost advantage of fiberglass systems will improve relative to asbestos pipeline use making it more competitive with the asbestos product More specific information as well cost information for plastic coatings and extruded coatings of epoxy resin not available through industry contacts as was Millboard Substitutes discussed here generally have insulating qualities equal or superior to asbestos board but most have significantly higher prices Vermiculite boards although meeting required specifications are generally 57 inferior to asbestos products and cost about 30 percent more Cobalt rollers have been used as a millboard substitute but are considerably more expensive than in steel heat treatment applications comparable asbestos 50 products Table 10 provides a price comparison between asbestos millboard and the most frequently proposed substitute products Manville has been working to develop a product suitable for temperatures up to 816 to 870 to sell for 15 percent less than their Ceraform 102. It should be closer to a direct substitute for asbestos millboard TABLE 10. COST OF ASBESTOS MILLBOARD AND SUBSTITUTE $ per square foot square meter PRODUCTS-- Thickness inches Asbestos Pars No. 948 JohnsManville Ceraform 102 Carborundum Fiberfrax32 Duraboard Hotboard GH Boardt 1/8 1/4 , 1/2 0.32 3.55 0.61 6.75 1.15 12.75 0.86 9.55 1.44 16.00 2.82 31.35 Price for 1000 ft or more Price for 75 ft lots 0.96 10.65 10.65 1.16 12.90 1.63 18.10 - -- 2.16 24.00 - -- 1.30 14.45 - 3.08 34.20 - Commercial Papers Ceramic paper is a averaging 5 to 10 times such as Nomex by DuPont great deal more expensive as costly Cellulose and are also more expensive than asbestos paper fiberglass paper substitutes Electrical Insulation While Nomex paper can replace asbestos paper in most electrical insulations the resultant price is higher generally costs two to four times as much as For most asbestos applicatons Nomex electrical 84 paper Nomex is priced as follows for the four sizes of paper manufactured Thickness mil Price yd m 3 1.84 2.30 5 2.92 3.65 8 4.40 5.50 10 5.47 6.85 58 Fiberfrax is available with the quantity ordered as much as 42 percent.91 in two thicknesses Its cost varies in accordance Large volume purchasers can achieve a savings of Thickness inches Price Range yd m 1/16 62.5 mils 2.70 -4.59 -4.59 3.40 - 5.75 The cost of Fibercoat by Textured Products is asbestos products but slightly more than asbestos cites a typical cost for 25 mil flexible sheets as foot.39 comparable to woven paper The literature 50-75 cents per square Polymeric materials used in cable coating are available at relatively high cost but may be justified by their ability to withstand high temperatures their durabiliy and their flexibility.50 Mica is milled by a relatively costly slow friction process 90 Sepcific cost comparisons are not available Electrolysis Cell Diaphragm The membrane cell product by DuPont consumes 2540 metric ton of chlorine as compared to 2270 metric ton for asbestos With escalating energy costs the cost differential may be significant Industry research is directed at reducing this difference Cooling Tower Fill Galbestos is somewhat less costly than its nonasbestos substitute Veriscore with product applications about the same No substitutes for asbestos transmission paper were identified Beverage Filters Cellupore filters cost approximately 10 to 15 percent more than comparable asbestos filters No blanket statement applies to the Ertel products At present the cost of asbestos is increasing rapidly from metric ton in 1975 to metric ton in 1979 but so is the cost of wood pulp making it difficult to determine exactly how costs will compare even in the short run Summary Summarizing the substitutes cost data one notes that paper category the commercially available substitutes are for virtually every more expensive than 59 the asbestos product The only exceptions to this rule are certain types of flooring and organic felt roofing For all other containing paper products the substitutes cost from 5 percent to upwards of 40 times more than the asbestos product they are intended to replace This cost differential may change decrease as the substitutes market matures and production techniques are refined For the present however it appears that the conversion from an containing paper product to an available substitute would not be made were there no other considerations except for cost that is based on cost alone the move to total replacement of asbestos products with substitutes would be prohibitive CURRENT TRENDS Flooring Felt Although asbestos flooring felt is in a high consumption category future growth is expected to diminish due to a stabilization of the product mix because the changeover which has been occuring in the recent past from jute backing to the newer asbestos backing is nearly complete This means that the asbestos product has now replaced the jute in most every application From 1970 through 1975 growth of the asbestos backing was estimated at 14.8 percent annually whereas the same source projects that the annual growth through 1980 will be 5 percent and only 2.9 percent from 1980 to 1985. The market currently 1979/80 backs this up with a small positive growth rate In addition new substitutes to the asbestos product particularly foam cushion backings backless sheet flooring and new developments using Pulpex fiber are providing increasing competition for the asbestos flooring felt market indicating that there may well be yet another transitional growth stage at some time in the future with the development of suitable alternatives Roofing Felt Industry sources feel that the asbestos roofing felt market is currently stable but a decline is expected in the near future for two major reasons First asbestos roofing is beginning to feel competitive market pressures from fiberglass roofing and second labor unions and the construction industry are becoming more apprehensive about using asbestos products Fiberglass has many of the same technical advantages and characteristics of asbestos and is less expensive for initial installation Furthermore fiberglass requires less saturation than asbestos and as petroleum and asbestos prices climb the cost differential between fiberglass and asbestos roofing will shift more and more in favor of fiberglass However asbestos roofing is considered more durable than fiberglass possibly making asbestos more cost effective in the long run This is expected to be a future possibility pending present testing results Pulpex is also currently used in other paper products such as filter and decorative papers thermoformable paperboards and corrugated paperboard More information on PUlpex may be found in the Sealants section of this report 60 Arthur D. Little expected demand for asbestos roofing to decline at an average rate of 2.8 percent through 1980 and by about 5 percent from 1980 to 1985. Industry sources feel the actual decline will be slightly less Beater Gaskets Although only a marginal increase is projected for asbestos gasket substitutes 1980 reports indicate that this increase is ongoing Industry contacts pointed to the fact that substitutes are often not used by industries due to ther expense but if concern over the use of asbestos products grows and substitute products obtain wider acceptance and use this attitude could change Already marketable substitutes have increased markedly as noted by industry comments to the Draft version of this report There have been tremendous changes in this area from late 1980 through 1981 and significant large new families of materials do exist as replacements to the asbestos product although their cost is high 31 Pipeline Wrap Saturated asbestos pipe wraps are presently the preferred corrosion protection system for oil and gas pipelines due to their tested durability and relatively low cost However the market for pipeline corrosion protection is competitive and alternatives to asbestos felt are available As might be expected potential growth in demand for asbestos pipe wrap principally or substitutes to it is a function and availablility of competitive materials of new pipeline construction New pipeline construction has historically experienced rapid growth and this is expected to continue Competitive alternatives to asbestos wrap which are becoming more available will most likely exert some downward pressure on the growth of the asbestos pipe wrap market At present most industry sources view the asbestos pipeline wrap market as stable however in the near term a slight downward shift of the market can be expected primarily due to the competitive pressures of the relatively new fiberglass pipe wraps and new epoxy resins and extruded coatings that are just becoming commercially available Cost effectiveness still favors asbestos pipe wraps however with the rapidly rising costs of asbestos fiber and petroleum products asphalt and coal tar the advantage may shift away from asbestos Millboard Substitute millboard products have been developed to meet the variety temperature corrosion and other environmental conditions imposed on the asbestos product Thus asbestos millboard production is not expected to increase significantly in the future The annual growth rate for asbestos millboard and commercial papers is projected to be only 0.9 to 1.0 percent through 1985 3 but it is anticipated that U.S. firms producing millboard will cease production of the product as acceptable economical substitutes of are 61 developed Industry is likely to maintain specific applications where alternatives are products becoming available are generally in applications minimal production capacity not available Nonasbestos heat and flame protection for Commercial Papers The overall growth rate for asbestos commercial paper is slightly negative and is not expected to change indicating that substitute products will have an opportunity to establish themselves in this area Asbestos muffler paper has already United States apparently been replaced by ceramic due to concern exhibited and glass papers in the by automotive muffler and converter producers about using containing materials As for corrugated paper the current outlook indicates that it may not be made in the future Substitute products like ceramic paper can replace asbestos commercial paper in the future if the greater cost of such products is accepted Electrical Insulation Transformer manufacturers are constantly using more substitutes for asbestos electrical insulation papers Nomex papers are already extensively used by electrical and transformer manufacturers 84 while Fiberfrax and other replacement industrial laminates are already on the market Therefore the market for asbestos electrical paper is declining although the rate of decline is not known at present The market for substitute products such as Nomex paper has been steadily growing since it became available in 1965.94 Fibercoat although developed through research begun in 1978 on fiberglass as a potential fireproof upholstery and wallcovering fabric is a relative newcomer to replacement applications in electrical insulation Nonetheless its qualities demonstrate that it is indeed another suitable substitute in this area Speciality Papers Saturated asbestos paper is becoming readily available plastic substitutes for too expensive cooling tower compared to the fill thus the market should favor replacement of the asbestos fill presently in use with new substitute products However in specialty applications such as cooling for gaseous diffusions asbestos fill is used rather than other materials because of its superior heat and chemical resistant characteristics The use of asbestos sheet as a cooling tower fill is rapidly decreasing due to its potential for wear under extreme pH conditions creating a potential health risk Nonmetal fills are generally lighter than metal fills and therefore have advantages in transport costs and handling ease Asbestos paper is considered the best fill material in terms of chemical and heat resistance but for most aplications the extra chemical and heat resistance is not critical As indicated plastic fills are becoming the most popular for general applications 62 The advantages and disadvantages of DuPont's Nafion membrane product substitute for electrolytic diaphragms have been covered under substitute properties in this section Even though there are many advantages the disadvantages in the lack of electrical efficiency as compared to asbestos dictates further research and development before this product is a fully acceptable substitute to asbestos Clearly this would affect the demand for membrane cells vis asbestos diaphragms especially with rising energy costs For substitutes to asbestos transmission paper data are not available but indications are that substitute materials would probably not have the requisite characteristics of asbestos and would be more costly Beverage Filters Nonasbestos substitutes have already replaced asbestos filters in most commercial applications This trend will most likely continue until asbestos is no longer used commercially for filtration As indicated the total quantity of asbestos fiber currently used in making asbestos filters is estimated to be only 30 metric tons annually1 down significantly from the late 1960s and early 1970s when over 907 metric tons of fiber was being consumed The future outlook points to the virtual disappearance of asbestos filters This is attributed to the concern of the beverage industry in employing containing products and the cost effectiveness of the available substitutes Summary Overall the trend for asbestos paper products is in a state of flux Almost all categories show a stable or marginal decrease in the amount of asbestos to be used Only in a few instances such as some specialty papers where the specific qualities of asbestos are absolutely essential is there a slight increase in asbestos consumption predicted This leveling off of asbestos use is generally attributed to the availability of acceptable if not closely identical alternatives Changes in substitute quality and availability will directly affect asbestos use in the paper products sector especially if the prices of substitute materials become more competitive with asbestos At the current time prices of nonasbestos products are higher in almost every paper product category CONCLUSION CONCLUSION Flooring Felt In recent years asbestos flooring felts rate During the period of 1971 to 1975 the have enjoyed an excellent growth growth was estimated at 14.8 percent annually but this is projected to drop in the future both because asbestos has now replaced jute backings and substitute materials are providing competition 63 A diversity of substitutes to asbestos flooring felt currently exist These substitutes are in the form of alternative floor materials and include foam cushion backed flooring backless sheet flooring wood and carpet Place and Press vinyl tile squares also enjoy high popularity with the consumer In addition Pulpex flooring felt is currently being developed by Lextar which is working actively with producers to reduce the cost of Pulpex major to an commercial equivalent asbestos asbestos felt cost 10 Roofing Felt the Since United only organic felt roofs States it is difficult have been used for more than 20 years in to draw firm conclusions concerning the term durability of the various roofing systems Industry representatives contacted differed in their opinions of the superiority of asbestos versus fiberglass felts One problem stems from the apparent variability in fiberglass felts Also conversion to fiberglass felt mats requires manufacturing experience and applicator training Nevertheless the major manufacturer of fiberglass roofing reports significant gains for their product in the total built roofing market Due to rising asbestos costs it is expected that fiberglass felts will reduce the demand for asbestos roofing felt The newest system the single modified plastic membrane is expected to further reduce the demand for asbestos felt despite reported weathering.3,19,21,106 performance and application less fire resistance and greater sensitivity to weathering.3,19,21,106 weathering.3,19,21,106 Problems with alternative materials are being addressed by manufacturers many difficulties will be minimized when installers become more familiar with their use In addition the cost of asbestos felt may increase relative to the other alternatives as it involves the use of a greater amount of petroleum products Beater Gaskets Very recently nonasbestos gaskets have been developed which are now in the marketplace Although alternatives are generally considerably more costly than their asbestos gasket counterparts and may not fill all of the product niches that asbestos gaskets have created this is likely to change as the substitutes gain acceptance For instance it is reported that asbestos materials are currently available that match existing material for cylinder head and hard gasket applications Companies originally dealing mainly with asbestos products such as Rogers Company and Hollingsworth and Vose now produce adequate nonasbestos gasketing materials Pipeline Wrap Although competitive products are occasionally used in the oil and gas industry in place of asbestos pipeline wrap this product is currently preferred because of its cost and proven effectiveness In addition this wrap is only needed with demand for new pipeline construction so this variable must be taken into account The oil and gas industries currently prefer the hot enamel system of pipeline wrap application which requires either asbestos or fiberglass wrap If the price of asbestos increases this 64 preference could well turn to fiberglass In any case the magnitude of any drop in demand for asbestos pipeline wrap will not likely exceed several percent annually since most alternatives need additional product development before they will be able to match the performance of asbestos pipeline wrap at comparable costs Millboard A number of substitutes for asbestos millboard are available which have already led to a decline in demand for asbestos millboard and rollboard Moreover substitutes are being developed that may be cheaper than some of those now on the market Many substitutes composed of high temperature silicate refractory materials can withstand significantly higher temperatures than asbestos and are stronger at higher temperatures as well Nonetheless available substitutes are currently two to three times more costly than conventional millboard With the development of lower cost lower temperature substitutes it is likely that given the current level of regulation and its effect on the costs of asbestos these prices will approach equality in the near future In addition the higher cost higher temperature substitutes will continue to fulfill needs that asbestos millboard cannot meet Commercial Papers Historically the growth rate for commercial asbestos paper has been very slow in fact in 1975 the growth rate was estimated to be about zero and it is now slightly negative The bulk of commercial paper produced is general insulation paper Industry concern about working with containing materials and the availability of some substitutes although at greater expense has created the negative growth rate All of the primary manufacturers of asbestos commercial paper except Nicolet Inc. have now diversified into substitute product lines for this category In the future the market for nonasbestos commercial papers is expected to improve although it appears that the demand for such products is not extensive Substitute costs are very high at present but should decline as more research is performed and more substitute products infiltrate the market In addition the performance of substitute products should improve as increased knowledge is gained with use of these products Electrical Insulation It appears that this category of asbestos paper products has several viable substitute products available The substitutes are described as matching asbestos in the special qualities required in this application but to date have generally not matched asbestos in price Higher prices of the alternative products may become more competitive with consumer acceptance as the length of time the products are on the market increases 65 Specialty Papers This category includes transmission paper electrolytic diaphragms filter paper cooling tower fill metal lining paper and laminates Many of the products developed to replace asbestos specialty papers seem to be readily available The only exception is transmission paper where there are currently no nonasbestos alternatives available although research and development is underway in this field In electrolytic diaphragms substitutes exist but are not equal to asbestos in properties and quality Nonasbestos products have already replaced asbestos in many filter papers and industrial laminates and comparably priced nonasbestos cooling tower fill and metal lining paper are increasing in market share There remain some deficiencies to correct research in such areas as disposal and handling of spent paper generated in electrolytic chlorine production may also be desirable Some asbestos specialty papers are already being produced in lower volumes With the many alternative products available this category appears to have the potential for rapid reductions in asbestos consumption Beverage Filters Asbestos beverage and pharmaceutical filters are not only produced and consumed in very small amounts but also will likely be totally replaced with available substitutes in the distant future However as this is only a small segment of the have any great effect asbestos paper products industry it is unlikely to It has been concluded that nonasbestos filter sheets have reached the stage where they can be considered a full substitute for asbestos filters Further 96 the comparative economics may favor the nonasbestos filters since the filtering efficiency of the nonasbestos sheets in some applications is considered equal to that of asbestos However for haze removal from beverages asbestos appears superior at present and some beverage manufacturers still require this quality The major advantage of asbestos use in the past was its high positive charge which attracts negatively charged ions In pharmaceuticals bacteria must be removed from products and since most bacteria have negatively charged ions only asbestos filters were able to attract such ions However newly developed products can receive such a charge and consequently act similarly 66 REFERENCES Clifton R. Washington A. Asbestos 1980 Minerals D.C. 1981 p.4 Yearbook U.S. Bureau of Mines Meylan W. M. P. H. Howard and A. Hanchett U.S. Asbestos Paper Industry and Substitutes for Asbestos Paper and Asbestos Brake Linings U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Washington D.C. September 1979 Little A. D. Characterization of the U.S. Asbestos Paper Markets Prepared for the Minister of Industry and Government of Quebec Final Draft Report to Sores Inc. Montreal Report 79231 1976 Telecon Morse E. Brown Co. Corporation SRC July 1979 Berlin NH with Syracuse Research Telecon Davies H. Nicolet Industries Research Corporation SRC July 1979 Norristown PA with Syracuse Telecon 1979 Schaum M. Congoleum Ind Cedarhurst MD with SRC August Asbestos Magazine March 1981 Anonymous 1980 CPSC Moves to Ban Asbestos Paper Asbestos 61 May Telecon with Anne Call 1 Harvey Duffy Loud's office GAF Corp. New York NY 212 621-5270 GCA Corporation Division April 13 1981 10 Lextar Product information on Pulpex polyolefin pulps and letter from Edward J. Engle III Corporate Market Development Lextar to Mr. Richard J. Guimond USEPA August 25 1981 11 Telecon McLaughlin C. Estimator C Massachusetts 617 623-3042 with D. 20 1979 and M Roofing Somerville Ramsay GCA Corporation August 12 Telecon Estimator Matick Roofing Company Chelsea Massachusetts 617 322-3100 with D. Ramsay GCA Corporation August 20 1979 67 13 AIA comments to GCA's September 30 1981 Draft Substitutes Performance Analysis Report 14. Syracuse Research Corporation Communications to Technology Division September 1979 15 Anonymous Manual for Built Roofs Corp. 1978 Published by Manville 16 Telecon Frank LaMonica Manville Corp. Denver CO with N. Krusell Technology Division November 12 1981. Notebook 21-619-018-012 p 7 17 Telecon Loretta Ferguson Manville Corp. Denver CO 303 979-1000 with Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Division April 1981. Call 2 13 18 Manville Asbestos Paper and Rollboard Specifications including A. L. Silva note M Insulation Center Denver CO March 6 1980 19 Belcher Louis GAF Corporation February 7 1980 letter to Joni Repasch EPA OTS 20 Manville Fact Sheet for Glas Ply Built Roofing Systems 1979 21. Telecon Company Perkins G. 625 Products Marketing Manager Corning Toledo OH with D. Ramsay GCA Corporation August 29 1979 22 Telecon Company Representative Water Guidance Systems Susidiary of Plymouth Rubber company Brainford Connecticut 203 481-4231 with D. Ramsay GCA Corporation August 1979 23. Telecon Company Representative Carlisle Tire and Carlisle Corp. PA 717 249-1000 with D. Ramsay August 1979 Rubber Division of GCA Corporation 24 Telecon 744-1911 Company Representative Gates Rubber Company with D. Ramsay GCA Corporation August 1979 Denver CO 303 25 Telecon Company Representative Bradco Supply Corp. Woburn Massachusetts with N. Roy GCA Corporation August 23 1979 26 Telecon Mr. Dennis Lupert Corning Co. Roofing Division Toledo -- --419 248-8775 with N. Krusell Technology Division November 17 1981 Notebook 1-619-018-012 p 15 27 Lee Robert F. Manager Environmental Engineering Rogers Corporation letter to Mr. Larry Longanecker U.S. EPA September 8 1981 68 28 Telecon Pat Thurber Colonial Fiber Company Division of Manchester CT 203 646-1233 with Anne Duffy CCA Corporation Division April 14 1981. Call 9 Lydall Corp. 29 Telecon 979-1000 13 1981 Mrs. with Call Loretta Ferguson Manville Corp. Denver Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Division 2 CO 303 April 30 Telecon Dot Hebert Rogers Corp. Rogers CT Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Division 4 203 774-9605 with April 14 1981. Call 31 Zeitz John E. Division Chief of Dana Corporation Lisle IL August 11 1981 Engineer for the Victor Products Division letter to Mr. Richard Guimond U.S. EPA 32 Telecon Sales Personnel Carborundum Corporation with D. Ramsay GCA Corporation August 1979 Niagara Falls NY 33 Telecon B. Reznic Applications Shore Parkway Brooklyn NY 212 Corporation September 1979 Engineer 646-7996 Cotromics Corporation with M. Shah GCA 3379 34 PWC Carborundum Corporation Specifications March 1979 Fiberfrax 110 Paper Product 35 Telecon Brunner B. Customer Service Manager Chicago Gasket Co. 1277 West North Avenue Chicago IL 312 486-3060 with M. Shah GCA Corporation September 1979 36 Fry Franklin H. Vice President Research Hollingsworth and Vose Company E. Walpole Guimond U.S. EPA August 21 1981 and MA Development letter to Mr. Richard 37 Zeitz John E. et al Victor Products Division Dana Corp. Lisle IL Designing with the New Asbestos Gasket Materials SAE Technical Paper Series 810366 1981 38 Production verified by Telecon Company Representative Celotex Corp. Tampa FL 813 871-4811 with Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Division April 13 1981. Call 3 39 Miranker Sam letter to MaryAnne Chillingworth Technology November 16 1981 including product literature on Fibercoat by Products Inc. 141 S. Central Ave. Hartsdale NY Division Textured 40 Telecon Weber C. Market Manager Industrial Products Division Manville Sales Corporation Denver CO 303 979-1000 with D. Ramsay GCA Corporation August 29 1979 69 41 Carton R. J. Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards for the Building Construction and Paper Segment of the Asbestos Manufacturing Point Source Category NTIS 238 320. U.S. EPA February 1974 42 Gordon W. A. and W. E. Riddle Industry Profile Information on Asbestos Cement Products Millboard Products U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission 2 Subtask 2.02 February 1979 and Background and Related 78-0091 Task 43 Telecon Pat Yoder Nicolet Inc. Norristown Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Division PA 215 April 14 646-4000 1981 with 44 Telecon 286-4362 1981 Company Representative Quin Corp. Tilton NH 603 with N. Krusell GCA Corporation Division April 23 45 GAF no Harvey Duffy longer manufactures containing products Telecon Loud's office GAF Corp. New York NY 212 621-5000 with Anne GCA Corporation Division April 13 1981. Call 1 46 Telecon David Kendall Technology Division Research Triangle July 1979 Institute with P. LaShoto 47 Anonymous Fiberfrax Duraboard Corp. Niagara Falls NY 1979 Form C739 published by Carborundum 48 Telecon Stein C. Sales Representative Pars Manufacturing Co. Ambler PA 215 646-1300 with D. Ramsay June 24 1979 49 Telecon Kiser W. F. Marketing Manager Ceraform Manville Corp. Manville NJ 201 725-5000 Corporation August 12 1979 Products with D. Ramsay GCA 50 Pye A. M. A Review of Asbestos Substitute Materials in Industrial Applications Journal of Hazardous Materials Netherlands 137-138 51 Telecon Peter Heckman Nicolet Co. Ambler PA 215 646-4000 with S. Bianchetti GCA Corporation Division June 1980. Call 9 52 Telecon Neil Newell Pyrotex Carlisle PA 717 249-2075 with S. Bianchetti GCA Corporation Division June 27 1980. Call 10 53 Janos Industrial Insulation Corp. Board 1800. Product literature 54 Zeitz John E. Division Chief Engineer Victor Products Division of Dana Corp. Lisle IL letter to Mr. Larry Dorsey U.S. EPA October 21 1981 including 12 attached exhibits 70 55 Telecon Moganson G. Customer Services Insulation Carborundum Corp. Niagara Falls NY 716 278-6389 Corporation August 1979 Division with D. Ramsay GCA 56 Anonymous Fiberfrax Ceramic Fiber Insulation Form C544-5 published by Carborundum Corp. Niagara Falls NY 1978 57 Telecon Fenner E. Director Environmental Corporation Denver CO 303 979-1000 with July 26 1979 Services Manville D. Ramsay GCA Corporation 58 Telecon Skold August 1979 J. Munters Corporation Fort Meyers FL with SRC 59 Deutsch Z. C. C. C. Brumbaugh and Chlorine Othmer Encycl Chem F. H. Tech Rockwell 2nd ed Alkali and 681-699 1963 60 Dahl S. A. Alkali Cell Features New Ion Exchange Membrane Chemical Engineering August 18 1975 p 60 61 61 Telecon 1979 Cannady D. Westinghouse Corp. Hampton SC with SRC August 62 Cannady D. Decorative Laminates Modern Plastics Encylopedia 77-78 pp 124-125 Published in conjunction with Modern Plastics 10A McGraw Publication October 1977 63 Lewis B. G. Asbestos in Cooling Tower Waters Argonne National Laboratory Argonne IL NTIS No. ANL December 1977 64 Clifton R. A. Asbestos Preprint from Bulletin Problems 1975 ed U.S. Department of Interior and Personal Communication with SRC 1979 667 Mineral Facts and Bureau of Mines 1975 65 Telecon Reis J. F. Manville Corp. Research Triangle Institute 1979 Denver CO with RTI 66 Telecon Lai M. August 1979 Hooker Chemical Company Niagara Falls NY with SRC 67 Anonymous Asbestos Paper and Rollboard by Manville Corp. Denver CO 1978 Technical data sheet published 68 Telecon Company Representative GCA Corporation March 1980 Manville with Lester Y. Pilcher 69 Telecon Matt Smith Munters Corp. Florida 813 321-6500 with Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Technology Division April 17 1981 Call 26 71 70 Telecon 943-2311 April 17 Mr. Cannady Westinghouse Micarty Division 803 with Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Technology Division 1981 Call 331 71 Telecon 1979 Fenner E. M. Manville Corp. Denver CO with SRC July 72 Bureau of the Census U.S. Department of Commerce Industry Division Inorganic Chemicals Current Industrial Reports Publication M28A Washington D.C. April 1977 73 Tresken Stanford D. J. Mercury Consumption Chemicals Economics Research Institute Menlo Park CA 1976 Handbook 74 Hausmann E. Amelioration of Asbestos Diaphragms and the Possibility of Their Replacement with Permeable Membranes Commission of the European Communities Luxembourg October 3 1978 75 Anonymous New Membranes 36 March 24 1976 Cut Alkali Costs Chemical Week p 33 76 Modi David T. Respach EPA E. I. DuPont Nemours December 13 1979 and Company letter to Joni T. 77 Telecon Cavicchio E. GAF Corp. Erie PA with SRC August 1979 78 Neisel R. H. and H. F. Remde Insulation Chem Tech 2nd ed 832-833 1966 Othmer Encycl 79 Anonymous World Wide Directory of Products Published by Manville Corp. 1979 and Operations 1979 80 Telecon Reis J. F. Manville Corp. Denver CO with SRC 1979 81 Cotromics Corporation Ceramic Paper Data Sheet undated 82 Manville product literature Refrasil Fiber Cerafiberfiand Cerawoolfi Caryl Ranch Denver CO 242 11-79 83 Anonymous Ceramic Paper Engineering Data Sheet published by Cotromics Corp. Brooklyn NY August 1978 84 Telecon Hayman J. Technical Service Representative Wilmington DE with SRC July 1979 DuPont 85 Telecon Hughes N. Quin Corp. Tilton NH with SRC July 1979 86. Telecon Wilmore R. National Electrical Manufacturing Association NEMA Washington D.C. with SRC August 1979 72 87 Lair W. Industrial Laminates Modern Plastics Encyclopedia 77-78 128-134 published in conjunction with Modern Plastics 10A McGraw Publication October 1977 pp 88 Telecon Lair W. NVF Corp. Yorklyn DE with SRC August 1979 89. Masonite Corp. Benelex 402 Physical Properties 90 Wet Ground Mica Association Versatile Pigment Newtown Inc. CT Wet Ground Mica Unique and 91 Carborundum Corporation Fiberfrax Ceramic Fiber 92 Anonymous Wilmington Nomex Aramid DE November Bulletin NX 1977 Lo published by DuPont 93 Anonymous Wilmington Nomex Aramid DE December Bulletin NX 1976 published by DuPont 94 Telecon Hardy B. Technical Service Specialty Dept. DuPont Wilmington DE 302 999-3622 with M. Shah GCA Corporation September 13 1979 ; 95 Fiore Look J. V. and R. A. Food Technology Babineau Filtration 67-72 1979 Old Process with a New 96 Held R. Nonasbestos pp 38-42 Filter Sheets The Brewers Digest December 1978 97 Telecon Varleriote S. Cellulo Co. Fresno CA with SRC July 1979 98 Telecon 628-9661 April 17 Company Representative Alsop Engineering Milldale CT 203 with Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Technology Division 1981 Call 30 99 Telecon Don Wheaton Cellulo Co. Fresno CA 209 485-2692 with Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Technology Division April 17 1981 Call 327 100. Telecon Mr. Hallet Ertel Engineering Kingston NY 212 226-6023 with Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Technology Division April 17 1981 Call 2328 101. Telecon 1979 Held R. Filter Products Co. Richmond CA with SRC August 102. Telecon NY 212 Lavery F. Sales Manager Ertel Engineering Company Kingston 226-6023 with M. Shah GCA Corporation September 1979 73 103. Telecon Gusmer J. President Cellulo Company Waupaca Wisconsin with M. Shah GCA Corporation 715 258-5526 September 1979 104. Letter from J. Gusmer Cellulo Company to M. Technology Division September 10 1979 Shah GCA Corporation 105. Telecon Sales Representative Evans Products Co. Forest Fiber Products Group Glass Fiber Division Corvallis Oregon with R. Bell GCA Corporation Division September 21 1980 106. Telecon Noble A. Assistant Sales Manager Koppers Company Division West Orange NJ 201 736-9150 with D. Ramsay GCA Corporation August 30 1979 Eastern 107. Telecon Salesman Bradco Supply Corporation Woburn with D. Ramsay GCA Corporation August 17 1979 Massachusetts 108. Carborundum Corporation 1979 Fiberfrax Paper 110 Series Price Schedule May 109. Telecon M. Shah Sales Secretary DuPont Wilmington GCA Corporation September 1979 DE 302 744-2421 with 74 SECTION 3 FRICTION MATERIALS ASBESTOS PRODUCT Special Qualities All friction products containing friction materials between mating surfaces to transmit or rely stop on the coefficient of motion Brakes convert kinetic energy into heat absorb the heat and gradually dissipate it into the atmosphere Brakes consist of two parts the rotor which is connected to the wheel and the stator on which the friction material is mounted Clutches transfer kinetic energy from a rotating crankshaft to the transmission and wheels heat is Both brakes conducted to and the clutches may operate wet or dry In dry systems the air and surrounding structure while wet systems oper- ate within oil or another fluid which absorbs the heat to maintain temperatures below 200 392 The special qualities required by friction materials include e Possession of the appropriate coefficient of friction for the desired application ' Ability to withstand the high temperatures generated at friction interfaces a Dimensional stability This basic description of a brake applies to automotive disc brakes other friction products including drum brakes and clutches cone brakes and clutches band brakes and clutches centrifugal brakes and clutches and plate clutches although composed of different parts require the same special qualities listed In dry brakes the heat at the friction surface can be dissipated by convec- tion and conduction and radiation In high energy stops on automotive disc brakes or in continual braking coming down mountain amount of heat is lost tures at this time may by radiation from reach 1,2 the exposed hot slopes disc a major Tempera- 75 Strength Durability Lack of abrasive characteristics which could lead to scoring of mated surfaces In addition most friction materials also require Low wear rate Lack of noise Lack of compressibility A very high coefficient of friction conditions at low rubbing speeds under cool humid Ability to be manufactured in high volumes with consistent physical properties No rust bonding i.e. the material bonded to metal disc or drum while in especially under wet conditions will not pressure become contact Asbestos is used in friction materials because of the properties listed in Table 11. The most important properties are thermal stability reinforcing abilities relatively high friction fiber flexibility and relatively low cost TABLE 11. UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF ASBESTOS APPLICABLE TO FRICTION MATERIALS Properties Comments Fibrous form Fine fiber diameter High tensile strength Temperature resistance Cost Flexibility contributes to forming characteristics Fibers interlace and interlock enhancing strength Flexibility reduces wear at friction interfaces Provides strong reinforcing characteristics because of the large number of fibers per unit weight Provides strength and durability to friction products Chrysotile unaffected by T 200 400 Able to withstand high temperatures generated at friction interfaces up to 400 750 The temperature of maximum ignition loss is 1000 1800 Provides low performance or physical property ratio 76 Product Composition Friction materials for automotive brakes and posites of three general types of ingredients clutches are complex com- e reinforcing fibers e property modifiers and e organic binders Historically asbestos fibers have been the major constituent of nearly all organic friction materials so chosen because of their thermal stability friction level reinforcing properties availability and relatively low cost Small quantities of other fiber reinforcement may also be used Because asbestos alone does not provide all of the properties required for friction materials property modifiers are added to provide various degrees of friction wear fade recovery noise and rotor compatibility A resin binder is used to hold materials together and contributes to the friction characteristics of the mixture Table 12 lists common ingredients found in several patent formulae Following is a more detailed description of the raw materials used in organic friction material Binders-- In wet mix processing a viscous material usually a creosol is used In mix processing a powdered material usually a novolac is used Phenolic and cresylic reins both synthetic are the most commonly used binders and are normally modified with drying oils rubber cardanol or epoxy Fibrous Reinforcements-- The asbestos normally used in friction material is chrysotile The size distribution of asbestos fiber consumed by the friction materials industry in 1980 consisted of chrysotile grades 3 through 7 predominantly grades 7 and 5 A total of 43,700 metric tons was consumed fiber asbestos grades 3 4 and 5 is used in mix processing and fiber asbestos grades 6 and 7 is used for mix processing The longer fibers permit the bending of linings from flat to curved segments Clutch materials contain additional continuous- strand reinforcements including cotton asbestos yarn brass wire and copper wire Property Modifiers-Property modifiers can be classed as nonabrasive and abrasive Table 13 lists property modifiers and their functions in organic friction materials The formulations shown in Table 12 contain little or no resin and therefore could not be made commercially through the dry mold process discussed but would instead be made by extrusion or in some cases by the sheeter process These formulations are not for organic linings but rather for more heavyduty applications requiring less resin 77 TABLE 12 TYPICAL INGREDIENTS USED FOR SOME IN WEIGHT % ,: = * * r LEULT EUE TE Copolymers Asbestos Sulfur Zinc oxide d Cardolite Resin FRICTION MATERIALS fia = = Barite Rottenstone additives A 22 49 2 4 12 12 11 C 17 63 1 2 x 2 3 12 12 12 12 1e 15 58 2 3 12 12 E 15 58 3 13 12 F 15 79 1 3 2 G 15 69 1 3 10 H 15 T 15 J 15 K 13 L 13 M 15 N 15 .. 15 -- 17 17 R 17 69 1 5 10 79 1 3 69 } 3 2 10 55 1 2 9 2 178 64 1 3 10 6 h 15 6 69 1 3 S 402 2 10 69 4 10 2 49 4 30 65 4 10 4k 69 4 10 19j 19j _ a As these ingredients ingredients consist consist of friction materials arising from applications which require less only small amounts these formulas are resin content than of resin resin given for the formulas given the assumed to be for stiffer heavy organic linings Acrylonitrile copolymer Grade 5K chrysotile Friction dust made from cashew e Abundum 600 ^ - aluminum oxide shell oil 5 3M tradename Unidentified friction particle Zinc Zinc dust Paraformaldehyde Paraformaldehyde curing agent Steel wool JIron oxide Korlon fiber 78 TABLE 13. 5,7-9 PROPERTY MODIFIERS IN FRICTION MATERIALS Modifier Function Nonabrasive Cardolite cashew Ground rubber friction dust Carbon black Petroleum coke flour Graphite Gilsonite NoisNoeise wear and abrasion control Abrasive Brass chips Copper powder Rottenstone decomposed Quartz Wollastonite Zinc Aluminum siliceous limestone Zinc chips Limestone Clays Finely Barite divided silicas Alumina Silicon carbide Kyanite } - 200 mesh Molybdenite Calcium fluoride Lead and compounds Antimony compounds Calcium compounds Barium hydroxide Potassium dichromate Magnesium carbonate Iron oxide Cryolite Nickel Sulfur Scavengers breakup surface films Recovery of normal performance after fade ) Improve wear resistance } ( Increase friction level Lubricant Use not defined 79 Uses and Applications The primary uses for friction materials are brakes for light- and heavyduty vehicles aircraft railcars and various types of heavy equipment Clutch facings are another important friction material product Minor uses include braking mechanisms for bicycles presses hoists lift trucks mining and drilling equipment chain saws tape recorders spinning and knitting equipment typewriters snowblowers and washing machines In addition many business machines require clutch mechanisms These applications are very diverse and demanding Out of hundreds of formulations either tested or developed to meet such standards in the past several years only a very few nonasbestos composi- tions have proven suitable1 The primary uses for containing friction materials in automotive and railcar applications are listed in Table 14. Additional applications include the use of asbestos friction products in agriculture construction mining logging marine oil well drilling equipment and industrial work Product Manufacturing Summary Manufacturing Process-- Production methods and raw materials materials vary depending on the intended used in the application manufacture of friction of the final product Organic linings which must bend require high resin contents and long fibers Stiffer heavy materials with less resin require molding for shape and clutch materials require special forming methods Major manufacturing methods are described below Linings linings are produced from resin mix by extrusion or in rolling processes Asbestos and various property modifiers are mixed with liquid resin at 50 120 then binder solvent is added to yield a putty- like mass with good wet strength In the extrusion process the mix is heated to 90 195 and extruded as a flat pliable sheet which dried for 2 hours at 80 175 In the rolling process the partially dried mix is fed between two rolls that align the fibers into flat pliable green lining Linings are then cut to length formed at 150 300 and molded for 4 to 8 hours at 180 to 250 360 to 480 The final product is ground to produce finished brake linings Linings for heavy use are produced by a mix process Asbestos modifiers and resin are mixed and formed into 60 x 90 cm 24 x 35 inches briquets that are pressed for 3 to 10 minutes at 140 to 160 340 to 375 and cured in molds for 4 to 8 hours at 220 to 280 425 to 540 The brake linings are finished after grinding Although most linings are made with these processes other processes used should be noted These include the rotting sheeter and millboard processes find Linings made by last two processes have characteristics that are hard to in materials made by the other three processes 80 TABLE 14 USES OF CONTAINING FRICTION MATERIALS" Product Characteristics Applications Drum brake linings servo linings High and stable friction at temperatures up to 250 480 Tensile strength of 4000 to 5000 psi Stable friction wear resistant tensile strength of 4000 to 5000 psi Automobiles and light trucks Rear wheel drum brakes of small wheel drive vehicles car Citation etc. Class A disc pads Class B disc pads 81 Truck segments Class C brake blocks Nonabrasive friction and wear quiet wear resistant up to 300 570 low coefficient of friction tensile strength of 4000 to 5000 psi rotor compatibility Large and medium United States automobiles Higher friction wear resistant up to 350 660 but less wear resistant at lower temperatures less quiet tensile strength of 4000 to 5000 psi European automobiles and light trucks Stable friction wear resistant tensile strength of 4000 to 5000 psi Front drum brakes of medium trucks 10,000-15,000 lbs High friction minimal fade wear resistance to 400 750 at the expense of other brake characteristics Heavy trucks Clutch friction materials Stable friction good wear up to 250 480 quiet very high tensile strength of 10,000 psi Automobiles Table compiled from Reference 2 and Reference 7 Listing light Listing goes from light applications to heavy duty It should be noted that this category includes both primary and secondary drum brake linings in servo drum brakes The primary essentially activates the secondary and both linings are exposed to the same environment i.e. temperature and since they are in the same brake they fit the same applications This servo brake is declining in usage Disc pads dry is prepared as for heavy linings The mix is formed into briquets at room temperature and 27.6 to 41.4 MPa 4000 to 6000 psi The briquets are pressed at 160 to 180 320 to 355 and 27.6 to 55.2 MPa 4000 to 8000 psi for 5 to 15 minutes and are then cured at 220 to 300 430 to 570 for 4 to 8 hours Grinding produces the final product Asbestos reinforced brake blocks are prepared by a mix process Briquets are formed at 10.3 to 17.2 MPa 1500 to 2500 psi and heated to 90 195 for 15 to 30 minutes to reduce blistering during hot processing Blocks are formed at 130 to 150 265 to 300 and 13.5 to 20.7 MPa 2000 to 3000 psi for 10 to 30 minutes The blocks are then cut and ground to shape Final curing takes place in confined or unconfined form After grinding drilling and chamferring the block is finished Clutch materials primary concern in one manufacturing method of clutch materials is the placement of the wire reinforcement within the matrix A dry- mix is used in molding without wire or molding around wire preforms Another method is to prepare a wet mix and run a wire through the viscous material The surface is ground to final shape after pressing and curing Woven Woven bands for heavy uses are produced by a process that begins with asbestos cord which may be reinforced with wire being passed through a mix to pick up resin and modifiers The saturated cord is then woven into tapes that pass through heated rolls to partially cure the resin The material can be cured at 160 320 to remain as a flexible roll lining or cured at 280 to 230 355 to 445 to form rigid segments Such materials are found in large band brakes used to control large machinery Name and Number of Manufacturers-- There are 30 major manufacturers of asbestos friction materials listed in Table 15. Both large diversified companies such as Manhattan and small single product companies are included in this list The first few companies listed in this table accounted for a majority of the total estimated sales of containing friction materials in 1975 a pattern consistent with the industry's historical trend From 1954 to 1967 the eight larger companies together accounted for 86 to 91 percent of the industry's value of shipments Production Volumes-- Table 16 gives the consumption of asbestos in friction products for the years 1969 to 1980. Figures for production volumes were not available but a breakdown of the value of asbestos friction materials projected to 1981 from 1972 values given by Meylan is provided in Table 17 82 TABLE 15. U.S. MANUFACTURERS OF ASBESTOS FRICTION 10-36 MATERIALS Products Brakes Clutches Company Baybestos Inc. RM Friction Materials Co. . Plant location Automobile and light truck Heavy duty truck In- Ve- In- Rail- dus- hi- dus- car trial cle trial Stratford CT Drum disc Disc . Mannheim PA segment Crawfordsville IN block Marshville NC N. Charleston SC Comments Estimated | 1978 sales $ million 165.0 Bendix Corporation,,2 Troy NY Drum disc Block , Automotive GRP Cleveland TN South Bend IN Abex Corporation Cleveland OH Friction Products Group Troy MI Winchester VA General Motors , Dayton OH Moraine Div Inland Div 15 H. K. Porter Company's Thermoid Div Huntington IN Drum disc Block Drum disc Drum disc * a Brakes - machine tools highway 94.5 equipment 66.6 16.2 26.5 Chrysler Corporation Tenton MI Drum disc - Cycleweld Div 83 15 Warner Corporation Bellwood IL Drum disc , - Nuturn Company Nashville TN Block 21.5 formerly World Bestos Co. Paulding OH Maremont Corp. Grizzly Products Div National Friction Products Corporation18 Logansport IN Auto Specialties Manufacturing Company 19 Standco Industries20 St. Joseph MI Houston TX Friction Products Company Medina OH Industrial Royal 22 Inc. Brake Products Danville KY Reddaway Manufacturing Company Newark NJ Molded Industrial Friction Corporation Corporation Prattville AL Drum disc Block Drum disc Block yf y oY y y Y y road vehicles cranes shovels travel trailers mobile homes plant machinery appliances road vehicles agricultural equipment road equipment winches cranes drilling rigs Assembly of parts from Canadian manufacturers Tractors and trailers 12.0 0.66 8.7 4.0 16.0 3.0 3.6 Wheeling Brake Block Manu- facturing Co.25 26 Force Control Industries Wheeling WV Bridgeport OH Fairfield OH Block v v 4.0 Disc and plate brakes railcar and - diesel engine brakes tramways road vehicles continued continued TABLE 15 continued Products Brakes Clutches Company Plant location Automobile Automobile and light truck Heavy duty truck In- Ve- In- Rail- dus- hi- dus- car trial cle trial Comments Estimated 1975 sales Brassbestos Manufacturing Corporation** Patterson NJ Auto Friction Corporation a Lawrence MA 29 Gatke Corporation Warsaw IN Lasco Brake Products Company ** MGM Brakes Incorporated Oakland CA Cloverdale CA Drum disc Drum Drum Drum disc Block Block Rebuilt 5.3 26.5 Custom manufacturing 3.8 road vehicles buses rail- ca cars mining equipment towing vehicles Carlisle Corporation Thiokol Chemical Corporation Ridgeway PA Trenton NJ Eaton Corporation Kenosha WI Block Drum disc Block disc Buses road vehicles 28.2 Rebuilt for replacement as well as 9.7 original equipment - Scan Manufacturing Company Menomonee Falls WI road nonautomotive brake 2.8 linings 84 Guardian Corporation Inc3.6 Brighton MA Disc H. Krasne Mfg Co. < Los Angeles CA Disc 36 U.S. Automotive Manufacturing Tappahannock VA Disc Also brake noise inhibitors Unknown Unknown Unknown 36 Virginia Friction Products Tappahannock VA Friction ewmleere va Disc Disc rie 808 EET I RS A Unknown TN RT Unknown This is also called P. T. Brake Lining Company Inc. TABLE 16 1969 1970 ASBESTOS CONSUMPTION BY THOUSAND or ter osc: METRIC TONS Wa eitetit THE FRICTION MATERIALS INDUSTR3Y7 SADR S St RP tas owaset soe seem ise ee 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 64 60 62 66 72 73 60 58 83 82 61 43.7 TABLE 17 VALUE OF ASBESTOS FRICTION MATERIAL IN MILLIONS OF 1981 DOLLARSa SHIPMENTS Final product Total product shipments including interplant transfers 1981 1972 Percentage of total Brake linings Woven containing asbestos yarn tape or cloth Molded including nonwoven types all 27.8 308.4 10.2 113.1 4.9 54.0 Disc brake pads 38.8 14.2 6.8 Clutch facings Woven containing asbestos yarn tape or cloth Molded including all nonwoven types 54.2 132.2 19.9 48.5 9.5 23.1 Other 9.8 3.6 1.7 Total asbestos friction material 571.2 209.5 100.0 Projected by Meylan et al 10 1972 data adjusted to 1981 p 61 using September 1981 Engineering and Mining Journal cost index factors The 1972 breakdown was the best available data but it should be noted that corresponding percentages of total for example with disc brakes may have changed more than this table shows 85 SUBSTITUTE PRODUCTS Methodology Search Strategy-Twenty of the largest United States asbestos product manufacturers as listed in Meylan were investigated to determine which friction materials are being produced These manufacturers were questioned regarding both asbes- tos and substitute materials Relevant trade associations were also contacted Several sources in the literature were recommended by the above contacts The section in the Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology entitled Brake Linings and Clutch Facings was very useful in the writing of this section Summary of Contacts-The following individuals cerning friction materials and companies provided useful information con- Robert A. Clifton U.S. Bureau of Mines 2401 E St. NW Washington DC 20241 Robert Curran Chief Engineer Spring Division Warner Corporation 700 South 25th Ave. Bellwood IL 60104 George Bason Director of Advertising Public Relations and Abex Corporation 530 Fifth Avenue New York NH 10036 Jack Reynolds Manville Corp. Caryl Ranch Denver CO 80217 Leon Kopyt Mass Transit Suite 1428 Systems Corp. Suburban Station Building Philadelphia PA 19103 Walter Nichols Sales Representative Midland Corporation 55 Public Square Cleveland OH 44113 Eugene Connor National Manville Corp. Caryl Ranch Denver CO 80217 Sales Manager Joe Minsky P.T. Brake Lining Co. 18 Shepard St. Lawrence MA 01842 Inc. Mr. Baltz President Baltz Co. Inc. 28 Robinson Rd Lexington MA 02173 Manhattan 100 Oakview Drive Trumbull CN 06611 Inc. Kevin Peppard Asst Dir of Business Automotive Group Bendix Corporation 40 North Bendix Dr. P.O. Box 4001 South Bend IN 46634 Planning Mr. Anderson Sales Mgr Royal Industries Inc. Brake Products Division Stewarts Lane Danville KY 40422 86 Edward W. Drislane Executive Director Friction Materials Standard Institute East 210 Route 4 Paramus NH 07652 Michael Jacko Bendix Materials Center Bendix Center Southfield MI 48037 Mr. Gorney Mr. Alek Griffin Wheel Co. Division of Amsted Industries Inc. 200 W. Monroe St. Chicago IL 60606 Terry Blaine Spring Division Warner Corporation 700 South 25th Ave. Bellwood IL 60104 Jack Payton Shop Friction Products 922 Lake Rd Medina OH 44256 Superintendent Co. Standco Industries P.O. Box 87 Houston TX 77001 Inc. Bill Auto P.O. Shine Sales Administrator Specialties Mfg Co. Box 8 St. Joseph MI 49085 Donna Craven Customer Scandura Inc. P.O. Box 949 1801 N. Tryon St. Charlotte NC 28231 Service Brassbestos Mfg 45 E. 5th St. Corp. Paterson NJ 07524 Paul Biondo Auto Friction Corp. 652 Andover St. Lawrence MA 01842 Robert Randolf Gatke Corp. E. Winona Ave. Warwaw IN 46580 Lasco Brake Products 26th & Magnolia Sts Oakland CA 94607 Corp. LTD Mr. Apollogene Sales Representative MGM Brakes 21800 Greenfield St. Detroit MI 48236 Carlisle Corporation 511 Watnut St. Cincinnati OH 45202 Thiokal Corporation Div P.O. Box 1296 Trenton NJ 08607 Earl Fygert Sales Manager National Friction Products 1441 Holland St. Logansport IN 46947 Corp. Mr. Sleeth H.K. Porter Co. Inc. Thermold Division 315 Porter Bldg Pittsburgh PA 15219 Mr. Montgomery General Manager Stanley Belting Co. Distributors for Reddaway Mfg 28 Euclid Ave. Co. , Neward NJ 07105 Wheeling Brake Block Mfg 3602 Jacob St. Wheeling WV 26003 Co. Reginald Kelley General Sales Force Control Industries Inc. 3656 Dixie Highway Hamilton OH 45014 Manager 87 Roy Huckabee Sales Representative Nuturn Co. formerly World Bestos Co. 1112 S. 25th St. New Castle IN 47362 Fiber Substitutes Most companies have pursued the development of both fiber and product substitutes to ensure asbestos products at the earliest possible date Both naturally occurring and synthetic materials have been evaluated as substitutes to asbestos in friction products Evaluations are made on the basis of friction stability wear effect on opposing surfaces and noise In addition some manufacturers are currently placing equal emphasis on the evaluation of safe materials to eliminate potential health hazards In many cases direct substitution of the alternatives mentioned here has resulted in poor friction levels friction instability roughness structural failure increased noise mating surface deterioration and front to rear brake imbalance such that complete reformulation is necessary as a further course of action Processing nonasbestos fibers is difficult as most fibers are very brittle have little or no surface adsorptivity and are difficult to handle Often the nonasbestos product is noisy in use Whereas asbestos fiber bundles open during mixing to entrap the friction modifiers and resin giving a consistent mix nonasbestos fibers often spring back and their low tack leads to weak structures Asbestos has a high stable friction level good adsorptivity for strength and wear resistance and does not contribute significantly to noise substitute fibers generally show greater frictional instability little or no surface adsorptivity and a significant contribution both to the noise factor and to surface degradatio3n8 Substituting a class A organic results in greater wear especially factors such as these influence the versus substitute materials in this disc pad for a semimetallic for example in compact cars with solid rotors Many special quality attributes of asbestos area Special Qualities and Product Composition-These are given for the following materials which substitutes for asbestos in various friction materials have been proposed as Some have been suc- cessful in replacing organic 18 summarizes the advantages compared to asbestos friction materials for and potential problems some with applications Table these materials as Glass fiber overall strength of glass fiber is lower than that of asbestos but strong enough for friction material applications Although currently produced problems with glass fiber use include melting at the temperatures reached at braking interfaces even in depths below the operating surface causing fade Glass also looses its fibrous form in high shear mixing has low wear resistance and wears aggressively Steel wool10 Compared to asbestos the overall strength of steel is lower and its cost is higher The material hardness of steel wool can result in damage to the brake rotors and special formulating techniques are required to control the friction and adhesive wear properties Class B organic disc usually pads pads are more aggressive to the rotor and noisier than semimetallic disc 88 TABLE 18 REINFORCING FIBERS AND OTHER MATERIALS FOR FRICTION MATERIALS Fiber Asbestos Advantages High strength and Thermal stability Infusible modulus Good wear Also acts as filler Potential problems Linked to health problems due to effects of some fiber sizes Aramid Kevlarfi High strength and modulus Thermal stability Nonaggressive wear characteristics Needs special attention in mixing Steel Fiber Adequate strength and modulus Thermal stability Noisy Corrosion Low cold friction Costly High density Glass Adequate strength and modulus Controllable fiber dimensions Melts at very high temperatures causing fade Loses fiber form in high shear mixing Molding spring back Low wear resistance Aggressive wear characteristics Sintered Materials High thermal stability Silicon Nitride Long service life high ; thermal conductivity Noroloid Fibers Highly insulating flameretardant nonmelting Carbon Fibers High strength very high modulus Infusible High thermal stability Low density Mineral Wool Inexpensive Semimetallic Materials Thermal stability Excellent wear resistance High cost insufficient wear resistance high thermal conductivity Expensive heavy Loses fiber form in Costly Low temperature strengths and mixing impact Low strength brittle Expensive Vermiculite High temperature strength Halvar Y. Loken Industrial Fibers Div E.I. duPont de Nemours & Co. Inc. Wilmington DE in combination with GCA literature reviews 89 Mineral wool overall strength of mineral wool is very low and brittle to the extent of limiting mixing processes Potassium titanate fibers National Aeronautical and Space Administration NASA has investigated new friction materials and their applications outside the space program As part of this effort an improved friction material was developed that utilized potassium titanate fibers with the DuPont tradename FYBEX for lightweight cars and trucks However unfavorable toxicological effects and other market considerations caused DuPont to withdraw FYBEX from the market Silicon nitride material was used for the brake pads in proto- types of the Concorde It has a longer service life than asbestos and higher thermal conductivity desirable in this application but is more expensive and heavier than the carbon composites eventually adopted Noroloid fibers Noroloid fibers were invented by the Carborundum Company in the late 1960s Made from novolak formaldehyde resin the fibers are compatible with many resin and rubber matrices The manufacturer claims the highly insulating retardant and nonmelting fibers are finding increased acceptance as a replacement for asbestos in among other applications friction materials Carbon fiber main properties of carbon fibers are good espe- cially for composite friction in other applications however they A major consideration is cost which materials and rotors carbon brakes remain somewhat inferior to asbestos? is a great deal higher than for asbestos It is more efficient than asbestos under high service temperature conditions but heat flow is uneven and the tensile and impact strengths are relatively low It has high thermal stability and low density making it especially attractive for aircraft brakes Abex Corporation of New York NY took out a patent for a nearly pure carbon article for replacement of brakes or clutch discs in 1971. Abex makes tiger composition brake shoes containing fiber rubber resinous material and fillers Vermiculite British patent was recently issued for a vermiculitebased brake lining The composition of this product is given in Table 19 Vermiculite is ground and sieved to a grade of fineness or aspired to a higher grade of fineness and then cold treated with the ingredients found in this table Although not produced in volume it serves as an example of continuing research and development activity aimed at replacing asbestos in brake linings TABLE 19 BRAKE LINING TREATMENT FORMULATION FOR VERMICULITE BRAKE4S2 Material % Composition % solution of rubber 40 Calcium carbonate 15 Barium sulphate 15 Synthetic rubbers 20 Iron oxide zinc oxide chromium oxide 10 90 Delaminated vermiculite is used in friction materials commercially avail- able throughout Europe They patible with phenolic resins and may be used with asbestos maintain strength at high temperatures are comrequire little attention in manufacturing methods to help reduce asbestos content.4cont0ent.40 Aramid Kevlarfiaramid fiber is made of an infusible aromatic poly- amide polymer Inert fillers are then selected on the basis of thermal and wear characteristics with less concern about other properties due to Kevlar's efficient strengthening One brake mix tested consisted of 50 percent wol- lastonite 20 percent barium sulfate 15 percent dry phenolic resin 15 per- cent cashew friction particles strengthened with different forms of Kevlar at the cessed 5 percent level Kevlar can be bought in a mixer to any length Kevlar can as cut fiber which can be pro- also come as a continuous fila- ment whch gives fibrillated and 39 tion paper the highest strength conversion or as a pulp which shorter than cut fiber and can be readily processed is more into fric- Aramid fibers are being researched for use in high performance dry clutch facings automatic transmissions and asbestos brakes Kevlar for example has high tensile strength and is reported to be five times stronger than steel on a weight basis Composites have good resistance to external abrasion high frictional stability excellent durability and much better high temperature properties than common organic fibers They are used in disc brake pads with wear levels between asbestos and semimetallics and are now in experimental use in drum brake linings and wet friction papers They do not score mating surfaces and can presently be found in manual transmissions for Mercedes Audi and Porsche However the fibers are not easily dispersed in mixing as they tend to clump together E.I. duPont de Nemours & Co. Inc. of Wilmington DE produces Kevlar aramid fiber however to date this has not been used in commercial brake pads or linings In the future it might be a potential candidate for reinforcement of friction materials if present ex- perimental tests prove successful --Various other fibers have been used in phenolic binders such as aluminosilicates wollastonite However all have drawbacks and not one of them is yet as good as asbestos especially for temperature applications such as disc brake pads Product Substitutes Special Qualities and Product Composition-The following materials are currently under development and produc- tion as direct substitutes for asbestos friction products Some of these presently occupya significant share of the friction materials market for some applications Carbon composites --These materials are made of carbon fiber - reinforced carbon matrix composites The fibers are produced by graphitization of organic or pitch fibers by techniques resulting in parallel alignment of carbon chains with fiber length providing maximum tensile strength In one description the article is wound up from one or more filaments resin soaked and then the whole part is ultimately carbonized by sintering The carbonized reinforcing 91 filaments used here are described as having a greater strength than the carbonized resin binder These filaments can be used for strength alone and to back an carbon friction facing which has no filament4s4 Semimetallics major constituent of nearly all semimetallics is iron which may be in the form of iron particles steel fiber or a mixture of both For some semimetallics iron powder is used in conjunction with a small amount of steel fiber Property modifiers are added to provide desired performance characteristics and a resin binder is added to hold the materials together Nonabrasive modifiers including cardolite ground rubber carbon black petroleum coke flour and natural and synthetic graphite are added to control friction improve wear and reduce noise Abrasive modifiers such as alumina silicon carbide and kyanite are also used to control friction A typical semimetallic friction formula may include metallic powder sponge iron particles ceramic powder steel fiber rubber particles graphite powder and phenolic resin Because of the ferrous nature of the product rust inhibitors may be added Semimetallics were first introduced in the 1960s primarily to meet heavy disc brake and extreme duty truck block applications although they operate satisfactorily against the ventilated iron rotors in the smaller brakes of downsized cars and against the solid rotors found in the lighter brakes of new front wheel drive vehicles They rely on steel fiber and powder metallurgy techniques for reinforcement without asbestos Semimetallics are stable to temperatures of 400 750 and exhibit excellent wear resistance --Cermet friction materials are composed of mic particles The metal matrix may be copper or iron presented in Table 20 metal bonded cera- Typical formulae are Cermets have extremely high thermal stability Friction is not sufficient for automobile use and cost is high They are used extensively in aircraft and speed train brakes Both carbon fiber and cermet materials are stable to 700 1290 One problem is high thermal conductivity which can exces- sively heat hydraulic brake fluid causing erratic performance 46 This problem may be avoided by proper design The major problem is low 9 friction Manhattan Inc. manufactures RAYFLEX a nonasbestos friction material for use in cooled transmissions and brake applications in large road vehicle4s8 Uses and Applications-Semimetallic ceremetalics and carbon composite materials are used in the friction materials industry as substitutes for asbestos friction materials for heavy applications The Friction Materials Standards Institute polled its membership early in 1980 to obtain information on the use of nonasbestos disc brakes Results of this survey are presented in Tables 21 and 22. However the data does not specify the exact type of nonasbestos lining used nor the actual prevalence of 92 Material Matrix copper zinc tin nickel titanium brass chips iron TABLE 20. CERMET FRICTION MATERIALS WT 45 23 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 47.1 49.6 44.6 44.7 44.9 46.2 52.4 43.6 18.6 46.2 5.5 7.4 3.3 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.0 6.6 6.6 7.1 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.5 3.3 3.3 3.6 28.6 15.0 15.0 8.8 Total 57.8 60.3 55.3 59.7 59.9 56.7 62.3 60.9 57.9 63.8 93 Friction Material calcined kyanite 26.1 26.1 26.1 24.9 19.9 25.6 24.0 24.2 26.1 22.0 silica 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.6 4.6 4.8 4.4 4.5 4.8 4.4 Total 30.9 30.9 30.9 29.5 24.5 30.4 28.4 28.7 30.9 26.4 Lubricant graphite lead 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.1 6.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 8.8 2.0 3.7 Total 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.1 6.1 3.1 48 1.1 1.2 88 Antioxidant molybdenum Total 10.0 7.5 12.5 9.5 9.5 9.8 4.6 9.3 10.0 1.0 10.0 7.5 12.5 9.5 9.5 9.8 4.6 9.3 10.0 1.0 TABLE 21 PASSENGER CAR AND 49 PADS See Table LIGHT TRUCK USAGE OF NONASBESTOS 22 for Police option usage DISC BRAKE Vehicle type Nonasbestos lining with asbestos back Nonasbestos lining only American Motors 1980 1980 1979 Spirit Spirit AMX Concord 4's Concord Eagle 6's Buick 1980 Buick Electra 1979-80 Riviera 1980 Regal Century 1980 Skylark Power brakes 1980 Skylark Manual brakes 1976-8 Skyhawk 1978-79 Regal Century Power brakes 1978-79 Regal Century Manual brakes 1976-79 Skylark 1976-77 Century Manual brakes 1973-75 Apollo Manual brakes Cadillac 1979-80 1979-80 1968-80 Eldorado Diesel Seville Diesel Commercial Chevrolet 1980 Monte Carlo Malibu 1980 Citation Power brakes 1980 Citation Manual brakes 1976-80 Monza 1980 Chevette 1976-80 Camaro 1978-79 Monte Carlo Malibu Power brakes 1978-79 Monte Carlo Malibu Manual brakes 1976-79 Nova . 1976-77 Malibu Manual brakes 1976-77 Vega 1973-75 Nova Manual brakes continued Outer Outer Outer only only only & & IO or & &O Inner only &O Outer only Outer only Outer only Outer only & & & &O or & & & Inner only Outer only Outer only & Outer only I &O Outer only Outer only Outer only 94 TABL2E1 continued Vehicle type Nonasbestos lining with asbestos back Nonasbestos lining only Chevrolet Truck 1978-80 El Camino 1979-80 C- K- 20 1979-80 C- 30 1979-80 30 1979-80 30 JF Front & Rear 1979-80 30 1976-78 C- K- 20 1976-78 C- G- 30 Dodge 1978-80 Omni Dodge Truck 1976-78 Mini Bus 1976 300 Ford 1979-80 Fairmont V8 1980 Thunderbird 1979-80 Mustang V8 Turbo 4 1979-80 Fiesta 1980 Mustang V6 Ford Truck 1976-80 100 4 ^ 4 1977-80 150 4 ^ 4 1976-80 Bronco 1976-78 250 Lt 1976-80 250 250 HD 1980 350 School Bus 350 350 GMC Truck 1978-80 Caballero 1979-80 C- K- 2500 1979-80 C- 3500 1979-80 3500 1979-80 3500 JF Front & Rear continued & &O & O & & or or & & & or or & & & &O & &O & I& Outer only & & & I &O Inner only & & & & & or or & & &O 95 TABLE 21 continued Vehicle type 1979-80 1976-78 1976-78 3500 2500 3500 Nonasbestos lining with asbestos back Nonasbestos lining only & & or or I &O &O & Mercury 1979-80 1980 1979-80 1980 Zephyr V8 Cougar Capri V8 Turbo 4 Capri V6 Oldsmobile &O & & I &O 1980 1979-80 1980 1980 1980 1976-80 1978-79 1978-79 1976-79 1976-78 1976-77 1969-75 1974-75 1973-75 Oldsmobile 98 Toronado Cutlass Omega Power brakes Omega Manual brakes Starfire Cutlass Power brakes Cutlass Manual brakes Omega Omega Toronado Cutlass Manual brakes Oldsmobile Commercial Toronado Omega Manual brakes & &O & or & & Inner only & Outer only Outer only I&0O Outer only Outer only I&0O Outer only Plymouth 1978-80 Horizon I &O Pontiac 1980 1980 1980 1976-80 1976-80 1979-80 1978-79 1978-79 LeMans, Phoenix Phoenix Sunbird Grand Prix Power brakes Manual brakes Firebird drum rears Firebird organic disc rears LeMans Grand Prix Power brakes LeMans Grand Prix Manual brakes continued I &O &O & or & &O Inner only Outer only Outer only 96 TABLE 21 continued Vehicle type 1978-79 1976-77 1976-77 1976-77 1973-75 Phoenix Ventura LeMans Astre Manual brakes Ventura Manual brakes Nonasbestos lining with asbestos back Nonasbestos lining only Outer only & Outer only Outer only Outer only Toyota 1980 Corolla Coupe & Key I Inner Lining 0 === Outer Lining 97 TABLE 22 POLICE AND TAXI USAGE OF NONASBESTOS DISC BRAKE PADS ON FRONTS 2,49 Vehicle type American Motors Nonasbestos lining with asbestos backing 1978 1975-78 Buick Concord Matador Police Police Taxi Outer only Both I & O 1971-80 1979-80 | Buick Police Taxi Century Police Chevrolet Both I & O Both I & O 1971-80 1977-79 1979-80 Chevrolet Police Nova Police Malibu Police Taxi Both I & O Both I & O Both I & O Chrysler 1976-80 1978-80 1977-80 Chrysler Police Cordoba Police Taxi LeBaron Police Taxi Both I & O Both I & O Both I & O Dodge 1977-80 1979-80 1977-80 1977-78 1977 Ford Aspen Police Taxi St. Regis Police Taxi Diplomat Police Taxi Monaco Police Taxi Royal Monaco Police Taxi Both I & O Both I & 0 Both I & O Both I & O Both I & O 1978-80 1976-80 1976-80 1978-79 Fairmont Police Taxi Ford Police Taxi Granada Police Taxi LTD II Police Taxi Both I & O Both I & O Both I & O Both I & O Mercury 1978-80 1976-80 1976-80 Zephyr Police Taxi Mercury Police Taxi Monarch Police Taxi continued Both I O Both I & O Both I & 98 TABLE 22 continued Vehicle type Nonasbestos lining with asbestos backing Oldsmobile 1971-80 1979-80 Oldsmobile Police Cutlass Police Both I & O Both I & O Plymouth 1977-80 1977-80 1978 Pontiac Volare Police Taxi Gran Fury Police Taxi Fury Police Taxi Both I & O Both I & O Both I & O 1971-80 1979-80 Pontiac Police Phoenix Police Taxi Both I & O Both I & O Police and Taxi usage of nonasbestos disk brake linings was as a Police option- actual usage depended on customers ordering that option Mercury in 1976-78 also had nonasbestos disk rears for the Police option Key = I Inner Lining 0 Outer Lining 99 the asbestos substitute In other cases such as for police cars and taxis nonasbestos brake linings were a buyer option with actual usage depending on the number of orders placed Semimetallic or resin bonded metallic friction materials are presently used in heavy automotive applications such as police cars and taxis Semimetallic disc pads were able to attain overall excellent properties at both low and high temperatures which ordinary Class A or Class B organics could not accomplish Downsizing of vehicles resulting in smaller front brakes and higher operating temperatures mandated the use of semimetallics Class A organics gave poor performance and Class B organics made with asbestos were noisy and scored the rotors Semimetallics gained acceptance initially because of their improved performance in spite of a premium price Further acceptance came about more recently due to performance combined with their asbestos nature Semimetallic drum blocks first used in air brakes in heavy trucks used in the logging industry an extremely severe application have been attempted to be scaled down to small drum brakes but the basic nature of semimetallics has not lent itself to the accurate segment configuration required in this application Here semimetallics do not possess the necessary green strength are difficult to bend into the proper shape and are more brittle in cured form and therefore subject to cracking Modifications to date have generally resulted in a product that cannot achieve commercially performance characteristics Work in this area therefore continues The first generation of asbestos drum linings is currently under evaluation by vehicle manufacturers While their performance may be superior to asbes- tos drum brake linings semimetallic drum brake linings tend to perform erratically in different temperatures fade and produce more noise than asbestosbased linings They are more aggressive than asbestos linings that is they have higher friction levels and cause more wear Currently semimetallics are 50 to 60 percent more expensive than asbestos linings but with increased production it is estimated that costs would drop to within 25 percent of asbestos brake linings Approximately 20 percent of passenger cars using disc brakes in 1977 were equipped with semimetallic disc brakes as original equip- ment and it is estimated that in 1985 most original equipment disc brakes in passenger cars and light trucks will be equipped with semimetallic3s8 As Table 21 shows General Motors in the past has used a hybrid brake consisting of one semimetallic and one organic asbestos lining in some massproduced passenger cars and light trucks There are actually several ways in which asbestos organic backing materials may be combined with semimetallic friction materials .One combination is the GM hybrid brake discussed where there is solid semimetallic friction material on one side of the rotor and solid organic friction material on the other side This combination has In some years semimetallics were being phased in and were not included on all models This should not organic backing be confused with the use layers on both the inner of semimetallic friction materials and outer pads of some disc brakes 100 provided good performance GM also uses friction materials with no backing layers instead they are 100 percent semimetallic materials organic on both sides which of the allows rotor and strength is provided by the them to simplify the tooling process addition of more fiber Beyond this Bendix makes several types of combinations of friction materials One is the use of a semimetallic friction material with an organic backing layer both of which are placed on both sides of the rotor The organic layer helps 1 insulate 2 provide strength to this layer for riveting and 3 slightly reduces cost Bendix also produces a combination featuring 100 percent organic friction material on one side of the rotor and the semimetallic friction layer with the organic backing layer on the other Compared to disc brakes with asbestos friction materials the hybrid brakes have a higher coefficient of friction higher heat resistance and longer life This combination is a compromise in cost and performance compared to a full semimetallic or full Class B. While some industry sources feel that hybrid brakes will capture the market because of superior performance others believe that trends to lower speed limits and lighter weight cars will reduce the need for high per- formance brakes Still others state that efficient vehicles and front- wheel drive have increased the need for heavier and smaller brakes that need the improved performance that only semimetallics have been able to offer This trend is reflected in Table 21 where for example American Motors reports using a nonasbestos brake lining with an asbestos back on outer brake positions only on their 1980 Spirits rear wheel drive while Chrysler uses nanasbestos linings with an asbestos back on both inner and outer brake positions on their 1980 Dodge Omnis front wheet drive The high landing speeds and heavy weights of modern aircraft and highspeed trains require friction materials with high thermal stability Cermet materials possess this property and for this reason their share of the air- craft brake market continues to grow Currently nearly 100 percent of all new commercial aircraft use cermet brake linings At the other end of the spectrum nearly all new military aircraft use carbon composites due to the weight they save and high pressure for performance in these uses As the use of cermets and full sintered metallics in aircraft brakes began in the 1940s they are not new replacements for asbestos in addition cermets are not likely candidates for highway brakes or small clutch facings Cermet materials have also been used for railcar brakes but in the last several years nearly meric binders with various all railcar brakes have been made of rubber friction modifiers In general asbestos poly- and lead are not present in these brake5s3 Substitute Product Manufacturing Summary-- Manufacturing Semimetallic disc pads are made using a mix process Ingredients are blended then formed into briquets at room temperature and 27.6 to 41.4 MPa 4000 to 6000 psi The briquets are then pressed at 160 to 180 320 to 360 for 5 to 15 minutes at 27.6 to 55.2 MPa 4000 to 51 Only the Concorde and possibly one Soviet model use carbon composite 101 8000 psi The pads are then cured at 220 to 300 430 to 570 for 4 to 8 hours Final grinding produces the finished disc pads Briquets are formed at 10.3 to 17.2 MPa 1500 to 2500 psi Briquets may be heated to 90 195 for 15 to 30 minutes to reduce blistering during hot pressing Blocks are formed by heating at 130 to 150 265 to 300 at 13.8 to 20.7 MPa 2000 to 3000 psi for 10 to 30 minutes After cutting to size blocks are ground to the appropriate size followed by curing unconfined for 15 hours at 180 355 or confined for 6 hours at 280 535 The final block requires grinding drilling and chamferring Cermet materials are manufactured using the powder metallurgy technique Desired amounts of individual ingredients are weighed mixed compacted sintered and coined or recompacted The sintering is performed in a reducing or neutral atmosphere and the sintering temperature has to be high enough so that the metal ingredients will adhere to each other In carbon composites carbon or graphite fibers are embedded in a carbon or graphite matrix The matrix can be formed by two methods chemical vapor deposition and coking In the case of chemical vapor deposition a hydro- carbon gas is introduced the decomposition of the alternative method is to into a reaction chamber in which carbon formed from gas condenses on the surface of carbon fibers An mold a carbon resin mixture into shape and coke the resin precursor at high temperatures In both of the methods the process has to be repeated until a desired density is obtained Name and number of manufacturers 23 lists nonasbestos brake manu- facturers their locations and the substitute materials they use Semimetallic disc brake pads and blocks were originally designed and produced by Bendix Corporation Bendix has reported that some new equipment was required for their manufacture Abex Corporation and Manhattan Inc. also make semi- metallic disc brake pads Cermet materials are manufactured by Bendix Corporation and Abex Corpora- tion brakes Filler Abex also makes fiberglass disc brake materials Carbon composite are manufactured by Dunlop Bendix Goodrich and Goodyear 9 American and Abrasives has been marketing an asbestos substitute called Cel made primarily of cellulose and clay wastes which is being tested in brake linings Kevlarfiaramid fiber products are made by E.I. DuPont de Nemours and Co. Inc. Wilmington DE Manhattan makes Rayflex for brakes in road vehicles Production Although production figures for individual firms are not available it is known that in 1980 semimetallic materials were used in 40 percent of all front disc brakes Cermet materials are used almost ex- clusively for commercial aircraft brakes and control almost 100 percent of the current market Kevlarfiproducts are available from a commercial production facility which is being expanded to 20 million kg capacity This expansion is for production of aramid fiber products which are not necessarily friction materials At present no company uses Kevlarfiin pads or linings for brake products9 102 TABLE 23 NONASBESTOS BRAKE MANUFACTURERS Manufacturer Bendix Corp. Location Southfield MI" Troy Nya Cleveland TN Substitute material Semimetallics Cermets Abex Corp. Raybestos Inc. Cleveland OH Troy MI Winchester VA Stratford CT Trumbull CT Semimetallics Cermets Fiberglass Semimetallics Dunlop American Filler & Abrasives Moraine Div General Motors Corporation E.I. DuPont de Nemours and Company England Bangor MI Dayton OH Wilmington DE Carbon composite Kay cellulose and clay Semimetallics Kevlar aramid Designed at this location This company does not currently manufacture brakes or linings rather it is a materials manufacturer who is attempting to evaluate a new product for friction applications in the experimental stage COST COMPARISON The basic cost of the substitute friction products involves many complex factors including the amount and types of materials used and the basic raw materials cost The fixed and variable costs of manufacturing can differ greatly based on the type of process and its complexity as well as production volumes labor costs energy costs and process yield Administrative costs and distribution costs are also significant variables as are implementation costs Here it appears that timing of test programs will be important as expenses could be minimized by converting to asbestos materials as part of the scheduled new vehicle design programs where significant brake system testing is already necessary Life cycle costs are also a necessary consideration semimetallics have higher life cycle costs than organics yet they are needed on the smaller and lighter vehicles and these possess better fuel economy Although exact costs for semimetallic friction materials are not available their improved performance compensates for their higher costs due to more expensive ingredients higher specific gravity and more costly processing 103 requirements Currently they are good candidates and have replaced organic friction materials in disc brakes Preliminary cost estimates indicate that asbestos brake lining may cost 20 to 25 percent more than current linings with disc brakes at 20 to 100 percent greater cost These preliminary estimates are highly dependent on the characteristics of semimetallics making them extremely difficult and costly to process as drum lining segments Consequently a new class of friction materials is currently under development to suit this applicatio3n8 Cermets cost three to five times as much as asbestos friction materials Costs for carbon composites are not available but they are considerably more expensive than cermets Kevlarfi aramid fiber is available in a short pulp form at 3.75 8.25 Only small amounts of this fiber are reported to be required with deep filler materials making the cost between 20 and 40 percent greater than for asbestos with lifetime asbestos Table 24 lists the costs of various tutes for asbestos in friction material costs approaching those of fibers proposed as substi- TABLE 24 COSTS OF MATERIALS PROPOSED AS SUBSTITUTES FOR ASBESTOS IN FRICTION MATERIA57LaS Material Price - lb kg Asbestos Fibrous glass Mineral wool Potassium titanate fibers Graphite and carbon fibers Wollastonite Aramid fibers 0.05 - 0.15 0.11 - 0.33 0.50 - 0.75 0.11 - 1.65 0.15 0.33 1.00 - 1.25 2.20 - 2.75 10.00 - 12.00 22.00 - 26.50 0.15 0.33 3.75 - 8.00 8.25 - 17.65 Prices should be used for comparison only Dollars are 1978 U.S. CURRENT TRENDS The need for more efficient automobiles and trucks has put an increased demand on friction materials Major trends are towards smaller lighter more efficient vehicles with manual transmissions and smaller brakes Although organic friction materials will continue to serve the drum brake industry more and more vehicles are being equipped with ventilated disc brakes Ventilated brakes may be replaced by solid rotor disc brakes to save weight As brakes become smaller braking temperatures become higher Class B organic and semimetallic friction materials will replace Class A organics because they have higher thermal stability Heavy vehicles are using more and more efficient disc brakes More cermet friction materials will be used in heavy clutches The trend in aircraft brakes may be toward lighter carbon composite materials 104 Because of present and future health standards some automobile manu- facturers are in favor of removal of asbestos and lead from brakes automakers have cut the average asbestos content of disc brake linings U.S. from 0.45 kg to about 28 grams with the remaining asbestos present in the backing layer ways to Both General Motors and Ford have asked their suppliers totally eliminate asbestos from disc brakes Because of to seek the curved shape required for drum brakes no suitable substitute for asbestos is readily available However Rockwell International Corporation manufacturer of about 60 percent of the brakes used in heavy trucks has a major development effort aimed at obtaining asbestos friction materials from suppliers Warner Corporation Bendix a"nd Abex Corporation among others have developed proprietary substitutes for automobile brake friction materials Some are in the consumer testing stage but no additional information is avail- able at this time A company such as Bendix is not aggressively pursuing licensing policies but does have many license agreements for the international market which usually include territorial exclusions Significant company funds have been expended to develop this new technology Warner has spent several million dollars to develop asbestos friction materials for em- ployee safety and may enter license agreements or manufacture in Brazil Although Manhattan Inc. stated publicly in May 1979 that the company would halt the manufacture of brake linings and other parts that contain asbestos by using a blend of 10 to 15 components 40 percent fiber 20 percent resin binder and 40 percent friction modifiers discussions with company representatives revealed that this was not strictly true The company has developed some nonasbestos substitute products for certain applications and has committed itself to a search for nonasbestos substitutes but the complete removal of asbestos from their friction materials is not expected in the problem foreseeable future Small brake lining manufacturers have a real capital equipment and financing of nonasbestos friction products with Part of the problem in designing new brake systems is simply that it takes time Both the materials used and their properties are a result of optimization procedures with extensive testing programs both by the material supplier and by the customer to ensure suitability quality and regulatory conformance For evolutionary changes an example of which would be an improved organic disc pad utilizing the same basic components asbestos resin and modifers but with better wear improved fade resistance and the same friction and noise properties years are required In this case asbestos organic linings are essentially the product of 40 years of evolutionary changes Supplier development and validation testing requires 18 to 24 months consumer application testing 12 to 18 months and 6 months manufacturing time or a total of 3 to 4 years for one evolutionary change In addition there are revolutionary changes which actually advance the state that are more difficult to come by and are even longer in the developmental phases It is Bendix Corporation 36 105 unrealistic to apply a timetable to inventions but for establishing the feasibility of a new concept 12 to 18 months is a reasonable time period to be expected Reducing that concept to a product with some or most of the basic characteristics can take another 12 to 24 months Formulation development for commercial application and validation of properties adds 24 to 36 months An additional 12 to 18 months is required for customer application testing plus 6 months manufacturing lead or a total change requiring 5 to 8years Eliminating asbestos from automotive friction materials is considered a revolutionary change As ideas on substitute products came into being around 1975 and later the first evolutionary changes are now underway to help develop a second generation of materials which have improved properties and the multiple types and assortment of formulations necessary for different application3s8 As indicated semimetallic disc brake pads without asbestos in either the friction material or the backing layer are currently in use but cannot be used in all vehicle applications An orderly transition is expected to occur approaching 100 percent utilization by 1985. Development of asbestosfree organic brake pads and semimetallic drum brake linings is continuing at Bendix with production implementation not yet able to be predicted In addition Bendix and others are in the final development stage of work on first generation asbestos organic brake linings and some asbestosfree blocks are available commercially for heavy applications with the first significant production release expected in 1982. All of these new developments show continued effort from industry to move towards a dominance of asbestos products in the friction materials area CONCLUSION Semimetallic disc brake friction materials originally designed and produced by Bendix Corporation and now also manufactured by Morraine Abex and Manhattan are expected to increase market share relative to asbestos disc brake materials In fact it is projected that in 1985 nearly all original equipment disc brakes made for passenger cars and light trucks will be equipped with semimetallics At the present time a nonasbestos product for drum brake linings for passenger cars is not available commercially However intense research in this area is underway with specifics still proprietary at this time The first commercially nonasbestos drum lining may contain some combination of steel fibers synthetic fibers cotton ceramic carbon natural materials glass and mineral fibers For this model year 1980 commercial nonasbestos linings were not available for drum brakes however Bendix Corporation is apparently very close to marketing this kind of product As for cermet brake linings once the problem of their interaction with hydraulic brake fluid can be solved their use may grow in the heavy clutch car or field Cermets are not likely truck brakes With all candidates for of the current replacement of passenger research into brake lining substitutes a nonasbestos product for more universal use should become available in the future 106 Clearly the design of the entire braking system has a great influence on the types of friction material that can be used The lack of readily available nonasbestos drum brake linings contrasted with the progress toward totally asbestos disc brake pads underscores this point However redesign appears to be given less consideration than the search for a material to re- place asbestos for the following reasons e Brake systems in use have been time tested and proven effective Changes in the existing systems would require that the system and the asbestos replacement both be tested intensively Problems could result if replacements are not made of materials similar to those of the original equipment as the entire brake system is designed asa unit may cause safety or Without careful study wear problems Time is substitution often needed to heal these faults Testing requirements are signifi- cantly reduced if only the asbestos substitute is to be evaluated e Any new brake system must be suitable to be maintained by automobile dealers and service stations Any complex new system or radical changes in brake system construc- tion that would be difficult to maintain properly would be unacceptable fi Equipment designed to produce brake systems currently in use would either have to be replaced or modified to produce a new brake system possibly necessitating large capital expen- ditures at a time the automotive industry is feeling finan- cial constraints e The many manufacturers of brake linings must respond to the needs of their customers Until the automobile manufacturers supply different product specifications as for the friction material component of a new braking system the brake lining manufacturers will continue to supply a traditional product Brake system changes must be initiated by original equipment manufacturers This tion problem is reported to be even materials in the nonautomotive greater field for suppliers and users of fricIn many instances these clutches and brakes were manufactured 10 to 40 years ago and the testing facilities of the manufacturer have been dismantled In other cases the volume of replacement friction materials is so low that the manufacturer of the clutches and brakes cannot afford to set even if the test facilities up test programs were available to evaluate friction materials This is true for commercially acceptable asbestos friction materials untried nonasbestos friction materials and probably even more true for The information presented here is taken in part from Reference 38 107 It is much easier more readily acceptable and much less risky for brake lining manufacturers to attempt to find a substitute for asbestos rather than effect a complete redesign of braking systems Consequently most research is focussed on the search for substitutes The outlook for the use of asbestos in friction material is at best mixed The majority of the industry's products are used in passenger auto- mobiles and as such are influenced by the vagaries of the buying public if a lot of new cars are being sold a lot of new brakes will be required Conversely will result if fewer new cars are sold more used cars in the marketplace in more sales of replacement brake friction materials Further uncertainty is introduced by the American automobile manufacturers avowed intentions to eliminate asbestos from original equipment brakes by the 1985 model year If successful substitutes are found asbestos consumption in friction materials will drop precipitously The target date set for 1985 represents the culmination of a carefully thought phased production pro- cess on the part of friction materials producers The use of asbestos in friction materials is likely to continue in industrial equipment such as brake blocks and clutch facings for lathes presses hoists etc. more limited demand while asbestos products are developed for the automotive industry Manhattan plans to eliminate asbestos from its friction material products by 1982.619802.60 108 REFERENCes AIA comments to GCA Draft Final Asbestos Substitutes Analysis Report Received October 22 1981 Performance Telecon M. G. Jacko Bendix Materials Center with Nancy Krusell Technology Division November 23 1981. Notebook No. 1-619-018-012 p5 Michaels L. and S. S. Chissick Asbestos - Volume Applications and Hazards New York John Wiley and pp 95-103 1 Properties Sons 1979 Twiss S. B. and E. J. Sydor U.S. Rewarded to Chrysler Corporation Patent 3,007,890 November 7 1961 Jacko M. G. and R. T. Du Charme Brake Emissions Emission Measurements from Brake and Clutch Linings From Selected Mobile Sources U.S. Nat Tech Information Service 222-372 Clifton R. A. Asbestos U.S. Preprint from Department of the the 1980 Bureau of Mines Minerals , Interior p 4 Yearbook Jacko M. G. and S. K. Rhee Brake Linings pedia of Chemical Technology Third Edition John Wiley and Sons 1979 pp 202-212 and Clutch Volume 4. Facings New York Encyclo- Bark Based 1975 L. S. D. Moran and S. J. Percival Friction Materials During Performance Chemical Changes in Asbestos- - A Review Wear 131-139 Jacko M. G. Bendix Section of GCA Draft July 16 1981 Materials Center Review of Friction Materials Final Asbestos Substitutes Performance Analysis . Report 10 Meylan W. M. et al Chemical Market Output Analysis of Selected Chemical Substances to Assess Sources of Environmental Contamination Task III - Asbestos 6-78-005 August 1978. pp 61 63-65 100 11 Telecon Manhattan Inc. with David 1980. Friction products manufactured Cook GCA February 28 12 Telecon Kevin Peppard Bendix Corporation with February 28 1980. Notebook No. 1-619-007-02 p manufactured David Cook GCA 66. Friction product 109 13 Telecon George Bason Abex Corp. with David Cook 1980. Asbestos substitutes in friction materials GCA February 11 14 Telecon Tom Nick Moraine Division of General Motors Corporation Dayton OH 513 227-5000 with Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Technology Division April 14 1981 Call No. 7 15 Telecon February Mr. Sleeth H. K. Porter Company with Robert 29 1980. Friction products manufactured Bouchard GCA 16 17 18 19 20 Telecon Terry Blaine Warner Corporation Spring Division with Robert Bouchard GCA March 4 1980. Friction products manufactured Telecon February Roy Huckabee Nuturn Company with Robert 29 1980. Friction products manufactured Bouchard GCA Telecon Earl Fygert Robert Bouchard GCA National February Friction Products Corporation with 29 1980. Friction products manufactured Telecon Bill Shine Robert Bouchard GCA Auto Specialists Manufacturing Company with February 29 1980. Friction products manufactured Telecon Standco Industrial with Robert 1980. Friction products manufactured Bouchard GCA February 28 21 22 Telecon Jack Payton Friction Products Company with Robert Bouchard GCA February 29 1980. Friction products manufactured Telecon Bouchard Andrews Royal GCA February Industrial 28 1980. Brake Products Inc. with Robert Friction products manufactured 23 Telecon Montgomery Reddaway Manufacturing Company with Robert Bouchard GCA February 29 1980. Friction products manufactured 24 Telecon Molded Industrial Friction Corporation with GCA March 3 1980. Friction products manufactured Robert Bouchard 25 Telecon Bouchard Wheeling Brake GCA February Block Manufacturing 29 1980. Friction Company with Robert products manufactured 26 Telecon Bouchard Reginal D. Kelley Force Control Industries with Robert GCA March 3 1980. Friction products manufactured 27 Telecon March 3 Brassbestos Manufacturing Corp. with Robert 1980. Friction products manufactured Bouchard GCA 28 Telecon March 3 Paul 1980. Biondo Auto Friction Corp. with Friction products manufactured Robert Bouchard GCA 29 Telecon March 3 Robert Randolf Gatke Corporation with Robert 1980. Friction products manufactured Bouchard GCA 110 30 31 32. 33 34 Telecon March 3 Lasco 1980. Brake Products Company with Robert Friction products manufactured Bouchard GCA Telecon March 3 Appollageno MGM Brakes Inc. with Robert Bouchard 1980. Friction products manufactured GCA Telecon Friction Carlisle Corporation with Robert products manufactured Bouchard GCA March 3 1980 Telecon March 3 Thiokal Chemical Corporation with Robert Bouchard 1980. Friction products manufactured GCA Telecon Mr. Baltz Baltz Company Inc. distributors poration with Robert Bouchard GCA March 4 1980. manufactured for Eaton Cor- Friction products 35 Telecon Bill Ferk Scan Manufacturing Company Mequon WI 414 241-3890 with Nancy Krusell GCA Corporation Technology Division April 22 1981. They also have a plant in Lexington KY but do not use asbestos there 36 37 Additional company information added October 1981 from Telecons to Bob Pigg AIA and Ed Drislane Friction Materials Standards Institute with Nancy Krusell Technology Division Notebook No. 1-619-007-9 P. 148 Clifton R. A. Asbestos United States Bureau of Mines Washington D.C. Mineral Commodity Profile July 1979 p % also preprint from Clifton's 1978-79 and 1980 Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbook 38 39 40 Jacko M. G. C. M. Brunhofer and F. W. Aldrich Nonasbestos Friction Materials Speech presented at the CPSC Substitutes to Asbestos Conference July 14-16 1980 Arlington VA Found in Proceedings of the National Workshop on Substitutes for Asbestos GCA November 1 1980 Loken H. Y. E.I. DuPont de Nemours & and Dry Clutches Reinforced with Kevlar Series Paper presented at Earthmoving April 14-16 1980 Co. Inc. Asbestos Free Brakes Aramid Fiber SAE Technical Paper Industry Conference Peoria IL Pye A. M. A Applications 1979 Review of Asbestos Substitute Materials in Industrial Journal of Hazardous Materials Netherlands 137-138 41 42 Hayes J. S. American Kyanol Incorporated letter to George A. Registered Professional Engineer November 20 1979 Peters U.K. Patent Application GB2018806A filed 22 August 1978 111 43 Moulton E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co. Discussion Products Roundtable Session CPSC Substitute Conference Arlington VA July 14-16 1980 During Friction to Asbestos 44 U.S. Patent No. 3,552,533 Carbonized Friction J. Nitz G. Graham Patented January 5 1971. New York N.Y. Article Assignee Inventors Abex Corp. 45 Allen A. W. and R. H. Herron U.S. Patent 2,948,955 August 16 1960 46 Green A. K. and A. M. Pye Asbestos Characteristics Applications and Alternatives Fulmer Research Institute Fulmer Special Report No. 5 ISSN 0427-7457 1976 47 Telecon Wayne Quasar Westinghouse Air Brake Company with Nancy Krusell GCA November 19 1979. Cermet brakes 48 49 Annual Reports - 1979 Manhattan N. 11 p 14 May 1980 Asbestos V. 61 Drislane E. W. Executive Director Friction Materials Standards Institute letter to Richard Guimond EPA OPTS undated received at EPA April 21 1980 50 51 Telecon M. August 1979. G. Jacko Bendix Materials Center Semimetallic Disc Brake pads with Nancy Krusell GCA Telecon Norris A. Hooton Director of Engineering Bendix Brake & Strutt 219 237-2801 with Nancy Krusell Technology Division November 25 1981. Notebook No. 012 p 25 52 53 Telecon February Jack Reynolds Manville 19 1980. Railcar brakes with David Cook GCA Telecon Leon GCA February Kopyt Mass Transit Systems 19 1980. Railcar brakes Corporation with David Cook 54 55 56 Proceedings of the National July 14-16 1980. Friction Mr. Brunhofer of Bendix p Workshop on Substitutes for Asbestos Roundtable Session remark made by 197 Telecon March 3 M. G. 1980. Jacko Bendix Materials Center Brake compositions with David Cook GCA Drislane M. Friction GM and Mr. Brunhofer Products USEPA VA July 14-16 1980. shop on Substitutes to Materials Standards Institute FMSI Mr. Ward Bendix Roundtable Discussion for Friction Alternatives to Asbestos Conference Arlington Presented in Proceedings of the National WorkAsbestos GCA November 1980 57 Telecon Eugene Conner Manville January 17 1980. Asbestos prices with David Cook GCA 112 58 59 60 Business Week Week December The Growing Need 3 1979 p 98D for Asbestos Substitutes Business Telecon February Robert Curran Warner Corp. with David Cook GCA 11 1980. Asbestos substitutes in friction materials Castleman Barry and S. L. Berger July 8 1980 Asbestos Substitute Technology 113 SECTION 4 ASBESTOS CEMENT PIPE ASBESTOS PRODUCT Special Qualities Asbestos Cement A pipe products are strong resilient flexible durable and corrosion resistant pipe may also be said to be nearly inert it is subject to certain corrosive media when used inside buildings for drain waste and vent applications it is fire resistant Asbestos imparts not only important flexural strength in pipe allowing for a certain amount of deflection without failure but also gives the pipe structural integrity so that it may withstand crushing loads and constant and transient hydrostatic pressure The laminar structure of the pipe which results from the basic method of manufacturing also contributes to greater strength This allows for easy tapping for lateral lines or other connectors without a loss of strength Because of the nature of the raw materials Portland cement ground silica and asbestos fibers used to manufacture A pipe it resists corrosion and most chemical action and is not subject to electrolysis The primary purpose of asbestos fibers in A pipe is to act as a reinforcing agent The properties that make asbestos suitable as a reinforcing agent are its high fiber strength resistance to alkali attack and adhesion to cement The raw fibers are also readily wetted and thus contribute favorable and controllable drainage properties to an asbestos cement mix enabling A pipe to be produced by a relatively simple and flexible process similar to that used in making 2 Asbestos can also withstand the autoclave heat and pressure process used in the manufacture of pipe and resists the alkali attack of Portland cement The large surface area of asbestos fibers promotes good adhesion between the cement mixture and the fiber surface Data from unpublished OSHA report on asbestos 114 Product Composition The AWWA defines C pipe a as mixture of either 1 Portland cement or Portland blast furnace slag cement and asbestos fiber with or without silica 2 Portland pozzolana cement and asbestos fiber If the pipe material simply sets under relatively normal ambient conditions Type I representative formulations are 15 to 25 percent asbestos and 75 to 85 percent cement however if the pipe is cured by autoclave Type II as is practiced in the U.S. silica is added so that the representative formulation becomes 15 to 25 percent asbestos 42 to 53 percent cement and 34 to 40 percent silica Finely ground solids from crushed damaged pipe may be added in quantities up to 6 percent as filler material In 1980 it was estimated that 83 percent of the asbestos used in A pipe was chrysotile 119,700 metric tons 17 percent was crocidolite 24,100 metric tons and 0.1 percent was amosite 200 metric tons A water pipe is classified ranging from 2070 to 6200 kPa and on the basis its chemical of its design internal pressure composition as follows e Type I - No limit on uncombined calcium hydroxide Type II - 1 percent or less uncombined calcium hydroxide There is a separate classification for A sewer pipe based on resistance to external crushing loads The chemical composition of the pipe bears no revelance to its pressure class rating but rather to its method of manufacture The pipe's ability to withstand attack which might result in the release of asbestos fibers from aggressive water depends on chemical type Only Type II is recommended for moderately aggressive water whereas either can be used for nonaggressive water In aggressive water applications the serviceability of Type II pipe must be established by the purchaser in conjunction with the manufacturer AWWA spec 400 For external corrosion from ground water in addition to acidity soluble sulfate is an important parameter Conditions for this pipe to set include total immersion in water for a period of approximately 28 days Data from unpublished OSHA report on asbestos Aggressiveness is computed from pH + log and H the total hardness both expressed AH where A is as ppm CaCO3 the total alkalinity 115 Uses and Applications The majority of the A pipe produced is used for water mains pressure pipe and sewer lines nonpressure pipe An indeterminate smaller amount of A pipe is also used as conduits for electrical and telephone cables and for laterals from street mains to the consumer The exact historical accounting of A pipe is unavailable as this information is considered confidential or unknown Over the year period from 1974 to 1980 asbestos pipe jumped from 10.8 percent of pipe in place in 1975 to 13.9 percent in 1980. More dramatically while in 1974 29.8 percent of all pipe installed was A by 1980 A pipe jumped to 40.4 percent Most 72 percent of the A pipe installed as water main is 6 to 12 inches in diameter Tables 25 and 26 show a comparison of the different types of pipe used as water mains The mileage of sewer mains in systems serving more than 2,500 people was estimated to be 737,100 km by a 1975 American City Magazine study The study did not make a distinction between sanitary storm or combined sewers while estimating that A pipe accounted for only 5.4 percent or 40,200 km of this total Over 77 percent of the A pipe was in the 8 to 14 inch category Tables 27 and 28 provide a comparison of the pipes in use Product Manufacturing Summary Manufacturing Process-The manufacture of A pipe is a wet process similar to cellulose paper production The ingredients fibers Portland cement silica sand weighed and added to a dry mixer The mixed ingredients are added to a beater water is added producing an A slurry containing about 97 percent water This slurry is filtered through rotating screens forming a cement ply which is picked up by continuous felt dewatered by vacuum boxes and accumulated on a steel cylinder called a mandrel The plys are wound around the mandrel under several tons of pressure and compressed into a dense homogeneous pipe wall At the proper thickness the rolling up process stops The pipe now in 3 meter 10 foot or 4 meter 13 foot lengths is then precured under controlled heat and humidity After mandrel removal it is final cured by water immersion for Type I or high pressure steam autoclaving for Type II Autoclaving reduces the free lime content enhancing corrosion resistance to high sulfate then finished by precision machining the ends soils and waters The pipe is A pipe may be lined prior to final shipment The pipe is lined to protect the pipe from aggressive or corrosive fluids Although a vinyl lining was often employed in the past the use of vinyl for lining material has virtually ceased in favor of gilsonite asphaltic or proprietary coatings 116 TABLE 25 WATER TYPES OF OF MILEAGE MAIN PIPE NOW IN PLACE -NATIONAL PROJECTIONS Population range served Cast and ductile iron Asbestos cement Steel Reinforced concrete Plastic Other Total Over 1,000,000 43,388 2,982 1,292 1,441 l 596 48,700 500,000 - 999,999 46,176 11,150 4,158 1,197 1 315 62,997 250,000 - 499,999 43,628 7,552 5,992 1,498 250 3,495 62,415 100,000 - 249,999 65,431 7,703 3,230 1,325 1,408 3,727 82,824 50,000 - 99,999 54,905 7,793 3,862 1,545 211 1,895 70,211 25,000 - 49,999 56,870 11,660 5,235 1,348 714 3.490 .317 10,000 - 24,999 84,044 15,008 6,559 1,001 2,334 2,223 111,169 117 2,500 - 9,999 87,373 20,023 7,524 728 =. 2,063 3,641 121,352 Total Mileage Percent of Total 481,815 75.3 83,871 13.1 37,852 5.9 10,083 1.6 6,982 1.1 19,382 639,985 3.0 100.0 For comparison with the 1975 data presented here Installed A pipe accounted for 40 percent of the water pipe business in 1980 with cast iron at 44 percent NOTE Cast iron is the predominate type of pipe now in place accounting for fourths of the total Part of the reason for this large amount may also be credited to the fact that cast iron pipe has been sold for 200 years Asbestos cement has a 13 percent share with none of the other types having more than 6 percent A has been on the market for 50 1 years TABLE 26. WATER MAIN SIZE RANGES BY TYPE OF PIPE NOW IN PROJECTED TOTALS 1975 Percentage of Total in Parentheses Type Under 6 6 _ 12 13 - 24 Over 24 Total Cast and iron ductile Asbestos Cement Steel Reinforced concrete Plastic Other 75,701 15.1 8,088 ( 9.7 20,223 53.4 17 ( 0.2 4,330 62.0 7,510 38.7 369,761 76.7 72,402 86.3 11,171 29.5 416 ( 4.1 2,607 37.3 8,829 45.6 31,645 ( 6.6 3,365 ( 4.0 4,049 10.7 4,374 43.4 40 ( 0.6 2,477 12.8 4,709 481,816 ( 1.0 100.0 16 (* ) 83,871 100.0 2,409 ( 6.4 37,852 100.0 5,276 52.3 10,083 100.0 4 ( 0.1 6,981 100.0 - 566 ( 2.9 19,382 100.0 Less than tenth of 1 percent NOTE The great majority of cast iron and asbestos cement pipe falls within the 6 to 12 range Larger sizes predominate in reinforced concrete with over half of this mileage over 24 in diameter Plastic pipe lies almost exclusively in the two smallest ranges with negligible mileage over 12 Somewhat more than half of the steel total is under " but this type also has significant mileage of large pipe 118 TABLE 27 TYPE OF SEWER MAIN PIPE NOW IN NATIONAL PROJECTIONS OF MILEAGE 1975 Population range served Cast and ductile Asbestos iron cement Vitrified clay Reinforced concrete Plastic Other Total Over 500,000 250,000 - 499,999 100,000 -- 249,999 50,000 - 99,999 25,000 - 49,999 10,000 - 24,999 2,500 - 9,999 547 434 802 1,129 1,512 . 1,606 9,067 1,504 521 601 2,207 6,317 4,435 9,182 41,631 . 33,456 28,109 36,393 30,722 55,211 80,913 17,979 2,343 14,080 10,369 9,395 10,782 9,411 205 521 1,002 616 1,998 918 4,132 6,494 68,360 6,118 43,393 5,512 50,106 616 51,330 4,049 53,993 3,517 76,469 2,066 114,771 Total Mileage 15,097 24,767 306,435 74,359 9,392 28,372 458,422 119 Percent of Total 3.3 5.4 66.8 16.2 2.1 6.2 100.0 NOTE 4 Vitrified clay is thirds of the none of the other the predominate type of pipe now in place accounting for total Reinforced concrete has a 16 percent share with types having more than 6 percent if the total The majority of pipe within the other category is of the unreinforced con- crete category TABLE 28 SEWER MAIN SIZE RANGES BY TYPE OF PIPE NOW IN PROJECTED TOTALS 1975 Percentage of Total in Parentheses 7 -- -- Under " " - 14 15 - 24 Over 24 Total Cast and iron ductile Asbestos cement Vitrified clay Reinforced concrete Plastic Other 4,006 26.5 3,171 12.8 55,626 18.2 4,256 ( 5.7 864 9.2 6,354 22.4 8,805 58.3 19,248 77.7 208,498 68.0 29,283 39.4 7,756 82.6 13,864 48.9 1,958 13.0 2,071 ( 8.4 33,341 10.9 17,587 23.7 447 ( 4.7 4,182 14.7 328 ( 2.2 277 1.1 8,970 ( 2.9 23,233 31.2 325 3.5 3,972 14.0 15,097 100.0 24,767 100.0 306,435 100.0 74,359 100.0 9,392 100.0 28,372 100.0 NOTE Over half of reinforced concrete sewer pipe in place is over 14 in diameter At the other extreme plastic pipe is almost all under 15 with 83 percent between " to 14 The size distributions for cast iron asbestos cement and vitrified clay are more representative of sewer main pipe as a whole 120 Name and Location of Manufacturers-- The primary domestic producers of C pipe are listed below e Manville Caryl Ranch Denver CO 80217 e CertainTeed Corporation 120 E. Lancaster Avenue Ardmore PA 19003 e CAPCO Pipe Co. Inc. P. O. Box 3435 Birmingham AL 35205 A pipe is produced by M in e Denison TX e Long Beach CA e Stockton CA CertainTeed locations include e Santa Clara CA e Hillsboro TX e Ambler PA e Riverside CA CAPCO is located in Ragland AL and Van Buren AR.9 Production Volumes-- Recent A pipe production figures are unavailable A request figures from the A Pipe Producers Association was not answered producers regard this information as proprietary and are reluctant exact numbers for such The to provide Searches through literature and government reports showed a wide disparity between production and fiber use One estimate by the Bureau of Mines places the 1980 fiber use at approximately 144,000 metric tons 121 SUBSTITUTE PRODUCT Methodology Search Strategy-- The primary objective of this survey was to gather current information on substitute product properties and availability The survey began with a review of the available secondary sources to obtain a background as to what is known about A pipe and its substitutes and what must be verified to complete the assessment Journals and magazines were searched for industry contacts and a listing of the applicable Trade Associates was obtained Calls to the Trade Association provided necessary information and new contacts Every possible effort was made to obtain and verify the most recent information No plant trips were made during this task contract a plant visit was made to an A pipe reviewed for applicable information However plant and under a previous GCA the trip report was Summary of Contacts-A partial list of the primary contacts is as follows e Mr. Steve Shea Boston Sewer and Water Commission Boston MA e Mr. Stan Mruk Plastic Pipe Institute New York NY ] Mr. Richard Bogdanovich American Waterworks Association Denver CO e Mr. John Matticks Department of Commerce Washington D.C. @ Mr. Phil Caldwell Cem Corporation Nashville TN e Mr. Robert Walker Bell Plastic Pipe Association Dallas TX ' Mr. Gene Owen American Cast Iron Pipe Company 122 e Mr. John O'Conner American City Magazine Pittsfield MA e Mr. Mike Higgins Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association 1301 W. 22 St. Oakbrook IL 60521 Mr. Harry Niles Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association Jericho VT Mr. Russell Preuit American Concrete Pipe Association Vienna VA e Mr. Ed Sikora National Clay Pipe Association Crystal Lake IL Fiber Substitutes Manufacturers of pipe products have searched for fibers which could be substituted for asbestos as a concrete reinforcing agent For general applications a substitute fiber should be strong resistant to alkali attack compatible with current manufacturing equipment and cost competitive Of the fibers considered here only special glass fibers have been employed in a commercial product A comparison of properties of asbestos and four substitute fibers was tabulated and is presented in Table 29 Asbestos demonstrates excellent reinforcing ability Steel fibers also have demonstrated outstanding reinforcement abilities Carbon fibers have strength elasticity and chemical resistance but lack the cohesion necessary for proper binding Steel Fibers-- Special qualities Table 29 shows steel fibers have which could make them suitable as a replacement for asbestos strength and good cohesion properties many properties including high Source is an unpublished document by OSHA on asbestos 123 TABLE 29. Type of fiber PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS FIBERS FOR USE IN PIPE PRODUCTS m- odulus Strength Fiber surface Cohesion Cohesion Critical length Age resistance Steel + Asbestos + Carbon + Glass + Organic fibers _ + + ++ + + + ++ ++ + ++ + + _ | ++ + + _ | _ + + | + NOTE + = positive reinforcement negative reinforcement Steel fibers have been used in the production of cement pipe ** The use of steel fibers is certainly more convenient than the use of traditional steel reinforcement They are however more expensive per ton of reinforcement than conventional steel reinforcement The result of using steel fibers is not readily predictable An exact knowledge of the amount of reinforcement imparted by randomly oriented fibers is not known Steel fibers also have a drawback in that unless a sufficient cover of cement is present they will be susceptible to corrosion thus weakening the pipe wall Product composition fibers are not currently used in the commercial production of an A pipe substitute Uses and applications fibers are not currently commercially used as a replacement for asbestos in a pipe product Manufacturing summary fibers are not used in a commercial pipe product Glass Fibers-- Special qualities glass fiber reinforcement reduces the weight of material in a product and therefore the energy requirement associated with that weight The energy needed for glass fiber production is roughly one half that of steel per half metric ton thus the total energy consumption per foot Although steel fibers have been used in producing conventional cement pipe it should be noted that this does not necessarily mean that they are auto- matically suitable in A pipe there are significant processing differences between the two products Source is an unpublished OSHA document on asbestos 124 of pipe is lower than that required for most other pipes.11 In addition glass fiber does not rust and is generally compatible with cement provided it can be made resistant to alkali attack It is a fine continuous flexible uniform filament which makes it relatively easy to handle with automatic equipment.11 CertainTeed products an asbestos cement pipe producer reports that alkali resistant glass has only about 60 percent of the tensile strength of asbestos This company's experience is that glass reinforcing strength is not retained over long periods of time 12 disintegrate during autoclaving and some glass fiber is believed to In addition glass is currently more expensive than asbestos and compatibility with the A pipe manufacturing process must be dealt with Product Conventional E glass fiber commonly used in reinforced plastics severely degraded by highly alkaline cement However an resistant glass fiber has been developebdy Building Research Establishment Gaston England The fiber is marketed by Pilkington Brothers Ltd. of St. Helens England under the name Cem Cem Corp. of Nashville Tennessee is the licensed American manufacturer of FIL fiber products The fiber is a zirconia resistant glass fiber which can be used with the highly alkaline cement commonly used for pipe construction See Glass Reinforced Concrete Pipe in Pipe Substitute subsection Uses and applications Glass Reinforced Concrete Pipe in Pipe Substitute subsection Manufacturing Summary Glass Reinforced Concrete Pipe in Pipe Substitute subsection Other Fibers-- Special qualities fibers which have been examined for use in cement and concrete composites include alumina plastic and carbon Fibers such as nylon rayon rockwool mineral cotton acrylic polyester Kevlar and other organic fibers have been studied but not seriously considered due either to high cost low effectiveness or inadequate resistance to the alkaline cement environment in Portland cement However asbestos may not be in the class with most other pipes as it is a natural product and not energy intensive Source is unpublished OSHA document on asbestos 125 Product Substitutes-- A pipe is laterals areas used primarily in the water Water main substitutes for fiberglass reinforced plastic pipe PVC and substitutes for C pipe are vitrified clay iron and sewer main including A pipe are ductile iron reinforced concrete Sewer main concrete plastic and ductile In the more minor areas of conduits drainage and irrigation pipe these various types of pipe are also competitive There is no readily available information on these areas Less emphasis will be placed on these categories since what applies to water and sewer lines could easily be extended to include these areas Concrete Pipe-- Special qualities pipe reinforced and nonreinforced has qualities which are similar to those of A pipe with steel replacing asbestos as a reinforcing agent Concrete is a durable natural material excellent longevity It is amenable to specialty uses with only minor adjustments This pipe is not used for pressure applications with the exception of low pressure agricultural uses with Product composition is an aggregate of sand gravel and cement Concrete pipe may be produced without reinforcement which is common in the smaller sizes Reinforced pipe consists of concrete reinforced circumferentially with steel bars and one or more layers of welded wire mesh Uses and applications pipe reinforced and nonreinforced is used for water mains storm and sanitary sewer mains irrigation and subdrains In nation's water in diameter.6 1974 concrete pipe accounted for only 1.6 percent of the mains however over 95 percent of this pipe was over 13 inches See Tables 25 and 26 Concrete is used more often as sewer mains as shown by over 16 percent of the nation's sewers being concrete in 1974 The largest portion is over 24 inches in size see Tables 27 and 28 limitations primary advantage of concrete sewer pipe is its availability since it is often made out of local materials This type of pipe has excellent longevity exceeding 50 to 13 100 years Also at sizes greater than 24 inches it costs less than A pipe For deep buried uses this equals properly specified A pipe for strength Reinforced concrete pipe may also be cast in elliptical or arch 13 shapes These shapes allow for the same sectional area with a smaller effective height thus it may be buried in shallower trenches compared to circular pipes This can contribute to lower installation costs These shapes also give a design advantage since their hydraulic properties differ from those of circular pipes This is important since sufficient velocity must be maintained to prevent the settling out of suspended solids from sewerage and to prevent excess velocities which could lead to increased 126 abrasion of pipe surfaces Control of the flowing fluids occurs as a result of the changing sectional areas pipe Concrete particular use is also versatile in that it may When stronger pipe is necessary be designed for a more steel reinforcement may be added and the wall thickness increased Aggressive fluid or soil conditions may be counteracted with thicker walls or by adjusting the chemical composition of the concrete The primary limitation of all concrete pipes including A is that they are susceptible to attack by acids Industrial wastes may contain aggressive substances High sulfate soils when they become moist may release sulfates which can attack the pipe Septic conditions in a sewer pipe can lead to hydrogen sulfide formation which also reacts with water to form acid and attacks the inner wall of the pipe Hydrogen sulfide formation is of particular concern in the warmer southern sectors of the country Product manufacturing reinforcing sewer pipe is found in diameters ranging from 6 inches to 26 inches Reinforced concrete sewer pipe is generally available in sizes from 12 inches to 144 inches and it is not uncommon to use reinforced concrete for mains in excess of 20 feet in diameter 14 Pipe length is determined by the standards uses and weight of the pipe The handling of the pipe is a particular design consideration for unreinforced pipe since the pipe must be strong enough to withstand handling Six to eight inch diameter pipe is common in 4 feet to 6 feet lengths The standard length for reinforced pipe is about 8 feet although pipe may be custom produced in lengths exceeding 20 feet There are approximately states Production volume Concrete Pipe Association 375 manufacturers of concrete pipe in 47 information is published by the American Vitrified Clay Pipe -- Special qualities pipe's primary qualities which make it attractive as a replacement pipe include the fact that it is constructed from inert materials clay However its cost is greater than A concrete or PVC pipe It should be noted that although such casting of shapes is useful represent only a very small portion of the total pipe market.1 they Asbestos is produced and also nine versatile - three classes of A distribution classes of A transmission pipe pipe are 127 Product composition pipe is manufactured from shales and clay which are inert materials Hydrous aluminum silicates are the clays most suitable for the manufacture of V They have the plasticity essential for the extrusion process they are stable at high temperatures and have good drying and firing properties. Uses and applications clay pipe C is used primarily in pressure applications such as sanitary and storm sewers septic tank drainage fields and underground collection systems 17 Over thirds of all sewer mains currently in the ground are C pipe The majority of the pipe is in the 8 to 14 inch range while only 3 percent is reported to be over 24 inches in diameter see Tables 27 and 28 Advantages and limitations C pipe's qualities is the fact that it is one of man's oldest known pipe materials 17 Clay has a proven record of performance it been used for centuries Clay has been used in the United States since 1815.16 Vitrified clay is an inert material and thus unaffected by most normal components in domestic and industrial sewerage.17 It also has a long life expectancy good flow characteristics and resistance In addition C pipe is produced with domestic materials The main limitation of V is weight as it is extremely heavy It also is a rigid pipe and thus needs extra care in handling and bed preparation Its lack of flexibility could be a limiting factor particularly in high stress situations results in the use It also is only manufactured in short 1 of more joints per mile of pipe lengths which Product manufacturing summary pipe is produced from clays and shales see Product Composition The mined clay is mixed and ground to obtain the proper mixture and consistency 16 The clay pipe is extruded finished and air dried This green pipe is vitrified by heating in a kiln at approximately 2000 1100 Finished pipe is then tested according to ASTM procedures C pipe is commonly found with nominal diameters from 3 inches The length varies but 6 to 7 feet is common with smaller sizes available in lengths up to 10 feet to 42 some of the Name and location of manufacturers list of C manufacturers who are members of the National Clay Pipe Institute was provided by the National Clay Pipe Institute and is included below These companies may operate several plants fi Can Industries Division of Harsco Corporation P. O. Box 340 Minerals Wells TX 76067 However less than 50 percent of sewer pipe currently being installed is vitrified clay.1 128 = e Clow Corporation Clay Products Division 300 S. Gary Avenue Carol Stream IL 60187 Denver Brick and Pipe Company P. O. Box 2329 Denver CO 80201 e W. S. Dickey Company P. O. Box 6 Pittsburg KS 66762 e The Logan Clay Products Company P. O. Box 698 Logan OH 43138 e Mission Clay Products Corporation P. O. Box 391 Whittier CA 90608 e Pacific Clay Products Inc. 9500 S. Norwalk Boulevard Sante Fe Springs 90670 e Pomona Pipe Products Company P. O. Box 20400 Greensboro NC 27420 e Superior Clay Corporation Uhrichsville OH 44683 Production volumes production figures in terms of kilometers of pipe and size distribution could not be located Yearly production figures reported by the Department of Commerce in its publication Construction Review are included in Table 30 TABLE 30 VITRIFIED CLAY SEWER PIPE PRODUCTION FIGURES 1973-197818 thousand metric tons Year Production Shipments 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1,578 1,355 1,126 1,006 970 921 1,494 1,319 1,080 996 1,004 855 Plastic Pipe-- Special qualities section on plastic emphasizes polyvinyl chloride PVC although the properties of all plastic pipe are fairly similar Table 31 is a list of the physical properties of the major thermoplastics PVC is inert to inorganics such as acids alkalis and salts Plastic is not subject to electrochemical or galvanic action Ultraviolet radiation can effect the polymer bonds but is not a concern in pipe which is not exposed to direct sunlight Table 32 is a listing of the chemical resistance of plastic pipe to various chemicals Plastics are viscoelastic that is they respond to stress as if they were a combination of elastic solids and very viscous fluids Consequently they have elasticity strength and form stability as well as flow sensitivity to time under load rate of loading and temperature component tends to dampen the response between stress and strain and The viscous As a result material cracking or failure versus creep or excessive deformation usually becomes the controlling performance criteria for plastics under long term stress This must be accounted for in the safe design of pipe subjected to continuous loading such as pressure pipe The Smooth walled thermoplastic pipes behave as flow characteristics do not deteriorate with noncorrosive hydraulically smooth pipes time since plastic is Product composition are literally thousands of plastic materials These polymers are formed from reactions with many of the carbon chain molecules found in petroleum products or synthesized in the laboratory Polyvinyl chloride is formed from the reaction of vinyl chloride monomers to form the PVC polymer Uses and applications types of plastic have been created by polymer chemists which may be formed into pipes These include polyvinyl chloride PVC polyethylene PE acrylonitrile ABS and polybutylene PB which have a range of characteristics and properties as great if not greater than any other category of traditional piping material Plastic piping has a broad range of applications including hot and cold water supply drain waste and vent lines abrasive slurry lines gas distribution water mains and services well casings communications and power ducts and vacuum lines Rural water distribution and private sewerage systems are almost exclusive applications of plastic piping Well over half the piping used for gas transmission and telephone conduits is plastic Note Except where otherwise referenced the material in this section was obtained from Thermoplastic Piping A Report by the ASCE Task Committee on Plastic Pipe Stanley A. Mruk Technical Director PPI ASCE Annual Convention San Francisco October 17-21 1977. 52 p 130 TABLE 31 TYPICAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MAJOR THERMOPLASTIC PIPING MATERIALS 19 Property @ 75 ASTM test no ABS I II PVC PE CPVC PB PP SR I II I II III Specific Gravity 792 1.04 1.08 1.40 1.36 1.54 0.92 0.94 0.95 0.92 0.92 1.06 Tensile Strength PSI 103 638 4.5 7.0 8.0 7.0 8.0 2.0 2.4 3.2 4.2 3.5 3.8 Tensile Modulus PSI 105 638 3.0 3.4 4.1 3.6 4.2 0.90 1.20 1.2 0.55 1.1 3.2 Impact Strength izod inch notch 256 6 4 1 6 1.5 10 10 10 10 5 1 Coeff of Linear Expansion 696 5.5 6.0 3.0 5.0 3.0 in - F 10-5 10 9.0 9.0 7.2 4.3 6.8 Thermal Conductivity Btu - F 177 1.35 1.35 1.1 1.3 1.0 2.3 2.9 3.2 1.5 0.8 0.8 Specific Heat Btu - F - 0.32 0.34 0.25 0.23 0.20 0.50 0.54 0.55 0.45 0.45 0.33 131 Approx Operating Limit F pressure F pressure 180 180 150 130 210 100 130 160 210 200 ~~ 140 160 160 130 110 = 180 90 120 140 180 150 - Exact operating limit may vary for each particular commercial plastic material of environment should also be considered Effects Key ABS PVC CPVC PE PB PP SR Acrylonitrile Polyvinyl chloride Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride Polyethylene Polybutylene Propylene Plastic polypropylene Styrene Rubber TABLE 32. CHEMICAL RESISTANCE GUIDE AT AMBIENT TEMPERATURES Compounds PVC Fluorocarbon Chlorinated ARS ARS CPVC PE PB PP SR CAB POP II polyether OO - -_C IFE PVF Inorganic Acids dilute Acids conc 80 G LEGL22000OL 053020L20COL 02102ORNO0 CDC020CO 027COGPRGO0 OPLIPULOD L 192CDOGL 0 0 20 0 CLCL LEGL22000OL 053020L20COL CDCC00022000CO OPLIPULOD PLN 1912CDCOGOL G Alkalies dilute CLCL LEGL22000OL 053020L20COL 02102ORNO0 CDC020CO OPOLIPULOOD PLN 192CDOGL 000200 Alkalies conc 80 CLCL LEGL22000OL 053020L20COL 02102ORNO0 CDC020CO 027COGPRGO0 OPLIPULOD PLN 192CDOGL 0 0 20 0 Gases Acid HC1 & HF Dry 09309201000GOL LEGL200OL 053020L20COL 02102ORNO0 CDC020CO OPOLIPULOOD 22ROGOL 192CDOGL 0 0 20 0 Gases Acid HC1 & HF Wet 09309201000GOL LEGL200OL 053020L20COL CDCC00022000CO OPOLIPULOOD 2 2ROGOL 192CDOGL 0 0 020 0 Gases Ammonia Dry L LEGL22000OL 053020L20COL 02102ORNO0 CDC020CO 027COGPRGO0 OPOLIPULOD 2 2ROGOL 192CDOGL 000200 Gases Halogens Dry L LEGL22000OL 053020L20COL 02102ORNO0 CDC020CO 027COGPRGO0 OPLIPULOD 22ROGOL 192CDOGL 0 0 020 0 Gases Sulphur gases Dry FC02 LEGL22000OL 053020L20COL 02102ORNO0 CDC020CO OPOLIPULOOD 2 2ROGOL 192CDOGL 0 0 020 0 Mineral Oil Salts Acidic FC02 LEGL22000OL 053020L20COL 02102ORN0 CDC020CO 027COGPRGO0 OPLIPULOD 22ROGOL 1912CDCOGOL 0 0 020 0 FC02 LEGL22000OL 053020L20COL 02102ORNO0 CDC020CO 027COGPRGO0 OPLIPULOD 2 2ROGOL 1912CDCOGOL 0 0 020 0 Salts Basic FCC002 LEGL22000OL 053020L20COL 02102ORNO0 CDC020CO 027COGPRGO0 OPOLIPULOD 22ROGOL 192CDOGL 0 0 020 0 Salts Neutral G LEGL22000OL 053020L20COL 02102ORNO0 CDC020CO 027COGPRGO0 OPOLIPULOD 22ROGOL 192CDOGL 0 0 020 0 Salts Oxidizing FC02 LEGL22000OL 053020L20COL 02102ORNO0 CDC020CO 027COGPRGO0 OPOLIPULOD 22ROGOL 1912CDCOGOL 0 0 020 0 C C0 230 0 G C C0 230 0 G C C0 230 0 G C 0 230 0 fe C C0 230 0 L C C0 230 0 L C 0 230 0 fe] C C0 230 0 L C C0 230 0 G C C0 230 0 G C C0 230 0 G C C0 230 0 G C C0 230 0 G C C0 230 0 L Organic 132 Acids Acid anhydrides 047UPLO CL4PUPLULC LPOPOULOL 121UPROL CLGUPOLG 191LPRO20 L L 0142LPO 120L0 0 CL4PUPLULC LPOPOULOL CLGLUPPOLG 191LLPRO20 P 0142LPO 120L0 0 092020 L 0920200 L Alcohols glycols 047UPLO CL4PUPLULC LPOPOULOL CLGLUPPOLG 191LPRO20 P P 0142LPO 120L0 0 G L Estors Ethers Ketones 047UPLO CL4PUPLULC LPOPOULOL 121UPROL 191LLPRO20 ? P 0142LPO 120L0 0 0920200 L Hydrocarbons Alphalic CL4PUPLULC LPOPOULOL 121UPROL 191LLPRO20 P P 0142LPO 120L0 0 0920200 L Hydrocarbons Aromatic 047UPLO CLCPLPLOLC CL4PULUC LPOPOULOL 121UPROL CLGUPOLG 191LPRO20 P P 0142LPO 120L00 0920200 L Hydrocarbons Halogenated 047UPLO LLL LPOPOULOL 121UPROL CLGUPOLG 19LPRO20 LEPEPE LEPEPE 0142LPO 120L0 0 Natural Gas fuel LLL LLL LEPEPE LEPEPE LEPEPE 191LPRO20 LEPEPE LEPEPE 0142LPO 120L00 0920200 L 0920200 G Synthetic Gas Fuel L CL4PUPLULC 1221UPROLL 191LPRO20 P L L 120L0 0 0920200 G Oils Animal & Vegetable G CL4PUPLULC G 121UPROL CLGLUPOLG 191LLPRO20 G G 120L0 0 0920200 G Exact chemical resistance depends upon particular commercial grade of plastic specific chemical compound and conditions of exposure Consult piping manufacturers for more detailed listings G = Good resistance Recommended for most cases Limited resistance Has many uses tests recommended Poor to No resistance Not recommended for most cases Key ABS - Acrylonitrile PVC - Polyvinyl chloride CPVC - Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride PE - Polyethylene PB - Polybutylene PP - Propylene Plastic polypropylene SR - Styrene Rubber CAB - Cellulose butyrate POP - Polyethylene oxide An American City and County Magazine survey 1974 estimated PVC pipe is used for almost 7,000 miles 11,265 km of water main of which 62 percent was under 6 in 15 cm in diameter The same study for sewer mains showed 2 percent or over 9,000 miles 14,485 km of sewer mains were plastic pipe of which 82 percent was in the 8 to 14 inch size range In a 1981 study by the same source it was noted that growth of plastic pipe did not measure up to the 1974 projections Even though plastic pipe accounted for nearly 6 percent more installed miles in 1980 as compared to 1974 it was reported as only one percent more of place pipe mileage - not a significant gain.5 limitations and other plastic pipe materials have many properties which make them suitable or superior for use in a wide range of applications Considered beside traditional piping material thermoplastics are less rigid and less strong their maximum service temperatures are lower and their thermal coefficients of expansion are higher However they do not corrode are biologically inert and resist chemical attack They are sufficiently strong and their temperature limits are quite adequate for most applications Traditional pipes have stiffness values which are an order of magnitude greater than those of plastics Plastic pipes being flexible have unique design considerations Their flexibility is an asset because the maximum deflection to preclude pipe failure is not as stringent a constraint as it is with other pipe materials PVC has demonstrated its ability to retain its serviceability of deflections greater than 5 percent the limit often imposed on traditional pipes Because of its high strength and light weight PVC pipe may be produced in lengths much longer than its traditional counterparts This means installation is easier since fewer joints are needed Sizes under 4 inches in diameter are available in 20 foot lengths while 6 inches and up are available in 10 foot lengths PVC ranges in size from very small inch or less to 15 inches in diameter Recently 1978 some manufacturers have made sewer pipe available in the 18 to 27 inch range A limitation of plastic piping materials is that cyclic loading which often results from water hammer or pump vibration can cause plastics to fail The maximum stress temperature and frequency are all determining amplitude factors The determinant.20,21 Such of the stress stress causes is often the fluctuations primary in the pipe diameter which leads to fatigue and ultimately failure These limitations are easily overcome by proper design Normal practice is to choose a pipe whose rated working pressure is not exceeded by the static plus when surge pressure For 160 psi 1100 KN example a 200 psi is required AWWA 1380 900 mpipe is chosen standards include a built in surge pressure allowance Product manufacturing summary pipe is a thermoplastic as opposed to thermosetting material As its name thermoplastic implies the material 133 softens when heated and hardens upon cooling Thermoplastic pipe is manufactured by the extrusion process There are numerous manufacturers of plastic pipe Among the largest manufacturers of plastic pipe for water and sewer use a direct competitor to A pipe is Manville Corporation Production volumes accounted for 72 percent or 850 million kilograms of the total 1,170 million kilograms of pipe material manufactured in 1978 also PVC 1978.22 accounted for 86 percent of the plastic pressure pipe shipped in PVC pipe is not as new a product as is commonly thought By 1948 a small thermoplastic piping industry in the U.S. produced about 450,000 kg of product Phenomenal growth followed and the almost one billion kilograms produced in 1976 is estimated to have accounted for almost 25 percent of the footage of all types of piping Most of this footage is in the small diameter pipes Some estimates of PVC pipe in use in 1980 are given as 57,000 miles 91,735 km of sewer pipe and 1.3 million miles 2.1 million km of water pipe Production Figures for the last few years are given in Tables 33 and 34 Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete Pipe-- Special qualities Concrete a subsidiary of Amy Roadstone Corp. Ltd. produces a glass fiber reinforced concrete pipe of special construction which Glass they market in the Reinforced Concrete United Pipe.11,23-25 Kingdom Pipe.1,23-25 Pipe.11,23-25 under the designation ARC Slimline TABLE 33 TOTAL PLASTIC PIPE AND FITTINGS PRODUCTION VOLUME ESTIMATES 1960-1978 millions of kilograms Year Pipe Production Year Pipe Production 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 27.2 40.0 50.6 59.7 75.7 91.8 1966 1967 1968 =: 124.4 140.3 193.2 1969 ~ 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 237.7 318.0 445.4 611.4 792.4 800.0 668.1 891.6 Committee estimate - 1163.1 Committee estimate - 1253.0 * Committee estimates total pipe pipe and fittings fittings fittings poundage 134 TABLE 34. ESTIMATED PRODUCTION VOLUMES FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF PIPE - 1974-197822 WE WE ee torte conduit by material material 1974 est 1975 1976 est est MILLIONS OF KILOGRAMS 1976 est 1978 Reported est PVC 540 475 595 770 800 845 ABS 60 65 85 100 80 85 PE noncorrugated PE corrugated SR CPVC 55 70 20 2.5 40 55 3 60 . 85 2 4 75 70 95 * 0.7 * 5 4 75 155 * 4.3 Total 747.5 647 831 1045.7 954 1164.3 Key PVS = Polyvinyl chloride ABS = Acrylonitrile PE = Polyethylene SR = Styrene Rubber CPVC = Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride Actual production unknown total number at estimates for these figures bottom reflects original author's oe r- CONTINUOUS FILAMENT GLASS FIBER REINFORCED Figure 1. Section through a slim line 11 pipe 135 In the development of this concrete product one of the first observations was that the fiber appears to act as reinforcement in the normal sense a crack arrestor rather than When the fiber is placed near the surface of concrete products it arrests cracks by evening out high stress concentrations thus raising overall stress tolerance This is a significant property difference in the behavior of glass reinforced concrete as opposed to glass reinforced cement In glass reinforced cement the dominant failure mechanism is that of bond slippage rather than fiber failure preventing the full use of the high fiber tensile 11 strength Product composition ARC product consists of a centrifugally spun high strength concrete core with integrally cast resistant glass fiber reinforcement adjacent to the inner and outer surfaces and an internal unreinforced lining of fine aggregate concrete Figure 1 Uses and applications Slimline Glass Reinforced Concrete Pipe is suitable for use in conveying sewerage or surface water under gravity at atmospheric pressure The pipes are considered equivalent to conventionally reinforced concrete pipes in terms of strength hydraulic flow characteristics and durability Slimline pipes should a have service life equivalent to conventional spun concrete limitations reinforced concrete GRC combines several of the advantages of concrete and steel reinforced pipe The properties of concrete good compression strength and corrosion resistance allow it to be combined with the fiber to produce a product suitable for use in pressure applications Because material and lighter than of the nature of GRC savings can be achieved in areas of energy A strong pipe can be produced which is thinner and conventional concrete pipe which makes for easier handling The slim form of the pipe enables it to be handled and laid in of lower widths than normal This can show a significant reduction amount of excavation and bedding materials installation costs see Table 35 necessary thus lowering trenches in the Product manufacturing summary pipe is centrifugally molded as are most cement pipes Glass fiber is continuously injected onto the mold where it is helically wound onto the mold surface Cement is added The body concrete is then added vibrated and centrifugally dewatered The internal GRC is then injected A final coating of fine concrete is then applied The pipes are steam cured and allowed to mature at least 4 weeks before delivery Quality control includes checks on raw materials visual dimension checks and hydraulic and crushing load tests The pipes may be made with ordinary Portland cement or sulphate resisting cement depending upon soil conditions 136 TABLE 35. GRC PIPE FORMS24 Internal diameter diameter mm Outside diameter mm Effective length m Wall thickness thickness mm Approx weight pipe pipe kg Traditional recommended overall trench width m Slimline recommended overall trench trench width m 600 675 750 825 900 975 1050 1125 1200 700 788 880 963 1050 1138 1225 1313 1400 2.44 2.44 2.44 2.44 2.44 2.44 2.44 2.44 2.44 50.0 56.5 65.0 69.0 75.0 81.5 87.5 94.0 100.0 620 864 1010 1178 1395 1642 1900 2187 2480 1.35 1.45 1.50 1.60 1.90 2.00 2.05 2.19 2.30 1.00 1.09 1.18 1.27 1.35 1.44 1.53 1.62 1.70 Name and location of manufacturers are no domestic manufacturers currently producing a glass fiber reinforced cement pipe Cem Corp. of Nashville Tennessee is the domestic representative of ARC concrete they are not currently producing fiber reinforced cement , pipe but produced Production volumes GRC pipe has been 1979 over 13 km is reported in use in Europe domestically but as of Cast and Ductile Iron Pipe-- Special qualities iron results from the addition of magnesium to the molten iron which causes a change in the internal grain structure of the iron The carbon in ductile iron is in the form of nodules rather than the flakes prevalent in gray cast iron dispersed The resulting product is iron As a result stresses are more easily stronger and more ductile than gray cast Table 36 is a summary of some of the properties of ductile iron TABLE 36 PROPERTIES OF DUCTILE IRON 27,28 Property Tensile strength Yield strength Elongation Elasticity modulus psi 60,000 42,000 10 24,000,000 137 Product composition iron is a ferrous product consisting primarily of iron Magnesium is added to enhance a change in the carbon the internal grain structure as explained above Other materials may be to adjust the chemistry of the resulting steel in added Uses and applications pipe is used primarily for the transmission of gas water and sewerage The first recorded use of cast iron pipe was in Germany in 1455. Between 1664 and 1688 the French laid cast iron pipe to supply water to Versailles this pipe is still in use today Cast iron pipe was first introduced in the United States in Philadelphia in 1804.27 A process for commercial production of ductile iron was developed in 1948. Ductile iron was first used for the commercial production of pipe about 1955.27,29 Today ductile iron pipe has virtually replaced gray cast iron pipe in the market Much gray cast iron pipe is now in place but essentially all new iron pipe being installed is ductile iron 30,31 Iron pipe production is expressed in two categories pressure and soil Pressure pipe is the pipe commonly used for water distribution and transmission gas distribution and transmission and sewer force main2s8 Soil pipe is used primarily indoors or as laterials pressure These uses might include bathroom plumbing mains or the connection to the sewer main In 1975 it was reported that cast iron pipe accounted for 75 percent of the nation's water mains primarily in the 6 to 12 inch range Tables 25 26 Cast iron is not popular for sewer mains - only 3 percent of the nation's mains were reported to be iron However cast iron was used and almost exclusively as sewer laterals until the introduction of plastic pipe limitations iron pipe's high tensile strength allows the use of diameter to thickness ratios in which the deflection of the pipe under trench loads is of sufficient magnitude that the principles of flexible pipe design are applicable Ductile iron pipe can handle excessive stresses 1,27,28,32,3h3ighway due to water hammer traffic etc. and service repair is Ductile iron pipe also has high machineability to facilitate and expedite installation and appurtenance installatio3n3 There are some limitations to the use of iron pipe Its ability to corrode is often mentioned as a limitation its proven track record disputes any major objections due to added coating materials Iron corrodes under severe of the service nation conditions like or saltwater aggressive soils Proper internal found in less than 5 linings and external percent protection including plastic wrap can offset most corrosive condition2s8 Iron pipe is almost always lined with cement mortar to prevent internal corrosion and to improve flow characteristics Plastics such as polyethylene are used as encasements when necessary to prevent external corrosion due to aggressive soils or electrolysis Specialized cases may be treated with coatings like asphalt coal tars or glass liners 138 Iron is also susceptible to electrolytic action The joining of another metal line like copper aluminum or galvanized steel will induce galvanic reactions although proper design considerations can minimize any adverse effects on the pipe Cathodic monitoring stations may be required for ductile iron pipe installations depending on local soils condition1s4 Product manufacturing Ductile iron pipe is produced primarily from natural domestic resources The iron is mainly scrap and the coke is produced from domestic 20 foot laying lengths coal using Ductile iron pipe is cast centrifugally the Lavaud process Molds are lined in 18 to with a mixture of thermosetting plastic and sand Molten iron flows from a cupola to ladles to electric induction furnaces where the chemistry and temperature is adjusted The quantity of molten metal introduced to the rotating mold controls the pipe thickness The force generated by rotation holds the metal to the walls of the mold and forces lighter impurities to the inside surface of the pipe from which they can be cleaned After the iron solidifies the pipe is removed annealed in ovens cleaned lined and tested Pipe is cast from 3 to 54 inches in diameter in 18 to 20 foot lengths The wall thickness is dependent upon the use and ranges from inches for 3 inch diameter pipe to over 1 inch for 54 inch diameter pipe Asbestos industry sources maintain that cast iron in pressure pipe consumes approximately eight times more total energy in manufacture than A pipe with cast iron in sewer pipe consuming ten times the energy also List of members manufacturers primary manufacturers of ductile iron pipe of the Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association They include are e American Cast Iron Pipe Company Birmingham AL Atlantic States Cast Iron Pipe Company Phillipsburg NJ e Clow Corporation Oakbrook IL r McWane Cast Iron Pipe Company Birmingham AL e Pacific States Cast Iron Pipe Company Provo UT e U.S. Pipe and Foundry Birmingham AL Production Construction Review , a Department of publication compiles monthly and yearly production figures for iron pipe They are given in Table 37 Commerce cast ductile 139 TABLE 37 PRODUCTION VOLUMES FOR CAST IRON PIPE AND FITTINGS 1973- 197818 thousands of metric tons Year 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 Pressure 1900 1775 1140 1210 1455 1545 Soil 865 700 540 600 620 665 COST COMPARISON Fiber Substitutes The most promising route for achieving the objective of a universal replacement for asbestos is the development of reinforced cement technology With the increasing concern over the rising price of steel for reinforcement and the relatively high energy consumption for its manufacture 11 glass fibers promise to offer an attractive alternative to both steel and asbestos as cement reinforcement During Farahar's studies which began in 1971 it was noted that although glass fiber was at that time more than six times more expensive per ton compared to steel it was theoretically capable of providing more than three times the usable tensile strength and its lower specific gravity at 2.5 suggested that the cost per unit could be less than 2/3 that of steel tensile strength from glass fiber E glass fibers could be used with alumina cement to prevent the alkaline attack of regular Portland cement but the high cost of materials glass and cement prohibits all but specialized use The zirconia resistant glass fiber marketed by FIL Corp. or a similar product e.g. a zirconia resistant glass fiber recently patented by It should be noted that it is the opinion of the AIA that current technology does not provide a fiber resistant to a cementitous environment the A pipe manufacturing process or its curing cycle 140 Manville Corporation seem to be the most likely candidates for glass fiber substitute development although continued testing now indicates that products may lose strength with time and cannot be used for external or bearing applications.1 Product Substitutes Table 38 shows some of the substitute products for A pipe may be economically competitive at initial cost comparisons Other costs which should be determined include excavation foundation requirements maintenance and installation costs including labor and replacement schedule Pipe prices are known to fluctuate widely depending upon proximity to manufacturing sites and market conditions.1 The rising cost of energy is playing an increasingly important part in the design and operation of municipal services water and sewerage only treatment Ductile iron pipe can show significant savings not and replacement costs but in the energy costs for pumping as well in repair 391 Pipe sizing may also affect cost Pipe sizes are given in terms of a nominal diameter However the internal diameter of a pipe is not the same as its nominal diameter For instance for a nominal diameter of 8 inches the types corresponding internal diameters for various - 8.39 C pipe - 7.85 PVC pipe - 8.044 of This pipe are Ductile shows ductile iron iron pipe to have a larger internal diameter than that of the other pipes for the same nominal size Thus savings can be accrued since less energy is needed to pump water through an iron pipe as opposed to pumping an equivalent volume of water through a iron pipe Other ferrous products including steel pipe can be viable substitutes for asbestos in specialty applications Steel pipe is generally not used in water or sewer mains but is employed in such uses as foot diameter penstocks for dams and power plants Steel pipe is considerably more expensive than A pipe but can be used as a very acceptable substitute CURRENT TRENDS Current trends in the pipe industry as a whole are difficult to judge The demand for pipe is a function of new installations and replacement schedules Current economic situations have led to a decrease in new housing starts and tightening financial situations in the nation's cities may lead to a decline in the rate of pipe replacement The reduction in use of one type of pipe may be offset by an increase in another pipe type For instance the production of C pipe appears to be decreasing This may be attributed to several factors The amount of all types of pipe may be reduced as the installation of new sewers is completed Henceforth the majority of new pipe would be needed only for replacement and maintenance V pipes share of the market may also be assumed by another type of pipe probably plastic 141 TABLE 38. PIPE PRICE ESTIMATES Feb. 1980 Water Approximate price per foot meter Sewer Material " 20 cm 15 38 cm 24 61 cm " 20 cm 15 38 cm 24 61 cm Asbestos cement 4.50 15.00 13.00 43.30 _b 16 41 cm 3.00 9.80 10.00-14.00 32.80-46.00 20.00-282.10-98.50.82.000-980.50 82c.0-98.50 Ductile irone 6.00 19.75 14.50 47.50 16 41 cm 24.50 80.40 6.00 19.75 14.50 47.50 16 41 cm 24.50 80.50 Vitrified clay - - - 2.50 8.20 9.75 32.00 29.00d 95.00 Reinforced concrete Nonreinforced concrete PVCj - 4.25 14.00 - 15.508 - 10.50 34.50 - 9.75 32.00 - 12 31cm 2.25 7.40 2.75k 9.00 6.00 19.75 4.00 13.00 10.50 34.50 18 46 cmd 11.50d 8.00d 37.75 26.25 16.00 52.50 18 46cm Fiberglass reinforced PVC1 6.25 20.50 12.25 40.00 - - - - - 12 31 cm 142 - All prices rounded to nearest .25 PJ.M. Transite pipe - Coupling and rings with belled ends - 13 4 meter 35 lengths For vinyl coating add ft 0.60 meter for 8 and .32 1.05 meters for 16 41 cm pipe CJ.M. Transite pipe - Coupling and rings with belled ends - 13 4 meter length3s5 May May be used as drainage pipe also All sizes American Cast Iron Pipe - Ductile iron cement liner class 50 Pushon Fastite Coupling 36 Bell & Spigot with rubber gasket by the truckload 37 Meets ASTM 7678 max price includes freight to furthest point Includes freight for furthest point 38 Suitable for sanitary sewers or pressure mains 38 Mortar joint - length 4 1.2 meters for 8 20 cm and 6 1.8 meters for 15 38 cm and 24 61 cm .30 JJ.M. - SDR 160 psi for use in low pressure areas no fire hydrants are available.31 ASTM D1748 20 6 meters lengths KJ.M. KJ.M. - SDR ASTM D30334 31 12.5 ft 3.8 meter lengths - sewer pipe J.M. - 31 Permanstrain Much thicker walls These are not pressure pipes A.I.A comments NOTE This table presents 1980 data which were the best available at time of issue of this report change in market conditions to the current time period should be noted In addition prices may differ according to specific pipe required Costs presented here should only serve for very general comparison purposes Plastic pipe growth in the rural market plateau and dominates this market With the has reached issuance of a steady growth AWWA 900 PVC can be expected to enter a high growth phase in the municipal market The plastic pipe industry expects to account for half of all pipe installed by 1985.22 The relatively high price and low availability of some products such as carbon fiber substitute or Kevlar pipe substitute is largely a function of the early development stage of these materials As fiber substitutes improve and become more available and cost effective the evolution of a new generation of asbestos pipes could likely to influence availability and occur Changes in the manufacturer's product demand are expected return from the high capital expenditures associated with new product development hence cost Overall trends can be summed up from review of a June 1981 article in Americal City and County which focuses on a water main pipe survey 1981 and is titled Cost not material shifting pipe choice Ductile iron is quoted as being the predominant choice of pipe for water main use by 65 percent of the respondants while A pipe claimed 15 percent and plastic pipe 11 percent The South Central and Western States prove to be the bastions of A pipe use where there is a far greater proportion of A pipe in place than in other regions and also a greater percentage of 1980 pipe installed was A although the preference did not run true in states such as Washington and Oregon The South also continues to use A pipe prolifically A got its start here in the postwar economy It appears that where A pipe is being installed it is being laid in greater quantities in areas of the country expanding their water systems This accounts for the fact that 70 percent of the replies nationwide indicated that they installed ductile iron pipe last year yet it made up only 38 percent of total mileage installed whereas A pipe made up 40 percent of the mileage installed yet was only installed by 23 percent of the responding utilities A pipe according to South Central and Western respondants is chosen over ductile iron due to the fact that in smaller diameters it is as much as 50 percent less expensive per foot They also noted that it was easier to tap than ductile iron which was much more competitive at larger diameters due to strength characteristics A pipe was suggested as the pipe to specify up to 12 inches with ductile iron required in the larger sizes The South Central and Western respondants felt A pipe was necessary due to soil electrolytic conditions there which tend to corrode iron pipe.5 In general the trend is towards larger diameter pipe 14 inches or greater to replace hastily installed undersized mains With labor costs currently the major factor pipe costs are a bit less important such that larger diameters may be laid In addition the survey revealed that 1981 estimates indicate that in this year utilities will install only a little more pipe than in 1980. Replacement not expansion may be the case in many areas replacements accounted for approximately 21 percent of all pipe installed in 1980-8ac1ounted 143 Data breaking down use of pipe by region points to the Northeast as putting in the smallest number of new pipe with a large proportion as replacement They also reported the smallest percentage of plastic pipe in place and installed the smallest percentage of it in 1980. The Southeast by contrast reported the largest percentage of place and 1980 installed plastic pipe and showed the strongest preference for plastic This region has the largest percentage of new pipe The North Central region reported the highest proportion of cast or ductile iron in place and the smallest proportion of A pipe both place and installed in 1980. North Central prefers iron pipe over A and plastic The South Central states put in more A pipe and much less iron in 1980 and show the weakest preference for iron and the strongest for reinforced concrete The Great Plains fall between with only a small amount of pipe being installed and that consisting of A and plastic pipe The West did not use much iron compared to the others and more A and steel are found strongest preference for A in the ground pipe for 1981 there The West construction 5 showed the Overall the survey reflected the U.S. water systems may still be yet to and indicated come 5 that influence of budgetary constraints on the predicted growth of plastic pipe CONCLUSION The use of substitutes for asbestos cement pipe in new construction or for replacement service is covered extensively in the trends section especially for water pipe uses Available substitutes include ductile iron e concrete pipe fi glass reinforced concrete pipe plastic pipe e vitrified clay pipe For intermediate size range pipe diameters 6 to 24 inches asbestos cement pipe is most commonly used although some regions prefer the use of iron pipe when diameter exceeds 12 inches Depending on the requirements of each individual case the alternatives listed offer strong competition especially outside of this range For instance plastic pipe vitrified clay pipe and iron pipe are all applicable in the small pipe diameter range For diameters greater than 24 inches and heads higher than 200 feet the substitute pipes compare very favorably or are more economical than asbestos cement pipe In addition glass reinforced pipe though not currently produced in the United States might possibly find use as a direct substitute for A pipe even in the intermediate range pipe size This might occur in those cases where high strength resistance to corrosion and low price are all simultaneously required 144 In addition to the diameter size range cetain other properties show themselves to be important in pipe selection for certain uses Ductile iron is more suited for situations involving shock loads vibration and ground movement in general For nonpressure applications vitrified clay pipe is less expensive Another possible advantage of substitutes may be the small number of asbestos cement pipe manufacturing facilities which lead to greater transportation costs for this product than those for pipes manufactured near to the point of use for It should be noted that none of asbestos in all of the uses that the alternative products can substitute it has now become established in However as a group they can meet all of the technical requirements placed on A pipe As both the water and sewer pipe markets appear to be in a state of flux in varying regions due to different preferences soils and the general state of the economy this area is probably one in which significant change could occur in the future 145 REFERENCES AIA Comments on the Draft Substitutes to Asbestos Report Submitted to GCA 10/22/81 Michaels L. and Chissick Applications and Hazards s S. eds Asbestos John Wiley and Sons Volume 1 Properties New York NY 1979 American Water Works Association Transmission Pipe 18 in through AWWA C402-77 January 30 1977 AWWA Standard for Asbestos 42 in for Water and Other Liquids Clifton R. A. Mineral Industry Survey Asbestos Industry 1978. Bureau of Mines August 22 1979 and Clifton Preprint from the Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbook Asbestos p 4 U.S. 1980 American City & County 1981 Water Main Pipe shifting pipe choice June 1981 p 41-44 Survey Cost not material Survey of Water American City 52 P. Main Pipe in U.S. Utilities Over 2,500 Population Grampian Pub Co. Pittsfield MA August 1975 Survey of Sewer American City 33 p Main Pipe in U.S. Utilities Over 2,500 Population Grampian Pub Co. Pittsfield MA August 1975 Telecon 979-1000 April 22 Mrs. Loretta Ferguson Manville Corp. Denver CO 303 with Nancy Krusell GCA Corporation Technology Division 1981 * Telecon Sharon Jackson CAPCO Ragland AL 205 472-2111 with Anne Duffy Krusell GCA Corporation Technology Division 4/15/81 and 4/22/81 respectively 10 Letter from Ed Mussler GCA Corporation to Joe Jackson of Asbestos Cement Pipe Producers Association January 30 1980. Notebook 3. Call 3 11. Farahar R. M. Glass Reinforced Concrete Publication of Unknown Origin Received from FIL Corp. Nashville TN in response to phone call from Ed Mussler GCA Corporation GCA No. 7-03-007-0035 6 p 146 12 CertainTeed Products answers to question of John DeKany U.S. EPA concerning Asbestos Rulemaking Received at GCA on July 14 1980 13 Preuit Russell American Concrete Pipe Association 821-1990 Personal communication with Ed Mussler GCA Corporation February 11 1980. Notebook 3. Call 17 14 Simonds R. A. and J. L. Warden Water and Power Resources Service Substitutes for Asbestos Cement Pipe speech at CPSC Substitutes for Asbestos Conference Arlington VA July 14-16 1980 15 American Concrete Pipe Association American Concrete Pressure Pipe Association Membership Directory Vienna VA 16 Clay Pipe Engineering Manual National Clay Pipe Institute Washington D.C. 1978 17 Telecon Sikora Ed National Clay Pipe Association 459-3330 with E. Mussler GCA Corporation February 11 1980. Notebook 3. Call 20 18 Construction Review DOC 25 September 1979. p 48 50 52 19 Mruk Stanley A. Thermoplastic Piping A Report by the ASCE Task Committee on Plastic Pipe PPI ASCE Annual Convention San Francisco October 17-21 1977. 52 P. 20 Telecon Mruk Stanley Plastic Pipe Institute 574-9400 with E. Mussler GCA Corporation February 1 1980. Notebook 3. Call 9 21 Telecon Walker Robert Bell Plastic Pipe Association 243-3902 with E. Mussler GCA Corporation February 5 1980 Notebook 3. Call 16 22 Statistics and Market Analysis Committee Report PPI Annual Meeting The Plastic Pipe Institute New York NY March 1979. 7 p 23 The Agreement Board ARC Slimline Glass Reinforced the Conveyance of Liquids under Gravity Flow sic 77/499 Garston England November 1977 4 P. Concrete Pipes for Certificate No. 24. Slimline Pipes ARC Concrete Corporation Nashville TN Company Brochure provided by FIL 25 The Specification and Performance of Slimline Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete Pipes ARC Concrete Series presented at Technical Seminar held at ARC Concrete Research Centre St. Ives England February 8 1979 26. Telecon Caldwell Phil Mussler GCA Corporation Cem Corporation 883-7563 with Ed January 3 1980. Notebook 3. Call 7 147 27 American Pipe Manual 15 ed Birmingham AL 1979 American Cast Iron Pipe Company 28 Telecon Higgins Mike Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association 654-2945 with E. Mussler GCA Corporation February 6 1980 Notebook 3. Call 16 29 Telecon Niles Harry Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association with E. Mussler GCA Corporation February 15 1980. Notebook 3. Call 21 30. Hoffman Richard Scituate Concrete Pipe Company 545-0564 Personal communication with Ed Mussler GCA Corporation February 1980. Notebook 3. Call 25 23 31 Chaisson Roger Portland Plastic communication with Ed Mussler GCA Notebook 3. Call 26 Pipe 774-0364 Personal Corporation February 28 1980 32 Shea Steve Engineer Boston Personal communication with Ed 1980. Notebook 3. Call 2 Water and Sewer Commission 426-6046 Mussler GCA Corporation January 29 33. Handbook Ductile Iron Pipe Cast Iron Pipe Research Association Oak Brook IL 1978 5th Edition Cast Iron 34 Patent No. October 3 4118239 1978 Manville Corporation Denver Colorado 35 Transite Class Pressure Pipe on Transite Sewer Pipe Manville Denver Colorado January 1980 Pricing Schedule 36. Owen Gene American communication with Ed Notebook 3. Call 22 Cast Iron Pipe Company 845-5440 Personnel Mussler GCA Corporation February 26 1980 37 McKanna Robert Portland Stoneware 864-7523 Personal communication with Ed Mussler GCA Corporation February 26 Notebook 3. Call 23 1980 38 Andrews Charles New England communication with Ed Mussler Notebook 3. Call 24 Concrete Pipe 969-0220 Personal GCA Corporation February 26 1980 39 Manual for Computation of Energy Savings with Ductile Iron Pipe Iron Pipe Research Association Oak Brook IL Cast 148 SECTION 5 ASBESTOS SHEET ASBESTOS PRODUCT Special Qualities Asbestos is used as a reinforcing material in cement sheet products because of its high ical inertness and tensile strength flexibility resistance to heat large aspect ratio ratio of length to diameter i chem- Asbestos fiber in cement sheet adds to the strength stiffness and tough- ness of the material resulting in a product that is rigid durable non- combustible resistant to heat weather and attack by corrosive chemicals as well as being stable A significant feature of the asbestos A sheet is that it has sufficient wet strength to be molded into complex shapes at the end of the production process This section addresses four product categories of A sheet r) flat sheet e corrugated sheet r) siding shingles e roofing shingles Although these categories reflect differences be readily covered in one section because the processes used are the same for each of these between the products they can composition and manufacturing products Product Composition Asbestos sheet is made from a mixture of Portland cement and asbestos fiber Sometimes an additional fraction of finely ground inert filler and pigment may be included Sheets contain between 15 and 40 percent asbestos fiber In 1980 the Bureau of Mines reports that 7,900 metric tons of chrysotile asbestos were used in A sheet production with most chrysotile of grades 6 and 7. One hundred metric tons of grade 5 was also used No other asbestos types were used in A sheet production Down from 35,800 metric tons in 1978.4 -149 .. Uses and Applications Today the use of A sheet is narrowing toward applications where its special properties of durability and heat and chemical resistance are not duplicated by other sheet materials Flat A sheet has been used in the construction industry as soffit material covering the underside of structural components roof deck wall linings in factories and agricultural buildings industrial partitions fireresistant walls curtain walls and decorative paneling in both exterior and interior applications It is also used as cooling tower fill sheets laboratory table tops and fume hoods electrical equipment mounting panels and as a component of vaults ovens safes heaters and boilers It is found in schools as well as residential construction impregnated flat sheet is used for switchboards controller plates and as an insulating spacer in a wide variety of electrical apparatus Corrugated A sheet is used primarily in industrial and agricultural applications serving as siding and roofing for factories warehouses and agricultural buildings It is also used as a lining for waterways canal bulkheads and as end paneling for cooling towers5 Flat sheet can be textured and cut for special use as siding shingles and as roofing shingles These shingles are extremely durable and are available in a range of styles and colors Another advantage of A shingles is their U.L. Class A fire rating Product Manufacturing Summary Manufacturing Process -A sheet is manufactured by using a dry process a wet or a wet mechanical Dry Process -- In the dry process plastic bags containing asbestos fiber are slit and dumped into a mixer where cement and filler are added The resulting dry mixture is uniformly distributed onto a flat conveyor belt sprayed with water then compressed by steel rolls to the desired thickness The moving sheet is cut into individual from the conveyor and steam cured in an autoclave diamond or carborundum wheels are then used to trim sheets which are removed Cut off saws using the cured sheet to the desired size or into shingles Wet Process -- The wet process begins with the mixing of asbestos fiber cement and additives as in the dry process Water is added to the dry mixture and the mix is put in a form where excess water is squeezed out by a press After the sheets are formed one at a time in the press they are stacked and air cured for 3 to 4 days at which time they become rigid The sheets may then be steam cured to speed up the curing proces?s 150 mechanical process in both A sheet and A pipe production the mechanical process is similar in principle to some papermaking processes Asbestos fiber is combined with cement silica and other filler material in a dry mixer and then transferred to a wet mixer There underflow solids and water added from the saveall to form a slurry material being recycled from previous operations are that is pumped to cylinder vats for deposition onto one or more screen cylinders Water is removed from the underside of the slurry layer through fine wire mesh screening around the circumferential surface of each cylinder A layer of C material from 0.02 to 0.10 inch 0.05 to 0.25 cm thick is produced by the above process This layer is transferred to an endless felt conveyor so a mat can be built up More water is removed from the matted material by a vacuum box prior to transfer of the material to a mandrel or accumulator roll The mandrel winds the mat into a layer of the desired thickness and pressure rollers bond the mat to stock already deposited on the mandrel or roll and help remove additional water as well As the layer of A material builds up to the desired thickness it is cut and peeled away The resultant sheet can be shaped or molded either by hand or by press roller and can then be cut into the desired sheet size Any of the four product types can be made by this process Manufacturers use methods such as cylinder showers to clean both the cylinder screen and the felt conveyor insuring satisfactory operation of the process Cement and fiber particles are washed out of the holes to prevent blinding Name and Number of Manufacturers-- There are four major companies sheet products They are listed in currently Table 39 manufacturing asbestos Production Volumes-- Exact production volumes are not known metric tons of asbestos was used in 1980 for A sheet products3 . although it is the production known that 7,900 of all types of TABLE 39. MAJOR MANUFACTURERS OF ASBESTOS SHEET PRODUCTS Manufacturer ' Manville International Building Prod- ucts Inc. Nicolet Inc. Supradur Mfg Corporation Location Waukegan IL Nashua NH New Orleans LA Ambler PA Wind Gap PA A products Flat Flat sheet sheet Flat sheet corrugated sheet siding shingles Flat sheet Roofing and siding shingles This used to be called Gold Bond Building Products a National Gypsum It was bought out by the new owners Asbestos Magazine March 1981 p 32 Division of this spring 151 SUBSTITUTE PRODUCTS Methodology Search Strategy-- Information about from special available A sheet products and suitable substitutes was obtained literature telephone conversations and manufacturer's product specification information Summary of Contacts-- Asbestos Products e Edmund M. Fenner Director of Environmental Services Manville Corp. Denver CO 303 979-1000 e Richard Mahoney Gold Bond Building Products Charlotte NC 704 365-0950 Mr. Kaufman Assistant Manager GAF Corporation South Bound Brook NJ 201 356-3000 @ Mrs. Smith Personnel Secretary GAF Corporation St. Louis MO 314 867-7800 ) Judy Gardner GAF Corporation Mobile AL 205 478-6311 e Bob Muderspach Celotex Corporation Lockland OH 513 821-3000 r) Kurt Schwarz Senior President Supradur Mfg Corp. New York NY 212 697-1160 e Sales Secretary Nicolet Inc. Ambler PA 215 646-4000 Substitute Materials Flat Sheet Cr) John Jones FIL Corp. Nashville TN 615 883-7563 152 Bill Lewis GRC Products Inc. Schertz TX 512 651-6773 Clare Swanson Manager of New Conwed Corporation St. Paul MN 612 221-1188 Applications Division George Alm International Housing Sacramento CA 916 Corp. 456-5343 Bob Baker W.B. Arnold and Company West Caldwell NJ 201 575-0880 Craig Hamling Sales Manager Zircar Products Inc. Florida NY 914 651-4481 Art McGowen Masonite Corp. Laurel MI 601 425-3611 Substitute Materials Corrugated Sheet John Jones FIL Corp. Nashville TN 615 883-7563 William Tyler Aluminum Company of America Pittsburgh PA 412 553-3922 Substitute Materials Siding Shingles Art McGowen Masonite Corp. Laurel MI 601 425-3611 Dave Horner Publishers Forest Cladwood Division Portland OR 503 775-6711 Substitute Materials Roofing Shingles 2 Jayne Porter Marketing Assistant Monier Company Orange CA 714 538-8822 153 Substitute Materials Fibers ' Jim Ford Corning Fiberglass Corp. Toledo OH 419 248-7321 r) Dr. Chuck Chaille Babcock & Wilcox Refractories Division Augusta GA 404 798-8000 e Joe Volk Gold Bond Building Research Division Buffalo NY 716 873-9750 There are two approaches to replacing asbestos in asbestos sheet . Either the asbestos fiber can be replaced by a different kind of fiber rein- _ forcement or an entirely different sheet material can be substituted for the A sheet In any application the qualities or characteristics required of a sheet material must be considered Quite often all of the qualities of A sheet are not demanded of a material for a particular application Consequently the suitability and feasibility of a substitute either for the asbestos fiber or for the whole A sheet will be determined to an extent by the demands of the application in question Fiber Substitutes The most promising substitute fibers for use in place of asbestos in cement sheet are the specially treated wood fibers used in the cement board mentioned previously and resistant glass used in GRC A listing of fibers and their performance characteristics appears in Table 40 Product Substitutes This section includes both the tions of substitute products for special qualities and the uses and applica- ' Flat sheet o Corrugated sheet r) Siding shingles and ' Roofing shingles Substitutes for Flat Sheets-- Several cement sheet products containing nonasbestos reinforcing material were identified as potential A sheet substitutes At least three of these a cement board a glass reinforced cement sheet and a plasticreinforced concrete sheet compare favorably with A sheet with respect to density strength corrosion and weather resistance noncombustibility and workability Others should be useful in more specialized applications 154 TABLE 40 PERFORMANCE ASBESTOS IN OF POSSIBLE FIBER CEMENT SHEET SUBSTITUTES FOR Fiber Performance and Comments resistant glass Mineralized wood Steel fibers Mineral wool Carbon fibers Nylon Ceramic fibers Can be used in Portland cement better impact resistance than asbestos product loses strength with time commercial feasible Lightweight not as heat resistant as asbestos superior impact resistance abundant supply available commercially competitive Good with less reinforcement processing and expensive than high impact strength problems machining problems with rust A sheet Weak product does not work well in cement Increases resistant strength modular strength of cement sheet is to alkali attack no increase in impact very expensive Provides impact strength lacks reinforcement No success to date work is continuing Glass reinforced cement GRC sheet is presently finding use in coffin liners fabrication of fume hoods cooling towers permanent formwork for bridge construction as fascia and soffit panel electrical closet liner fireproof partitions wall panels permanent form boards storage sheds and garages wall liner in factories decorative trim and even as road signs and behind woodstoves if it is U.L. rated.13,16,17 It is now available in commer- cial quantities in a wide range of thicknesses from inch to inch thickness and in basic 4 feet by 8 feet sheets Corrugated sheets are available in either the standard U.S. 4.2 corrugation or specialized corrugations such as the type being developed for bulkhead construction GRC when compared to A sheet exhibits superior overall strength characteristics especially in resisting damage from impacts it is more im- pact resistant than asbestos cement over a to crack or break when impacted while GRC day period will fail only at A sheet tends the point where it is struck GRC sheets have been found to possess an initial strength of 4,000 psi which stabilizes to 2,000 psi after 4 to 5 years This has been improved to 3,000 psi in new GRC Industry is debating whether GRC weakens to the strength of unreinforced cement over time The asbestos industry claims that GRC with the alkali resistant glass looses impact resistance and strength with time.19 GRC sheet is noncombustible weatherproof rot proof and resistant although the cement itself may break down eventually in highly corrosive environments It can be drilled and nailed as well as A 155 sheet and can also be painted screwed glued or bolted Recent improvements have been made in the overall strength of the sheet by treating the glass fiber with a coating that enhances bonding between the fiber and the cement GRC is lightweight and the raw materials needed for manufacture are readily avail- able along with exact accurate processing techniques GRC satisfies ASTM and ASTM and by changing the density of GRC thermal conductiv- ity and can be improved However it is not suitable for all of heat resistant applications that C sheet is used for the corrosion On the negative side because GRC has a much lower percentage of fiber reinforcement than A sheet it shows greater strength loss at 316 600 the maximum recommended service temperature for both sheets Therefore it is considered to be less resistant than A sheet Where GRC is exposed for a short duration with a low rate of temperature rise it probably equals A but with prolonged or high temperature applications such as furnaces and ovens the GRC with portland cement will not perform satisfactorily However there may be a possibility of using different cements such as refractory types to 18 provide a GRC for this application Tests on this are presently underway GRC does not machine as well as A sheet When cut the edge tends to chip making it unattractive for uses such as lab tables where appearance is important About the only nonasbestos substitute for lab tables is slate which is expensive Tests have shown that GRC suffers about a 30 percent loss of strength decrease in value of modulus of rupture over a period of 30 years but designing with a proper safety factor could prevent this from being a serious problem As GRC has been marketed for 12 years production and marketing technology are well understood and a wide variety of processes are now available for high volume production In addition work is now progressing towards production of GRC sheets on standard A plant equipment although at present the product termed hot check made does not compare in performance with A or with the sprayed GRC However it does machine easier and thus has been adopted by a couple of companies for fume hood construction for chemical laboratories and industrial plants Cement which the manufacturer claims combines the best properties of wood and cement has been in use in Europe and the Middle East as an purpose building board for a number of years The cement board has been rated as noncombustible and is said by some to be virtually impervious to the influence of any weather condition However some argue that cement wood boards manufactured in Europe during World War II show poor weather resistance Further they may be susceptible to excessive expansion due to absorption of water by the wood component during wet weather This may make its suitability as exterior cladding questionable although this tendency could be combatted through resin saturation painting special fasteners to allow expansion or incorporation of mica to reduce expansion Its modulus of rupture and resistance to impact are greater than asbestos board and unlike C sheet it can be glued and laminated Cement board has good heat and sound insulating properties is easily machined and has surfaces suitable for multipurpose treatment It also has good elastic properties under a static load Its weathering characteristics are reported to be similar to those of marine plywood 156 Applications of the cement board in construction are numerous including use as external claddings sound attenuating walls balcony parapets and floors walls separating gardens partitions noncombustible wall and ceiling linings roof soffits roof underlayment notably in countries with low supplies of wood refuse shafts ceilings fascia and lining for farm stables It has also been used to build prefabricated houses and pavilions It is often used for interior applications because it is light and flexible It is similar to masonite except that it has a portland cement binder rather than a resin binder When used as a fill in cooling towers it may ruin the efficiency of the tower if it warped Cement board used in one northwest U.S. cooling tower is reportedly being replaced by A sheet Polypropylene layered cement sheet relatively new C sheet substi- tute this product is comparable to C sheet in its resistance to freezing thawing combustibility and aging Because it is a type of plastic cement board it is flexible and will not fracture as easily as A sheet It is used for construction of cooling towers buildings and other large structures 21 : Alumina alumina product made by Zircar Products Inc. this exceeds A sheet's resistance to heat It is available in either a moldable or rigid form and is being used as an insulator in induction core applications as a molten metal transport trough and as a material for repairing holes in furnaces The possibility of using the material for labor- atory table tops exists as well Alumina is not as strong as A sheet but has an upper temperature limit tough and abrasion resistant several times greater It is also very Benelex is a laminated hardboard product produced by Masonite Corporation Laurel Mississippi It is readily available and is used as laboratory table tops for floors of locomotives and cabooses and as a phase bar- rier in electrical switchgear and control apparatus It is not intended for uses requiring resistance to weather or high temperature Laminated hardboard such as Benelex could replace ebonized asbestos in many electrical applications A comparison of selected properties is listed in Table 41 TABLE 41 COMPARISON OF EBONIZED A WITH HARDBOARD. Property Asbestos Ebony Benelexfi Density mlbs Rockwell hardness M scale Maximum operating temp C Arc resistance seconds Insulation resistance megohms 1842 115 23-85 120 250 125 - 1394 87 90 90 194 85 85.5 Forton combines GRC with a polymer modified cement matrix The polymer adds toughness to the matrix improves compatibility and supresses attack by strongly alkaline hydration products This technology was developed by DSM a Netherland based company with interests in chemicals and building materials Fibers used in the U.S. come from PPG's plant in North Carolina Information from a letter dated Nov. 17 1981 to Mr. James Bulman U.S.EPA from Mr. Hiram R. Ball Jr. Director North American Operations of Forton Product literature was included 157 Monolux is an asbestos noncombustible industrial insulating board available from W. B. Arnold and Company Manufactured by Cape Boards and Panels inert and unaffected Limited Uxbridge England it is rigid nonfriable durable resistant to attack by insects and vermin The board is noncaustic by dilute acids and alkalis brine chlorine or volatile solvents It will not disintegrate warp or swell under prolonged immersion in water and it is more resistant to heat than C sheet It can be used to make small ovens and dryers high temperature ducts oven shelves and interleaves as secondary insulation for furnaces and kilnss helves and Table 42 lists comparison with C cement sheet sheet products and their characteristics for Materials such as masonry galvanized steel aluminum sheet reinforced plastics especially in cooling towers and even indus- trial skylights and wood can compete with A sheet in various applications.17 A product such as fiberglass plastic is thought to be stronger than A sheet but flexes more Polyurethane sandwich panel has also been suggested as a substitute and is apparently used in housing projects in the southern U.S. for both interior and exterior walls covered with an aluminum skin However this product may have extremely toxic byproducts upon combustion as the urethane foam might be exposed if the metal sandwich protector was to fall off Alcoa also uses asbestos marionite as a substitute to containing marionite except in the largest diameter mold sizes however this product made by Marietta Resources Inc. may degrade more quickly than its asbestos counterpart In this case suzorite mica replaces the as-quickly bestos fiber Wollastonite is also used in some areas it is reported to be used in Denmark for example as a substitute to A sheet but it is not considered to have the properties required of asbestos at this date Wollastonite tends to act like a ceramic Substitutes for Corrugated Sheet-Corrugated reinforced concrete is already being purchased by industry to replace damaged A panels on buildings Recent advances in the reinforcing fiber have improved the wet strength of GRC which has made the manufacturer more confident of its performance in wet as well as dry applications Such uses include canal bulkheads waterway liners and as end panels on cooling towers5 Depending upon the application products such as aluminum galvanized steel masonry or reinforced plastics can be used in place of corrugated C sheet Substitutes for Siding Shingles-Hardboard siding shingles and paneling comparable to certain A siding shingles worked and attractive 31,32 are available They are very in styles that are durable easily Other siding products popular in the United States are wood wood shingles aluminum stucco or concrete block and brick These products may or may not be suitable as substitutes for A shingles depending upon the preference of the customer and the requirements of the application 158 Product TABLE 42. CEMENT SHEET PRODUCT COMPA1R2I7S-O2N9 Density kg ft Maximum service temperature CF Modulus of rupture kPa psi Young's modulus ^ 10 kPa psi Tensile strength kPa psi Compressive strength kPa psi Impact strength Num mm in M Transite A 1,762 316 27,580 10.34 9,650 82,740 4.8 110 600 4,000 1.5 1,400 12,000 2 M Flexboardfi A 1,602 316 31,030 13.8 12,410 96,500 -- 100 600 4,500 2.0 1,800 14,000 Cem 125 High density GRC 2,000 125 260 27,580 13.8 11,030 68,950 24.0 500 4,000 2.0 1,600 10,000 10 FIL TAC board 1,300 } -- 1 -- -~ 1 Low density GRC 81 Cement board 1,200 i -- } -- -- ~- 159 Monolux 500 75 768 482 -- 20.7 -- -- ~- 48 900 3.0 Alumina 1280 - 1440 80 - 90 1,482 2,700 6,895 -- 1,000 i 41,370 -- 6,000 BE, Substitutes for Roofing Shingles-- Several asbestos roofing products are available which have a U.L. Class A fire rating the equivalent of C shingles Unreinforced cement shingles are available in Mediterranean and shake styles The roof looks neat and precise and is able to withstand all climatic conditions No under- 33 layment is needed in mild climates and the roof comes with a year warranty Asphalt shingles made from a fiberglass base are available A roof using these shingles uses two layers of shingles for a thicker random look and is fireresistant This type of shingle is made by Manville and Thagard An imitation wood shake called CeDurShake CeDurSHhake iHis savailable from Trim Products 34 It is light weight and has a foam backing that acts as an insulator Substitute Product Manufacturing Summary Product Composition and Manufacturing-- Cement board composed of specially treated wood fibers bound by Portland cement Wood fibers are treated with various chemicals including ammonium chloride sodium and sodium silicate to remove the resins acids and sugars in a process called mineralization Wet fibers are mixed with Portland cement and deposited as a mat on individual cauls on a moving belt A saw or shear separates the continuous mat into mats whose length corresponds to the length of the supporting caul Each caul with its mat of fiber and cement is transferred to a press where pressure is applied until the cement has set A series of mats may be stacked and pressure applied to the stack by means of retaining clamps for a period of time 12 leased the boards are dried When the pressure is re- Glass reinforced cement sheet basically a composite of a hydraulic binder that is one which required the use of water in order to get it to set and materials such as Portland cement reinforced with alkali resistant glass fibers which are randomly distributed throughout the board GRC may or may not require the use of other fillers or additives If required inert fillers such as fine sand or fine silica sand or limestone fines marble dust may be used Glass fibers are specially formulated to resist the alkaline attack of the Portland cement They are typically 1.3 to 3.8 centimeters long and 13 microns in diameter These fibers constitute about 5 percent of the weight of the sheet Additionally a very small percentage of wood fiber is used in Cem Corporation's lightweight TAC board Like asbestos cement GRC is not just one material but instead a whole spectrum of different materials each with performance characteristics varying with the type of cement used For example Portland cement dehydrates at temperatures above 260-316 whereas aluminum or refractory cement has been tested to 538 and is good at 316 which is similar to M asbestos transite board Performance can also be affected by the glass fiber content the type and quantity of any filler or additive or other mixture that is used and partic- ularly the resulting density of the composite GRC sheet can be made by two methods In the spray process used by Cem a gun is used which simultaneously sprays a cement slurry and chops up a continuous roving of glass fiber into a predetermined length This 160 material is sprayed into a form on a vacuum dewatering bed which draws off the excess water The sheet produced can be molded or stacked and cured Another method of production involves the use of a continuous felt conveyor belt upon which the cement slurry and chopped glass fibers are sprayed Excess water is conveyor belt removed by vacuum boxes attached to The mat of cement sheet is cut and the underside of the removed at the end of the the air conveyor wet sheet cured for then stacked and cured Corrugated sheets are made by placing on a form for shaping before curing begins Sheets are normally 28 days GRC sheets have been found to possess an initial strength of 4000 been improved to psi which stabilizes to 3000 psi in new GRC 2000 psi Industry after 4 to 5 years is debating whether This GRC has weakens the strength of unreinforced cement over time Monolux made of calcium silicate cement and selected filler rein- forced with resistant glass and wood fibers No information about its manufacture was made known consists of 92 percent aluminum oxide silica fibers Nothing was learned about manufacturing patent is still outstanding and 8 percent methods as the Benelex made from wood Wood chips are first reduced to fibers by a steam explosion process The unwanted elements in the wood are driven off leaving cellulose fibers and lignin a natural bonding agent The fiber is refined and then formed into panels on a moving screen These panels are placed in steam heated high pressure presses where the fibers and lignin are welded together into a dense hard materia2l5 Cladwood a density particleboard covered by a refined wood overlay.25 Hardboard siding such as that manufactured by Masonite Corporation consists of wood fibers combined with natural bonding agents under high pressure No information about the manufacture of these or other siding products was obtained Monier Company's Monray Roof Tile manufactured on a conveyor process from Portland cement sand and water A continuous cement mat is formed on a plastic conveyor sprayed with the desired color then cut into individual tiles at the end These tiles are cured at 66 150 for 24 hours then sprayed with a sealer to prevent salts from risin3g5 34 CeDurShake made of fiberglass polyester resin contains a cement ratio of 0.2 m cement ratio of 0.3 m polymer fraction of 0.15 v and glass fraction of 0.05 v Fiberglass felt is used as the base mat of the new asphalt shingles made by Manville and Thagard Other manufacturers of this product include GAF Celotex CertainTeed Bird & Son and Owens Corning Although patent status is unsure Australian Consolidated Industries have filed for an invention based on clay reinforced with glass fiber Findings Indicate that the clay matrix does not have the high degree of alkalinity of cement such that there is no need to use an resistant fiber and instead glass fiber is quite satisfactory Properties substantially conform to basic requirements of low raw material costs ready availability of raw 161 material ability to adapt to rapid mass production techniques physical and chemical stability and modulus of rupture density and other physical properties similar to A sheet Ingredients include glass fiber generally 5-15 percent bentonite ball clays fillers fluxes deflocculants clay and water Termed reinforced stabilized clay GRSC not only can this product meet many A product needs but refutedly it could possibly be used for such items as window frames and sills floor planks pottery ware and outdoor furniture36 Still another idea for an A sheet substitute this time in the form of roofing sheets comes from the British Intermediate Technology Industrial Services ITIS in Rugby England Using ingredients like Portland cement sand and natural fibers including human hair cuttings common grasses crop waste from banana oil palm and coconut plantations or more costly artificial fibers developing countries are currently testing out such products to determine such factors as tensile strength interaction of the cement and fibers and local weathering ability The production process is kept as simple as possible for low cost and unskilled labor Production equipmenits fabricated spot out of basic components Reportedly with good arrangements it takes a man project team 15 to 20 days to bring about the construction and operation of a complete sheetmaking unit producing up to 100 sheets a week Name and Number of Manufacturers-- : Glass reinforced cement flat sheet is made by Cem Corporation in Nashville TN In addition 60 other companies such as Concrete Design Specialties of East St. Paul MN make GRC for other specific applications here for use behind wood stoves some of which would not directly substitute for C sheet The International Housing Corporation Sacramento CA is planning to build the first plant in the United States to manufacture cement wood board Monolux is madien England by Cape Boards and Panels Ltd. Uxbridge and is marketed in the U.S. by W. B. Arnold and Company Zircar Products Inc. Florida NY is the manufacturer of high temperature Alumina Benelex is manufactured by the Masonite Corporation Laurel MI Other flat sheet products such as metal wood and concrete are available from known large manufacturers Corrugated glass reinforced cement sheet is available from the Cem Corporation Nashville TN Other possible substitutes for corrugated A sheet as ordinary siding are made by major steel aluminum and fiberglass companies There are many manufacturers of a variety of siding products Hardboard siding shingles and paneling are known to be made by the Masonite Corporation Chicago IL and Publishers Forest Products Inc. Portland OR Unreinforced cement roofing tiles called MonrayfiRoof Tiles are made by the Monier Company Orange CA Fiberglass asphalt shingles are currently available from Manville Corp. Denver CO and LundayThagard Southgate CA and will be available from most major asphalt roof- ing manufacturers by the end of the year CeDurShakefiis made by Trim Products Torrance CA Table 43 presents a summary of substitute manufac- turers and products GRC Products Inc. of business.11 of Schertz TX once made GRC sheet but has since gone out 162 TABLE 43. SUBSTITUTE PRODUCT MANUFACTURERS5 12 2 26,32-34 Manufacturer Location Product and name FIL Corporation Forton Nashville TN Dallas TX Flat and corrugated reinforced cement sheet 125S TACboardfi Forton plus polymer International Housing Corporation Sacramento CA Cement board flat sheets Cape Boards and Panels Limited Uxbridge U.K. Calcium silicate Monoluxfi cement sheet Zircar Products Inc. Masonite Corporation Publishers Forest Products Inc. Monier Company Manville Corporation Lunday Thagard Trim Products Florida NY Laurel MI Chicago IL IL Portland OR Orange CA Denver CO Southgate CA Torrance CA temperature alumina sheet Alumina density wood laminate Benelexfi Hardboard siding shingles and paneling Hardboard siding shingles and paneling Cladwood Unreinforced cement roof MonrayfiRoof Tiles tiles Fiberglass asphalt shingles Fiberglass asphalt shingles Fiberglass polyester shingles CeDurShakefi Currently Forton has plants and warehouses in New Jersey and Texas where all the materials are stored The polymer compound will be made in the Dallas area with the possiblity of producing it in five other U.S.locations as the market develops Fibers are provided from PPG in North Carolina Forton letter of Nov. 17 1981 to James Bulman U.S. EPA 163 Fiber reinforcing materials for cement sheet are being investigated by several companies including Babcock & Wilcox Augusta GA Conwed Corp. St. Paul MN and Gold Bond Building Products Buffalo NY No information about actual production has been released Conwed has however just received a patent for their product GAF Corp. filed a patent in 1975 for a cotton sheet product 38 consisting of cement cotton fiber inorganic filler silica and water There is also a Swiss patent filed in 1978 for a fiber reinforced cement material using short polyvinyl alcohol fibers Production Volumes-- The International Housing Corporation has not cement board but plans to manufacture 11,150 when production begins.4beg0ins.40 yet begun to produce day 120,000 day GRC Products Inc. is currently able to manufacture 557,700 to 929,500 m 6 to 10 million ft of flat sheet per year.13 FIL Corp. has not yet begun to produce large quantities GRC but currently manufacturers to fill , orders No other information on production volumes is known However plywood particleboard hardboard steel fiberglass and concrete are fairly abundant COST COMPARISON Costs are broken down into sheet categories for comparison including flat sheets corrugated sheets siding shingles and roofing shingles Flat Sheet Substitutes. According to a product cost comparison between cement and C sheet done by the cement board manufacturer the most expensive mill price of cement board is less than half the cost of M FlexboardfiA sheet sheet and less than fourth the price of M TransitefiA _ Glass reinforced cement sheet is expected to be competitive with A sheet in the future although the price of glass fiber is higher than asbestos fiber at present Like many other materials the economics depend very much upon the volume of production With volume production of quar- ter inch spray GRC sheet costs run about 1.20 per square foot whereas this price can be lowered to 80 with high volume production processes A is still lower at 50 to 55 per square foot 5.55 to 6.00 per square meter Prices are expected to get to within 20 percent of asbestos thickness for thickness as GRC use grows and the volume of manufacture increases It may be important to note here that thickness for thickness substitution is not always possible i.e. one may need inch GRC to replace inch asbestos However in many applications one is not concerned with thickness so much as that the material will hold up to abuse and minor stress industrial uses .18 particularly in 164 Alumina is more than 10 times as expensive as Transite but the price is expected to be cut in half as production increases this year Although the cost is high for Alumina in one instance the Alumina- Sheet was used to replace asbestos rollboard as a pouring trough liner for zinc alloys The Alumina lasted 6 months while the asbestos rollboard was replaced every other day Because Alumina is fairly new on the market additional comparisons are not currently available Table 44 snows a comparison of prices Corrugated Sheet Substitutes Steel Corrugated is less expensive than GRC is more expensive A sheet and at 2 to 2-1 aluminum is competitive times the cost of A sheet Table 45 shows a price comparison between siding products from quotations made in California in 1979 Roofing Shingle Substitutes Monier Monray roof tile CeDurShake and the new resistant asphalt shingles cost between 100 and 130 for a square a 100 ft roof surface installed the same as Supradur asbestos these substitute1s2 shingles would cost per square about CURRENT TRENDS There is a growing interest in substitutes for A sheet A large manufacturer of laboratory fume hoods is buying GRC panels for construction material and a major manufacturer of appliances is actively seeking substitutes for A sheet in pizza ovens Cooling tower companies are seeking products that can replace A sheet in cooling tower construction in fact the first full scale use of GRC in a large cooling tower is currently underway in Kentucky and owners of factories are purchasing corrugated GRC to replace damaged A sheets at their facilities GRC is used quite extensively on the West Coast in high buildings where it is designed and has been tested out to be capable of taking shocks such as seismic loading The representatives of companies either producing substitute cement sheet or planning to make asbestos cement sheet report a growing positive interest from other parties using or needing C 5,13,40 The construction of a plant producing large quantities of flat glassreinforced concrete sheet has shown that a nearly equivalent and in some respects superior substitute for A sheet can be produced at a competitive price This has occurred in the face of predictions that GRC would not be able to compete with A sheet The move by International Housing Corporation to introduce cement board to the United States will bring to the marketplace a material that has the potential to replace A sheet in general construction applications not only from the viewpoint of material performance characteristics but also because of its relatively low cost Cement board could also easily be made into textured siding and roofing shingles that 165 TABLE 44 COMPARISON OF CEMENT SHEET PRICES 12,13,18,22,26,41,42 12,13,18,22,26,41,42 12,13,18,22,26,41,42 PRODUCT Cost $ per m ft Product 1/4 in 1/2 in M Flexboard A M Transite A Cement board High density GRC Low density GRC Forton Alumina Sheet 6.50 0.60 25.00 2.30 2.70 0.25 8.60 0.80 8.60 0.80 3.90-4.90 0.36-0.45 160.00 15.00 15.00 1.40 35.00 3.28 5.40 0.50 21.00 1.95 16.00 1.50 _ Prices are given at the distribution level they depend on the quantity of the material ordered Here a quantity of over 1000 sq ft is assumed for the M products TABLE 45 COMPARISON OF SIDING PRODUCT COSTS Product Wood siding 5/8 in Wood shingle Asbestos shingle Fiber board Brick or stone Stucco or concrete block Aluminum Total cost $ per m ft 8.75 1.00 1.00 15.75 1.50 1.50 13.50 1.25 1.25 10.75 1.00 1.00 61.75 5.75 5.75 18.00 1.75 1.75 13.50 1.25 1.25 All costs include material plywood sheathing of 0.25 the wood siding cost price for ft except 166 would likely be a substantial challenge to A roofing and siding shingles if they were produced Other roofing materials that are resistant are prominent in California where fire is a persistent threat Some of these products have the potential to replace C roofing shingles Aluminum and vinyl siding have reportedly forced A siding from the residential market except where special fire protection is required or where a slate appearance is desire3d1 In the past 2 years GAF Corporation and Celotex Corporation have phased out the manufacture of all A sheet and National Gypsum has just sold its Gold Bond Building Products A sheet plant in Louisiana see Table 39 As previously mentioned several large companies including two manufacturers of A sheet are developing or experimenting with fibers that would effectively serve as substitutes for asbestos in cement sheet The current trend seems to be a move towards the use of asbestos sheet materials CONCLUSION Asbestos sheet still stands as a versatile purpose material that is relied upon for its excellent durability heat resistance workability and relatively low cost This unique combination of qualities has until now given it an unrivaled niche in various markets in the United States reinforced concrete appears to be suitable for most corrosion and heat resistant applications where A is currently employed and work to improve the resistance of GRC sheet to heat is continuing.5 Cement board once it is actually under production should be a cheaper material than A sheet for general construction purposes This product has been used in Europe for a number of years thus allowing time to test its performance Unique properties include its ability to be glued and laminated A sheet cannot it also has a greater modulus of rupture and resistance to impact than A sheet Questions of weather resistance capabilities now being debated may be combatted by solutions such as resin saturation or special paints in the future Substitutes are available for many specialized applications as well No material that can adequately match A sheet's qualities as a lab table is available though other products are currently used Slate is one of the materials used here but it is inordinately expensive At this time no single material could replace ebonized asbestos sheet in all electrical applications but Benelexfihas been shown to be a usable substitute for some In the past there have been no economical physically comparable substitutes for A sheet but the products described in this section have changed that While no single product matches A sheet's qualities exactly companies such as Johns Manville claim that all nonasbestos sheets degrade more rapidly than asbestos there are products that can be identified as suitable substitutes for A sheet for most applications With new replacements some recognition of the performance requirements of the end use has to be clarified In addition the Forton product discussed is both available and suitable in this product line 167 with the user such requirements have often been neglected in favor of the ease of A in that the decision has been made in the past However with properly defined requirements many of these substitute products can adequately fulfill niches delegated to asbestos in the past even though this may require a certain amount of testing and design work to come up with the right thickness and formulation to make the alternative product work Most substitutes are currently more expensive than A but the differential is shrinking In the case of GRC it has shrunk from approximately a 5 to 1 price differential to a current cost of about one and a half times that of the asbestos product 168 REFERENCes Pye A. M. A Applications 1979 Review of Asbestos Substitute Materials in Industrial Journal of Hazardous Materials Amsterdam v 3 125-147 Telecon E. M. Fenner Director of Environmental Services JohnsManville Corp. Denver Colorado 303 979-1000 with S. Duletsky Technology Division February 4 1980. Notebook No. 05 Phone call No. 35 Clifton R. A. Preprint from the 1980 Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbook U.S. Department of the Interior p 4 Clifton R. A. Asbestos in 1978 United States Department of the Interior Bureau of Mines Division of Metallic Minerals Washington D.C. Annual Advance Summary August 1979 Telecon J. Jones Assistant General Manager FIL Corp. Nashville Tennessee 615 883-7563 with S. Duletsky Technology Division January 31 1980. Notebook No. 05 Phone call No. 25 Supradur Manufacturing Corporation New York N.Y. ature on Mineral Fiber Shingles Manufacturer's liter- Meylan W. M. et al Chemical Market Output Analysis of Selected Chemical Substances to Assess Sources of Environmental Contamination Task III Asbestos Prepared for OTS EPA Washington D.C. August 1978 Weston Roy F. Environmental Consultants Technological Feasibility and Economic Impact of OSHA Proposed Revision to the Asbestos Standard Construction Excluded Asbestos Information Association America March 26 1976 Roy N. Nashua October Final Trip Report to Manville Corporation A Plant in New Hampshire Technology Division Bedford Massachusetts 23 1979 10 11 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Development Document for Effluent Limitation Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards for the Building Construction and Paper Segment of the Asbestos Manufacturing Point Source Category February 1974 AIA Comments on May 1981 Substitutes to Asbestos Report by GCA Corporation Technology Division Received by GCA 10/22/81 169 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 International Housing Corporation Notebook containing information about Cement Board Sacramento California 1979 Telecon W. H. Lewis GRC Products Inc. with S. Duletsky Technology Division No. 05 Phone Call No. 50 Schertz February Texas 512 651-6773 11 1980. Notebook Cogley D. R. speech entitled Other Substitutes for Asbestos Sheet presented at the July 1980 CPSC Conference Substitutes to Asbestos Found in Proceedings of the National Workshop on Substitutes for Asbestos p 133 Telecon C. Chaille Babcock & Wilcox Refractories Division Augusta Georgia 404 798-8000 with S. Duletsky Technology Division January 30 1980. Notebook No. 05 Phone call No. 20 Now Board A Strong Fireproof Weather Proof GRC Products Inc. 17051 I.H. 35 N. Nonasbestos Construction Shertz TX 78154 CPSC Substitutes Conference Sheet Roundtable Discussion July 14-16 1980 Arlington VA A Jones John Cem Corporation Speech presented at CPSC Substitutes to Asbestos Conference Arlington VA July 14-16 1980 Pigg B. J. A.I.A. Letter to R. Guimond EPA August 12 1980 Fiberglass Limited Product Leaflet Yf2 4 pages Cem 2 Alkali Resistant Glass Fibre FIL St. Helens Merseyside England October 1979 Telecon C. Swanson Technology Division Conwed Corporation with S. Dultesky GCA Telecon C. Hamling Zircar Products Inc. Florida New York 914 651-4481 with S. Duletsky Technology Division February 5 1980. Notebook No. 05 Phone Call No. 38 Telecon A. McGowen Manager Sales Administration Central Hardboard Division Masonite Corporation Laurel Mississippi 601 425-3611 with S. Duletsky Technology Division February 14 1980. Notebook No. 05 Phone Call No. 56 Manville Corporation New Asbestos Leaflet 229A 10-61 Denver Colorado Ebony and 4 pages Ohmstonefi M Product Masonite Corporation Benelexfi402 Insulation Product Description and Laurel Mississippi 2 pages Industrial Laminate Electrical Specification Sheet Form 908304 Cape Boards and Panels Ltd. Uxbridge England MonoluxfiIndustrial Handbook M1077914 170 27 Jones J. Properties Institute and and v T. Lutz Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete Applications Journal of the Prestressed 22 3 June 1977 Products-Concrete 28 29 Manville of 1001 Uses Corporation Flat Transite Basic Building Material BSD Denver Colorado March 1976. 4 pages Manville Corporation Denver Colorado 4 pages Flexboard Mineral Fiber Sheets 23A 30 31 32 Vaudreuil Michael ALCOA Corp. Lauren Choate NYCO and Irv Huseby General Electric Roundtable discussion during CPSC Substitutes to Asbestos Conference Arlington VA July 14-26 1980 Masonite Corporation 20 pages Siding 1980 Form 902180. Towanda Pennsylvania Publishers Forest Products Cladwood Quality Durable Economical Pub 101678 ML 40M 3/79 Portland Oregon Beautiful 33 34 35 36 Monier Company Monray Roof Tile Information Package Orange California Smaus R. Roofing Reaches New Heights Home a Supplement of the Los Angeles Times January 27 1980. pp 8-11 Telecon J. Porter Marketing Assistant Monier Company Orange California 714 538-8822 with S. Duletsky Technology Division February 15 1980. Notebook No. 05 Phone call No. 70 Castleman B. I. and S. L. Berger July 8 1980 Asbestos Substitutes Technology 37 Telecon N. 012 p 29 Krusell Technology Division 11/30/81 Notebook No. 38 U.S. Patent No. 4,040,851 Cotton Articles B. R. Ziegler Inventor Filed May 30 1975 39 U.S. Patent No. 4,199,366 Fiber Reinforced Cement Material P. Schaefer Inventor Field November 20 1978 40 Telecon G. Alm California 916 January 29 1980. International Housing Corporation Sacramento 456-5343 with S. Duletsky Technology Division Notebook No. 05 Phone call No. 11 41 Telecon Carolina March 7 J. Bostian Asbestos Fabricators Inc. Charlotte North 704 1980. 377-3461 with S. Duletsky Technology Division Notebook No. 05 Phone call No. 90 42 Telecon M. Flachbart Kenneth Industrial 617 631-6866 with N. Roy Technology Price is for a 1 x 1 foot piece Marblehead Massachusetts Division September 22 1980 171 SECTION 6 FLOORING PRODUCTS ASBESTOS PRODUCT Two containing flooring products are considered here vinylasbestos floor tile and sheet vinyl flooring with asbestos backing The felt carrier for the vinyl flooring was covered as a paper product previously Although the vast majority of asbestos used in this category is for vinylasbestos products there is also a very small amount of asbestos floor tiles produced Potential substitutes for floor tile and sheet vinyl products are discussed It will be noted that different asbestos fiber grades and different manufacturing methods are used in the production of these two products although they are treated together in one report section Special Qualities Asbestos has been used in flooring production chiefly because of its qualities in two areas end use consumer product properties and manufacturing properties In the consumer field asbestos offers floor tile and sheet flooring the following advantages ' dimensional stability durability e resilience flexibility C) resistance to moisture chemicals fire fungus etc. and e good indentation strength Dimensional stability is provided by the continuous web of asbestos fibers within the floor tile which help to prevent shrinkage or expansion from change in temperature Durability is also important in floor tile as it may be in place for up to 30 years in heavily trafficked areas Asbestos not only provides an interlocking matrix that offers this needed durability but also gives the tile resilience due to the nature of the fiber itself especially the shorter grades and provides indentation strength to the tile surface The fibers impart flexibility to the tile preventing cracking and breaking during installation or use Resistance to moisture chemicals fire and fungus as well as chemicals and oils and other potentially damaging substances which can effect floors is also inherent in asbestos 172 In addition to benefiting the floor tile in the manner delineated above during use asbestos is also essential in the manufacturing process currently used Here asbestos fibers provide mill tack heat resistance and dimensional stability The mill tack allows the tile material to adhere to the roll mills the heat resistance protects the product from potential cracking in the manufacturing process and the dimensional stability is critical to prevent the sheet from appreciably shrinking or expanding Without these qualities production techniques and machinery would have to be altered or replaced to provide for continuous production Product Composition asbestos tile compositions vary with manufacturers and the type of tile produced but the asbestos content of the tile usually ranges from 8 to 30 percent by weight or up to 0.13 pounds of asbestos per square foot of tile Grades 5 and 7 are normally used Tiles are typically produced in 9 ^ 9 or 12 x 12 inch sizes with thickness ranging from 1/32 to 3/32 inches PVC resin serves as the binder and makes up from 15 to 25 percent of the tile Chemical stabilizers usually vary little from 1 percent of the total formulation Limestone and other fillers represent 43 to 73 percent of the weight depending on reference used while pigment content usually averages about 5 percent but may vary widely depending upon the materials required to produce the desired color Sheet backing for vinyl flooring is composed of about 85 percent asbestos and 15 percent latex binder Uses and Applications In 1975 asbestos flooring commanded a 91 percent share of the resilient floor covering market Of this total 38 percent was floor tile and 53 percent was sheet flooring Only 9 percent of the resilient floor covering market was held by nonasbestos products mainly solid vinyl flooring asbestos floor tiles and sheet vinyl flooring are installed in industrial commercial institutional and residential buildings They may : be installed on concrete prepared wood floors or over old tile floors and are often specified for heavily trafficked areas such as kitchens entry ways restrooms supermarkets commercial plants and offices Their chief competitors in the flooring market are hard surface floors such as terrazo ceramic tile brick and stone as well as wood floors and carpet Product Manufacturing Summary Manufacturing Process-- asbestos floor asbestos floor tile is an outgrowth of asphalt composition sheet and as a result has been conventionally formulated with asbestos so that its processing and performance characteristics would match those of the asphalt composition as closely as possible The manufac- ture of asbestos floor tiles varies from company to company However the general flow of raw and finished materials is similar throughout the industr3,y5 Data for more recent years were not available 173 Ingredients for tile production including raw asbestos fiber pigment and fillers are weighed and mixed dry in a Banbury mixer The mixer works the dry materials into an agglomerated plastic mass As the material is sheared in the Banbury the asbestos fillers and pigments are dispersed throughout the vinyl mass Liquid constituents if required are then added and thoroughly blended into the batch While the mechanical working of the material itself generates heat more heat may be added if required to raise the batch temperature to 300 150 and flux the polymer resin The warm plastic mass is then fed to a mill where it is joined with recycled scrap and undergoes final mixing From this point on the process is continuous The mill consists of a series of hot rollers that squeeze the mass of raw tile material down to a desired thickness During the milling operation surface decoration in the form of small colored chips of tile mottle may be sprinkled onto the top of the raw tile sheet and pressed in to become a part of the sheet Some tile has a surface decoration embossed and inked into the tile surface during the rolling operation After milling the tile passes through calendars until it reaches the required final thickness and is ready for cooling Tile cooling is accomplished in many ways and a given tile plant may use one of several methods Direct water contact in which the tile is immersed in or sprayed by water is one method Indirect water cooling utilizing filled rollers is another Some plants pass the tile through a refrigeration unit to cool the tile surface After cooling the tile is waxed stamped into squares inspected and packaged Trimmings and rejected tile squares are chopped up and reused Asbestos in the floor tile is thought to be completely encapsulated when it is shipped Sheet vinyl flooring flooring carrier flooring --is an asbestos paper product which forms the underlayer of sheet vinyl flooring The backing is produced on a paper machine following production techniques outlined in Section 2 of this report During manufacture the asbestos fibers are coated with latex and are reported to be fully encapsulated when the sheet backing is readied for use in the manufacture of sheet vinyl flooring The major steps in the manufacture of sheet vinyl flooring are coating printing fusion trimming and packaging The flooring may be manufactured in the same plant as the sheet backing or in a separate facility * Production of sheet vinyl flooring begins with a coating operation Here the sheet backing is coated with a latex and plastisol coating These coats are applied by reverse roll coaters or blade coaters Once the coatings are applied the sheet is passed through an oven where these layers are dried and jelled The coated sheet is then transported to a printing operation where one or more engraved cylinders transfers designs to the coated sheet In some cases there will be several printing stations which separately apply one color or aspect of the design patterns The printed sheet then goes to a fusion step where the sheet is coated with another layer of material called the wearlayer The wearlayer is a homogeneous polymer application that provides an impervious surface for the finished product The coated and printed sheet is next fed through an oven where the backing itself the layers of latex and plastisol and the wearlayer are fused into a single product After fusion these layers 174 remain distinct but are no longer chemically or mechanically separable vinyl sheet is then cooled cut to size packed and shipped The Name and Location of Manufacturers-- The major manufacturers of containing resilient floor covering and their plant locations are presented in Table 46. The manufacturers sell floor tile directly to retailers lumber yards etc there are no secondary fabricators in this industry TABLE 46. MAJOR U.S. MANUFACTURERS OF ASBESTOS FLOORIN2,G 3,6 Plant location Manufacturer Vinyl asbestos tile Sheet backing American Biltrite Inc. Amtico Flooring Division Trenton New Jersey Norwood Massachusetts Armstrong World dustries Inc. In- South Gate California Kankakee Illinois Jackson Mississippi Lancaster Pennsylvania Fulton New York Congoleum Resilient Division Corporation Flooring Cedarhurst Maryland GAF Corporation Consumer Products Group Kentile Floors Mannington Mills Inc. Uvalde Rock Asphalt Azrock Floor Products Division Long Beach California Vails Gate New York Brooklyn New York Chicago Illinois Salem New Jersey Sheet vinyl Houston Texas Whitehall Pennsylvania The Flooring Division of the Flintkote Company used to produce vinyl as18 bestos floor tile but according to contact with the East Rutherford N.J. headquarters no asbestos floor tile is currently produced Winburn Tile Manufacturing Co. floor tile8 of Little Rock AR has also ceased producing A Production Volumes-- Asbestos fiber consumption for the resilient floor covering industry was estimated to be 126,000 metric tons in 1978 but by 1980 this figure was down to 36,080 metric tons Of this amount approximately 40 percent or 14,400 metric tons was used in asbestos floor tile and the remainder in sheet felt backing for vinyl sheet flooring Only the chrysotile form of asbestos is used in tile and felt production 175 SUBSTITUTE PRODUCT Methodology Search Strategy-- A combination of a literature survey of industry representatives asbestos floor tile substitutes review of relevant was used to gather trade journals and a data on potential vinyl Summary of Contacts-- The following industry representatives were contacted to gather data on potential vinyl asbestos floor tile and sheet substitutes e Mr. Robert Mauer Resilient Floor Covering Institute 1030 15 St. NW Suite 350 Washington D.C. e Mr. Robert Luders Sales Administrator Armstrong Cork Company Fulton New York r Mr. Paul Graham Monsanto Company 800 N. Lindbergh Blvd. St. Louis Missouri e Mr. Jack Clegg Kentile Floors Brooklyn New York 11215 e Mr. Frank Andrejak Amtico Flooring Division American Biltrite Inc. Trenton New Jersey 08607 Company Representative* The Flintkote Company Flooring Division Dallas Texas 75221 e Company Representative* GAF Corporation Consumers Product Group New York New York 10020 * e Company Representative Mannington Mills Inc. Salem N.J. The name of the person contacted at this company was not obtained 176 Fiber Substitutes Special Qualities-- A few companies are investigating various fibers to act as substitutes to asbestos in flooring tile Some attempts have been made to introduce such with fibers now being experimented in other asbestos product areas such as roof- 10 ing paints and sealant products To date however little is known about specific special qualities that such fibers might display as the information is kept proprietary by the flooring industry in efforts still underway to test and further develop such potential floor tile substitutes It is known that Santoweb discussed below may be used in existing manufacturing processes and can withstand temperatures of 149 during calendering In addition another fiber product by Lextar using Pulpex looks promisin*g* This product exhibits a melt strength of 10 on a scale of 0-10 and tensile properties using ASTM 638 as a guide at 180 of 59-72 psi strength and 3 to 22 percent elongation At 23 it exhibits 980-1170 psi strength 0.29-0.49 percent elongation and for modulus 365,000-445,000 psi Water dimensional growth has also been tested and after immersion at 30 for 1 to 14 days there was no growth measured Product Composition-- One product currently under research at Monsanto Corp. is called Santoweb and is composed of cellulose fibers Lextar of Wilmington Delaware is ex- Pulpexfi.10 perimenting with a synthetic polyolefin pulp product that they call Pulpexfi.10 148 Georgia Bonded Fibers produces Bondex in both Europe and the United States which is used as sheet flooring underlay Information on product composition is available for the Pulpexfiproduct only Formulations for this product include PVC resins - Butyl Benzyl phthalate plasticizer stabilizers powdered CaCO3 crushed limestone and fibrous pulpex.11 Uses and Applications-The uses and applications for these substitute fibers of asbestos Included is vinyl sheet and tile flooring as Pulpex in the roofing and sealant markets are similar well as the to those use of Product Substitutes Special Qualities-Product substitutes include the traditional asbestos floor tile competitors solid vinyl tile rubber tile wood carpet and hard surface floors Linoleum was also a competitor in the early years of sheet vinyl late 1950's but by 1974 the asbestos sheet had virtually replaced the linoleum product Although these products each have special qualities in general they also possess negative aspects that offset the special qualities Also includes one formulation where asbestos can be used here Pulpex E from polyethylene and Pulpex P from polypropylene Both are used here ** should be noted that this product is as yet only in preliminary stages of development and evaluation 177 4 when compared to the asbestos product This includes less resistance to abrasion or chemicals and less flexibility as in solid vinyl tile Rubber tile does not resist grease Linoleum put in place in the past has shown itself to be less stain resistant and more apt to be affected by alkali materials A product such as carpet is more porous and thus wears at an increased rate In general the wear resistance is just not on the same level as that of the vinyl asbestos product However some products such as that now under development by Union Carbide of New York NY are reported to exhibit properties closer to those of asbestos including good flexibility and indenta- tion resistancecloser Product Composition-- Composition-The major asbestos tile manufacturers are researching new asbestos- free tile formulations The Armstrong Cork Company for example offers an asbestos vinyl floor tile called Stylistic Asbestos has been replaced by increasing the limestone and resin contents of the tile In addition Mannington Mills produces sheet vinyl flooring without asbestos Union Carbide Corporation has combined at least two normally thermoplastic vinyl chloride polymers to form their floor composition Their patent was submitted in 1974. Other manufacturers are also investigating the use of solid vinyl and vinyl blends in their new formulations These new blends appear to use increasing amounts of resins binders and fillers in place of asbestos although specific formulations are confidential Limitations-Each of the traditional asbestos floor tile competitors lacks one or more of the advantages of asbestos tile Solid vinyl tile for example is generally not as abrasion resistant chemical resistant or as flexible as asbestos.16 Rubber tile while resilient is difficult to maintain and is not grease resistant Linoleum has a lower resistance to alkali materials and stains Carpeting is less resilient more porous and therefore less durable In general the new asbestos tile formulations lack wear resistance and have not been extensively field tested although these substitutes exhibit some qualities similar to the asbestos floor tile For example the Union Carbide product purported to be a novel floor composition reputedly exhibits a combination of acceptable processing characteristics including good indentation resistance good flexibility improved light resistances and very low water sensitivity Often processing refinements are required to improve products the dimensional stability of the new asbestos tile changes will require both time and capital expenditure 1 Other design Product Manufacturing Summary-Production methods for the new tile substitutes are not known but are expected to be similar to asbestos tile manufacturing techniques For example production of the Union Carbide substitute mentioned in the previous paragraph is reputed to be conveniently adaptable to existing asbestos tile equipment and production lines Lextar's Pulpex is dry blended in a Henschel mixer Table 47 lists the current manufacturers of nonasbestos floor tile 178 TABLE 47. MANUFACTURERS OF SUBSTITUTES TO ASBESTOS FLOOR TILE Company . Location Monsanto Corporation Georgia Bonded Fibers Lextar Union Carbide Corporation Armstrong Cork Company St. Louis MO Newark NJ Buena Vista VA Wilmington DE New York NY Lancaster PA Thomas Register 1980 Production Volumes-There is a lack of data items as most information is stages on current production volumes of these substitute proprietary Some products are still in testing COST COMPARISON Armstrong Cork's asbestos floor tile costs 25 to 50 percent more than its asbestos counterpart For the floor tile formulations discussed for Pulpex cost is reported to be approximately 14.55 per 100 lbs on a weight basis the formulations with one type of Pulpex for a specific grade is 11.3 percent more expensive than the asbestos formulation given For the Pulpex vinyl floor tile Lextar estimates a cost of approximately 1.30 per lb F.O.B. supplier This can be compared to 0.37 lb for Firestone's PVC resin floor tile 0.51 lb for Monsanto's Santicizer approximately 0.049 lb for H. M. Royal's distributor limestone vinyl floor tile atomite CaCO3 0.012 lb for their and finally 0.09 lb for an asbestos crushed formulation CURRENT TRENDS The flooring industry is overall secretive with its innovative studies at this time and will not share technologies There are tremendous costs involved in research and development for substitutes Further the firm which finds an acceptable substitute could make a large profit and perhaps control the entire market CONCLUSION CONCLUSION There are no commercially substitutes which duplicate all the manufacturing and end use product advantages of asbestos flooring products While products are available which can be used in place of vinylasbestos floor tile and sheet flooring none of these appears to have the low cost durability dimensional stability and resistance qualities of asbestos 179 New products are being introduced into the market which may ultimately replace asbestos but they have yet to be universally tested and do not now enjoy widespread use However some already established products such as carpeting even though they lack the wear resistance are causing the A floor tile as well as the entire resilient floor covering share of the flooring market to decrease at its expense It has been estimated that up to 10 years will be required to develop test and market an asbestos fiber replacement for this area of use However companies such as Lextar may succeed in shortening this time period if current product testing proves successful 180 REFERENCES A characteristic partially imparted by asbestos as noted in a letter to R. Guimond EPA from B. Pigg A.I.A. 12 August 1980 Cogley D. et al Life Cycle of Asbestos in Commercial and Use Including Estimates of Releases to Air Water and Land GCA Corporation October 1979. 79-73 Industrial Draft Copy Comments on the Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking and Industrial Use of Asbestos Fibers The Resilient Institute Washington D.C. February 18 1980 on the Commercial Floor Covering U.S. Patent No. 1974 3,904,579 R. P. Braddicks Inventor Filed August 14 McInnes R. December 3 Final Trip Report - Kentile Floors , 1979 Inc. Brooklyn N.Y. Meylan W. M. et al Chemical Market Output Analysis of Selected Chemical Substances to Assess Sources of Environmental Contamination Task III - Asbestos 6-78-005 August 1978 Telecon with Anne April 15 Mrs. Benny Flintcote Co. Central Ave. East Rutherford N.J. Duffy GCA Corporation Technology Division 201 368-9700 1981 Call No. 11 Telecon Ralph Ark with Anne 501 375-7251 Chambers Winburn Tile Manufacturing Co. Little Duffy GCA Corporation Technology Division April 16 1981 Call No. 17 Rock Clifton R. A. Mineral Industry Survey Asbestos in 1978 of Mines August 22 1979 and Clifton R. A. Preprint from Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbook on Asbestos p 4 U.S. Bureau the 1980 10 Smith D. A. Lextar Letter to R. Guimond EPA February 22 1980 11 Lextar - A Hercules Company Wilmington Delaware Product Information Tables 2 and 3 - Pulpex Vinyl Floor Tile Formulations 12 Telecon Paul Graham Monsanto Company Cogley GCA Corporation March 1980 St. Louis Mo. with David R. 181 + 13 14 15 16 17 18 Georgia Bonded Fibers Inc. Response to EPA's Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking on the Commercial and Industrial use of Asbestos Fibers Docket No. 61005 December 13 1979 Telecon Ron Bell Robert Luders Sales Administration GCA Corporation February 28 1980. Armstrong Notebook Cork Co. with 1 Call 18 Telecon Company Representative Mannington Mills with N. Krusell GCA Corporation January 1981 Inc. Salem N.J. Flooring Materials Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Technology Volume 7 pp 78-96 John Wiley and Sons Publishers GAF Corporation response to EPA's Advance Notice on the Commercial and Industrial Use of Asbestos 61005 February 7 1980 of Proposed Rulemaking Fibers Docket No. Plastics and Floor Tiles Roundtable Discussion Substitutes to Asbestos Conference USEPA Arlington Va July 14-16 1980 182 SECTION 7 GASKETS AND FACKINGS ASBESTOS PRODUCT Special Qualities Gaskets and packings are found in virtually every mechanical chemical and thermal operation or device where fluids are involved Although both gaskets and packings are used to seal one fluid from another the primary difference between the two lies in their application Gaskets are used where no motion occurs relative to the bearing surfaces whereas packings are applied provide in situations where motion will take place static seals while packings provide dynamic Consequently gaskets seals In some applications packings are also available which allow a controlled amount of leakage Asbestos has been used successfully in both applications because of its unique combination of qualities It is not only heat resistant resilient and strong but it is also relatively chemically inert which is important for many chemical applications Both gaskets and packings are normally composed not only of asbestos but also some form of elastomeric binder and in the of some packings a lubricant The asbestos imparts its strength heat case resistance and chemical inertness to the gasket while the binder holds the fibers together Assuming the gasket is properly designed for its operating temperatures and pressures the service life of asbestos gaskets is influenced essentially by two factors a the reaction of the fluid being contained with the binder and b scheduled and nonscheduled maintenance of the device being sealed Although asbestos is essentially chemically inert the binder used with the asbestos fibers can be affected by the fluid being contained causing the product to fail due to binder properties rather than to the asbestos itself Selection of the gasket with the most inert binder for the particular application is extremely important Maintenance whether scheduled or nonscheduled prematurely shortens the service life of the gasket by requiring replacement of the gasket which has been damaged while the seal is broken The service life of asbestos packings is determined primarily by wear due to friction Therefore a lubricant is generally included in the binder In 183 the case of pumps the pump packing must leak to perform properly Their purpose is to control leakage not to prevent it This slight leakage along the shaft provides proper lubrication to the packing Pump packings have a lubricant which acts as a primary sealant for start and break phases during which time the lubricant reduces friction However once the pump is on line external lubrication must be supplied to the packing to keep it running properly and ensure the longest life possible If not the lubricant in the packing will bleed out due to heat generation causing the packing to fail A valve is packed differently than a pump In contrast to a pump packing which must leak a valve packing must not leak Pressure and temperature on a valve stem packing is normally much higher than on a pump packing To eliminate the possibility of the lubricant bleeding out of the valve packing the packing is impregnated with a minor amount of sealing material Valve stem packings must provide a dense structure that will not permit movement of the fluid through the body of the packing itself thus acting more like a gasket Product Composition Specific gasket and packing ingredient formulas vary with manufacturer and grade of product The proportion of fiber and binder in the gasket varies with the temperature of its intended use Commercial grade asbestos sheet contains 75 to 80 percent asbestos and is used for temperatures up to 204 400 Temperatures of 483 900 or higher require gasket sheet of 99 to 100 percent asbestos Both white chrysotile and blue crocidolite asbestos are temperatures used to about up to C.3 483 900 AAAA asbestos can withstand Above this temperature the chrysotile becomes unstable due to the release of combined water and crocidolite predominates 2,4 Asbestos content in packings varies considerably to 100 percent for some applications such as sealing furnace doors.1 For most applications however a lubricant is impregnated into and onto the fibers Some typical elastomeric binders used in the packing and gasket industry include5,6 e silicone based rubber neoprene e Buna rubber e natural rubber e nitrile rubber Teflonfi 184 e glycerine fi butadiene nitrile Buna and Hypalonfi Some of the more common lubricants used in packing manufacture are e petroleum based oils and waxes ' high grade animal fats and waxes e Teflon ") mineral oil e natural rubber fi Buna rubber e vegetable oil e glycerine and e graphite For some applications a lubricant may not be necessary tons The consumption of asbestos for this product in 1980 most of which was chrysotile category was 12,300 metric Uses and Applications The uses and applications of asbestos gaskets and packings are extreme In order to classify these applications one must look at three primary parameters a the operating temperature b the operating pressure and c the nature of the fluid being serviced Operating temperatures vary from almost absolute zero -273 or -460 in cryogenic applications up to 538 1000 Operating pressures range from a vacuum up to 3.45 x 104 kPa 5000 psi The nature of the fluid serviced is perhaps the most important parameter to be considered The list of fluids is almost endless For instance one gasket and packing manufacturer lists over 700 materials to aid in selecting the proper packing This manufacturer has assigned a service classificaton to each of the materials on the list as well as to all of the 94 different packings the company produces The classifications are a general b caustic 185 j pulp and paper d food Oe water f solvents 8 acids and h any of the above uses except strong acids where the pH is between 0 and 2 Although packing length is generally sold by weight it is used by increments of Product Manufacturing Summary Manufacturing Process-Asbestos gaskets are several methods of gasket production currently in use Basic steps in manufacture include fiber introduction mixing sheet formation cutting and stamping and packaging As beater gaskets are discussed in the paper products section only compressed sheet gaskets will be addressed here Raw ingredients including asbestos fiber elastomeric binder and a solvent are preweighed and added to a mixer this mixture is then blended on a batch basis until a dispersed agglomerated mass is obtained This operation may be wet or dry according to product requirements A large roll is typically 40 inches in diameter by 130 inches in length and produces a sheet 120 inches square This calendered gasket sheet is then cut to size and packaged The sheet may be stamped into products onsite or more commonly sold to secondary manufacturers for further processing or to distributors for the maintenance market Secondary fabricators such as gasket cutters generally form gaskets from sheets by die cutting while the maintenance user cuts the sheet manually Asbestos packings of processes The most common process lubricant packings are manufactured by a variety is impregnation of dry yarn with a After lubricant impregnation the yarns are braided into a continuous length of packing which is in turn calendered to a specific size and sectional shape The formed product may then be coated with more lubricant or even with another material It may then either be coiled boxed and sold to the maintenance trade or instead be pressed into required shapes at the place of manufacture Fiber or yarn may also be used as a reinforcement to elastomers and molded to desired sectional shapes 186 Another type of packing production involves the extrusion of a fiber binder and lubricants and subsequent braiding of lubricated yarns over the extrusion Most final cutting and forming operatons by secondary fabricators mixture of asbestos are done Names and Number of Manufacturers-- Primary gasket and packing manufacturers are listed in Table 48 Actual annual asbestos use for each plant is unavailable Although primary products such as compressed sheet and impregnated yarn are made by the 26 primary manufacturers listed much of the material is packaged and resold by a large number of specialty companies These secondary manufacturers typically rework the gasket sheets and packing yarn into desired shapes and may sheath them in metal plastic or cloth or reinforce them with wire insertions Due to the wide variety of gasket and packing sizes shapes sheathing materials and asbestos compositions available no distinct inclusive product list can be made Similarly the number of companies is impossible to pinpoint although one 1975 200 such operations exist involved estimate in secondary fabrication suggested that more than Production Volumes-- In 1980 approximately 12,300 metric tons MT of asbestos were used in the United States to produce gaskets and packings Of this amount 12,200 metric tons was chrysotile and the remaining amount was crocidolite In 1978 31,100 metric tons of asbestos were used in this category 20 SUBSTITUTE PRODUCT Methodology Search Strategy-- A combination of a literature representatives was used to gather their potential substitutes review and survey of industry data on asbestos gaskets and packings and Summary of Contacts-The following industrial representatives were contacted to information on asbestos packings and gaskets and their possible obtain substitutes e Mr. C. Stein Pars Manufacturing Co. Ambler Pennsylvania January 1980 Mr. G. Faber E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co. Inc. Wilmington Delaware January 1980 Mr. H. Stiegler Excelsior Inc. Rockford Illinois January 1980 e Mr. S. Dittmeir Norton Company Sealants Division Granville New York January 1980 187 TABLE 48. U.S. ASBESTOS GASKET AND PACKING MANUFACTURERS 2,8 a Name Location Ametex Corporation Anchor Packing Armstrong Cork Co. Braiding and Packing Works of America A. W. Chesterton Crane Packing Detroit Gasket & Mfg Co. F. D. Farnum Felt Products Mfg Co. Fitzgerald Gasket GAF Garlock Inc. Greene Tweed & Co. Hollingsworth & Vose Janak Inc. Manville Lamont Metal Gasket Co. Inc.15 Inc.15 McCord Corporation Nicolet Industries 16 Parker Seal Gaskets Manhattan Inc. Richardson Corp. Hercules Div Sacomo Packing Co. Sierra SEPCO 18 Standco Rubber Gaskets Norristown PA Manheim PA Fulton NY Brooklyn NY Everett MA Morton Grove IL Detroit MI Necedeh WI Skokie IL Torrington CT Erie PA Charlotte NC North Wales PA East Walpole MA Weatherford TX Manville NJ Waukegan NJ Houston TX New Orleans LA Wyandotte MI Ambler PA North Brunswick NJ Stratford CT Alden NY San Francisco CA Carson City NV Birmingham PA Houston TX aMost of these companies were originally noted in the references listed then verified by telephone contact by GCA personnel locations for a few were verified by the 1980 Thomas Register In addition an unpublished OSHA document on Asbestos was used Manufacture containing material that eventually goes into gaskets and packings.19 188 Mr. T. Connolly Janos Jersey January 1980 Industrial Insulation Corp. Moonachie New Mr. J. Minchella January 1980 Miller Products Company New York New York Mr. R. Swanson Garlock Inc. Mechanical Packing Division Charlotte North Carolina February 1980 Mr. C. 1980 Broecker Newtex Industries Inc. Victor New York January Mr. B. Holt Melrath Gasket Co. February 1980 Philadelphia Pennsylvania Mr. E. Fenner Manville Denver Colorado January 1980 Mr. M. Falls Call Boise Cascade Specialty New York February 1980 Paperboard Division Beaver Nicolet Inc. Ambler Division Ambler Pennsylvania February 1980 Mr. E. Huber Paramount Feburary 1980 Packing and Rubber Baltimore Maryland Mr. J. Buechel February 1980 Durabla Manufacturing Co. Paoli Pennsylvania Gaddis Engineering Co. Port Washington New York February 1980 Mr. T. Conaghan February 1980 Bently Mfg Co. Lionville Pennsylvania Mr. S. Koehler February 1980 Greene Tweed & Co. North Wales Pennsylvania Mr. R. Chiostergi E. I. Delaware February 1980 DuPont de Nemours & Co. Inc. Wilmington Mr. V. Bunch Sheller Globe Corporation Norfolk Virginia February 1980 Mr. L. Hall Southland February 1980 Industries Incorporated Norfolk Virginia Mr. M. Black Armco February 1980 Hitco Materials Division Gardena California 189 Fiber Substitutes Special Qualities-The special qualities of substitute applications are summarized below fibers for gasket and packing Silica fibers melting temperature and continuous working temperature resistant to many chemicals high tensile strength exhibit no creep Ceramic fibers melting temperature and continuous working temperature greater than silica no shrinkage or moisture absorption good flexibility and chemical resistance Coramic 249 a product of Dana Corp. temperatures resists resistance up Ceramics to 1260 2300 and exhibits extremely high have a temperature range up to 1650 3000 crush their compressive strength is more than twice that of asbestos Problems include the fact that the binders necessary to keep the systems intact disintegrate at these temperatures In addition ceramics are up to 30 times the diameter of asbestos which makes homogeneity a problem For high temperature exhaust gas applications however ceramics may be blended with other fibers to make an acceptable alternative.22alternative.2 Graphite fibers and chemical resistant long service life lightweight will not harden near zero thermal expansion and drip rate Graphite products by Dana Corp. including Victocor and Solicor withstand extreme temperatures and in the case of Solicor have maximum radial strength provided by a solid steel core Aramid Aramid fibers have tremendous tensile strength and modulus while maintaining flexibility in some grades They begin degrading at 260 500 but do not disintegrate or gasify at that temperature At 1095 2000 they have higher strength than asbestos They are being used in compounds in small quantities.22 Teflon fibers not properties stain chemical resistant low frictional Product Composition-- ; Silica fibers different forms of silica fibers are currently on the 23-25 23-25 Although slightly different in form silica fibers are essentially pure S102 Products are produced in various forms including cloth Irish cloth treated with chromia slit tape woven tape sleeving yarn cord bulk fiber batting and rope Ceramic Ceramic fibers are typically metal oxides nitrides or carbides available in various forms including continuous filament cloth tube rope tape and chopped fibers Products by Victor Products Division of Dana Corp. containing ceramic materials are the Coramic series Coramic 199 consists of a steel layer on one side with soft material on the opposite side Coramic 299 is a soft material core mechanically held between two steel outer layers Coramic 249 is ceramic material applied to a perforated steel core and 439 is soft material facing on both sides of a perforated steel core 190 Graphite Graphite fibers are available in various forms including plain or diamond textured tape and sheet wire mesh insertions cloth rope yarn die formed rings with and cord and bulk fiber.28,29 without These .28 products filament are black in color diameter of 0.076 mm One manufacturer claims a product with nominal 0.0003 inches Victocor 189 by Victor Products is composed of graphite sheet reinforced with a perforated steel and core sheet Victocor 289 combines this with an chemically bonded to a solid steel adhesive 21 core Solicor 689 is graphite Aramid fibers I. DuPont de Nemours & Co. Inc. has been granted the generic name aramid by the Federal Trade Commission for its family of aromatic polyamide fibers which include Kevlarfi29 Kevlarfi49 and Nomexfi Kevlar 29 will be discussed in this section because it is widely used in the gasketing and packing industry Both Kevlar and Nomex are discussed in detail in the Textiles Section of this report DuPont produces Kevlar 29 in filament yarns and stable fibers TeflonfiTeflon fluorocarbon fibers and resins were developed by E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co. Inc. Teflon fibers possess a higher degree of molecular orientation than their resin counterparts Consequently the ultimate strength and resistance of the fibers to cold is much greater than that of the resins Teflon fiber is available as a continuous multifilament yarn staple flock or tow the natural color Teflon is dark brown Pure white bleached fiber is also available flow of Uses and Applications-No single substitute fiber material possesses all of the high qualities exhibited by asbestos however for any particular application a substitute fiber can often be employed to achieve the desired combination of properties Fiber replacements whose composition has been detailed include silica graphite carbon aramid Kevlar ceramic and Teflon fibers see Table 49 Table 50 compares asbestos with these fibers Disadvantages of asbestos including especially its abrasive properties for packing use and its insulation abilities have caused the development of substitute products which excel in these areas For instance the normally positive insulating abilities of asbestos trap frictional heat within the stuffing box containing the packings which can in turn boil the lubricant and suspensoids out of the packing In addition this build heat is transferred along the pump shaft which may eventually overheat the bearings causing a failure and shutdown of the entire pump assembly for major repairs As a result substitute packings have been developed which provide greater heat dissipation than asbestos The abrasive qualities of asbestos causing it to grind when compressed as a packing against a rotating shaft as in a stuffing box and thus requiring lubricants and maintenance programs to get around this potential problem have also been avoided with substitute products Although the costs of nonasbestos packings might seem higher than those of asbestos packings when operating and maintenance costs are considered the newer synthetic packings are competitive Only Teflon packings presently meet FDA regulations for contact with food drugs cosmetics and medical devices 35 however Grafoil by Carborundum is reported to be close to FDA approval for its use relative to food additives and Aramid products may also be approved.37 191 TABLE 49. CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBERS Maximum tensile strength Continuous duty temperature limits Fiber 106 kPa 106 psi Lower C Higher C Chemical deterioration References Silica 3450 Ceramic 1720 Graphite 2070 192 Kevlar 2758 Teflon 359 Asbestos 3450 500 250 3000 400 52 500 -73 -- -200 -46 -268 -273 990 1400 3000 200 290 540 some molten metals hydrofluoric acid fluorides oxides hydroxides 23 32 33 hydrofluoric acid phosphoric acid hot concentrated alkalis 26 28 29 strong oxidizing compounds chromium VI and permanganate solutions 29 34 strong acids including hydro- 30 chloric hydrofluoric nitric and sulfuric certain perfluorinated organic 31 liquids at temperatures above 299 570 essentially none 2 TABLE 50 FIBER USAGE CHART Fiber Asbestos Aramid Advantages Disadvantage Most common usage Heat resistant Pressure resistant Strong Tear Availability Price resistance Heat insulator Abrasive Health hazard Messy Low service Fluid life compatibility Depending on brake and and lube General service etc. pumps valves Super strong Tear resistant Hard to cut Cannot be die formed 3-11 pH range 260 Temp Limit Papermill pumps hydrofiner etc. Sewage treatment centrifuge sludge pumps etc. All slurries in 3-11 pH range Possible future replace all Asbestos Graphite TFE Composite _ Reduces run in time Chemical resistant Low thermal expansion Nonscoring Good heat dissipation Light weight more feet per pound Not messy Nonstaining Flexible Will not extrude A product you can standardize on Great in valves Long service life If over tightened it may glaze Possible price Chemical pumps espe- cially effective on chemical slurries slurries General service TFE Low friction Chemical resistance Nonasbestos Nonstaining Thermal expansion Low shaft speed 260 limit Possible price continued Chemical valves pumps and Food and drug pumps and valves Nonstaining applications 193 TABLE 50. continued Fiber Advantages Disadvantage Carbon yarn Heat dissipation Takes high shaft speeds Least expensive in the graphite family Temperature resistant to 649 in steam Operates with a lower drip rate Repack costs reduced total removal not always necessary Brittle Possibly Graphite Heat resistant Heat dissipation Fastest shaft speed Chemical resistance Long service life Light weight Near zero thermal expansion Near zero drip rate A viable alternative to the mechanical seal Will not harden Brittle Frays Price Most common usage The best boiler feed pump packing going especially the large ones in power plants Chemical pumps Boiler recirculation pumps This is a good general power plant packing In the dry form it is used in high tempera- ture valve in power plants High speed drip rate pumps Very hot chemicals Chlorine agitators Exotic high temperature and highly corrosive materials 194 As was the case in packings the aforementioned materials are also suitable substitutes for asbestos in many gasket applications If the application is under 260 compressed asbestos sheet gasketing can be immediately curtailed by applying a substitute material Graphite sheet metal gaskets and Rogers Corp. gaskets38 can replace asbestos over 260 but their use consitututes a major expenditure to plant maintenance Victor Products gaskets have found use as exhaust system gaskets sealing combustion gases under severe operating conditions Here they have been shown to have superior heat resistance as compared with their asbestos counterparts frequently withstanding temperatures of up to 2200 1204 while still maintaining a seal during extreme temperature changes This product is available in seven material compositions ranging in application from exhaust manifolds exhaust pipe flanges charger mountings and catalytic converters Victor's hard gaskets are used as cylinder head and intake manifold gasketing materials fuels and lubricant2s1 Their soft gaskets resist engine coolants Other candidates for gasket applications include glass fiber coated metals and in some areas cellulose fiber Glass fiber normally withstands heat to 595 1100 at which point softening and fusing occurs Glass has good strength and displays the highest surface area thinnest diameter of any manmade fiber It is recommended in reinforcing mica clay or baryte compounds much in the same way aramids and nylons are expected to be used.22 Coated metals are reported to display the physical strength of the substrate metals coated with a bonded yet embossable sealing coating of nitrile or silicone No wicking is necessary due to the solid steel barrier Good relaxation and extrusion properties have been exhibited Cellulose fiber is favored in some applications although it is only used sparingly in such areas as materials requiring high temperature resistance due to its low charring temperature However where heat is less than 150 300 it can be used as a successful carrier web or matrix for a variety of fillers.22 In addition to fibers for packings and gaskets filler materials are important in creating nonasbestos substitutes for this category Fillers include clay and mica Clay is inexpensive compressible in bulk and fills the voids between the larger fibers such as glass nylon or aramid When clay is added to most materials it increases the surface area to the magnitude of asbestos Clays are easily sealing clay reduces the spring rate of load bearing capabilities Clay resists dispersed in water mixtures For the facing as well as improving the temperatures to about 1650 3000 In addition clay has better conformity properties than asbestos Mica has been used for years by the paper industry as a filler Chemically or thermally expanded it becomes vermiculite which is very economical 1095 2000 characteristics has high surface area and good temperature resistance above Although it has relatively low strength it has good slip caused by the low coefficient of friction of the particle Compared to asbestos mica displays better torque and heat resistant properties 195 Performance of Substitutes-- General Tweed & Co. a supplier of gaskets and packing have developed a method of selecting a dynamic service packing based on three important criteria PV and pH factors and the material's resistance to temperature 3 The PV factor which is the factor for mechanical conditions is determined by multiplying pressure of the stuffing box by the velocity of the shaft The resultant PV factor will pinpoint a range of applicable packings The Fluid Sealing Association has developed a chart showing this range which is presented in Table 51 The pH factor is a numerical an acid which in turn determines packing will encounter Table 52 specific pH factor measurement of the intensity of severity of the potential amount of chemical attack a shows which packings are applicable to a The third and equally important criterium is resistance to temperature Aramid Teflon and Graphite composites are generally limited to 260 Carbon yarn is rated to 649 in steam or 343 in oxidizing atmospheres Coramic by Victor Products resists temperatures up to 1204 2200 .21 Pure graphite goes all the way up to 3316 in nonoxidizing atmospheres 649 in steam and 427 in oxidizing atmospheres as far as temperature goes is frictional heat An important factor to consider If the surrounding atmosphere in which the packing must perform is close to the temperature limit of the packing within 21-38 then careful attention must be paid to proper break of the packing and maintaining adequate drip rates to enhance cooling and heat transfer away from the packing and delicate pump components Even though packing materials such as graphite could withstand the heat the crystalline structure of the metallic pump components could be altered causing degradation and failure in addition oil seals and bearings may succumb to the heightened temperatures also causing shutdown for major overhaul.3 Table 53 represents an attempt to compare the various packing materials discussed here in a practical manner It is titled Experimental Preference Rating Chart because the ratings are based on testing experience and take into account more than just the three factors discussed previously Service life of the packing efficiency of energy usage and equipment life are the three criteria which give an experimental rating The highest a product can be rated is 100 and the lowest a product can be rated is zero As is clearly seen in Table 53 each substitute material presented provides superior ratings over asbestos in packings Fiber Substitutes-- Silica Silica exceed 1704 3100 fibers will not melt or vaporize until temperatures Continuous working temperatures of up to 982 196 TABLE 51. PV FACTORS Pressure Stuffing box Graphite velocity fpm PV factor Temp OF Aramid Carbonaceous TFE composite 50-150 X 151-500 xX X 0-50 psi 52-916 45,800 501-600 601-750 50-150 X 51-100 psi 916-1885 188,500 151-500 501-600 601-750 50-150 167 151-500 101-174 psi 916-1885 328,000 501-600 601-750 175-250 psi 916-1885 471,300 471,300 50-150 151-500 501-600 601-750 TABLE 52 pH FACTOR DETERMINES FACTOR MATERIALS3 CORRECT pH range 0-1 2-3 4-5 6-7 8-9 10-11 12-13 14 , Applicable packing materials TFE Fiber Carbonaceous Fiber Graphite Tape Graphite Composite PTFE Impregnated Carbon THE Fiber Carbonaceous Fiber Graphite Tape Graphite Composite PTFE Impregnated Carbon TFE Fiber Carbonaceous Fiber Aramid Dispersion Graphite Tape Graphite Composite PTFE Impregnated Carbon TFE Fiber Carbonaceous Fiber Graphite Tape Cellulostic Aramid Dispersion Graphite Tape Graphite Composite PTFE Impregnated Carbon TFE Fiber Carbonaceous Fiber Cellulostic Aramid Dispersion Graphite Tape Graphite Composite PTFE Impregnated Carbon TFE Fiber Carbonaceous Fiber Aramid Dispersion Graphite Tape Graphite Composite PTFE Impregnated Carbon TFE Fiber Carbonaceous Fiber Graphite Tape Graphite Composite PTFE Impregnated Carbon TFE Fiber Carbonaceous Fiber Graphite Composite PTFE Impregnated Carbon 198 TABLE 53 EXPERIMENTAL PREFERENCE RATING CHART fee tm ... W... S. k so ... me ssn eas. .2 CR Set ees oe eves Application data Service 1 Service 2 Service 3 Motion Fluid Temperature Shaft Speed Discharge Pressure Drip Rate Flush Rotary Clear 93 Neutral , 800 FPM 50 psi 100 Drops No Rotary Slurry pH 6-8 93 800 FPM 50 psi 100 Drops Yes Rotary Acid Slurry pH 2 204 200 FPM 150 psi 20 Drops Yes Asbestos Asbestos Asbestos Service Life Energy Use Equipment Life 40 10 5 Aramid 40 10 5 Aramid 10 10 5 Aramid Service Life Energy Use Equipment Life Service Life Energy Use Equipment Life 60 60 70 Graphite Composite 90 80 80 Teflon 100 60 70 Graphite Composite 90 80 80 Teflon 10 60 70 Graphite Composite 100 80 80 Teflon Service Life Energy Use Equipment Life 90 90 60 Carbon 90 90 60 Carbon 25 90 40 Carbon Service Life Energy Use Equipment Life Service Life Energy Use Equipment Life 95 90 90 Graphite 100 100 100 95 90 90 Graphite 100 100 100 95 90 90 Graphite 100 100 100 199 1800 do not reduce the strength or flexibility of the fibers.23 Working temperatures as low as -73 -100 have been reported The functional cycling temperature of select fiber forms approaches 650 1200 The tensile strength of silica fibers is temperature dependent varying from 3.45 x 106 kPa 500,00 psi at 22 72 to 1.72 x 106 kPa 250,000 psi at 538 1000 However another manufacturer of silica fibers claims that working temperatures of up to 982 1800 do not reduce the strength or flexibility of the fibers although some embrittlement and shrinkage occur above 982 1800 In addition to their high tensile strength and wide working temperature range silica fibers exhibit no hysterisis or creep The chemical properties of silica fibers allow them to be used in most environments Most elements do not react with silica fibers however some molten metals such as magnesium sodium and silicon are exceptions as well as hydrofluoric acid fluorides oxides and hydroxides the latter two especially at elevated 32 temperatures Because of the chemical resistance of silica fibers common lubricants used in packings will not be absorbed into the fibers as is the case with asbestos fibers but will instead be adsorbed on the outside of the fibers Silica fibers can be coated with common elastomers including S.B.R. N.B.R. Hypalonfi Hypalonfi Vitonfi and Teflo3n3 Uncoated silica fiber rope can be used where temperature seals are required such as in partial doors where the rope is not entirely contained compact dense high grooves in furnace oven Ceramic Ceramic fibers will not melt until temperatures exceed temperatures 1800 3272 1427 2600 and can withstand continuous working with short term use up to 1650 3000 The strength of ceramic fibers is in the 1.72 x 106 kPa 250,000 psi of up to rtanegensile Even at 1093 2000 one brand of ceramic fiber tested Nextel retained 100 percent of its tensile strength Shrinkage and moisture absorption are virtually nonexistant Ceramic fibers retain their flexibility and resiliency even at elevated temperatures 26 The chemical properties of ceramic fibers such as the Garlock product Thermo allow them to be used in most environments They are resistant to most corrosive agents with the exception of hydrofluoric acid phosphoric acid and hot concentrated alkalis Information is unavailable at this time to determine the compatibility of ceramic fibers and common elastomers used in gasketing manufacture Ceramic can be coated with graphite for added lubricity and can be enclosed in wire mesh for added strength.28 strength.28 Graphite Graphite fibers have the highest heat resistance of the materials presently under consideration Its tensile strength increases until 2200 4000 it is heat resistant above 2760 5000 and it will not melt but will instead sublime at 3740 6700 One particular packing produced by Garlock called Graph withstands temperatures 200 from -200 -328 to 500 932 in oxidizing media and temperatures up to 3000 5432 in reducing or inert media Graphite fibers also have excellent resistance to temperature changes and in addition to their wide temperature range graphite fibers have high tensile 39 strength Even at elevated or cryogenic temperatures graphite fiber products do not exhibit cold flow characteristics and do not soften harden or otherwise degrade.34 degrade.34 When added strength is needed in extremely high pressure applications mesh inserted sheet can be used The mesh also helps prevent damage during handling and installation In addition graphite has unique low frictional characteristics of platelets which help where motion is a problem.22 Graphite fibers have a high resistance to most agents including organic and inorganic acids and bases solvents waxes and oils Exceptions are strong oxidizing compounds such as concentrated nitric or sulfuric acids with dissolved oxidizing salts chromium VI permanganate solutions and perchloric acid In addition graphite alkaline and alkaline earth metals.34 fibers are not resistant to molten Graphite fibers as a dry packing have all the inherent lubricating qualities of pure graphite However Teflon and other lubricants are impregnated into the graphite packing to block potential leak paths.40 paths.40 Aramid Kevlar 29 an Aramid fiber does not melt or support combustion under normal environmental conditions but will carbonize at about 427 800 At temperatures as low as -46 -50 Kevlar 29 exhibits essentially no embrittlement or degradation of fiber properties and it does not sublime The fiber exhibits virtually no shrinkage up to 160 320 Kevlar 29 can be used as an asbestos substitute up to 204 400 The tensile strength of Kevlar 29 fiber is temperature dependent but can attain 2.758 x 106 kPa 400,000 see Figure 2 Creep characteristics of Kevlar 29 are equivalent to that of fiberglass but Kevlar 29 is much less susceptible to creep rupture The chemical resistance of Kevlar 29 is excellent except for a few strong acids including hydrochloric hydrofluoric nitric and sulfuric see Table 54 Its pH range is said to be between 3 and 11. However compression of Kevlar may increase friction heat and therefore wear in turn increasing degradation pipe.37 that may be caused by the presence of acid in such uses as A . Kevlar 29 These include has been coated with many elastomers and other materials e neoprene synthetic rubber e Hypalon synthetic rubber ' synthetic rubber e nitrile rubber e Nordel hydrocarbon rubber 201 THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF KEVLARfi29 ARAMID 22 194 194 2758 17.7 ) 18 15.9 22441133 16 14.1 ) dtex 12.4 dtex cN ( 12 DENIER 10.6 DENIER DENIER 10 GM 8.8 TENACITY TENACITY 8 TENACITY 7.1 TENACITY 6 5.3 4 3.5 2 ( 18 250 482 ASTM D2256 TESTED AT ROOM TEMPERATURE 300 2068 MPa MPa 250 1724 10-3 IN IN 200 1380 STRENGTH STRENGTH STRENGTH 392 4 150 STRENGTH 1034 TENSILE TENSILE TENSILE 100 TENSILE 690 50 345 - 0 Lo L 0 100 it 200 TIME _ a 300 HOURS be were eee 1 400 500 Figure 2 The Effect of Temperature on the Tensile Strength of Kevlarfi29 Arami3d0 202 TABLE 54. CHEMICAL RESISTANCE OF YARN OF KEVLARfi29 ARAMID 100 hr Environment exposure at 70 21 Acids Formic 90 Hydrochloric 37 Hydrofluoric 10 Nitric 70 Sulfuric 70 Other Chemicals Brake Fluid 312 hr Greases moS2 and Lithium Jet Fluid JP 300 hr base Ozone 1000 hr Tap Water Boiling Water Superheated Water 156 313 80 hr Tensile strength loss % 10 90 12 82 100 2 0 0 0 0 0 16 * Except where noted 203 e Buna e urethane polymers e silicon and fluorosilicon ry polyvinyl chloride e Teflon TFE FEP fluorocarbon resin polyvinyl alcohol e Tedlar polyvinyl chloride and e Mylar polyester Teflon Teflon fibers soften at elevated temperatures and become less ductile at subzero temperatures however working temperature limits range from -268 -450 and 288 550 The fibers are most ductile and flexible between -73 -100 and 288 550 The tensile strength of Teflon fiber is dependent on temperature with maximum strength occurring at 21 72 or 3.59 x 105 kPa 52,000 psi The unique molecular structure of Teflon fiber makes it inert to powerful oxidizing agents and to such reagents as boiling sulfuric acid fuming nitric acid and boiling sodium hydroxide The only known solvents for Teflon fiber are certain perfluorinated organic liquids at temperatures above 299 570 Packing braided from bleached and specially impregnated and treated Teflon is currently in use throughout the industry Gasket tape made from the same bleached impregnated fiber as packing is used for such applications as head gaskets on glass lined reactors pipe flanges and top and bottom gaskets on centrifuges Because of the high mechanical strength and resistance to cold flow of Teflon fiber gasket resists extrusion at internal pressures as high tape made from Teflon as 1.4 x 106 kPa fiber 200 psi Product Substitutes The number of potential gasket and packing materials that do not contain asbestos is extremely large One distributor manufacturer Excelsior Inc. 41 lists over 160 different raw materials that do not contain asbestos see Table 55 At least two manufacturer4s,42 conduct presentations for industry showing nonasbestos packing and gasket materials At least two manufacture35r,4s4 have already developed materials to compete with asbestos gaskets In addition three other manufacturers are developing alternatives but consider all their information proprietary For that reason only those products already in production will be described in this section 204 TABLE 55. NONASBESTOS RAW MATERIALS FOR GASKETS AND PACKINGS41 Accopac Acetate Aluminum Aluminum foil Armaflex Artus shim saturated sheathing felt Backcheck felt Bakelite Bakelite Binders board Black fibre Blotting paper Bond paper Bucar Bucote Buna rubber Buna rubber . Cambric Canvas Canvas bakelite Canvas phenolic Cardboard Celluloid Cellulose materials Cerafelt Cerakote Celcon Chipboard Chipboard Clear cellulose acetate Cloth inserted rubber Copper Cork rubber compositions synthetic compositions Crepe barrier paper Deadening Delrin Duck Duracel Durocork Duroid felt EPDM EPT Embossed chipboard Emery cloth Ethafoam Fabric supported rubber Fairprene materials Felt Fibre vulcanized Fireboard Fibreflex Fibreflex Fiberglass Fiberglass Fiberglans Fiberglass Fiberglass Fibre silicone teflon Filter felt Firm pad felt Fishpaper armite Flexible fibre Fluorglass Fluorosilicone Foam Gasket felt Graphite materials Graphited rubber Gum rubber Gummed kraft paper Hemp Hycar GR rubber Jute lined Jute paper chipboard grey paper Kapton Klingerit Kraft paper Koroseal Leather Leatherboard Lexide Lexan Linen bakelite Linen phenolic Manila paper Melamine Metal finishing felt resistant sheathing felt Molybdenum filled materials Monocast nylon Mylar Mystik tape Natural rubber Neoprene compressed Neoprene materials Neoprene compositions Neoprene GR rubber Nomex Nylatron Nylon 0 ring cord resistant material Onion paper P.V.C. Packtite Paper Paper bakelite Paper phenolic Panelyte Parchment paper Phenolics Plastics Polyamide Polyethylene Polypropylene Pressboard linear Pure gum rubber Red rope paper Royal grey paper synthetic compounds SBR rubber Saran screen Sheathing felt Shim stock Showcase felt Silicone Soft pad felt Spauldite Spauldo Sponge rubber Stencil board Supercork Superpak Teflon Teflon fibreglass Thio Thiokol materials impregnated leather Transformer board Treated leather Trimming felt Upholstery felt Urethane homogeneous Urethane foam polyester Urethane foam polyether Urethane foam scott felt Urethane liquid cast Urethane millable gum Varnished cambric Velbestos Vellumoid Vinyl Vinylite Viton Viton sponge _ Vulcanized fibre Waterproofed chipboards impregnated materials This is the limitations that should be noted It has been pointed out that neither is the list complete nor would all the materials listed function in asbestos gasket applications Therefore this listing should be used only for general purposes Specific materials listed should be further researched prior to immediate usage as replacement materials In addition include generic materials and trade name4s3 products listed 205 Board 180044,47__ 180044,47__ Board 1800 is currently being manufactured by Janos Industrial Insulation Corp. It is made of inorganic fiber and inert fiber suitably bonded to provide a material having physical characteristics similar to asbestos millboard.44 Board 1800 can withstand temperatures up to 982 1800 depending upon application The tensile strength of Board 1800 is 4902 kPa 711 psi The chemical resistance of Board 1800 is still being tested however it has been used as a filler in metal gaskets An important advantage of Board 1800 over asbestos millboard is its capability of being wet molded Wet molding allows awkward shapes to be formed while wet and then dried back to hardness When dried molded Board 1800 can be coated with ceramic cement enabling it to resist temperatures up to 1260 2300 and more chemical attack Board 1800.48 Table 56 lists the nominal physical properties of Board 1800 was developed not only for a gasket material but also as an insulation material Table 57 lists some of the typical uses of Board 1800. Janos Industrial Insulation Corp. the manufacturer of Board 1800 is developing and testing a new asbestos product designed to replace compressed asbestos sheet No information regarding its performance is currently available Coramic Victocor and Solicor These products from Dana Corp. Victor Products Division are discussed here although some aspects of their manufacture would classify them as beater in this report Made of ceramics Coramic or graphite Victocor Solicor they represent an effort by Victor to supply a product which is directly interchangeable with asbestos gaskets They are competitively priced have no current regulatory agency restrictions and can seal components that asbestos namely exhaust applications As totally new products their temperature resistance has been measured up to 1260 2300 and Victocor 289 which combines graphite a steel core and an adhesive has the benefits of mechanical and chemical bonding Victor's hard gaskets the facings on these gaskets are made on Fourdrinier-- machines range from cylinder head and intake manifold applications to replacements for asbestos millboard In one a rubber bound facing material is mechanically attached to a perforated steel core others use neoprene or nitrile bound facing materials Victocor 809 is a totally new gasket composition aimed at the 1980's engines Soft gaskets and packings are also produced require crush and extrusion resistance Characteristics include compatibilty with aluminum flanges resistance to engine fuels lubricants and oils and torque retention 21 properties coolants The wide variety of gaskets offered including mechanical testing literature verifies the existence of many suitable substitutes to asbestos gaskets Currently asbestos versions of Victor's Victocor Solicor Victopac Corbestos and Coramic materials are being sampled and tested by O.E. manufacturers in the U.S. and abroad.22 diesel and gasoline 206 TABLE 56. NOMINAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF BOARD 180047 COLOR BEIGE DENSITY TENSILE STRENGTH FLEXURAL STRENGTH COMPRESSION @ IGNITION LOSS 300 psi MOISTURE CONTENT THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY FLAMMABILITY HEAT RESISTANCE 66.8 ft 711 in 1280 in 30-40 20 max % 0.0636 BTU WILL NOT BURN UP TO 982 DEPENDENT UPON APPLICATION DIMENSIONS THICKNESS RANGE SHEET SIZE INCLUSIVE 3/32 to 1/2 40 X 40 TABLE 57. TYPICAL USES OF BOARD 180047 e Lining furnances r) Moving Pictures Booths ' Elevator Shafts Ceilings Walls exposed to heat e Gaskets e Stoves e Electric Ovens r Glass Lehr rolls Float glass conveyor rolls e Cores for metal clad door fi Stove pad welding pads Incinerators ' Heater lining e Strongbox lining e Kiln lining Molded for troughs e Cable protection Gylon Gylon gasketing materials produced by Garlock are fomulated by a proprietary process that permits fluorocarbon particles to be restructured with distinctive physical properties not found in Teflon Three different types of Gylon are produced each with varied characteristics Fawn Blue and Black Continuous working temperatures for Gylon range from -212 -350 up to 260 500 Gylon displays a resistance to creep unlike Telfon resins Gylon Blue was developed for low gasket loads such as in glass pipe and reaction vessels Gylon Black is filled with graphite to resist hydrofluoric acid.49 Table 58 compares gasketing characteristics of Gylon to both Teflon and compressed asbestos and also lists other physical properties of Gylon 207 TABLE 58 GYLONfiPHYSICAL PROPERTIES 35104 Fawn 35120 Blue 35101 Compressed Black PTFE Asbestos Tensile Strength PSI - Typical ASTM F39-59 Compressibility % at 5000 PSI ASTM F36-66 Recovery % Minimum ASTM F36-66 2100 4-7 40 2200 18-20 42 3500 2100 4-7 5-7 50 34 3000 7-17 40 Creep relaxation % ASTM F36-71 Method B at 3000 PSI 1/8 58 70+ 70 80 57 Elongation -Typical ASTM F39-59 200 300 300 i -- Modulus at 100 Elongation Typical ASTM D1708 1600 Durometer Shore D ASTM D2240 65 1600 2400 -- -- 58 65 -- -- 208 Specific Gravity ASTM D792 Dielectric Strength MIL ASTM D149 2.1 500 1.62 2.16 -- -- 305 * -- -- Volume Resistivity OHM ASTM D257 BTU Thermal Conductivity ASTM D2214 2.0 x 1014 2.6 x 1011 * - -- 2.00 1.19 * -- -- Coefficient of Friction - Static ASTM D1894 Kinetic 0.30 0.22 .19 0.22 -- - .13 0.19 -- -- Flammability Bacterial Growth Will not burn Will not support Tested at 1500 PSI Information available from supplier Preox PAN According to the 1980 CPSC Substitutes to Asbestos Conference Caskets and Packings Roundtable Discussio3n7 market a fiber called Preox PAN which is an Celanese has intermediate just begun to material expected to be commercially available in the near future Preox is a precursor to a carbon product In carbon fiber production the main cost factor is apparently a 50 percent yield loss which is made lower with this intermediate fiber product thus reducing the initial production cost disadvantage However installation costs are such that the cost of fiber production is negligible The fibers have over 10 percent elongation they are based on rayon precursors which have only a 20 to 30 percent but with Preox Celanese uses the fiber itself trade named Celiox ) and therefore loses less in the production process PAN produces a 50 percent yield polyacrylonitrile Klingersil 4400-- A premium compressed nonasbestos material for general purpose is composed of nitrile rubber bonded synthetic fibers and conforms and American physical standards insert.50 insert.50 Some types use a mild steel wire use This to British mesh Substitute Fiber Manufacturing Summary- Manufacturing process the case of fiber replacements the same methods used for asbestos packing and gasket manufacture are used for substitute fibers A material such as DuPont's Kevlar is a pulp produced in a process fibers of similar to wood pulping resulting in random length amenable to use in wet a slurry material or dry processes with short Typical beater applications are a natural for this material.37 Substitute Product Manufacturing Summary-Manufacturing process all cases 30,35 substitute materials are manufactured by a proprietary process All of the products manufactured by Victor Products are listed in this Gaskets and Packings versus the Paper Beater section for continuity and because manufacturing material involved in final product uses overlap see Product Substitutes section Name and number of manufacturers complete list of manufacturers of substitute products is impossible to determine at this time because in many cases this development work is confidential Manufacturers of substitutes are unwilling to divulge this type of information for fear of losing their competitive edge Consequently the following list of substitute manufacturers is not exhaustive e Greene Tweed and Co. North Wales Pennsylvania Garlock Inc. Palmyra New York @ Janos Industrial Insulation Corp. Moonachie New Jersey e E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co. Inc. Wilmington Delaware 209  Norton Company Sealants Division Granville New York e Boise Cascade Specialty Paperboard Division Beaver Falls New York Victor Products Division Dana Corp. Lisle Illinois e Celanese Corporation New York New York Celotex Corporation Tampa Florida r Richard Klinger Ltd. Production Information on specific substitute products listed in this report is not production volumes for available at this time COST COMPARISON For a fiber replacement the cost of packings and gaskets is proportional to the cost of fibers as the manufacturing processes are identical This assumes that the asbestos substitute gasket has been correctly selected for the specific application and will not prematurely fail because of a reaction between the fluid being contained and the gasket material Otherwise gasket life for substitutes is equivalent to that of asbestos gaskets This service life may extend up to several years or until the gasket is replaced during periodic maintenance or equipment overhaul Table 59 for a cost comparison of various fibers Table 60 shows a cost See comparison of asbestos sheet for gaskets and gasket sheet manufactured from various substitutes TABLE 59. COST COMPARISON BETWEEN ASBESTOS FIBERS AND SUBSTITUTES 1976 DOLLAR8S,35 Fiber Approximate cost lb kg Asbestos fiber Glass fiber Nomex - fiber - continuous filament Kevlar Teflon Kynol Carbon Ceramics - 3M 1.00 2.20 0.75 1.65 5.00-5.50 11.00-12.00 6.50-10.00 14.30-22.00 14.30-22.00 5.50-6.00 12.00-13.122.00-103.20 7.00-10.00 15.40-22.00 3.60 8.00 2.00 4.40 30.00-32.00 66.00-70.50 210 TABLE 60. COSTS OF ASBESTOS AND SUBSTITUTE GASKETIN,G444 Material Cost ft 1/16 diam $ m Asbestos Sheet Garlock 900 Asbestos Sheet Garlock 7006 Gylon Fawn Vegetable Fiber Cork Garlock 681 Red Rubber Board 1800 1.96 1.17 8.61 0.51 0.53 0.37 0.87 6.43 3.85 28.25 1.65 1.75 1.20 2.85 These tables show that the cost of Teflon fiber is approximately 7 to 10 times that of asbestos Graphite carbon fibers cost approximately twice as much as asbestos and ceramic fiber prices vary greatly from approximately 9 to 32 times that of asbestos Gylon ranges from 4 to 7 times the cost of compressed asbestos sheet and Kevlar 29 is also in this range at 5.5 to 6 times the cost of asbestos.35 Board costs consistently less than asbestos sheet at approximately half to quarters the price of asbestos Price information on Victor Product's gaskets was not available however literature reports that the current price structure is considered attractive Of note here is that in many cases the cost of the gasket or packing is insignificant compared to the cost of its installation Consequently it is often more cost effective to install a higher quality and associated higher cost material rather than the lower lower quality material Lost production while equipment is down because of gasket replacement must also be included in the cost of the replacement In general compressed asbestos sheet gasketing can be replaced with substitute unless the materials at this time with application is over C.3 little added expense to the customer Graphite and sheet metal gaskets can replace asbestos over 260 but their costs will constitute a major expenditure 5 to 7 times the price of compressed asbestos plus additional plant maintenance Rogers produces high temperature grades which have been tested up to 425 800 and yield results equal to and in some cases grades better than compressed asbestos These approximately 1.75 the price of asbestos 38 however are sold at Specific to packings it appears that substitute materials are both economically and physically a viable alternative to asbestos in every application Since substitute materials result in less abrasion on rotating shafts and improved heat dissipaton lower operating and maintenance costs are experienced As a result the new synthetic packings are cost competitive with asbestos packings Table 61 shows the costs of various packing materials 211 TABLE 61. COST OF VARIOUS PACKINGS4 Material Suggested resale lb to consumer kg Graphited white asbestos Graphited blue asbestos Flax plain or graphited Flax impregnated White asbestos impregnated Blue asbestos impregnated TFE filament yarn Kevlar impregnated graphite filament yarn 8.57-17.27 . 19.00-38.00 19.00-38.00 19.00-38.00 21.22 46.75 7.34-9.52 16.20-21.00 16.20-21.00 11.15 24.50 16.66-17.95 36.75-39.50 26.72 59.00 45.56 100.00 28.42 62.65 51.68-161.16 114.00-355.00 lin ft meter 1.34-3.45 4.40-11.30 4.40-11.4.430-110.30 3.45 11.30 0.87-1.29 2.85-4.22.85-54.25 1.34 4.40 2.49-2.79 8.20-9.15 4.61 15.15 8.29-9.49 27.20-31.15 4.24 13.90 13.90 7.38-18.52 24.20-60.75 24.20-60.75 CURRENT TRENDS At least six manufacturers 4,21,42,45,46,47 of gaskets and packings are currently marketing or developing alternative products Two manufacturers distributors conduct seminars for industry to present alternative materials 212 Many gaskets are produced to meet military specifications To a large extent these specifications are composition standards in addition to performance standards At this time consequently certain quantities of asbestos are required regardless of the performance of the alternatives Without change in specifications manufacturers are required to use asbestos in many of their products Nonasbestos packings provide superior life characteristics and lower friction and abrasion qualities than does asbestos It appears that the major obstacle in completely eliminating asbestos from packings is the resistance which sales and engineering people have to changing over to nonasbestos packings This resistance to substitute usage may be a result of ignorance concerning the overall operating costs of utilizing asbestos packings It is perhaps interesting to consider the new options companies now have in purchasing nonasbestos gaskets and packings by considering data from one of the producers of these materials Products A description listing for their asbestos materials covers over 30 products most of which can be used directly and other Victor of asbestos in replacing such asbestos products as Corbestos Asbestopac material5s2 Victor in fact has developed three classes gasket materials exhaust system gaskets for high heat resistance hard gaskets strengthened with steel for applications such as cylinder head and intake manifold sealing and soft gaskets for general sealing with excellent extrusion resistance .53 Although many grades are direct replacements for current containing materials as mentioned others are new asbestos grades designed to fill other needs Mechanical test data supplied indicates equal performance nonasbestos versus record asbestos in actual applications of operation on test engines A of over 300,000 miles of actual operation on field test vehicles for asbestos cylinder head gaskets shows no major functional problems.5probl5ems.5 In addition specific customer switch trends are reported by Victor 53,56 an indication that consumer knowledge in the area of substitutes is increasing As a result of certain substitutes 22 applications current industry programs it has been predicted that will take hold in the following established gasket Application Exhaust systems and turbochargers Nonasbestos Replacement Material Graphite ceramic fibers and fillers and mica combined with stainless steel substrates Cylinder head and intake manifolds Organic fibers and binder inorganic fillers formed by papermaking processes and combined with metal substrates High high extrusion coated steel cellulose fibers elastomeric binders glass fiber with fillers and elastomeric binders densified organic fibers and fillers with elastomeric binders and liquid systems such as RTVs and anaerobics 213 Embossed steel or aluminum with high temperature coatings is expected to continue use where engine structure permits CONCLUSION CONCLUSION One of the greatest advantages of asbestos is its versatility coupled with low cost As asbestos is so versatile substitution requires diversified product lines For this product category a practically endless list of potential substitutes is available In fact in packing materials the new synthetic materials are preferable to asbestos in capabilities they exhibit In gasket applications over 260 asbestos appears to have advantages principally lower costs over substitute materials Graphite and metal gaskets and others produced by Rogers up to 425 can replace asbestos over 260 but their costs are somewhat prohibitive In applications under 260 there are a variety of substitutes which can replace asbestos with little added expense to the user In addition many fibers are available but have yet to be tried because of the present lower cost of asbestos In general asbestos represents a familiar tested fiber for use in gaskets and packings which companies have subsequently designed into many products The asbestos easily met heat resistance resiliency and strength requirements as well as being chemically inert However as manufacturers have initiated research on potential substitutes they have discovered not only a wealth of potential materials that are suitable for this use but that they also possess qualities that are usually equal to or sometimes even better than the old asbestos product For packings the new synthetics not only have the capacity for replacing asbestos but also can be applied in every application and will require less housekeeping and monitoring procedures now required for asbestos For gaskets again the replacement materials exist such that compressed asbestos sheet use could be curtailed with little added expense to the consumer unless the application is over 260 Between 260 and 538 cost effective solutions are still being sought although materials such as graphite and silica are available In addition to replacement material development asbestos gasket materials which are truly new in the sense of not being a specific substitute for older containing materials have been developed in this area Examples temperature graphite sheet materials and ceramic include the fiber compositions.53 compositions.53 As the replacement or area it is important service to note phase of the gasket business that nonasbestos substitutes is the dominant have been developed for many of these applications while in addition new products have been developed for new niches The use of asbestos gasket materials is not a new phenomenon in itself rubber saturated and unsaturated paper felts embossed metals and cellulose fibers have been used effectively for years in 57 sealing applications One of the most important new developments in mechanical gasketing applications has been support rendered to a rubber facing may be by a metallic compressed or core Fibers beater add.58 can be asbestos or Developments such nonasbestos The facing as this along with new substitute products have increased attention on the gasketing field by many consumers 214 In summary although asbestos currently is present in the majority of U.S. gaskets often these products have been 80 percent asbestos with added polymer binder systems and fillers there are disadvantages to asbestos These include scarcity in the U.S. most is imported especially for longer grades 4 and 5 for example which are the lengths used in gasket materials and which have been in tight supply for the past 4 years In addition asbestos does not always solve all of the problems being asked of often better heat resistance sealability and crush resistance are required For years gasket material producers and designers have attempted to improve the binder system in gaskets now they look to the other 80 percent of the gasket which represents a fiber As in the other categories covered here no one manmade fiber or other high temperature material approaches asbestos in its critical physical properties but blends of other fibers and fillers discussed here have been successful It is also reported that some companies have eliminated not only asbestos but gaskets in general from their current replacing assemblies for assembly.22 them with liquid sealant to reduce tolerances required 215 REFERENCES 1 Manville Corporation Sealing Components Comprehensive Guide to Mechanical Packings Ropes & Tapes 401 Caryl Ranch Denver Colorado April 1978. 65 pages . Meylan W. M. et al Chemical Market Output Analysis of Selected Chemical Substances to Assess Sources of Environmental Contamination Task Asbestos EPA 6-78-005 August 1978 Koehler Stephen D. Greene given at CPSC Conference Arlington VA 1980 Tweed & Co. Gaskets and Packings Speech on Substitutes to Asbestos July 14-16 Swanson R. C. Sales Rpresentative Colt Industries Garlock Inc. Mechanical Packing Division Charlotte NC Meeting with Mr. T. Curtin GCA Corporation February 21 1980 Manville Corporation Sealing Components All You Need to Know about Gasket Materials 132 Caryl Ranch Denver Colorado November 1979. 17 pages Armstrong Industry Products Division Accobestfi Accopacfi Armstrong Gasket Material Specifications 926-175x Lancaster Pennsylvania 5 pages Clifton R. A. Preprint from 1980 Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbook Asbestos P. 4 Arthur D. Little of Canada and Sores Inc. Characterization Asbestos Paper Markets Report to the Government du Quebec l'Industrie et du Commerce May 1976 of the U.S. Ministere de Telecon 397-0611 April 16 Mr. Ambursal Armstrong Cork Co. with Anne Duffy GCA Corporation 1981 Call 20 Lancaster PA Technology 717 Division 10 Telecon Sales 313 968-2200 Division April Representative Detroit Gasket and Mfg Co. Detroit with Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Technology 16 1981 Call 21 MI 11 Telecon Company Representative Fitzgerald Gasket Torrington 203 482-9366 with Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Technology Division May 4 1981 Call 37 CT 12 Telecon Harvey with Anne Duffy 1981 Call 31 Loud's Office GAF Corp. New York NY 212 621-5000 GCA Corporation Technology Division April 13 216 13 Telecon Mr. McDoughall Hollingsworth and Vose East Walpole MA 617 668-0295 with Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Technology Division April 16 1981 Call 2322 14 Telecon Company Representative Janak Inc. Weatherford TX 817 549-8771 with Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Technology Division May 4 1981 Call 38 15 Telecon Raymond Croucheck Lamont Metal Gasket Co. Inc. Houston 713 222-0287 with Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Technology Division May 4 1981 Call 39 TX 16 Telecon NJ 201 Division Company Representative Parker Seal Gaskets North Brunswick 247-6800 with Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Technology May 4 1981 Call 40 17 Telecon 882-7560 April 17 Company Representative Sierra Carson City NV 702 with Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Technology Division 1981 Call 23 18 Telecon Company Representative Standco Rubber Gaskets Houston TX 713 944-3160 with Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Technology Division May 4 1981 Call 2342 19 Telecon Tony Rokos Amatex with Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Technology Division May 4 1981 Call 36 20. U.S. Bureau of Mines Mineral A. Clifton August 22 1979 Industry Surveys Asbestos in 1978 by R. 21 Information from Victor Products Division Dana Corporation Exhibit 1 of October 21 1981 letter and enclosures to Mr. Larry Dorsey U.S. EPA from John E. Zeitz Division Chief Engineer Victor Products Div of Dana Corp. 1945 Ohio St. Lisle IL 22 Article in Diesel & Gas Turbine Progress magazine What Will Replace Asbestos Gaskets by John E. Zeitz July 1980 included as Exhibit 12 of Reference 21 23. Newtex Industries Inc. Zetex All of the Protection But None of the Health Hazards of Asbestos Victor New York 4 pages 24 Colt Industries Garlock Inc. Mechanical Packing Division Packing Thermosil Textured Fiberglass Cloth Tape Tubing Nonasbestos Product 79-10M Palmyra NY July 1979. Industrial A 7 pages 25 Armco Hitco Materials this Test Can Yours Division Refrasil 10079 10MCP Insulation Textiles Can 11-79 Gardena CA. Take 217 26 27. Colt Industries Garlock Inc. Mechanical Packing Division Compression Packing CeramfiCMP Sodus NY February 1979. 2 pages Ceramic Fiber Products 79.5 MP St. Paul MN 4 Nextel 312 pages Ceramic Fiber from 3M MHFOL 28 Colt Industries Garlock Inc. Mechanical Packing Division- Nonasbestos Packings Gasketing Dynamic Seals Expansion Joints Oil Seals Fiberglass Cloth 902 Palmyra NY August 1979. 9 pages 29 Armco Hitco Materials 3278 3M TC 9-78 Division Gardena Hitco Aerospace Materials CA. September 1978. 5 pages 30 E. I. DuPont de Characteristics Nemours & Co. Inc. Textile and Uses of Kevlar 29 Aramid DE September 28 1976. 7 pages Fibers Number Department 375. Wilmington 31 E. I. DuPont de Applications of Wilmington DE Nemours & Co. Inc. Properties Processing and Teflon TFE Fluorocarbon Fiber Bulletin TF May 1978. 15 pages 32 Armco Hitco Materials Division Refrasil Refractory Silica in Textile Form Insulation Technical Data Bulletin Engineering Data P.O. 3979 R 10M CP 10-79 Gardena CA. October 1979. 4 pages 33 Armco Hitco Materials Division Refrasil Refractory Silica in Textile Form Insulation Product Data Bulletin All Products P.O. 1779 15 M CP 1179. Gardena CA. November 1979. 4 pages 34 Colt Industries Garlock Inc. Mechanical Packing Division Compression Packing lockfiGraphite Packing 123 Sodus NY 3 pages 35. Chiostergi R. Marketing Manager E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co. Inc. Wilmington DE 302 999-3951 Personal Communication with Mr. Henderson Technology Division February 1 1980. Notebook 2307 Phone Call 20 36 The Chemical Rubber Co. Handbook of Tables for Applied Engineering Science Cleveland Ohio March 1970. Page 122 37 Gaskets and Packing Roundtable Discussion Substitutes for Asbestos Conference U.S. CPSC Arlington VA July 14-16 1980 38 Letter from Robert Rogers CT to Mr. F. Lee Manager Envir Larry Longanecker U.S. Engineering Rogers Corp. EPA September 8 1981 39 The Chemical Rubber Co. Science Cleveland OH Handbook of Tables March 1979. Page for Applied 122 Engineering 218 40. Greene Tweed & Co. Wales Pennsylvania Palmetto Packings 1979. 2 pages Tephite Style 1387. North 41 Excelsior Inc. Advertising 49758. Rockford Illinois List of 1 page Raw Materials Publication No. 42. Koehler S. Product Manager Greene Tweed & Co. North Wales Pennsylvania 215 256-9521 Personal Communication with Mr. Curtin Technology Division February 22 1980. Notebook 306 Phone Call 240 43 AIA comments to GCA Draft Final Substitutes Report received 10/22/81 44 Connolly 933-5854 Division T. Janos Industrial Insulation Corp. Moonachie NJ 201 Personal Communication with Mr. Curtin Technology February 27 1980. Notebook 2306 Phone Call 42 45 Pafsarella M. Laboratory Director F. D. Farnham Co. Necedah Wisconsin 608 565-2241 Personal Communication with Mr. Curtin Technology Division February 11 1980 Notebook 2306 Phone Call 22 46 Call M. Product Development Manager Boise Cascade Specialty Paperboard Division Beaver Falls NY 315 346-6111 Personal Communication with Mr. Curtin Technology Division 47 Letter and attachments from Connolly T. J. Janos Industrial Insulation Corp. to T. Curtin Technology Division February 21 1980 Information on asbestos substitutes 48 Janos Industrial Insulation Corp. Board Replacement Moonachie New Jersey 1800. The Asbestos Millboard 49 Colt Industries Packing Gylon Garlock Inc. Mechanical Packing Division GSK Palmyra NY January 1980 Industrial 50. Information from Richard Klinger Ltd. supplied in Reference 21 letter 51 Telecon 871-4811 April 13 Company Representative Celotex Corp. Tampa FL 813 with Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Technology Division 1981 Call 3 52. Reference 21 Exhibit 2 53. Zeitz letter of Reference 21 54 Reference 21 Exhibit 6 55. Reference 21 Exhibit 7 219 56 Caterpillar Tractor Company information supplied as Exhibit 238 of Reference 21 57. Zeitz Corp. at the 23-27 J. E. J. A. Damusis and J. A. Ulrich Victor Products Div Dana Designing with the New Asbestos Gasket Materials Presented International Congress and Exposition Detroit MI February 1981. SAE Paper 810366 included as Exhibit 4 of Reference 21 58. Czernik Daniel E. Fel Inc./Felt Products Manufacturing Co. Recent Developments and New Approaches in Mechanical and Chemical Gasketing Presented at the International Congress and Exposition Detroit MI February 23-27 1981. SAE Paper 23 810367 220 SECTION 8 PAINTS COATINGS AND SEALANTS ASBESTOS PRODUCT Special Qualities Various types of paints protective coatings and sealants containing asbestos fibers are considered in this section including Sealants Roofing coatings and roofing cements Automobile and truck undercoating Linings and coatings nonasphalt Texture paints Spackle and dry wall joint compounds Sealants may be defined as liquid or liquid fillers used to fill gaps in buildings and equipment construction Coatings are covering products used to rejuvenate and protect various types of surfaces Major manufacturers have indicated that asbestos is no longer used in texture paints spackle and dry wall joint compounds however asbestos may still be present in many older installations Asbestos is used as a filler and reinforcement agenitn diverse products to impart the following characteristics Strength and durability Corrosion resistance - protection from weather violet rays as well as water proofing Decay vermin and thermal resistance Sound deadening 221 e Stability prevents slump and flow on sloped or vertical surfaces Economy e Viscosity and consistency These characteristics are provided by the unique properties of chrysotile listed in Table 62. The affinity shown by asbestos for asphalt and the ability to control viscosity make it indispensable for asphalt based products Viscosity control is essential for waterproofing Without asbestos asphalt compounds flow leaving gaps that allow water to penetrate Asbestos also provides excellent resistance to weathering which is essential for outdoor sealant uses The ability to bridge cracks and the fact that asbestos is available in various fiber lengths are important in joint compound and texture paint applications TABLE 62. UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF CHRYSOTILE ASBESTOS Property Comment Alkali resistance Fine fiber diameter High tensile strength High impact resistance Temperature resistance Surface charge Fibrous form Inorganic origin Cost Attack only occurs at extremely high concentrations and temperatures Provides many reinforcing fibers per unit weight 2,068,500 kPa to 3,447,500 kPa Not brittle at high temperatures temperature at maximum ignition loss - 982 Good brittle at high temperatures maximum ignition loss - 982 temperature at Positive provides chemical bond to many media especially asphalt Provides desired viscosity characteristics Not subject to attack by vermin Provides low performance or physical property ratio Information from published document on Asbestos Dust done for OSHA 1978 222 Product Composition A total of 10,900 metric tons of asbestos were consumed for this category in 1980 down from 19,100 metric tons in 1978.1,2 Most asbestos used in roofing products is Grade 7 shortest fiber length chrysotile.1 Over 90 percent of the asbestos used for the remaining paints coatings and sealants in this category is also Grade 7 chrysotile.3 Approximately 98 percent of milled asbestos is Canadian The bulk of sealants are asphalt and contain 5 to 30 percent asbestos and 55 to 80 percent asphalt cut with up to 50 percent naphtha mineral spirits or petroleum solvents to achieve the consistency appropriate for the desired use Other ingredients include proofing chemicals pigments powdered aluminum and other metals for heat reflectance and appearance plaster of paris in spackle and dry wall joint compounds insulating materials such as cork emulsifiers and resins and miscellaneous fillers such as clay barite etc. The asbestos fibers are thought to be completely encapsulated in all of the products included in this category Roofing materials consist of coatings and cements containing 5 to 6 percent and 9 to 10 percent asbestos respectively.4 Both contain greater than 70 percent asphalt and are thinned to the desired consistency with naphtha mineral spirits or petroleum solvents Texture paints consist of a small amount of asbestos less than 1 percent combined with various pigments and fillers For automotive and truck underlinings the quantity of asbestos used in production may vary widely due to the rudimentary manufacturing process Uses and Applications Asbestos is normally used in asphalt and tar bases for such products as roof sealants waterproof coatings and automobile undercoatings It has also been used in plaster of paris bases for spackle and dry wall joint compounds Table 63 lists all uses of asbestos in the sealants category and the characteristics that make asbestos desirable here The primary use of asbestos is in roofing materials Coatings are brushed or sprayed on and cements are trowelled on Another important use asphalt compounds is in automobile and truck undercoatings Other asphalt compounds for waterproofing applications are listed in Table of 63 The remaining uses listed in Table 63 consume minor amounts of asbestos and in some cases no longer use asbestos In 1977 the Consumer Products Safety Commission banned the use of asbestos compounds 7 Until then nearly all of these a reinforcing agent The use of asbestos in in spackling and dry wall joint products contained asbestos as tennis court coverings and blacktop sealants has been cited in the literature but the high viscosity imparted to these products by asbestos would inhibit sealant flowage into cracks and holes which is a necessary property in these applications 223 TABLE 63. ASBESTOS USES IN THE SEALANTS CATEGORY" Use Distinguishing characteristics of asbestos Roof coatings Roof cements Flashing cements Chimney stack paints Automobile and truck undercoatings Appliance insulating coatings Corrosion coatings resistant to salt solutions including seawater spray organic acids mineral acids petroleum products Waterproof coatings for underground pipelines concrete foundations side walls tanks and other structures such as mobile homes and cooling towers in nuclear power plants Anticondensation coatings for low temperature refrigeration services Tile cements Woodblock and concrete floor mastics Spackle Dry wall joint compounds Caulking compounds Texture paints Sprayed ceiling finishes Welding rod coatings A A , A AB , A A G F , A, C , C CD DC , A, C , C , , A 1 , aCompiled by GCA Corporation during research on sealants phone calls listed in notebook 1-619-007-02 1980 including including Letters correspond with durability and economy above the characteristics listed below Stability of asbestos are relevant to all uses listed Key A. Strength B. Corrosion resistance C. Decay resistance D. Vermin resistance E. Thermal resistance F. Sound deadening G. Waterproofing 224 Although asbestos may still be used in a number of minor products many manufacturers are no longer including asbestos in their formulae None of the welding rod or cement manufactured products distributors contacted were familiar with currently containing asbestos Small amounts of asbestos approximately 1 percent can be added to texture paints to provide texture and bridging abilities None contacted precently use asbestos in of the texture their formulae paint 12-15 manufacturers Product Manufacturing Summary Production processes for sealants coatings and paints are essentially the same All three categories are therefore grouped as sealant products in this manufacturing process description Manufacturing Process-Small manufacturing plants consist of one production line for all sealant products Large plants producing a wide variety of products may have several production lines each of which is designed for a specific product Production facilities for all sealants are essentially the same Operations are normally part time especially for minor products with low market requirements One major manufacturer Armstrong Cork of roof coating emulsions and joint insulation compounds stated that asbestos emulsions for roof coating are made 5 days per week in a two shift operation 16 Other facilities are used less frequently to manufacture joint insulation Because of seasonal fluctuation in demand the process generally operates one shift from November through March and two shifts the rest of the year Sealants are produced by batch processes Basically the fiber is introduced fluffed put in a batch mixing tank mixed with asphalt or tar solvents or other additives as required for an even dispersion pumped to packaging containerizing operations and finally shipped out to market and First pallets of bagged asbestos are moved from a shipping or storage area to a staging area where the appropriate quantity is weighed out and then dumped either directly into a hopper or into a fluffing machine This machine is used to separate the compressed fibers facilitating dispersion and encapsulation during asphalt mixing Typically fluffed asbestos fiber is transferred to hoppers or directly to a batch mixing 17 tank where they are mixed with other dry ingredients and the asphalt and solvents as required Mixing proceeds until the material is evenly dispersed When a batch is finished the material is pumped to the packaging containerizing operation and placed in appropriate sized containers The predominant container for coatings is gallon metal pails with sealed lids Special orders may use drum containers Bulk shipments in tank cars may take place but are infrequent The batch sizes vary from several hundred gallons for small manufacturers with with one production line to several thousand gallons for large several production lines oriented to specific products 17 manufacturers Batch sizes vary with size of company type of product method of containerization type of existing equipment and size of order Sealant products are shipped out ready for distribution and use therefore there are no secondary fabricators 225 Name and Number of Manufacturers-Listed in Table 64 are the national manufacturers of asbestos sealant products Production Volumes-- Sealants consumed approximately 10,900 metric tons of asbestos or 3 percent of all asbestos used in the United States during 1980 according to the Bureau of Mines Asbestos Magazine estimated that 29,000 metric tons 32,000 tons of asbestos or 5 percent of the by the sealants category in 1978.3 The value United States total was of asbestos consumed in consumed 1978 calculated from Bureau of Mines consumption data and current asbestos prices is 3.2 million An expenditure of 3.2 million represents 1.6 percent of total annual sales for sealants which amounts to approximately 200 million 17 SUBSTITUTE PRODUCTS Methodology Search Strategy-- The major national trade associations related to paints coatings and sealants were contacted regarding asbestos products and substitute products Mr. Edward Fenner of Manville was given as a reference and subsequently contacted He provided an excellent framework for the information provided in this section The 20 largest United States asbestos product manufacturers as listed by Meylan and various sources in the literature were investigated Summary of Contacts-The following individuals and organizations regarding paints coatings and sealants provided useful information e Mr. Robert Pigg Asbestos Information Association of North America 1745 Jefferson Highway Arlington VA 22202 e Mr. Edmund Fenner Director of Environmental Services Manville Corporation Caryl Ranch Denver CO 80217 e Company Representative International Slurry Seal Association Suite 700 1101 Connecticut Avenue NW Washington DC 20005 e Mr. Ken Brzozowski TREMCO Incorporated 10701 Shaker Boulevard Cleveland OH 44104 226 TABLE 64 NATIONAL MANUFACTURERS OF ASBESTOS SEALANT PRODUCTS Manufacturer Plant location Product Celotex Corporation A Division of Jim Walters Corporation GAF Corporation Gibson Homans Co. Manville Koppers Monsey Products Co. Lockland OH Houston TX Memphis TN Millis MA S. Bound Brook NJ Cleveland ** Waukegan IL Manville NJ Savannah GA Marrero LA Los Angeles CA Fort Worth TX Pittsburg PA Youngstown OH Wickliffe OH East Rutherford NJ Garland TX Kimberton PA Rock Hill SC Troy NY Roofing Roofing Roofing products products products Roofing products Roofing products Roofing products Roofing Roofing Roofing Roofing Roofing Roofing Roofing products products products products products products products Roofing products Roofing products Roofing Roofing Roofing Roofing Roofing products products products products products Sealants were produced in New Jersey in the past but this has been discontinued.2discont0inued.20 ** Corporate headquarters other branches throughout the U.S. Telecon with manufacturer 227 Mr. William Pass Lab Synkoloid Company 400 Colgate Drive Atlanta GA 30336 Technician Mr. Eugene Connor National Manville Corporation Caryl Ranch Denver CO 80217 Sales Manager Mr. Fred Mallay Sales and Marketing Consolidated Protective Coatings Corporation 1801 E. 9th Street Suite 202 Cleveland OH 44114 Mr. Jack Fleming Treasurer Bondex International 2682 Pearl Road Medina OH 44256 Company Representative Igo's Welding Supply Company 71 Arlington Street Watertown MA 02172 Mr. Colin Hemms Marketing Koppers Corporation 1050 Koppers Building Pittsburgh PA 15219 Manager for Roof Maintenance Products Mr. David L. Hall Marketing Fiber Materials Incorporated Biddeford Industrial Park and Technical Coordination Biddeford ME 04005 Ray Connor Director of Technical Division National Paint and Coatings Association 1500 Rhode Island Avenue NW Washington DC 20005 Charles Spector Vice President Everseal Manufacturing Company 477 Broad Avenue Incorporated Ridgefield NJ 07657 Harry Schwartz Assistant Technical Director Dutch Boy Paints - Baltimore Paint and Coatings 2325 Hollis Ferry Road Baltimore MD 21230 Group 228 6 Jack H. Engel Manager of Rubber and Plastics Lab Chrysler Corporation Chemical Division 5455 W. Jefferson Street Trenton MI 48183 @ Ken Heffner President Electro Chemical Engineering and Manufacturing Company Acid Proof Lane Emmaus PA 18049 e Sika Chemical Corporation P.O. Box 297 T Lyndhurst NJ 07071 e Tom Dudick President Dudick Corrosion Manufacturers Incorporated 578 E. Highland Road Macedonia OH 44056 r) R. Fernandez Product Manager Specialty Products Jim Walter Corporation Celotex Corporation 1500 N. Dale Mabry Street Tampa FL 33622 e Welders Supply Company Incorporated 1 Plant Street Billerica MA 01821 Product Substitutes For this category fiber and product substitutes are covered together since for many of the asbestos sealant and coating products the only substitutes available are the fiber replacement category The consensus of the asbestos industry is that for most sealant and coating products no viable substitutes for asbestos exist at this time Because of this manufacturing plants especially those producing roofing products are subject to shutdowns as a result of slowdowns or strikes at the asbestos mines.4 In an effort to avoid actively searching this problem in the future most major for viable substitutes An acceptable manufacturers are substitute must be ' Noncombustible e Resistant to decay many acids and vermin e Durable e Strong enough to reinforce other binders e Unaffected by temperatures up to 500 930 Economic 229 There are no substitutes available that possess all of the above but for applications where several of the characteristics are not necessary a substitute may be applicable Alternatives for each sealant category including special qualities product composition uses and applications manufacturing and current market considerations are presented next by individual category Sealants-- Special qualities resistance to decay many acids and vermin displayed by asbestos must also be a quality of substitute sealants as well as the ability to withstand temperature changes and remain durable and effective One alternative fiber Pulpex by Lextar is currently being evaluated for this application It gives high viscosity improves slump resistance and minimizes shrinkage Specific Pulpex qualities include a length specific gravity of 0.90 melting point of 165 average fibril of 0.8 1.5 mm fibril diameter of 20-40 a surface area of 5-10 g m a moisture content of less than % and an essentially inert chemical reactivity state Product composition and sealants may be defined as liquid or semiliquid fillers used to fill gaps in building and equipment construction They consist of elastomers and synthetic or natural oils which are fashioned in suitable consistency to be either pourable or of greater thickness Kayocel created by American Fillers and Abrasives Inc. of Bangor Michigan is a product that may replace asbestos in asphalt sealants Their product brochures indicate that this substance is made from volatiles such as cellulose starch and wood fiber impurities and ash As the components of this material are essentially natural common every day products derived in part from waste recycling methods of landfill listed throwaways they are not Chemical Compounds 1977 in the NIOSH registry of Toxic Effects of Another substitute product that is currently being evaluated for caulk and sealant applications is Lextar's Pulpex polyolefin pulp fibers A suggested formulation for this particular product is represented by Pulpex polypropylene Grade AD for chlorinated rubber mastic In percent by weight figures this may contain the following 19.3 5.7 9.5 3.2 4.8 46.0 11.5 chlorinated rubber chlorinated paraffin another chlorinated paraffin Pulpex TiO2 Toluene aliphatic distillate Reacts with strong oxidizing agents at elevated temperatures 230 Uses and applications only a very small amount of asbestos fiber is thought to be used in caulks and sealants It appears that only in some aircraft sealants asbestos has not been replaceable to date No regulations exist to date banning the use of asbestos in caulks and sealants industry has found customer resistance in certain cases where substitute material use has been questioned but in general it is felt that this category has alternative products available either currently or under formulation For example Pulpex grade AD dry fluff polypropylene pulp may replace asbestos in trowelable mastics that are formulated with chlorinated rubber or paraffin used for crack filling of concrete and corrosion prevention Manufacturing Specific details about substitute product manufacture were not obtained for this category however it is assumed that most are made by batch process as described in asbestos sealant manufacture It is known that Pulpex is made by adding sufficient solvent to cover the blade of a Cowles disperser then mixing in ingredients at 2,000 rpm until smooth time at After a slow this other components such as Pulpex are speed the batch is mixed until smooth added and again this Roof Coatings and Cements-- Special qualities both roof coatings cold applied liquids and roof cements trowel applied compounds with a consistency of soft margarine no single raw material has been found that can either replace the functions performed by asbestos in solvent thinned asphalt roof coatings or equal the properties of asbestos fiber in achieving needed cement body In the case of cement substitution the product must still be suitable for troweling and at the same time must contain enough bitumen after evaporation of the solvents to deposit a thick film on the roof surface which also resists weathering Asbestos is usually used due to the fact that e It enables the liquified asphalt to remain as a protective layer on the surface in question otherwise it would penetrate entirely into the surface it should be rejuvenating on surfaces where penetration would be minimal such as metal or with a great slope the asbestos fibers stop running or sagging e It reinforces the asphalt after the solvents have evaporated the asbestos fibers prevent the asphalt from cracking as expansion and contraction from temperature fluxuations affect the surface r) It retards the oxidation and deterioration of the asphalt from the sun rays retards fi It fire.23 melting and running of the roof coating in the event of Any substitute product must also possess such properties Several companies have investigated the use of other available fibers such as fiberglass polyethylene polypropylene polyesters acrylics cotton and other threads and fibers but none have proven to be an acceptable substitute for asbestos.4,5,24,25 A major problem is that none of the above become wetted 231 by the asphalt they ball when applied with a trowel Fiberglass provides adequate reinforcement but does not contribute to the viscosity of the product and lacks chemical affinity for asphalt A number of proprietary materials are currently being investigated but more specific information is not available in most cases Information on Pulpex by Lextar was available and will be covered here At low concentration and in combination with talc Pulpex is reported to improve product mixture uniformity with excellent wet and dry slump resistance It can also be airless sprayed Specific qualities include in percent by weight brookfield viscosity cps at 22 73 and 10 rpm of 22,000 and 270,000 cps for roof coating and roof cement respectively Product uniformity data includes after 22 73 days a slight bleeding and stirring in for both products and after 65 150 days more bleeding and stirring in A pass rating was given on wet slump resistance at 38 100 dry slump resistance at 65 150 and pliability at C 32 .21 It should be noted that only a low concentration of Pulpex is needed to achieve the same viscosity level as with asbesto2s1 Product Composition are a number of types of roof coatings the largest segment of sales being devoted to asphalt liquified with solvents and bodied with asbestos fiber The asphalt is liquified with solvents so that heating is not necessary before application Roof cements used in large quantities for construction and repair types of roofs commonly into a heavy consistency consist of solvent thinned asphalt or coal with asbestos and other mineral fillers tar of all bodied Substitute products have attempted to replace the asbestos mentioned above with replacement fibers Tremco uses a cellulosic material costing approximately 1.35 The average fiber length in their product is greater than the asbestos used in roofing sealants and only sixth as much fiber is required in the product 24 Consolidated Protective Coatings Corporation uses a fiberglass mixture in its roofing sealants The fiberglass which has longer fiber length forms an interlocking jackstraw mesh with the shorter asbestos fibers improving the strength of the product However this combination is not actually a substitute because the quantity of asbestos is comparable to that used in conventional sealants One Lextar Pulpex product consists of % by weight 21 Roof Coating Roof Cement Ashpalt cutback 65 solids Talc Talc 5 ...average size 16... 16... average size Pulpex * grade HR 87.5 5.5 5.5 1.5 100.0 70.0 13.5 13.5 3.0 100.0 Pulpex p is the polypropylene pulp 232 Others are made with aluminum paste resulting in aluminum asphalt roof coatings.21 Uses and applications coatings are used to rejuvenate and protect most types of roofs except the typical home owner's shingle roof They are often found on home garages porch decks apartment houses sheds farm buildings industrial buildings and commercial buildings of all sorts including stores shopping centers and office buildings They can also be used as water proofing mastics on porous walls of buildings above and below ground and on surfaces such as concrete block poured concrete and brick They are applied either by brush or by spray Roof cements are used to seal the openings too large for liquid application Again they are used on almost every type of building no matter what type of roofing system is employed including in the case of cements the typical shingle roofed home They are used to seal such places as vent pipes chimneys roof heating and air conditioning units gutters gravel stops anywhere a vertical and horizontal surface meet or where a projection is encountered One Pulpex grade has been designed specifically for use in asphalt solvent cutback coatings and mastics Manufacturing processes has had a strong incentive to find ways of manufacturing roof coatings and cements without asbestos fibers Asbestos supply may be disrupted and cannot be assured and other alternatives are currently being tested However there are several factors in the production of substitute coatings and cements that influence the inability to date to produce equal quality alternatives to the asbestos products As has been previously discussed asbestos is unique among known raw materials in that it is a completely inert indestructible mineral that can be processed into a fiber This fiber partially adsorbs the vehicle into which it is placed becoming an integral part of that medium without settling or floating With the addition of only small amounts of asbestos fiber a large degree of body can be added turning a liquid into the consistency of soft butter In comparison glass is unabsorptive so the coating is not homogeneous and it also floats in roof coating mediums Rock wool also lacks absorption properties Fiberous talcs wollastonites ceramics and clays are not fibrous enough to duplicate the performance of asbestos Most other fibers available are organic melt deteriorate on aging and also are likely to have poor chemical resistance 22 Therefore it seems at present that the only method of manufacturing reasonably satisfactory asbestos roof coatings and cements is to combine a substitute fiber usually of less than satisfactory quality with a variety of mineral fillers wetting agents plasticizers and synthetic thixotropes With a great variety of different roof coatings cements and mastics this leads to many different new formulations needed With present tests the end product has always been a medium containing less asphalt tar or other proofing oil and much more filler material than when asbestos is used often leading to a lessening of waterproofing and weathering properties and a 30 to 70 percent increase in energy requirements for manufacture In addition many substitute formulas do not meet present Federal Specifications on asphalt 233 roof coatings and cements as they exceed the maximum filler content permitted Supply considerations must also be injected into the substitute market picture Some of the alternative raw materials are highly specialized and only produced in small volumes These types of materials would need time to be brought up to a sufficient volume level if increased production was feasible at all General manufacturing considerations follow Tremco Inc. reports that affinity they have a proprietary substitute that has the required to provide appropriate biological and spraying characteristics for asphalt Koppers Co. has also developed an acceptable but proprietary substitute for which no information is currently available Gibson Homans Company manufactures some asbestos roof coatings and cements but as they are about 15 percent more expensive and also inferior to the asbestos products they are not marketed in the U.S.23 However they are shipped to Sweden where asbestos has been banned so manufacturing performance on a large scale could be observed if a company in the U.S. thought this to be a marketable product 22 Some Pulpex products are manufactured in a Hobart mixer others with a Cowles disperser as well This product notes that material safety data sheets should be obtained prior to the use of these 21 products In summary for this product category asbestos solvent based roof coatings and cements may be produced by complicated formulating techniques but they are generally more expensive and inferior in quality and some do not meet Federal Specifications In addition the asbestos industry submits that asbestos used in roof coatings and cements is completely encapsulated Automobile and Truck Undercoating-- Special qualities properties of asbestos that are important for automobile and truck undercoating products are high thermal resistance affinity for asphalt to control viscosity high fiber density strength and durability The affinity for asphalt is required to ensure complete encapsulation of fibers Small fiber dimensions result in a high density product with soundproofing abilities High tensile strength is needed to hold the product together and thermal resistance is required to retain this strength at the elevated temperatures experienced Control of viscosity is also required to retain tensile strength at the elevated temperatures and to prevent unwanted flowage of the undercoating resulting in the loss of waterproofing abilities No suitable substitute is being manufactured A substitute should possess the qualities listed to be an adequate replacement for asbestos Substitutes such as fiberglass fibrous alumina and magnesium silicate fiber do not possess the affinity for asphalt or the ability to control viscosity which make asbestos unmatched for use in undercoating products.6 products.6 Zinc may be used to provide resistance to rusting but by itself it is not sound deadening 4 therefore it is often used in combination with asbestos undercoating 234 Product composition representative of Chrysler Corporation suggests that fiberglass fibrous alumina and magnesium silicate fiber might be used as asbestos substitutes Zinc has also been used in undercoating Uses and applications products are used to protect the undersides of cars and trucks from wear due to road conditions and weathering from the natural elements They also help to deaden sound transferred from the road to the driver Manufacturing Information for substitute product manufacture was generally not available It is known that Pulpex may be able to serve in this area Linings and Chemically Coatings Asphalt- and Nonasphalt Special qualities is used in nonasphalt coatings resistant to alkali acid water and weather Table 65 lists substitutes these applications their physical characteristics and special qualities for TABLE 65. SUBSTITUTES FOR ASBESTOS IN RESISTANT LININGS AND COATINGS Name Resistant characteristics Alkali Acid Water Weather Physical characteristics Talc F G E Asbestos F G Barite G G C Diatomite -- E C Silica P E E Clay Mica F G F G G G E platelike E Fibrous G Cubical heavy E Porous E Hard sharp crystals G Platelike G Platelike used to reduce moisture vapor transfer Key P = Poor F = Fair G = Good E Excellent Product composition include talc barite diatomite silica clay and mica as listed above In addition a representative of Dudick Corrosion Manufacturing Inc. states linintghsey formula for acid and alkali resistant tank that have a new proprietary However at this 235 time no specific information on this product has been made available Electro Chemical Engineering and Manufacturing Company has tried high temperature glass as a substitute for asbestos in asphalt mastics It did not prove to have the necessary affinity for asphalt and therefore could not be sprayed to produce a desirable pattern Uses and applications and coatings are used wherever there is a need to protect a product from such conditions as saltwater salt solutions organic acids mineral acids or petroleum products Manufacturing Manufacturing information for the Dudick and Electro Chemical Engineering products was not available Spackle and Dry Wall Joint Compounds-- Special qualities was used to impart lubricity workability water binding and pseudoplasticity to a wet mix and being fibrous provided reinforcement to the cement upon drying 29,30 However the use of asbestos in these products was banned in 1977. Substitute products developed such as attapulgite clay exhibit good plasticity stability water retention cohesiveness and viscosity Another substitute product developed by Hercules Inc. Delaware uses insoluble carboxymethylated cellulose derivatives and is said to be substantially equivalent in performance to those products currently available commercially They are suitable for manual application by trowel or can be applied mechanically with the addition of water at the job site just prior to use Product composition cements heretofore employed with wallboard have contained a resinous binder limestone clay mica and asbestos as the principal dry ingredients which were mixed with water forming a dope The new attapulgite product is a fibrous clay with a chain structure The cellulose derivative is made up of a resinous binder mica clay and limestone as major dry components along with a fibrous carboxymethylated substantially insoluble cellulose derivative selected from the class consisting of linked carboxymethyl cellulose CMC and other cellulose derivatives Typically a dispersant a defoamer a preservative and a thickener are also added These joint cements are marketed as fully containing formulated ready cement i.e. already water as well as in dry powder form to which water is added at time of use Uses and applications products are used with wallboard to form seals in their construction The use of attapulgite for this application is said to increase product price by only 12 to 13 percent The price of the cellulose product is also competitive This may be the best candidate for the replacement of asbestos in these products 236 Manufacturing Details on the manufacture of the attapulgite product were not available for this report Hercules reports that their product is made by preparing a ready formulation to which water and binder latex are charged in a mixing apparatus This is mixed for a short time before the dispersant defoamer and preservative are added The dry ingredients limestone mica clay carboxymethylated cellulose derivative and structure additives if used are dry blended and added incrementally to the stirred liquids After the last of the dry ingredients are added the mix is stirred for about another 10 minutes at low speed with occasional stopping to scrape down the sides of the bowl 30 Texture Paints-- Special qualities texture paint manufacturers Bondex Synkoloid International and the used in texture paints 12,13 Company indicate that asbestos is no longer This is confirmed by several minor manufacturers and distributors This is probably a result of the Consumer Product Safety Commission ban on consumer patching compounds containing respirable asbestos because these products are manufactured by the same companies Properties required in a substitute are resistance to vermin heat ozone and ultraviolet and infrared radiation The substitute must also be available in various fiber dimensions to produce differing textures To date it has been found that the organic substitutes react with infrared ultraviolet and heat radiation and ozone hemp is often attacked by vermin and the inorganics do not possess the fibrous structure necessary bridge cracks Therefore texture is now often produced by worker's tools However some products by several Pulpex grades covered here One is a replacement for interior textured paints and another for ceiling texture compounds Also being evaluated is a product for exterior block filler paints Special qualities of the interior texture paint include specific gravity of 0.96 melting point of 132 moisture content of 50 percent and essentially inert chemical reactivity The block filler is similar special qualities for the ceiling texture compounds include the same specific gravity melting point and inert activity but a moisture content of less than 5 percent Product composition substitutes include fiberglass rayon nylon polypropylene polyester and hemp fiber Other fillers that can be used are clays diatomite talc perlite silica mica barite calcium carbonate bentonite and others None possess the combination of properties attributable to asbestos and all yield inferior products Swells in chlorinated hydrocarbons 237 An example of the suggested formulation of two Pulpex products is given below 21 Interior textured paint in 100 gal Ceiling texture compounds parts Water Hydroxyethyl Dispersant Mildewcide cellulose TiO2 Mica water ground Polyvinyl acetate latex Diatomaceous silica Calcium carbonate Attagelfi40 Pulpex grade V 416.8 3.0 11.2 3.0 50.0 50.0 180.0 100.0 414.0 15.0 14.8 CaCO3 Diatomaceous silica 592 7 Clay 13 Talc 89 Ground mica 89 Calcined aluminum 148 silicate Starch 36 Carboxymethyl cellulose 4 Preservative 2 Polystyrene foam Pulpex grade Water chips H 4 4 Added to desired viscosity aPulpex E is polyethylene pulp Uses and applications paints are used to give a textured appearance to ceilings and other substrates where this look is desired As mentioned worker's tools can perform the same function The Pulpex products improve stipple characteristics and hiding power in interior textured paints provide heavy body to block filler paints reducing mud cracking and improving bridging of block imperfections and in ceiling texture compounds give bulk crack resistance and improved adhesion Manufacturing Interior texture paint substitutes made by Lextar are mixed ground and then mixed again until dispersed Exterior block filler paints are mixed dispersed under high shear then other ingredients are added under low shear finally mixing until dispersed The ceiling texture compound formulations can ingredients are be sprayed with dry blended in a Hobart 21 a texture spray gun mixer Resulting Pipe Coatings-- Special qualities and product composition respect to pipe coatings there are a variety of asbestos product substitutes for asphalt mastic The following materials have been used as successful pipe coatings in various applications ' Enamels - Enamels have been widely used as a protective coating for 65 years combined with glass or felt to obtain mechanical strength 238 for handling Enamel systems may be designed use within an operating range of C to 82 by ultraviolet rays and hydrocarbons for installation and Enamels are effected Extruded Plastics Polyethylene and Polypropylene - The extruded plastic coatings have been available to the industry since 1965 and their growth and acceptance has been remarkable during this period Initial problems of stress cracking and shrinkage have been high minimized by better quality and grade of polyethylene resins molecular weight Fusion Bonded Thermosetting Powder Resins - Fusion bonded powder coatings were first introduced in 1959 and have been commercially available since 1961. These coatings are applied to preheated pipe surfaces 204 to 260 with and without primers This coating is applied in a 12 to 25 ml thickness The fusion bonded powder coatings exhibit good mechanical and physical properties and may be used above or below ground Liquid Epoxy and Phenolics - There are many different liquid systems available today that cure by heat and chemical reaction Some are solvent types and others are 100 percent solids Their use is mostly on large diameter pipes where conventional systems may not be available or where they may offer better resistance to operating temperatures in the 93 range Tapes - Polyvinyl polyethylene and coal tar in the field for joint coating protection or tapes are widely used for odd shapes or bends on mill applications The important developments in plastic tapes have been an increase in their thickness use of stronger resins and improved adhesion by the use of new types of adhesives and primers Wax Coatings - Presently not very much is heard regarding the use of wax coatings However they have been in use for 48 years and are still utilized on a limited basis Microcrystalline wax coatings are usually used with a plastic overwrap for protection Polyurethane Foam Insulation- Efficient pipeline insulation has grown increasingly important as a means of operating hot and cold service pipelines While generally used in conjunction with a corrosive coating if the proper moisture vapor barrier is used over the urethane foam effective corrosion protection is obtained Concrete - Mortar lined and coated pipe have the longest history of use to protect steel or wrought iron from corrosion However today concrete as a corrosion coating is mainly limited to internal lining The external application is applied over a corrosion coating for armor protection and negative buoyancy in marine environments 239 Uses and applications coatings are used to protect pipes from hostile surroundings It is a difficult task to select a coating that will be an effective electrical insulator and provide other desirable characteristics which will achieve a users needs The selection of a coating requires knowledge of the operating and installation conditions to be able to evaluate the properties of the pipe coatings required to fill these needs Manufacturing Information on the manufacturing processes used to make the alternatives listed was not available COST COMPARISON Roof Coatings and Cement Table 66 lists costs for several fibrous materials proposed as substitutes All of these fibers are significantly more expensive and are thought to yield an inferior product Other roof coating data is found in Table 66a for Pulpex fiber Here it may be seen that costs are equal thus negating cost as a factor in roofcoating choice In some instances the substitution of an alternative fiber for asbestos may require manufacturing changes which would involve additional costs , TABLE 66.. COSTS OF FIBROUS MATERIALS FOR ROOFING COATINGS COMPARED WITH GRADE 7 CHRYSOTILE Fiber Cost in lb kg Chrysotile Grade 7 Fiberglass Polypropylene Cellulose Cotton Proprietary No. la 0.06-0.12 0.13-0.26 0.40 0.90 0.35 0.80 0.60 1.30 0.20 0.45 1.35 3.00 Tremco Inc. 240 TABLE 66a PULPEX VERSUS ASBESTOS PRICES lb kg Product Pulpex Asbestos Asphalt roof coating 0.13 0.26 Aluminum asphalt roof coating 0.45 0.90 Asphalt roof cement 0.11 0.22 0.12 0.24 0.45 0.90 0.11 0.22 Linings and Coatings Several substitutes for asbestos in linings and chemically coatings are application Cost data is currently commercially available Depending on the particular these substitutes may perform as well or better than asbestos presented in Table 67. In terms of cost the asbestos substitute materials are comparable to asbestos TABLE 67 COSTS OF SUBSTITUTES IN RESISTANT LININGS AND COATING3S2 Name Cost in lb kg Chrysotile Grade 7 Talc Barite Diatomite Silica Clay Mica 0.06-0.12 0.13-0.26 0.06 0.13 - - - 0.04-0.08 0.09-0.18 0.05 0.10 241 Texture Paints There are several fiber substitutes available to replace asbestos in texture paints A cost comparison is given in Table 68. Even the higher priced nonasbestos products cost no more than asbestos products because only a small amount of fiber approximately 1 percent is involved In spite of any cost difference that might acrue these substitutes may yield an inferior product Texture may also be produced by workers tools thereby eliminating the need for an asbestos substitute fiber for this application TABLE 68. COSTS OF SOME SUBSTITUTES FOR ASBESTOS IN TEXTURE PAINTS Material Cost in lb kg Chrysotile Grade 7 Fiberglass Mica Talc Carbonate Nylon Nylon Polypropylene 0.06-0.12 0.13-0.26 0.05 1.10 0.05 0.10 0.06 0.13 0.04-0.08 0.09-0.18 0.60 1.30 0.35 0.80 Information from nonpublished document done for OSHA- I Technological Feasibility Assessment and Economic Impact Analysis on Asbestos Dust Sealants Automobile and Dry Wall Joint Compounds Truck Undercoating Spackle and It has been indicated by Chrysler Corporation that potential substitutes for undercoatings cost 4 to 30 times as much as grade 7 chrysotile asbestos No cost data was available for any of the other product categories The use of asbestos in spackle and dry wall joint compounds was banned by the Consumer Product Safety Commission in 1977. Nonasbestos containing formulations have since become available at competitive prices 242 CONCLUSION Availability and properties of substitutes have been investigated for six product types for asbestos sealants e Sealants e Roofing Coatings and Cements e Automobile and Truck Undercoatings e Linings and Coatings e Texture Paints e Spackle and Dry Wall Joint Compounds The properties required for these applications span the range of properties required by most of the asbestos sealant products To some degree it is possible to draw conclusions for applications not specifically discussed herein The first two products have generally been compounded with asphalt and asbestos Early attempts to find a direct replacement for asbestos fibers failed because most fibrous materials are not readily wetted by asphalt as is asbestos For sealants it is generally felt that alternative products are available even if their properties are not quite equal to those of asbestos Kayocel is such a product produced by Fillers and Abrasives Inc. of Michigan Asbestos solvent based roof coatings and cements may be produced by complicated formulating techniques but they are generally more expensive and inferior in quality to asbestos and may not meet Federal specifications Commercially available asbestos asphalt roofing products that provide the properties of asbestos products are gaining market acceptance Lextar Tremco Inc. Koppers Co. and Gibson Homans Co. all report the availability of products in the premarket or early commercial stages that can be used as direct replacements for asbestos in asphalt roofing products Apparently these fiber substitute products are readily wetted by asphalt In some respects their quality is not yet known although Lextar has provided information on the special qualities of their product It is not known whether these same products would be suitable for use in undercoatings Chrysler Corporation has indicated that fiberglass fibrous alumina and magnesium silicate fiber may be used in this area although they are much more expensive and lack special qualities Asbestos linings and chemically resistant coatings are formulated both with and without asphalt For asphalt formulations several mineral reinforcing materials e.g. talc barite diatomite perlite silica clay and mica are available as substitutes for asbestos Performance details are not available 243 Use of asbestos in texture paints spackle and dry wall joint compounds has been banned since 1977. Some substitutes are listed that may provide a product of the quality of asbestos texture paint although test comparisons with asbestos were not available Attapulgite is a suitable substitute for asbestos in spackle and dry wall joint compounds Pulpex is available for texture paints and block fillers In addition texture may now be added by worker's tools With respect to thermosetting powder foam insulation and pipe coatings extruded plastics fusion bonded resins liquid epoxy tapes wax coatings polyurethane concrete are all possibilities for substitution Overall this category appears to have some feasible substitutes but a quality replacement for asbestos across the board for the many applications mentioned is lacking However new data in this area has provided additional products in many areas which may prove capable of replacing asbestos in all areas and have already proved acceptable in some 244 REFERENCES Clifton Industry P. 3 R. U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Mines Mineral Surveys - Asbestos in 1978. Washington D.C. August 22 1979 Clifton R. Preprint Asbestos P. 4 from the 1980 Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbook Fagan Doris M. editor International Part II The Asbestos Mining Industry - 61 December 1979 Industry Review United States - 1979 Asbestos Telecon 29 1980 N. R. Fernandez Celotex Corp. Asbestos in roofing materials with David Cook GCA January Telecon 15 1980 Edmund Fenner Mansville with David Cook Asbestos in various sealant products GCA January Telecon 17 1980. Jack H. Engel Chrysler Corp. with David Asbestos in automobile undercoatings Cook GCA January Consumer Product Safety Commission Title 16 Chapter IV Part 1304 Ban of Consumer Patching Compounds Containing Respirable Freeform Asbestos Telecon Sika Chemical Corp. Asphalt mastics with David Cook GCA January 18 1980 Telecon Spender January 18 1980. Kellogg Division of Textron with Concrete protective coatings David Cook GCA 10 Telecon Welders Supply Co. 1980. Welding rod coatings Inc. with David Cook GCA February 5 11 Telecon Igo's Welding Supply Co. with David Cook GCA February 5 1980. Welding rod coatings 12 Telecon Jack Fleming Bondex International January 16 1980. Texture paints with David Cook GCA 245 13 Telecon William Pass Synkoloid Co. with David Cook GCA January 16 1980. Texture paints 14 Telecon Charles Spector Everseal Manufacturing Co. Cook GCA January 17 1980. Texture paints Inc. with David 15 Telecon Harry Schwartz Baltimore Paint Paints with David Cook GCA January 22 and Coatings Group of Dutch 1980. Texture paints Boy 16 LaShoto P. Final Trip Report - Armstrong Cork Corporation Division Bedford Mass Fulton N.Y. July 1979. 6 GCA p 17 Roy F. Weston Environmental Consultants Technology Feasibility and Economic Impact of OSHA Proposed Revision to the Asbestos Standard Construction excluded Asbestos Information Association America March 26 1976 18 Meylan W. M. et al Chemical Market Output Analysis of Selected Chemical Substances to Assess Sources of Environmental Contamination Task III - Asbestos 6-78-005 August 1978. p 61 19 W. E. Davis and Assoc Leawood KS National Inventory of Sources and Emissions Asbestos - 1968. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Air and Water Programs OAQPS Research Triangle Park NC APTD February 1980 20 Telecon Jerry Stanley Celotex Tampa FL with Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Technology Division May 4 1981 Call No. 35 21 Lextar - A Hercules Company Wilmington Delaware Product literature - Table 1 2 3 cost comparison etc. Pulpex polyolefin pulps and information Also Bulletin Nos - and 10 and letter to Mr. Richard Guimond EPA from Edward Engle Pulpex August 25 1981 22. Putting the Useless to Use Bangor Michigan American Fillers and Abrasives Inc. 23 Wormser E. S. Arlington VA Speech at Substitutes July 14-16 1980 to Asbestos Conference EPA 24 Telecon 18 1980 Ken Brzozowski TREMCO Inc. with David Cook Substitute fibers for roofing products GCA January 25 Telecon Fred Mallay Consolidated Protective Coatings Corp. with David Cook GCA January 18 1980. Substitutes for roofing products 26 Telecon Colin Hermus Koppers 1980. Roofing materials Co. with David Cook GCA February 6 246 27. M. Grayson and D. Eckroth Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology Third Edition Volume 6. Interscience New York N.Y. 1978. P. 461 28 Telecon T. Dudick Dudick Corrosion Manufacturing Inc. with David Cook GCA January 18 1980. Acid and alkali resistant coatings 29 Telecon Co. with mastics Ken Heffner Electro Chemical David Cook GCA January 18 Engineering and Manufacturing 1980. containing 30. U.S. Patent No. 3,891,528 June 24 1975. Joint Cement Compositions Utilizing Water Insoluble Carboxymethylated Cellulose Derivatives as Asbestos Substitutes Inventory Armand J. Desmarais New Castle Delaware 31 EPA Substitutes to Asbestos Conference Arlington VA July 14-16 1980 32 Pigg B. J. A.I.A. letter to Rich Guimond EPA 12 August 1980 247 SECTION 9 REINFORCED PLASTICS ASBESTOS PRODUCT Special Qualities Asbestos fibers have been used in combination with plastics since the 1920's when asphalt floor tiles were first introduced Asbestos fibers when added to polymeric materials modify the physical and chemical characteristics of the composite Fibers in general function as both fillers and reinforcing agents The benefits of using asbestos derive from the fact that asbestos has advantages the action of both a mineral and a fibrous binder carrier with reinforcing Asbestos is particularly useful in molding compounds because it will impart very good surface finish toughness resistance to heat and fire and less shrinkage and warpage than other fibers Also the addition of asbestos improves the handleability of the product during processing For example putty compounds become much less sticky Product Composition Asbestos fibers are used to reinforce many plastics including phenolic urea melamine unsaturated polyesters diallyl phthalate prepolymers epoxies silicones polypropylene and nylon Phenolic molding compounds thermosetting polymers are the major users of asbestos in reinforced plastic applications outside of floor coverings friction materials and gasketing which are discussed in other sections of this report Consequently the following discussion focuses primarily on phenolic molding compounds Bulk fiber is the most widely used form of asbestos in combination with plastics Chrysotile is used in the largest quantities in plastics for molding compounds with crocidolite anthophyllite tremolite and amosite used in lesser amounts Chrysotile classified according to the test used by the Quebec Asbestos Mining Association QAMA in grades 1 through 5 is normally used for its reinforcing properties Grades 6 and 7 fibers are used for their thixotropic characteristics to control flow heat resistance dimensional stability and low cost The crocidolite and anthophyllite varieties of asbestos are used for specialty purposes where corrosion resistance is important 5 Toughness refers to the ability of the molded material to resist impact impact high strain rate mechanical loading The Izod test is an test which is one of several methods of characterizing toughness strength 248 A breakdown of the various chrysotile grades and crocidolite and anthophyllite asbestos used in bulk by primary plastics manufacturers in 1980 is as follows chrysotile grades 1 2 5 and 7 1400 metric tons and crocidolite 100 metric tons Thus total consumption of asbestos for plastic products was 1500 metric tons down more than 3400 tons from 1978 figures6 Today as in the past most of the asbestos pound manufacture is chrysotile Grade 7 a short a filler than as a reinforcing agent used in plastic molding com- fiber that functions more as Rogers Corporation one of the phenolic molding compounds reports 10 to 55 percent asbestos depending primary manufacturers of reinforced that their asbestos products contain from on product applicatio5n Uses and Applications reinforced plastic molding compounds applications including the electrical electronic industries In particular the Rogers Corporation are used in a variety of automotive and printing uses asbestos in the fol- lowing products reinforced board material used in the printing industry as a matrix from which multiple rubber or plastic printing plates can be molded automobile transmission reactors which are employed to direct the flow of transmission fluid commutators for electrical motors switches and circuit breakerstransmision Rogers Corporation's RX 468 DN reinforced plastic is General Motors choice for molded commutators used in fan drive motors installed in its new 1980 front wheel drive Model compacts GM says the asbestos material retains its strength at temperatures over 500 has high impact strength and dimensional stability and is more economical than equivalent mineral filled materials Asbestos phenolics may also be used to make pot handles and various knobs and other components of large and small appliances such as clothes washers and dryers dishwashers refrigerators portable heaters popcorn poppers and broilers, Product Manufacturing Summary Manufacturing Process-The manufacturers of reinforced plastic products can be divided into two segments A small number of primary manufacturers produce molding compounds in pellet or flake form package it and sell this granulated mate- rial to a myriad of secondary manufacturers whe ther fie nal product is shaped and finished The primary manufacturing steps consist typically of 1 fiber receiving and storage 2 fiber introduction 3 dry blending 4 resin formation and 5 packaging and shipping The secondary manufacturing steps usually are at a facility remote from the primary processing and consist of 1 resin receiving and storage 2 resin introduction 3 forming 4 curing 5 finishing and 6 product packaging and shipping to consumers In addition Rogers offers a complete line of nonasbestos reinforced molding material 249 Name and Location of Manufacturers-- The most important primary manufacturers of phenolic molding compounds which currently produce asbestos compounds are listed in Table 69 TABLE 69. PRIMARY MANUFACTURERS OF PHENOLIC MOLDING COMPOUNDS 1,9 Plant name Location Plaslok Corporation Plastics Engineering Reichhold Chemicals Resinoid Engineering Rogers Corporation Buffalo NY Sheboygan WI Elizabeth NJ Skokie IL LaPorte IN Newark OH Manchester CT a Augmented by GCA telephone contact Production Volumes-- In 1976 19,500 metric tons of asbestos fibers were consumed in the production of asbestos plastic molding compounds as classified by the Bureau of Mines In 1978 however the Bureau of Mines reported that only 4,900 metric tons of asbestos were used in the production of plastics in the United States and in 1980 the figure had decreased to 1500 metric tonsin SUBSTITUTE PRODUCT Methodology Search Strategy-- An extensive literature search was conducted to obtain information on the use of asbestos in reinforced plastics and to identify substitute products This literature search concentrated on the use of journals to obtain the latest developments in the quickly changing reinforced industry Upon completion of the literature study an extensive telephone survey was conducted to confirm information obtained in the literature survey and to acquire new information Summary of Contacts-The following people were contacted in investigating reinforced plastics e Leon Meyer Hooker Chemicals & Plastics Corporation Durex Division N. Tonawanda NY February 1980 e Roger Porter University of Massachusetts Amherst MA February 1980 250 Ronald Mount Fiberfill Evansville IN February 1980 Robert Squire NYCO Division of Processed Willsboro NY February 1980 Mineral Corporation Vincent R. Landi Rogers Corporation Rogers CT February 1980 David Shenefield Washington Penn Washington PA February 1980 Plastic Company Bill Colclough Fiberite Corporation Winona MN February 1980 Joseph Harris Union Carbide Chicago IL February 1980 Joseph Pesce NVF Company Kennet Square PA February 1980 John Ellis Plastics Engineering Sheboygan WI February 1980 Mary Ann Atchley DuPont Wilmington DE February 1980 Mr. Groane General Motors Detroit MI February 1980 . 251 e Sales Manager General Electric Pittsfield MA February 1980 e Donald Randolph U.S. Gypsum Chicago IL February 1980 e Society of Plastic Engineers Greenwich CT February 1980 ' Society of the Plastics Industry February 1980 In researching this section it was found that there are many fillers and reinforcements available to replace asbestos in phenolic molding compounds Asbestos is not usually used unless special properties of this material are required In order to substitute for asbestos often two or three ingredients must be combined to achieve the same qualities Whether the substitutes provide the required properties available in reinforced molding compounds at a reasonable cost is debatable in some instances However manufacturers are finding alternatives for a majority of products previously reinforced with the shorter of asbestos in which the physical properties of the substitute product are equal to or exceed the asbestos product they replace All manufacturers of phenolic molding compounds have found suitable substitutes for certain products and many manufacturers have been able to completely eliminate the use of asbestos Research and development in reinforcement technology has produced several new materials which are potential substitutes and has also improved existing substitutes A description of materials that are currently substituted for asbestos mostly short fiber and those which may be viable substitutes in the near future follows Fiber Substitutes Fibrous Glass-- Special qualities glass is the principal reinforcing material in plastics and is an integral part of most new engineering plastics Manufacturers have chosen glass as a suitable substitute for asbestos in many applications for many years Manufacturers are continually improving on the properties of glass reinforcements Fiberite has recently introduced upgraded versions of its 4000 series of loaded 10 to 40 percent compounds with heat resistance in the 260 to 316 range Designated the 4000F series the improved materials are said to be based on new fiber technology that boosts physical properties in molded parts as much as 20 percent The new reinforced compounds are said to be particularly 12 wall parts suitable for applications involving lightweight For the long reinforced compounds substitution is a more difficult technical problem 3 252 Early in 1979 General Electric introduced its Genal 7000 series - a line of reinforced asbestos phenolic molding compounds formulated to meet more demanding structural and dimensional stability requirements and to provide term heat resistance at temperatures up to 260 which is comparable to heat resistance properties of reinforced materials Glass content ranges from 20 to 40 percent of total filler the balance is mineral According to General Electric parts molded of the 7000 retain percent of 80 to 204 their physical properties after 20 hours of continuous exposure Genal 7021 and 7021P are medium content materials that are designed to replace cast metals and fiber asbestos compound1s4 They are especially suited for use in commutators iron skirts motor housings and transmission components reinforced phenolic such as 7000 series materials significantly reduces current leakage in commutators as compared with commutators molded in asbestos phenolic Several drawbacks in replacing asbestos fibers with glass fibers have been reported in the past but have since been overcome with new product development The Rogers Corporation once reported that glass fibers provided the bulk and strength needed for many applications but because of their brittleness they were unsuitable for many molding applications their customers used Now however Rogers has developed the RX600 and 800 series of glass- reinforced products which are suitable in these applications 3 Another prime consideration in molding a product was the resin's ability to flow Glass fibers were at first acceptable only in very simple molds however they have now been adapted for use in complex molds and for fine detail requirements In addition the abrasiveness of glass which was thought to affect the tool wear or durability of processing equipment has now been overcome3 Product composition glass substitutes are simply made by the addition of glass fibers to products as opposed to asbestos fibers Uses and applications glass may be used in many of the phenolic molding compound applications that asbestos is used in Manufacturing summary manufacturing process used for glass phenolics is similar to asbestos however glass fibers are only acceptable in very simple molds as they tend to segregate from the resin binder and fracture in complex molds or for fine detail requirements see Special Qualities Glass is also abrasive affecting the durability of the processing equipment For certain reinforced phenolics the use of glass may necessitate a change in processing equipment Carbon Fiber-- Special qualities fibers are characterized by a combination of lightweight high strength and high stiffness Typical carbon composites have a Young's modulus which is one order of magnitude greater than asbestos- 253 reinforced materials bestos and glass Carbon fibers are very fragile in comparison to as- Product composition-- Specific ingredients used in carbon reinforced phenolics were not available Uses and applications fiber composites were originally developed to provide the aerospace industry with a strong stiff lightweight construction material The composites then found their way into such sports equipment as golf clubs fishing rods and tennis rackets Detroit's search for lightweight automotive components led to the use of carbon fiber composites for such parts as leaf springs drive shafts push rods and side door instrusion beams Other industrial applications include speed inertia textile machine parts and various components of the equipment in which alignment mechanical vibration and fatigue are of principal concern Carbon fiber cannot be used as an asbestos substitute in applications requiring electrical insulation3 Manufacturing Manufacture of reinforced phenolics is presumed to be similar to that of asbestos phenolics Detailed processes were not available It is known however that carbon fibers require compounding with low shear mixing equipment 3 Aramid Fiber-- Special qualities fiber is tensile strength and flexural modulus to 204 characterized by low density and high It has a useful temperature range Product composition specifications for this product were unknown Uses and applications commercially in 1972 aramid fiber is finding broad application where lightweight high strength and stiffness resistance to stretch and resistance to damage are important The fiber originally was developed to replace steel in radial tires These properties are key to its successful use as reinforcement for plastic composites in aircraft aerospace marine automotive and other industrial applications and in sports equipment As with carbon fiber aramid fibers are not likely to be utilized as an asbestos substitute in molding compounds ? Manufacturing summary on known that aramid fibers are difficult equipment 3 manufacture are not available It is to handle in conventional compounding A high elastic modulus implies a large resistance to deformation or a stiff material However true in the case of high modulus is not molded commutators t it However it should be noted that carbon always desirable This is Toughness is sacrificed? aramid and aramid fiber fiber costs are especially prohibitive prohibitive as compared to asbestos and glass 254 Wollastonite-- Special qualities qualities of wollastonite It is known that the hardness of wollastonite causes tool machinability 3 were wear not and available harms cate used Product Wollastonite is a naturally occurring calcium siliwhich is a mined fibrous or needle shape material that is being as an asbestos substituteor Uses and Wollastonite is being used in combination with other additives in substitute compounds for filled asbestos ma- terials It does not provide the required mechanical reinforcement for high strength compounds 3 The U.S. Mining Enforcement Safety Administration MESA has classified wollastonite as a nuisance dust and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health NIOSH has determined that the mineral is neither a fibrogenic nor carcinogenic substance8 Manufacturing summary primary supplier of wollastonite is NYCO a Division of Processed Minerals Corporation Willsboro NY The other supplier is R. T. Vanderbilt Company Incorporated Norwalk CT Specific manufacturing processes are unknown Processed Mineral Fiber-- Special qualities qualities of processed mineral fiber unknown However its safety category as covered by pertinent OSHA tions is that of an inert mineral dust are regula- Product composition mineral slag and silicates fiber is made from blast furnace Uses and applications fiber is reported to be able to reinforce a variety of plastic materials including phenolics nylons polybutylene epoxies and polyolefins Manufacturing summary product was recently developed by Jim Walter Resources Inc. specific manufacturing information was unavailable Polyethylene Fiber-- Special Polyethylene fibers are not yet currently available although they may be a viable alternative in special applications in the near future Polyethylene fibers are modulus reinforcing fibers priced low enough to fill the gap between carbon and glass However according to researchers at the University of Massachusetts lightweight modulus 10 million psi polyethylene fibers have relatively poor thermal resistance ?fi properties when compared to asbestos Product composition modulus reinforcing polyethylene fibers make up this substitute 255 Uses and applications use in ranges between carbon and glass Manufacturing summary yet available Product Substitutes Clay-- Special qualities Chemical Division has produced a full line of granular and modular filled asbestos phenolics for many years but the supplier has come up with a new variation - a highly resistant mineral compound that is very competitive with mineral materials Labeled Molding Grade 156 it is said to provide moldability superior to the containing products it replaces According to the supplier parts molded from this product retain 50 percent of their properties after 24 hour exposure to 232 and 50 percent after 1,000 hours at 191 Product composition composition of this compound is proprietary however it is believed to be a clay base The properties of clay reinforcements are enhanced by adding silane coupling agents to improve flexural modulus19 Uses and applications the intended applications of this compound are appliance appearance components where it provides heat resistance and dimensional stability It is also aimed at such uses as auto carburetor spacers sealing rings thrust washers speedometer sleeves appliance terminals probe controls insulators and light baffles Manufacturing Manufacturing information was not known facturer of the product is Hooker Chemical Division The manu- Talc-- Special qualities Electric the product manufacturer claims that this material has the same basic properties - including impact strength dimensional stability and heat resistance - as their previous asbestos products GE admits that some minor product strength is sacrificed by using this new material and that more breakage can be anticipated as compared to asbestosfilled phenolics however they suggest that manufacturers can compensate by building thicker walled products Talc is good to 232 Product composition Electric's asbestos Genal phenolics apart from their new filled 7000 series utilize talc in conjunction with aluminum silicates and cellulose fibers as the major reinforcement material Like clay the flexural modulus is improved by adding silane coup- ling agents Uses and applications predominant use for talc is for heat resistant phenolic molding compounds in the medium temperature applications its limit is 232 256 Manufacturing Allegedly there is no significant difference in the price between the asbestos and the Genal product and the same processing equipment can accommodate the new material Montana Talc Company produces a treated ultra particle talc for nylon and ABS plastics Mica-- Special qualities has proven to be a suitable substitute for asbestos in a variety of resins however it has had limited success when used in phenolic molding compounds Although mica reportedly builds stiffness much more than equivalent loadings of asbestos experiments performed by a mica producer Marietta Resources International reportedly showed that filled phenolics cannot be exposed to elevated temperatures for long periods without blister property formation However this company also reports that better retention is exhibited for phenolic samples containing finer grades of mica Product composition materials are expected to help solve the asbestos replacement problems in several plastic resins In the forefront is filled polypropylene Washington Penn Plastic Company recently introduced two of these compounds under its Micalite tradename One is filled polypropylene to which a small amount of chlorinated paraffin has been added the other uses a silane coupling agent Research work by Ford Motor Company resulted in the development of polypropylene Addition of a small amount of powdered chlorinated paraffin increases tensile and flexural strengths flexural modulus and heat distortion temperatur1e9 Uses and applications Ltd. states that reinforced thermoplastics are useful in applications that require low permeability high modulus of rigidity high heat distortion temperature dimensional stability and low warpage This includes use in many new industrial and automotive products Manufacturing Detailed manufacturing processes were not available Calcium Sulfate-- Special qualities States Gypsum reports that calcium sulfate pro- vides improved production rates allows high loadings and results in low densities in the finished product However calcium sulfate does not add rein- forcing properties to molding compounds In addition its solubility in water impairs Consequently wet electrical properties when used as an asbestos substitute3 calcium sulfate is not a viable substitute in all applications It is believed that the material could be blended with reinforcing fibers to broaden its application Product composition new material recently put on the market is a fine calcium sulfate that United States Gypsum's Chemical Division has introduced under their Terra Alba Snow White and CA trade names More specific product ingredients were not known 257 Uses and applications this product cannot add reinforcing properties date to molding where this compounds it can only be used in certain applications to property is not necessary Use could broaden if reinforcing fibers could also be added to aid in strengthening the resultant products specific Manufacturing summary in the products mentioned previously product manufacturing processes are unknown As for product manufacturers in general the manufacturers which are producing asbestos substitute molding compounds are those manufacturers which previously produced asbestos molding compounds see Asbestos Product Manufacturing Summary In addition there are a variety of manufacturers that produce substitute molding compounds that although not intended to replace asbestos are viable alternatives Such companies as Union Carbide DuPont and U.S. Gypsum produce innovative products which are potential substitutes The exact number of manufacturers which may have a product capable of being an asbestos substitute cannot be determined under the scope of this project However in the description of substitute materials detailed in this report an attempt was made to identify manufacturers of each substitute material The production volumes for manufacturers of asbestos substitute materials were considered proprietary information in most instances and were not provided Consequently production volumes of substitute materials were not available COST COMPARISON There are several potential substitute fillers and reinforcing materials for replacing asbestos in certain reinforced applications Several substitute materials are economically competitive with asbestos while others are not The use of the more expensive substitute materials may be offset by the associated costs of using asbestos However made substitute materials may require more expensive manufacturing techniques to overcome problems associated with poor wettability of these fibers In addition there may be a higher cost made materials as opposed to refining asbestos fibers relative to asbestos entailed in procuring manA cost comparison of sub- stitute materials with asbestos is shown in Table 70 CURRENT TRENDS There compounds is a defined trend to replace asbestos in phenolic molding documented by both the literature and by numerous conversations with manufacturers of reinforced phenolics.23 This movement was initiated in 1972 when General Electric Company's Plastic Division started replacing asbestos in their phenolic products with a new based filler Since this time they have not used asbestos in their reinforced plastics and have reported that they have consistently proven asbestos materials meet any design criteria called for in phenolics Through their proprietary technology they feel that they have developed a line of asbestos products equal to or better than the discontinued asbestos grades The Durez Plastics Division of Hooker Chemical forced phenolic market has February 1979 their entire who reportedly have 40 percent of the total rein- developed a nonasbestos reinforced product By line of phenolic molding products e.g. automotive 258 PARE Re Substitute material manufacturer TABLE 70 oe 84844 .2 844.2. as2 pere:, mt amon. Price compared to asbestos COST COMPARISON Performance and comments Fibrous glass 75c 1.65 vs lb 1.20 1.20 kg long fiber asbestos lb 1.10 vs lb 0.22 short fiber asbestos May be used for higher temperature applications new glass fiber technology enhances the physical properties of the material problems with abrasiveness of glass wearing out processing equipment process change probable Genal 7000 reinforced compounds General Electric 1.25 2.75 vs lb 2.20 reinforced compounds Same as above Molding Crade 156 mineral compounds Hooker 51c 1.10 vs lb 2.20 kg reinforced compounds Moldability superior to asbestos and dimenstional stability good heat resistance Talc lb 13c vs 5-10c 11-22 asbestos Loss of strength but can compensate by making walled product currently used as an asbestos limited to 232 applications thicker substitute Mica lb llc vs 12-25c 25-55c for asbestos Adds dimensional stability and increases strength of plastics high aspect mica purported to provide middle ground in cost performance between inorganic particulate fillers and fiber reinforcement blended with higher priced substitute materials Micalite chlorinated wax- polypropylene Washington Penn Plastic Co. 41c 90c vs lb 2.20 reinforced compounds Carbon fibers 10-12 22-26.50 vs 13-25 lb 30-55c asbestos Clay 75c 1.65 vs 55c 1.20 kg long fiber asbestos lb 1.10 vs 10c kg short fiber Same as above For high strength applications increases acid resistance in phenolics also used as filler for thermoset plastics high heat resistance specialty applications only Used as fill^'r no reinforcement new clay base compositions are reported to maintain the acceptable balance between heat resistance and impact strength Aramid fibers 6-8 13.20-17.60 13.20-17.60 vs 13-25c lb 29-55 for asbestos Used in specialty plastic reinforcements too expensive asbestos replacement in phenolic molding compounds can blended with less expensive materials for be Calcium sulfate 2-3c 4-7c vs 13-25 29-55 for asbestos Provides improved output rates allows high loadings and results in low densities high heat resistance does not add reinforcing properties to molding compounds - limited application Wollastonite 3-13c 7-29c vs 13-25c 29-55 for asbestos Reported to be an asbestos replacement in phenolics material is cost competitive with asbestos Has been classified as merely a nuisance dust The Processed mineral fiber Approximately twice as expensive as asbestos Has and been accepted as epoxy gel coats an asbestos replacement in phenolics Polyethylene fibers No data 38 ew TAT TA A TA 44121 44121 tas Glass and reinforced phenolic molding materials lb 2.20 Still in development stage high modulus but poor resistance properties ae seer ee eee 2 = pee pet. themselves are in the same approximate price range heat of Price varies for different grades and depends on quantity ordered General Electric incorporates mica reinforcement into Valox 752 polybutylene terephthalate PBT thermoplastic polyester in a material introduced for electrical and electronic applications This material sells for about 90c kg 259 appliances wiring communications electronics and electrical switch gear was reinforced with this new nonasbestos material Fiberite Corporation which was at one time a small factoirn asbestos phenolics also elim- inated asbestos use several years ago Only recently has it become apparent that all remaining producers of phenolic molding compounds intend to pursue a thorough phase out of asbestos which they hoped to accomplish by the end of 1980.8 1980.8 Rogers Corporation Reichhold Chemicals Plastics Engineering Company and Valite Division of Valentine Sugars Incorporated all now intend to dis- continue using asbestos as fast as they can develop suitable substitutes for their remaining asbestos grades Only one small producer Resinoid Engineering Corporation has said that it has no plans at the moment to drop asbestos regarding amount of rather the company appears to be taking a wait attitude new proposed government regulations taking In addition a very minor asbestos phenolic is being imported from Canadavery This decline in overall asbestos use reflects a dramatic trend toward the use of substitute fibers Manufacturers compounds 13 have demanded asbestos have reported that customers Plastics Engineering reported to be the second largest producer of phenolic molding compounds currently uses asbestos in some of their products but they have a program to replace asbestos in all their phenolic molding com- products pound years This program began in 1977 and should be completed in 1 or 2 Currently every reinforced product is available in asbestos- free versions which are reinforced with glass fibers clay and talc The asbestos versions are reported to have the same physical properties as the asbestos products they replace The time required to completely discon- tinue the production of reinforced materials is due to the fact that not all of Plastic Engineering's customers have made the switch to the asbestos versions Customers find that they must modify their molding processes to handle the asbestos molding material Nevertheless Plastics Engineering made the decision to replace asbestos in their product because many of their customers preferred not to process compounds containing asbestos fiber in their operations.9 After many customers converted to asbestos compounds the demand for asbestos compounds diminished substantially The shrinking demand caused the need for a reevaluation and more realistic apportionment of manufacturing costs to the reduced production volume of compounds that contain asbestos In addition Plastics Engineering reports difficulty in obtaining an adequate and dependable supply of the type and grade of asbestos suitable for molding compounds Plastic Engineering has urged all customers to adapt to asbestos compounds as soon as possible Reinforcement suppliers are increasing the size of their facilities to keep pace with anticipated sales growth For example Micro Materials has built three plants in the last few years for production of its Micro a combination of mica flakes glass flakes spheres granules and additives and continues to increase production by 10 to 20 percent every 4 months Owens Corning Fiberglass recently started up a new reinforcement plant at Amarillo Texas with a nominal capacity of about 90,000 metric tons Certain Products has upgraded its facility at Wichita Falls Texas to 50,000 metric tons and PPG Industries Glass Fiber Division is devoting more of its annual 118,000 metric tons output to reinforcements Expansion is also expected from Reichold Chemicals which took over Ferrios glass fiber operations 260 Dupont recently announced a major expansion in aramid Involved is a 200 million investment that will triple capacity to 18,000 metric tons at Richmond Virginia by 1982 and expand capacity at Laplace Louisiana for making aramid ingredients The buildup will increase capacity in the rein- forcement grade Kevlar 49 from 1800 to 5445 metric tons over the year period The introductioonf carbon fibers on a large scale in the aircraft indus- try may give a big additional boost to the acceptance of carbon reinforcements in plastics in many industries Lear Aviation Corporation is developing a prototype of a private business airplace that will be made almost entirely from carbon fiber reinforced plastic The current price of carbon fibers is expected to be cut in half in the near future Production is increasing as shown by Hercules Inc. which now has a 90 metric ton carbon capacity at Magna Utah and plans to expand to 205 metric ton by 1980.19 Union Carbide has produced a new pitch carbon fabric for stampable thermoplastic auto- motive parts Increased usage of wollastonite as an asbestos substitute is also antici- pated Jim Walters Resources Inc. reports a growing list of customers in the processed mineral fiber market A solid indication of the growth of precompounded reinforced thermoplastics is the number of companies offering such materials including Washington Penn Plastics Fiberfill Thermofill A. Schulman and Ecoplastics Ltd. of Canada Despite the high performance and mechanical properties provided by asbestos the Rogers Corporation intends to phase out the use of asbestos as quickly as asbestos alternatives gain customer acceptance They are cur- rently searching for alternatives to all their asbestos products and report that successful substitutes are currently available for asbestos in general purpose phenolic compounds although they do not manufacture such Rogers manufactures only specialty thermoset compounds They report 1,3,25 1,3,25 stitution for asbestos in many but not every instance successful sub- Rogers Corpora- tion has developed new glass and combination glass and cellulose reinforced products which have similar properties to reinforced phenolics These products are being considered for several large volume programs although the asbestos substitute materials do not currently replace any asbestos products Rogers reports that acceptance of such a substitution in the marketplace is not assured since the cost of new products is higher up to 15 percent and molding characteristics are not always identical A research breakthrough in 1978 created Roger's duroid gasketing material products containing no asbestos but with essentially equivalent heat resistance and sealing characteristics 26 Introduction of this new class of materials is now underway In addition DAP diallyl phthalate molding materials made with asbestos fibers in the past are now being produced with other reinforcements Apparently there are some specialty products where no feasible asbestos substitutes have been found The Rogers Corporation has reported that the phenolic molding materials used in commutators and rotors in electrical and automotive applications currently are reinforced with asbestos These products function in a very dynamic environment where temperatures of 177 and 30,000 261 min prevail Asbestos provides the heat resistance dimensional stability and moldability necessary for these applications In their experience no substitute for asbestos fiber exists for these applications - Nonetheless with the exception of specialty applications phenolic sup- pliers have replaced or are in the process of substituting asbestos with other materials Asbestos phenolic compounds exhibit nearly identical proper- ties 90 to 98 cost It may percent be that as good asbestos according to one supplier nearly will remain a reinforcement material identical in only specialty applications providing exposure can be controlled to within accept- able limits With demands of higher specifications by purchaserisn the future asbestos substitutes cannot merely equal asbestos but must be developed to exceed the properties of asbestos reinforcemen2t2 CONCLUSION Asbestos has been used as a reinforcing material in phenolic molding com- pounds because of its good physical properties which impart a good surface finish toughness resistance to heat and fire minimal shrinkage and warpage in addition to good reinforcing properties Not every molded product requires all of the physical properties supplied by asbestos and consequently substitutes which lack some physical properties but which meet product specifi- cations can replace asbestos However a majority of the products currently reinforced with asbestos require all the mentioned properties which asbestos supplies In these instances the substitute material must supply physical properties which are equal to or greater than the asbestos it replaces New fiber technology has been developed which has boosted physical properties of substitutes such that they are comparable to asbestos In addition manu- facturers have blended various reinforcements to achieve required properties If the thermal insulation or tensile properties of asbestos are necessary replacement sometimes requires using several materials together such as a mixture of mica and an organic material Where these special properties are not necessary organic fillers may be used which are often cheaper than asbestos Manufacturers often look for products with greater reinforcing and insulating properties performance materials than asbestos due to increased 22 by industrial users demand for high- There is a established trend throughout the reinforced plastics dustry to replace asbestos with alternative materials These materials include in- Fibrous glass Clay Talc Mica Wollastonite Processed mineral fiber Carbon fibers Aramid fibers 262 Polyethylene fibers may also be developed for future use in phenolics In some cases it appears that these materials may even be used at a cost com- parable to asbestos while exhibiting similar properties when blended with appropriate additives However no one substitute material acting alone can completely replace asbestos and there are still some specialty products where no feasible asbestos substitutes have been found In general reinforced plastics appear to have progressed towards the replacement of asbestos The process of converting to nonasbestos alternatives will continue in the area of phenolic molding compounds 263 REFERENCES Meylan W. M. et al Chemical Market Output Analysis of Selected Chemical Substances to Assess Sources of Environmental Contamination Task III - Asbestos EPA 6-78-005 August 1978 Cogley D. et al Life Cycle of Asbestos in Commercial and Industrial Use Including Estimates of Release to Air Water and Land prepared by Technology Division for EPA October 1979 Lee Robert Rogers Corp. Rogers CT Correspondence concerning GCA's Draft Report sent to Mr. Larry Longanecker U.S. EPA September 8 1981 Exner P. Trip Report October 30 1979 to Rogers Corporation Manchester CT GCA Telecon Vincent R. Landi Rogers Corporation with R. Corporation Division February 5 1980 Bell GCA Clifton R. A. on Asbestos p Preprint 4 from the 1980 Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbook Telecon Jerry Killner Plastics Engineering with R. Bell GCA Corporation Division February 8 1980 Naitove M. Conference H. Speech presented Arlington VA July at CPSC Substitutes 14-16 1980 to Asbestos The Asbestos Controversy Continues Plastics Design Forum 1978 Nov./Dec 10 U.S. Bureau of Mines Mineral Industry Surveys Asbestos in 1976 by R. A. Clifton 11 12 13 14 U.S. Bureau of Mines Mineral Industry Surveys Asbestos in 1978 by R. A. Clifton August 22 1979 Telecon February B. Colclough 1980 Fiberite Corp. with R. Bell GCA Corporation A. S. W. More Muscle Higher Heat They Power a Phenolic Molding Compound Revival Modern Plastics July 1979 General Electric Product Brochure Genal 7000 Series 264 15 Seymour R. B. 1979 Fibrous Reinforcements Modern Plastics Encyclopedia 170-174 for Plastics 1979 16 Telecon Mary Ann Atchley DuPont Wilmington DE with R. Bell GCA Corporation February 1980 17 Engineering Thermoplastics Basic Performance Materials of the Future Modern Plastics May 1979 18 Telecon Roger Porter University of Massachusetts with R. GCA Corporation Division February 1980 Bell 19 Additives Resin Squeeze Will Make Them More Useful Modern Plastics May 1979 Profitable More 20 Fillers and Reinforcements Modern Plastics July 1979 21 Telecon Donald Randolph U. S. Gypsum with R. Technology Division February 6 1980 Bell GCA Corporation 22 Plastics and Floor Tiles Roundtable Discussion at CPSC Substitutes to Asbestos Conference Arlington VA July 14-16 1980 23 Telecon Sales Manager General Electric GCA Corporation February 1980 Co. with R. Bell 24 25 Telecon Keith Smith Durez Division with R. February 1 1980 Hooker Chemicals and Plastics Corporation Bell GCA Corporation Division Telecon J. February 1 Ellis 1980 Plastics Engineering with R. Bell GCA Corporation 26 Rogers Corporation Annual Report 1978 265 SECTION 10 TEXTILES ASBESTOS PRODUCT Special Qualities The specific asbestos textile products discussed in this section include e Resistant Materials e Thermal Insulation e Electrical Insulation e Packings and Gaskets e Friction Materials and e Specialty Textiles The strength of asbestos allows it to be processed into textiles using looms and other equipment commonly employed in the textile industry Asbestos is fireproof thermally nonconductive strongly dielectric moisture abrasion and corrosion resistant chemically and dimensionally stable and flexible In addition asbestos is one of the few materials complying with military specifications Product Composition Asbestos used in 1980 for textiles was 200 metric tons of grades 1 and 2 chrysotile and 1700 metric tons of grade 3 chrysotile or a total of 1900 metric tons down from 2900 tons in 1978.2 Defined as combustible but extinguishing materials At the Asbestos Textiles Roundtable Discussion of the CPSC Substitutes for Asbestos Conference Arlington Va July 14 to 16 1980 one party felt that asbestos was the only material to pass these specifications while a second party from the Navy Department stated that high temperature silica products are actually better than asbestos having a higher temperature capability and equal durability A substitute such as Nextel a 3M product when used as a hybrid has not passed the military test 266 The different forms of asbestos textiles textile products are given in Table 71 used for the six aforementioned TABLE 71. FORMS OF ASBESTOS TEXTILES USED IN ASBESTOS PRODUCTS Fireresistant Yarn Thread Cloth Thermal insulation Yarn Cloth Cord Rope Tape Tubing Electrical insulation Yarn Roving Tape Thread Felts Cord Lap Tubing Packings and gaskets Yarn Rope Wick Cord Cloth Tape Friction materials Yarn Cloth Specialty textiles Fiber Asbestos yarn is composed primarily of asbestos fibers 75 to 100 percent Cotton nylon polyester and wire are added for reinforcement in some applications of yarns Asbestos yarns are made in all of the standard ASTM grades shown in Table 72 TABLE 72 ASBESTOS TEXTILE GRADES Gradea Asbestos content by weight Commercial Underwriters Grade A Grade AA Grade AAA Grade AAAA 75 up to but not including 80 80 up to but not including 85 85 up to but not including 90 90 up to but not including 95 95 up to but not including 99 99 up to and including 100 Asbestos textile grades differ with each asbestos textile form Asbestos thread is produced in both plain nonmetallic and metallic wire inserted classes A and B the latter being noted for its great tensile strength and high thermal stability Asbestos thread is generally furnished in Underwriters grade 267 Asbestos cloth is woven from five classes of asbestos yarns The most widely used fabrics are woven from Class A plain or nonmetallic yarns and Class B metallic or wire inserted yarns Other fabrics are made from Class C D and E reinforced yarns The different classes of asbestos cloth are listed below e Class Cloth constructed of asbestos yarns containing no reinforcing strands e Class Cloth constructed of asbestos yarns containing wire reinforcing strands e Class Cloth constructed of asbestos yarns containing organic reinforcing strands e Class Cloth constructed of asbestos yarns containing nonmetallic inorganic reinforcing strands e Class Cloth constructed of two or more of the yarns used in both Classes A through D. Asbestos cord is manufactured in all standard ASTM grades The diameters of asbestos cord range from 0.15 cm 0.06 in to 0.97 cm 0.38 in Asbestos rope is available in commercial grade for most general uses and in Underwriters AA AAA and AAAA grades depending on service requirements Tape is manufactured mainly as plain or nonmetallic tape and as a wire inserted product those used in thermal insulation are manufactured in all of the standard ASTM grades Asbestos tubing also comes in all of these grades roving is blended with cotton or other organic fibers producing various degrees of density to meet specific requirements of the user This is also applied in the five standard ASTM grades Asbestos lap comes in two styles one is a single ribbon formation of fibers and the other a paralleled assemblage of the first It comes in A AA and AAA grades Felts come in all grades and are available both with or without glass cloth reinforcement they are produced in sheets tapes and rolls Wick is usually of commercial grade but other grades can be supplied on order Uses and Applications Asbestos resistant materials are used in a variety of applications including welding curtains draperies blankets protective clothing hot con- veyor belts furnace shields and molten metal splash protection aprons In ad- dition asbestos resistant materials are used in the construction field as temporary blankets or curtains Further they are used in the military firefighting and aerospace fields for protective clothing and in various rocket and missile parts Ironing board covers and theater curtains also contain these materials Asbestos textiles are used as thermal insulation in pipe wraps for safety protection stress relieving pads in welding operations protective coverings for hot glassware utensils such as pincers and tongs coverings for diesel engine exhaust lines flue sleeves and braided walls in the construction of steam hoses 268 Asbestos textiles are employed for the insulation of wires and cables especially those which are designed for low voltage current use under severe temperature conditions They are also used for insulation of arcing barriers in switches circuit breakers heater cords and motor windings and as sleevings for electrical appliance leads and insulated conductors where fire protection and resistance to mechanical abrasion are needed Asbestos textiles are used for pump packings all purpose shaft and valve stem packings expansion joints manhole gaskets seals for boilers ovens and furnaces flange gaskets and gaskets for storage tanks cookers and dryers The applications of woven asbestos brake linings are mainly found in industrial band and drum brakes contained in cranes lifts excavators winches concrete mixers and mine equipment Woven asbestos may be used as clutch facings for industrial band plate and cone clutches in cranes lifts excavators and winches Automotive brake pads can use a woven asbestos cloth which may be reinforced with brass wire or impregnated with phenolic resin as is commonly used in clutches * Asbestos carded fiber is the main form of asbestos textiles that can be used in specialty products Carded fiber is used mainly in liquid filters for such products as beer wine oils and chemicals and in electrolytic diaphragms It is also used as wiping pads for molten metal and as stuffing box packing Product Manufacturing Summary Manufacturing Process-- There are two basic variations employed in asbestos textile manufacturing the conventional and wet processes The former process employs either the dry or damp method These two methods are identical except that during the damp method the yarn is moistened either by contact mist spray Most textiles are manufactured by with water on a roller or the conventional process bya In the conventional process raw asbestos fibers of various grades are blended and mixed with the composition of the blends and fixing of the formulation governebdy the fiber characteristic manufacturing and finished product requirements and intended use The different grades received are moved to the rear of the blender Selected fiber sizes then enter a hopper When filled the hoppers deliver the blended material to the carding operation The carding operation combs the fibers with a relatively parallel arrangement called a fiber mat This mat is pressed and layered into a lap The lap is separated into thin continuous ribbons called roving Cotton rayon or other material may be added at this stage to strengthen the roving Roving which has been mechanically twisted and spun to give it tensile strength forms a single yarn This yarn may be twisted with other single yarns wire or other material to produce plied yarn which can be coated to produce thread or treated yarns 269 The wet process is based on forming single filament fibers by extrusion The process consists of making a gelatinous mixture of fine asbestos fiber in water with a volatile dispersant The mass is extruded through small dies The extruded thread is then spun into various products The product tends to hold asbestos fibers better than those produced by the conventional processes thus reducing workplace fiber levels but the yarn formed has the disadvantage of poor absorption and impregnation characteristics Asbestos tubing is made from asbestos yarns either braided or woven The braided style is supplied in many diameters and textures and in several wall thicknesses to meet a variety of service conditions It can be treated as required The woven style is manufactured in various constructions depending on specifications Asbestos tape is a narrow woven fabric manufactured from plied yarn containing salvage edges the edge of the woven fabric finishetdo prevent raveling The method of manufacturing tape depends on the class specified Asbestos rope is produced in two styles twisted and braided Twisted asbestos rope is made by twisting two or more strands of asbestos wick tightly together Heavier ropes contain a binder to hold the twist Braided asbestos rope is manufactured in three constructions 1 by braiding one or more jackets of asbestos yarn over a case of asbestos rope or wick 2 by braiding asbestos yarn braid over braid and 3 by plaiting asbestos yarn into square cross section Asbestos cord is usually twisted asbestos yarn a predetermined number of strands which forms a cord of desired diameter and tensile strength The yarns used may be sized or unsized plain or metallic wire inserted or single or plied depending on the end use of the product3 Asbestos textile packing is manufactured from a dry asbestos yarn that is coated with a lubricant The impregnated yarns are braided into continuous lengths of packing and a second impregnation may follow Variations of braided packing can be made by extruding a mixture of asbestos fiber binder and lubricants and then braiding lubricating asbestos yarns over the extrusion The amount and type of lubricant and binder used in these processes varies The formed product may then be coiled boxed and sold Yarn may also be used as reinforcement to elastomers such as rubber and molded to desired shapes Asbestos wick is manufactured by loosely twisting together several strands of roving tubing or felted asbestos 3 In most cases asbestos textile materials are bound or coated with resins or elastomers before becoming the final product The materials can also be aluminized to give a heat reflecting surface The metallic layer can be sprayed or bonded to the cloth by a thermosetting resin The manufacturing process as well as the available substitutes for woven textiles used in friction materials are discussed in the Friction Materials category of this report 270 Name and Number of Manufacturers-- There are three main companies which manufacture asbestos textiles used in resistant materials electrical and thermal insulation and specialty textile products Secondary manufacturers receive asbestos textiles in the form of yarn to manufacture the final product listed below Primary manufacturers are e Raybestos Manhattan Inc. North Charleston NC Marshville NC e Southern Textiles Corporation Charlotte NC a subsidiary of H.K. Porter Co. Inc. Pittsburg PA 4,5 e Amatex Corporation Norristown PA Meredith NH These three companies and a Manville Corporation of Manville also manufacture asbestos textiles for packings and gasket products Production Volumes-- In 1980 the U.S. asbestos consumption by end use for textiles was majority chrysotile metric tons 1700 metric the tons of this total being grade 3 of the 1900 type Asbestos used in electrical insulation materials amounted to 8900 metric tons in 1980.2 This asbestos fiber was used mainly in the forms of paper roving webbing and braid where comparatively high temperatures may occur In 1980 the volume of asbestos used for thermal and electrical insulation materials asbestos amounted to approximately 2.5 percent of the total U.S. output of The production volumes for individual asbestos textiles used in electrical insulation are not available SUBSTITUTE PRODUCT Methodology Methodology Search Strategy-The search strategy included a combination of a literature review and a telephone survey of industry representatives to gather data on product specifications uses prices and market trends Summary of Contacts-The following company representatives were regarding resistant material substitutes contacted for information @ Mr. Bill Timmons Marketing Supervisor of Industrial Celanese Plastics and Specialties Chatham NJ 201 635-2600 Products 271 Mr. Bal Dixit President Newtex Industries Inc. Victor NY 716 924-9135 Ms. Kathy Pietak Textile Specialist The Carborundum Company Niagara Falls NY 716 278-2000 Mr. Bob Wilander Sales Manager Westex Inc. Chicago IL 312 523-6351 Mr. Marion Black Marketing Manager Hitco Materials Division Gardena CA 213 321-8080 Mr. Barry Reznik Manager Cotronics Corporation , Brooklyn NY 212 646-7996 Mr. Richard Saffadi President Alpha Associates Woodbridge NJ 201 634-5700 Inc. Mr. Edmund Fenner Director of Environmental Services Manville Corporation Denver CO 303 979-1000 Ms. Lucille Ellingson Sales 3M Company St. Paul MN 612 733-1558 Mr. Bob Chiostergi Textile Sales E.I. Dupont de Nemours Company Inc. Wilmington DE 302 999-3951 and 272 e Mr. Bill Maaskant Marketing Manager Amatex Corporation Norristown PA 215 277-6100 ry Mr. Michael Storti Marketing Manager American Kynol Inc. New York NY 212 279-2858 e Mr. Joseph Angelina Textile Products Marketing Manager Garlock Inc. Palmyra NY 315 597-4811 e Mr. K. C. McCallister Marketing Manager Mr. A. Fazia Market Development Manager . Celanese Fibers Marketing Company Charlotte NC 704 554-2735 e Mr. Robin Vance Vice President Fire Safe Products St. Louis MO 314 423-6989 Inc. Fiber Substitutes Special Qualities-- : Fiber substitutes available in all textile applications include e fiber glass e ceramics e organics ' graphite e carbon e quartz e cotton and r) special wool blends Physical and chemical properties of these high temperature materials are compared in Tables 73 and 74 along with properties of asbestos 273 TABLE 73. ASBESTOS AND SUBSTITUTE FIBER PROPERTY COMPARISON FOR TEXTILE PRODUCTS Properties Material Manufacturer Asbestos Product application Temperature resistancea up to C F Tensile strength kPa psi Comments All applications requiring an incombustible high temperature fabric 6490 1200 5.68 x 10 824,000 Low thermal conductivity excellent radiation stability good flexibility excellent resistance to moisture and corrosion excellent spinnability contains a minimum of magnetic or conductive fibers Glass All applications requiring an incombustible high temperature fabric 538 1000 Texo and other Fiber Glass Yarns PPG Industries resistant materials thermal insulation packings and gaskets 3400 650 2.17 x 10 315,000 Density similar to asbestos excellent handling characteristics high dielectric strength not as durable as asbestos may produce some skin irritation fiber diameter 0.066 mm 0.0026 inch 2.0 x 106e 200- 300,000 Dimensional stability - no more than % elongation under maximum stress chemical resistance high thermal conductivity low moisture absorption high dielectric strength flame resistance Zetex Newtex Industries Inc. resistant materials thermal and electrical insulation packings and gaskets 1538 2800 3.44 ^ 10 500,000 Excellent strength and durability excellent dielectric strength dimensional stability excellent cutting sewing and handling resistant fiber size 29 microns lower less than half thermal conductivity than asbestos References 2 2,6 7 8,9 Ceramics All applications requiring 1427 high A high tensile strength silica - alumina fiber 6 274 an incombustible high temperature fabric 2600 flexible resistant Nextelfi312 3M Company resistant materials thermal and electrical insulation packings and gaskets 1427 2600 1.72 x 10 250,000 High strength retention low shrinkage abrasion- resistant after4 hours at 816 1500 it retained 100 percent of its strength good flexibility some skin irritation fiber size 10 to 12 microns in diameter 10,11 0 Refrasil Hitco Materials resistant materials thermal and electrical insulation packings and gaskets 928 1800 5.17 x 105 75,000 Good acid resistance good dielectric properties excellent resistant to thermal shock high capacity to absorb moisture lacks abrasion resistance fiber diameter 8 to 12 microns 12,13 Organics fi Nomex DuPont Co. ' Kevlar DuPont Co. Teflon Teflon DuPont Co. resistant materials thermal and electrical insulation packings and gaskets resistant materials friction materials cables 371 700 204 400 resistant materials thermal and electrical insulation packings and gaskets 316 600 6.89 x 105 100,000 . resistant flexible resistant resistant washable low shrinkage 2.76 x 10 400,000 400,000 High thermal stability excellent chemical resistance excellent cut resistance low thermal conductivity 3.62 x 105 52,500 High chemical resistance low friction and adhesion low shrinkage great abrasion resistance resistant 14,15 15,16 15,16 continued TABLE 73 continued Properties no} Se See Material Manufacturer Product application Kyno . American Kynol Inc. resistant materials packings and gaskets Temperature resistance up to C F Tensile strength kPa psi Comments Coments 704 1300 1.86 x 105 27,000 Low moisture absorption resistant low toxic off gases low shrinkage is a carbon precursor low abrasion References 8,17,18 P.B.I. Celanese Plastics and Specialties Co. resistant materials 500 932 Fiberfrax Carborundum Co. resistant materials thermal and electrical insulation packings and gaskets 1260 2300 2.07 ^ 10" Polybenzimidazole nonflammable in air little or no 300,000 300,000 emittance of toxic off gases resistant readily processed on conventional textile equipment comfortable good cryogenic characteristics high moisture regain 1.72 ^ 106 250,000 resistant low thermal conductivity resists oxidation and reduction excellent resist- ance to thermal shock 19,20 21,22 Carbon resistant materials packings and gaskets friction materials 1427 2600 Over 3.10 ^ 10 450,000 High flexibility lightweight good retention of fiber properties at high temperatures 6,21,22 Celion Celanese Plastics and Specialties Co. Friction materials packings and gaskets 5432 3000 no oxygen 3.24 ^ 106 470,000 Flexible low shrinkage excellent oxidative stability excellent adhesion to organics excellent electrical conductivity 21,22 275 Celiox Celanese Plastics and resistant materials 760 1400 2.10 ^ 105 Lightweight flexible high moisture regain low 30,500 density readily converted into carbon 23,25 Specialties Co. Quartz Alphaquartz Alpha Associates resistant materials thermal and electrical insulation packings and gaskets Over 1204 2200 8.69 ^ 105 126,000 Thermal stability elastic excellent resistance to thermal shock easily impregnated excellent abrasive characteristics high purity transparency to electromagnetic and radio waves 26,27,28 Cotton Westex Inc. resistant materials 232 8.62 ^ 105 resistant is coated and treated washable 29 450 125,000 fiber diameter 0.020 to 0.030 mm 0.0008 to = a Temperatures depend upon product application bFigures bFigures are for fibers only and are not necessarily related to fabric strength Wire inserted asbestos textiles d Retains 50 of tensile strength at this temperature At 72 and 50 R.H. based on fiber area Carbonizing temperature range 3 ORETS top Sree Se ee eer ee, Property TABLE 74. CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH TEMPERATURE MATERIALS 30 Chrysotile asbestos cloth Fiberglass cloth Aluminosilicate products Aluminum borosilicate cloth Aromatic polyamide cloth Maximum Continuous 600 538 1260 593 - Use Temperature C Degradation up to 1700 700-760 1790 1145 - Temperature C melting point melting point melting point Cloth Tensile 50-200 500-600 65-100 500-600 - Strength lbs Fiber tensile 3100 average 1700 Strength m Fiber Diameter ...m 276 Fiber Length mum Fiber 0.03-100 Fibril 0.02 Fiber 1-80 Fibril 0.25-5 14.7 152-254 K value in Btu in./hr in./hr ft F 0.7 at 212 0.51 at 500 2760 3447 2-3 average 9 40-250 0.40-0.70 at 500 continuous continuous filament 0.42 at 500 - - 0.45 at 500 Chemical Resistance Most chemicals Exceptions HF strong acids at elevated temperatures Most chemicals Exceptions HF phosphroic acid strong alkalies Most chemicals Exceptions HF H3PO4 strong alkalies Most chemicals Exceptions HF H3PO4 strong alkalies Most commonly used chemicals solvents Exceptions strong acids and alkalies Product Composition-The specific compositions of the fiber substitutes are listed in conjunc- tion with the manufacturing process section Another potential substitue should be noted for this category Fibercoat by Textured Products was specifically developed for use as fireproof upholstery and wall covering fabrics As this product is noted for many applications it was covered extensively in the Paper section Electrical Insulation and should be referred to there by the reader Uses and Applications-At a recently held conference concerned with the availability of sub- stitutes for various asbestos products a supplier of asbestos textiles stated " . It is very safe asbestos textile product right to say that now In there is general a replacement for every replacement of asbestos must be made on an application basis taking into consideration such factors as cost performance and service life Asbestos thermal insulation which is used principally for its heat resisting properties can be replaced by fiberglass for the lower range of temperature conditions up to 540 1000 or by ceramics over higher ranges High strength is not usually a critical thermal insulation requirement In applications such as electric insulation sleeving for cables and battery separators direct replacement with fiberglass is usually satisfactory fiberglass is not suitable for applications where severe flexing is involved For cable and wire insulation up to 530 990 ceramic materials may be used with glass filament inserts to maintain high temperature strength 3 Quartz products also can be substituted for asbestos in electrical insulation at elevated temperatures Manufacturing Summary-- Manufacturers of nonasbestos textile materials are listed in Table 75. In addition Table of one substitute product i.e. industrial tapes fabrics 75a provides a list of weavers and fabricators Glass Yarn which product type each makes etc. For completeness gaskets and packing products were included on this list and referenced here in the gaskets and packings section of this report 277 TABLE 75 MANUFACTURERS OF NONASBESTOS TEXTILE FIBERS Manufacturer Corning Hitco Materials Division Newtex Industries Inc. PPG Industries 3M Company Carborundum Co. Celanese Plastics and Specialties Alpha Associates Inc. E.I. DuPont de Nemours and Co. Inc. American Kynol Inc. Westex Inc. Location Toledo OH Gardena CA Victor NY Pittsburgh PA St. Paul MN Niagara Falls NY Chatham NJ Woodbridge NJ Wilmington DE New York NY Chicago IL Fiber produced Fiber glass Fiber glass Refrasil Fiber glass Zetex Fiber glass Texo Ceramic Nextel 312 Ceramic Fiberfrax ) Carbon Celiox Carbon Celion Organic PBITM Quartz Alphaquartz Nomexfi Organic NomexfiKevlarfi Teflonfi Organic Kynol Cotton From telephone contact and product literature 278 TABLE 75a WEAVERS AND FABRICATORS OF TEXTURED AND OTHER FIBER GLASS YARN PRODUCTS as Asbestos replacement General industrial fabrics Industrial tapes Specialty industrial fabrics Electrical sleeving tapes cordage Fiber glass screening coated yarns Fabrics Ropes packings and gaskets Tapes and tubing Amatex Corporation Norristown PA Auburn Manufacturing Co. Mechanic Falls ME Atkins & Pearce Company Cincinnati OH Baycor Atlanta GA Belding Corticelli Fiber Glass Fabrics New York NY Bentley Mfg Co. Thermal Design Group Lionville PA Burlington Glass Fabrics Company A Division of Burlington Industries Rockleigh NJ Carolina Narrow Fabric Company Winston NC 279 Material Technologies Division North Bennington VT Schwebel Fiber Glass Corp. White Plains NY Southern Inc. Independence VA Davlyn Manufacturing Co. Inc. Chester Springs Pa Engineered Yarns Inc. Coventry RI TEC Inc. Hagerstown MD Garlock Inc. Palmyra NY Hi Temp Textiles Greensboro NC Hesgon Company Brownsville TX Hexcel Corporation Div Dublin CA Intec Inc. Buena Park CA continued continued TABLE 75a continued Asbestos replacement General industrial fabrics Industrial tapes Specialty industrial fabrics Electrical sleeving tapes cordage Fiber glass screening Mutual Industries Inc. Philadelphia PA Newtex Industries Inc. Victor NY North American Textiles e Detroit MI Oxford Mills A Div of Root Industries Mt. Wolf PA Phifer Wire Products Inc. Tuscaloosa AL Quinco Fabrics Inc. Auburn ME Raybestos Industrial Products North Charleston SC I. Sommers Narrow Tape Corporation East Stroudsburg PA Southern Textile Corp. Charlotte NC 280 J.P. Stevens & Company e Glass Fabrics Dept. New York NY Johnathan Temple Inc. Hackensack NJ Uniglass Industries Div e of United Merchants Inc. New York NY Warwick Mills Greenville Mill Div New Ipswich NH Ropes packings and gaskets Tapes and tubing e Manufacturing process manufacturing processes used to form some of the nonasbestos textile materials are listed below Fiber manufactured from a silica product that is carded and formed into yarns These yarns are sold to secondary manufacturers who may impregnate or chemically and physically alter the fiber glass according to their customers needs An example of product composition of an E electrical glass form is given in Table 75b based on percent by mass TABLE 75b COMPOSITION OF GLASS FIBER SUBSTITUTE Silica Calcium oxide Alumina Boron oxide Soda Calcium fluoride Magnesia Total minor oxides 54.0 20.5 14.0 8.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 Bare glass composition Plus binder 100.0 0.5-2 manufactured by leaching out the low melt elements such as sodium potassium boron lithium from fiber glass with hydrochloric acid and forming silica Zetex --proprietary process received as a yarn woven and treated before becoming a resistant material No process changes required from asbestos textile manufacturing steps Fiberfrax with an organic carrier such as rayon and made into various resistant materials treated and cured in an ammonia chamber before becoming a 100 percent durable resistant fabric manufactured by processing pure quartz crystals into extruded filaments which are formed into yarn which is then 7 plied and woven into fabrics manufactured by sintering either rayon or polyacrylonitrile fibers to produce extremely strong resistant fibers 281 e Kynol phenol formaldehyde polymer formed as stable fibers and subsequently linked e Teflonfiperfluorinated polyethylene manufactured by polymerizing tetraflouroethylene Teflon particles are dispersed in a viscous rayon dope and extruded in a rayon matrix The rayon is Teflon filame6n3t3 burned off leaving a continuous Kevlarfiaromatic polyamide manufactured by reacting paraphenylenediamine with phthaloyl chloride 6,16 e Nomexfiaromatic polyamide manufactured by condensing metaphenylenediamine with isophthaloyl chloride as a stable fiber continuous filament or as short fibers6 Production volumes exact production volumes of some materials are proprietary However available information is of the listed textile in Table 76 TABLE 76. PRODUCTION VOLUMES OF NONASBESTOS TEXTILE MATERIALS 23,26 Manufacturer Substitute Production volume yr yr Celanese Plastics Specialties and Newtex Industries Inc. Hitco Materials Division Alpha Associates Inc. Celion 45,000 Zetex Refrasil 225,000 450,000 135,000-225,000 135,000-225,000 Alphaquartzfi 36,000 100,000 500,000-1,000,000 300,000-500,000 80,000 Product Substitutes Special Qualities-Physical and chemical properties of presently marketed are compared in Table several 77 nonasbestos textiles that are Product Composition-The composition of substitute products is included under Manufacturing Summary Uses and Applications-- Discussion of the available substitutes for asbestos textiles used in packings and gaskets are contained in the Packings and Gaskets category of this report This category includes the substitute contacts and manufacturing summaries asbestos cost comparisons current trends and conclusions Substitutes for carded fibers used in liquid filters and electrolytic diaphragms are discussed in the Beverage Filter and Specialty Papers Sections of the Paper Products Category of this report Substitutes for stuffing box packings are discussed in the Packings and Gaskets category 282 TABLE 77 SUBSTITUTE PRODUCT PROPERTY COMPARISON Properties Substitute product Manufacturer Product application Temperature resistance up to C F Tensile strength kPa psi Comments References Thermo Garlock Inc. resistant materials thermal and electrical insulation packings and gaskets 538 1000 2.17 ^ 106 315,000 Resists organic solvents and most acids and alkalies resists abrasion and wear moisture and weather resistant dimensionally stable high dielectric strength low die- lectric constant soft and flexible 32,34 Durette resistant materials 593 4.83 ^ 105 Better heat stability than Nomex ; high 35 Fire Safe Products Inc. 1100 70,000 70,000 abrasion resistance good acid resistance high tear resistance excellent dimensional stability Thermo Garlock Inc. resistant materials 1260 1.72 ^ 10" Excellent resistance to mechanical vibration 36 thermal and electrical 2300 250,000 and stress resists attack from most chemicals insulation packings and no loss of strength from water evaporation at gaskets high temperatures low thermal conductivity and excellent electrical resistance Norfab Amatex Corp. 283 resistant materials thermal and electrical insulation packings and gaskets 343 650 - A combination of synthetics excellent work- ability lightweight high abrasion resistance flexible good chemical resistance Amatex also offers Thermoglass which will not burn or smoulder has excellent dimensional stability high tensile strength chemical resistance ex- cellent electrical properties flexibility and 37,38 meets U.S. Coast Guard Requirements for Incom- bustible materials and Government MIL specifica- tions Applications for such a product include . use as a cloth tape tubing and rope SILTEMP Haveg Industries Inc. Thermal and electrical insulation packings and gaskets 1649 3000 - Meets MIL Spec 24244 approved for use in 39 nuclear applications substantial reuse factor compared to asbestos Preox Thermal and electrical - Celanese Plastics and Specialties Co. insulation packings and gaskets ~ Thermally stabilized polyacrylonitrile flexible 40 electrically nonconducting water absorbing carbonizes at high temperatures Emits toxic cyanide gas at 800 exposure level undetermined Temperatures depend upon product application Figures are for fibers only and are not necessarily related to fabric strength Manufacturing Summary-- Manufacturers of nonasbestos textile products are listed in Table 78 Manufacturing process manufacturing processes for materials are listed below some of these e Durette - manufactured by chlorinating woven Nomex fabrics6 Thermo - fabrics and tapes woven and tubing braided from texturized fiberglass yar3n4 TM fabrics tubing e Thermo - fabrics and tapes are woven and tubing braided from reinforced ceramic yarn containing a rayon carrier fibe3r6 e Norfab - manufactured by blending together synthetic fibers in a unique process Fab series 400 is produced as yarn plain and reinforced roving twisted ropes and cord 41 filler tapes braided and Production volumes exact production volumes of these products are proprietary COST COMPARISON Table 79 provides a cost comparison between asbestos fibers and several available substitutes There are many substitutes that do not use fiber as a basic unit of comparison These include Alphaquartz Zetex Fiberfrax and PBITM Product cost is a function of both fiber cost and the amount of fiber required to produce the product Thus fiber can be used to produce a product than the asbestos product if a lower weight of a substitute the substitute product may cost less Alphaquartz is more expensive than asbestos at 36 100 for quartz wool and yarn and 1.20 to 1.50 quartz mat to kg 80 to 4 to ft for Zetex is currently more expensive than asbestos at 3.65 to 12.80 4 to 14 or 0.90 to 2.27 $ to 1b depending on the type of product required However production costs are almost identical to asbestos except in the safety garment field where they may be higher by about 20 percent Fiberfrax costs 3.50 7.75 for 1.3 mm 0.5 inch 21 rope cost There 9 to is a possible market for an organic material called PBITM which will 13.50 20 to 30 for fabric However with all factors 284 TABLE 78. MANUFACTURERS OF NONASBESTOS TEXTILE PRODUCTS 32,34,35,37 4032,34,35,37 40 Manufacturer Garlock Inc. Location Palmyra NY Product or fiber used Fiber Glass ThermoSil Ceramic ThermoCeram , TexoTM Celanese Plastics and Specialties Chatham NJ Preox Fire Safe Products Inc. a Amatex Corp. St. Louis MO Norristown PA Organic Durettefi Synthetic NorfabfiTexoTM Haveg Industries Inc. a subsidiary of Hercules Inc. Wilmington DE SILTEMPfi Southern Textile b Corporation Charlotte NC Glass fabrics aramid 285 a subsidiary of H.K. Porter Co. Inc. fibers Texo Davlyn Manufacturing Co. Chester Springs PA Texo TEC" Hagerstown MD Texo Newtexa Victor NY TexoTM Companies reported by phone contact with Russell Smith PPG Industries TexoTM , 12/17/81 with N. Krusell GCA They produce yarn from Texo fiber that PPG manufactures Asbesto Magazine March 1981 p 34 TABLE 79. COST COMPARISON BETWEEN ASBESTOS FIBERS AND SUBSTITUTES USED IN TEXTILES Product Approximate cost per kilogram pound Reference Asbestos 0.45-0.50 6 1.00-1.10 1.00-1.10 Fiber Glass 0.50 6 1.10 ---- -- 0.50-0.85 42 b 1.12-1.87 Kevlar 2.50-2.70 2.50-2.70 15 5.50-6.00 Nomex 2.70-2.95 15 6.00-6.50 Teflon 3.15-4.50 15 7.00-10.00 Refrasil 3.15-5.40 12 7.00-12.00 SILTEMP 2.70-4.95 2.70-4.95 39 6.00-11.00 Norfab 1.36-1.82 1.36-1.82 1.36-1.82 40 3.00-4.00 Durette 3.60 35 8.00 Nextel 312 13.50 10 30.00 Kynol 2.00-2.25 18 4.50-5.00 Celiox 4.50 23 10.00 Celion 11.25 23 25.00 Zetex 0.90 1.35 0.90 1.350.90 1.35 00 2-5 Prices vary with product style and quantity The basic yarn prices here vary from 1.291.87 for ETDE Texo with most less than 1.50 to a range of 1.12- for filament a coarser and therefore a bit less expensive product 42 286 considered the fabric being half the weight longer service life PBITM could amount to a of asbestos of asbestos and possessing a cost of only three times that CURRENT TRENDS A downward market is forecasted for asbestos resistant materials Many large manufacturers of asbestos resistant materials are currently manufacturing substitutes such as fiberglass and ceramics along with their asbestos products Many government specifications for resistant materials are being revised for health reasons thus encouraging sales of various substitute products Sales of asbestos insulation have dropped drastically from 1973 to 1980 At current consumption rates asbestos insulating materials are less than 1 percent in value of the total market for all insulation materials.,, There is a decreasing trend in the use of asbestos thermal insulation because of economic as well as health disadvantages The low conductivity of substitute electrical textile materials gives them appreciably better insulating value than asbestos on the basis of both weight and surface area Lower densities give these materials further economic advantages over asbestos These advantages along with increased health concerns explain the continuing decrease in the use of asbestos for insulating purposes Concern with asbestos emissions has prompted many manufacturers of asbestos textiles used in electrical insulation to turn to viable substi- tutes such as Fiberfrax Nfiomexfiand Refrasilfi Specific trends for some of the nonasbestos textile materials are listed below e Celion Celiox - viable replacement by 1980 potential 450,000 kg 1,000,000 hr plant by 1982.23 e Zetex - high probability of overtaking asbestos market need 4,500,000 yr 10,000,000 yr plant 300 to 400 workers to compete with asbestos fi Refrasil - could replace 27 percent of asbestos market with a possible 20,000,000 to 30,000,000 busines1s2 r) Durette - by 1990 could have a viable substitute market in specialized protective clothing 35 CONCLUSION CONCLUSION that There are a number are well suited to of viable substitutes for asbestos textile materials replace asbestos in nearly every application 287 These include Fiberglass Kevlar Nomex Teflon Refrasil Siltemp Norfab Durette Nextel Kynol Celiox Celion Zetex and Fiberfrax In addition other products are still in developmental stages Many of these substitutes have better property advantages for textile applications than asbestos Although more costly in most cases these alternatives are already on the marketplace providing a nonasbestos choice for mentioned where viable substitutes consumers exist the As in choice the other categories of substitutes involves consumer education and exceptance towards a changeover from the established product As there are some occasions where the substitute products are more applicable for a particular job their use may result in longer product life leading to lower overall cost and public acceptance The small number of asbes- tos textile applications for which no satisfactory alternative exists at present include lamp and stove wicks wipes for molten metal diaphragms for some of the electrolytic cells and some filter clothsmolten In the future the market for nonasbestos resistant materials will undoubtedly improve The Department of Interior has projected a zero demand for asbestos in textiles by the year 2000. The performance of high temperature application substitute materials has proven that these materials not only compare with but often exceed the performance characteristics of asbestos With the substitute materials currently on the market and assuming new developments of asbestos replacement products in the future asbestos consumption in resistant materials will drop significantly Sales of asbestos insulation products have already shown this drop in their drastic decrease in sales over the past few years 288 REFERENCES Meylan W. M. et al Chemical Market Output Analysis of Selected Chemical Substances to Assess Sources of Environmental Contamination Task Asbestos 6-78-005 August 1978 Clifton R. A. Asbestos 1978. U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Mines August 1979 and Clifton R. A. Preprint from the 1980 Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbook Anon Handbook of Asbestos Textiles American Textile Institute 1967 Michaels L. and Hazards and S. S. Volume 1. Chissick ed Asbestos Properties Applications John Wiley and Sons 1979. p 305-367 Telecon Tony Rokos Amatex Anne Duffy GCA Corporation Call No. 19 Corp. Norristown PA 212 277-6100 with Technology Division April 16 1981 Sores Inc. and Arthur D. Little Inc. Characterization of the U.S. Textile Markets Ministere De L'Industrie du Quebec Final Draft Report May 1976 Et Du Commerce , Government PPG Industries Product Information including Fiber Glass Yarn Products Handbook and Texo Information such as Texo - The Strong Substitute Telecon Dixit B. President Newtex Industries Inc. Victor NY 716 924-9135 with T. Henderson Technology Division January 30 1980 Notebook No. 07 Phone call No. 11 Newtex Industries Inc. Zetex Bulletin Victor NY 1979 10 11 12 Telecon Ellingson L. Sales Representative Ceramic Fiber Products 3M Company St. Paul MN 612 733-1558 with T. Henderson GCA Technology Division January 31 1980. Notebook No. 07 Phone call No. 18 Ceramic Fiber Products 3M Company MTDS 79.5 MP and MPBS- Nextel 312 Ceramic 11. St. Paul MN Fiber Products Telecon Black M. Sales Representative Hitco Materials Division Gardena CA. 213 321-8080 with T. Henderson Technology Division January 30 1980 Notebook No. 07 Phone call No. 11 289 13 14 15 16 17. 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Hitco Materials Div Refrasil 15 M CP and LHT 6M CP Product Data Bulletins Gardena CA. November P.O. 1979 1779 P. 1-2 E.I. DuPont de Nemours & 236 Wilmington DE Co. Inc. DuPont October 1969 p Technical 1-12 Information Bulletin Telecon Chiostergi Inc. Wilmington DE Division February , R. Marketing Manager E.I. DuPont 302 999-3951 with T. Henderson 1980. Notebook No. 07 Phone call de Nemours & Co. Technology No. 20 E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co. Inc. 29 Aramid 375 Wilmington DE Characteristics and Uses of Kevlar September 1976 P. 1-7 American Kynol Inc. Kynol NY October 1974. p 1-11 Novoloid Bulletin 10 003. New York Telecon Storti M. Marketing Manager American Kynol Inc. New NY 212 279-2858 with T. Henderson Technology Division February 1 1980. Notebook No. 07 Phone call No. 23 York Celanese Corp. February 1979 PBI Polybenzimidazole Fiber P. 2 Charlotte NC Telecon McCallister K.C. Marketing Manager Celanese Corporation Charlotte NC 704 554-2000 with T. Henderson Technology Division February 1 1980. Notebook No. 07 Phone call No. 22 Telecon Pietak K. Textile Specialist The Falls NY 716 278-2000 with T. Henderson January 30 1980 Notebook No. 07 Phone call Carborundum Company Niagara Technology Division No. 08 The Carborundum Company Fiberfrax Product Bulletins Niagara Falls NY p 1-10 C736 Telecon Timmons B. Marketing Supervisor Celanese Plastics and Special- ties Chatham NJ 201 635-2600 with T. Henderson Technology Division January 28 1980. Notebook No. 07 Phone call No. 05 Celanese Plastics and Specialties Co. Chatham NJ November 1979 Celion Carbon Fibers Bulletins Celanese Plastics and Specialties Co. NJ November 1979 Celiox Fibers Bulletin Chatham Telecon Saffadi R. President Alpha Associates Woodbridge NJ 201 634-5700 with T. Henderson Technology Division January 31 1980 Notebook No. 07 Phone call No. 11 Alpha Associates Inc. Alpha quartz 11693. Woodbridge NJ May 1979 Bulletins Data Sheet Nos 11690- 290 28 Lubin G. High Silica and Quartz In Advanced Plastics Composites Reinhold p 191-200 Handbook of Fiberglass and Book Corporation 1969 29 Telecon Wilander R. Sales Manaher Westex Inc. Chicago IL 312 523-6351 with T. Henderson Technology Division January 30 1980 Notebook No. 07 Phone call No. 10 30 31 32 Hedberg D. D. Replacements for Asbestos in the Laboratory March 1980 Manfers S. Carborundum Corp. speech given at CPSC Substitutes to Asbestos Conference Arlington VA July 14-16 1980 Angelina J. Textiles Marketing Mgr Garlock Inc. Palmyra NY 315 1980. 597-4811 with T. Notebook No. 07 Henderson Technology Division Phone call No. 11 Februar8y 33 34 35 36 37 E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co. Inc. Properties Processing and Applications of Teflonfi TR Wilmington DE May 1978. p 1-15 Garlock Inc. Palmyra NY Thermo A Nonasbestos Fabric July 1979. p 1-6 79-10M Telecon Vance R. Vice President Fire Safe Products Inc. St. MO 314 423-6989 with T. Henderson Technology Division February 20 1980. Notebook No. 07 Phone call No. 35 Louis Garlock Inc. Thermo 79-11M Palmyra NY p 1-6 AMATEX Corp. 1979 An Improved Alternative Norfab Series 400. Norristown PA 38 Telecon Maaskant W. Sales Manager AMATEX Corp. Norristown PA 215 277-6100 with T. Henderson Technology Division February 1 1980. Notebook No. 07 Phone call No. 21 39 40 41 42 Temp a subsidiary of Haveg Industries Wilmington DE comments on Background Information on Substitutes for Asbestos U.S. EPA July 1980 submitted to H. Pillsbury U.S. EPA Washington D.C. Also Temp Product Literature Timmons B. Celanese Corp. Asbestos Roundtable Discussion CPSC Substitutes to Asbestos Conference Arlington VA July 14-16 1980 Nor Series 400. asbestos Brochure Amatex Corp. 10-79-5M Synthetic Resistant Textiles Telecon R. Smith PPG Industries Pittsburgh PA 412 434-2823 with N. Krusell Technology Division December 17 1981. Notebook No. 1-619-018-012 p 43 291 SECTION 11 MISCELLANEOUS USES INTRODUCTION This section combines information on several minor uses of asbestos fibers including e drilling muds e shotgun shell base wads e asbestos cement e foundry sands e sprayed insulation and e artificial fireplace ashes and artificial snows The total fiber consumption for this category was 10,400 metric tons of asbestos in 1980. For the products noted here drilling muds consumes the majority of asbestos 4900 m.t. a complete breakdown of the remaining 5500 m.t. was not available Each section includes a brief introduction to the product In general methodology contacts and special qualities are given for each section In addition manufacturers and production volumes are given along with substitutes trends and conclusions The section on Drilling Muds contains extensive information on substitutes and costs This section had the most data to offer as asbestos is still used in drilling muds whereas it has been banned in products such as artificial fireplace ashes artificial snows and sprayed- on insulation DRILLING MUDS FLUIDS Asbestos Product Drilling muds also called drilling fluids are used when wells are drilled by the rotary method This method involves a drill bit which is turned by a drill pipe ground The machinery extending down to the for rotating the pipe bit from the surface of the is located at the ground surface see Figure 3 The drilling mud is pumped down through the drill pipe and the drill bit and then returns through the annulus between the drill pipe and the well bore hole.l As the fast moving drilling mud passes through the bit and back up the annulus it cools and lubricates the bit and picks up the drilled cuttings carrying them to the surface The bottom of the hole is thus left clean for the drill bit At the surface the drilling mud passes through screening equipment which removes the chips of rocks ground away by 292 Gooseneck vt : br Swivel Kelly ae > = Blowout preventer Drilling hose Standpipe pipe Drill pipe ~aJ 4 Drill collar Steel mud pits : Bit _ |~ __ ws Figure 3 A circulatory system for a rotary drilling rig.1 293 the drill bit The mud is replenished with new additives and back through the drill pipe to the the desired depth is attained2 drill bit The process is is recirculated repeated until Drilling muds typically contain anywhere from 3 to 12 different additives out of over 150 minerals and chemicals which are appropriate for drilling mud applications When drilling begins mud additives are dumped into a hopper where they are blended with water The mixture then goes to a tank near the well and is pumped from this tank through the drilling system Special Qualities-- Asbestos is used in drilling muds to increase the carrying capacity of the mud the ability of the mud to bring up cuttings without significantly increasing the mud viscosity This is a useful property since it is easier to pump a less viscous fluid which results in more power available at the bit and a faster drilling rate circulation material that is a Additionally asbestos acts as material added to drilling mud a loss- to plug all passages cracks and cavities in the drill hole to prevent the loss of the drilling mud Uses and Applications-In the field asbestos is added to the drilling fluids through a mud hopper or large funnel Asbestos is used in concentrations normally ranging from 1 to 2 1/2 kg per barrel 1 barrel = 159 liters 42 gallons of mud However values as low as 0.2 kg per barrel and as high as 9 kg per barrel have also been reported depending upon the desired characteristics of the drilling mud Initially a volume of drilling mud ranging from 150 to 200 barrels is prepared and as drilling progresses additional quantities are prepared as needed Under typical conditions the drilling mud is prepared once every hour shift The amount of asbestos added each time is normally less than 230 kilograms 500 pound*s The choice of whether function of the individual characteristics materials or not to use well site and being drilled asbestos in a drilling mud is a depends upon the specific job soil for and cost effectiveness Product Manufacturing Summary-- Manufacturing process manufacturer of asbestos used in drilling muds Manville processes the asbestos in the following manner The asbestos is extruded highly moisturized 12 to 15 percent and then pelletized thus binding the fibers together The manufacturer claims that this process produces an asbestos product with negligible fiber release when it is used to make drilling muds Name and number of manufacturers asbestos product described above is sold under the trade name of FLOSAL and marketed by Drilling Specialties in Bartlesville OK Approximately 1.6 million kilograms 3.5 million pounds per year of FLOSAL are made and marketed in the United States.8 The other American manufacturer of an asbestos product for use in drilling muds is Union Carbide Corporation This product is marketed by Montello Company of Source is an unpublished OSHA document on Asbestos 294 Tulsa OK under the trade name Super Visbestos and is sheared refined pelletized chrysotile asbestos advertised as being Information about annual production rates was given for Super Visbestos but upon further con- sideration the Montello Company considered this information to be proprietary 10 and it is not listed in this report The Manville Company mines their asbestos in Canada and the asbestos used by Union Carbide is mined in Califor- nia NL Inudstries Inc. of Houston Texas was also contacted as a potential but unconfirmed manufacturer of drilling muds and their 11 chose not to divulge any information on the subject components but Production Approximately 9,900 metric tons 10,000 tons of asbestos fiber were used in 1978 in drilling fluids Current production is estimated to be 4,900 metric tons annually shorter grades of chrysotile fiber are normally used in either pelletized or loose fiber form Because the two American manufacturers both produce a pelletized form of asbestos for drilling muds the loose fiber form is assumed to come from non- American manufacturers Substitute Products Methodology-- Search Information on the use of asbestos in drilling muds and substitute products was obtained from a literature review and contact with manufacturers and suppliers of asbestos and substitute products Summary of Contacts Associations manufacturers of both asbestos and substitute products and product distributors were contacted All are listed below Trade Associations e Mr. Bob Pigg Asbestos Information Association Arlington VA January 1980 e Mr. Bill Sallens Petroleum Equipment Supplier's Association Houston TX January 1980 e Mr. Steve Chamberlain American Petroleum Institute Washington DC February 1980 Manufacturers e Dr. Harry Rhodes Union Carbide Corporation Niagara Falls NY February 1980 e Mr. Edmund Fenner Manville Corporation Denver CO January 1980 e Mr. Don Peteherych Kelco Division Merck Company Houston TX January 1980 At this date downward turn the figure is most likely to be in asbestos consumption for all still less categories given the 1980 295 Product Distributors e Mr. Nile Copeland Dresser Industries Magcobar Division Houston TX January 1980 ' Mr. Phil Theis Milwhite Company Inc. Houston TX January 1980 e Mr. E. E. Clear Drilling Specialties Bartlesville OK January 1980 e Mr. Hal Marple International Drilling Fluids Houston TX January 1980 e Mr. Gregg Jackson Brinadd Company Houston TX January 1980 Other e Dr. George Binder Exxon Production Research Company Houston TX January 1980 Special Qualities-Asbestos serves a dual function in drilling muds It increases the carrying capacity acting as a viscosifier and also acts as a losscirculation material No single substitute except perhaps bentonite or attapulgite clays serve both functions but a variety of substitutes can be used as circulation materials These materials are both added to the drilling mud to serve the functions that asbestos would perform Loss- circulation material substitutes can be used to obtain similar results to those seen with asbestos fiber With viscosifiers each substitute product may have a specific application and must be chosen according to the requirements at the drilling site Asbestos has a universal application as a viscosifier whereas substitute viscosifiers must be chosen for the specific application The temperature of circulating drilling mud in oil wells is normally 52 to 60 with a maximum temperature at the bottom of the hole of 149 and sometimes as high as 204 316 before it breaks down Asbestos can be used at temperatures over Polymers can generally be used at tempera- copolymers tures of up to 149 although new peratures of from 260 to over 5,16 have been demonstrated at Bentonite attapulgite and tem- other clays cannot used in most withstand temperatures as high as drilling applications up to 177 asbestos to 204 but can normally be Bentonite is the most widely used viscosifier for freshwater drilling systems and attapulgite is the most common viscosifier for saltwater drilling systems Asbestos performance degrades readily from mechanical shear forces Xanthan gum polymer can be subjected to high mechanical shear without degradation Clays such as attapulgite have the advantage of actually increas- ing viscosity at higher shear forces* Source is an unpublished OSHA document on Asbestos 296 Uses and Composition-There are two types of drilling viscosifiers below products that may be substituted and circulation materials for asbestos in Each is described Viscosifiers upon the characteristics of soil and water into which a well is being drilled a number of viscosifying agents can be added to the drilling mud These viscosifiers give the drilling mud carrying capacity to bring up the drilled rock pieces Frequently a combination of viscosifiers is added to the drilling mud to provide a synergistic effect on the carrying capacity of the drilling mud or to meet the specific needs at the site Each site is different and therefore the types and concentrations of the viscosifiers are variable Table 80 provides a listing of substances which act as viscosifying agents and can be used as substitutes for the viscosifying qualities of asbestos 13,17 TABLE 80 VISCOSIFIERS USED IN DRILLING MUDS9 Bentonite Attapulgite clay Sepiolite clay Ferrochrome lignosulfate Synthetic cellulose Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose Carboxymethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose Hydroxyethyl cellulose Carboxymethyl cellulose Natural polymers Xanthan gum biopolymer Calcium magnesium silicate Magnesium smectite Sodium tetraphosphate Nonionic polymers Anionic polymers Guar gum Mined lignin Polyacrylamide dispersion Polysaccharide organics Sodium acid pyrophosphate Sodium hexametaphosphate High temperature stable clay Nonfermenting starch Organophilic clay Pregelatinized potato starch Pregelatinized corn starch Polyanionic cellulosic polymer Gelling agent Asphaltic gelling agent Blended polymers The most commonly used viscosifier is clay such as bentonite clay or attapulgite clay In addition the use of polymers as viscosifiers has gained wide acceptance in recent years World Oil's 1978-1979 Guide to Drilling Workover and Completion Fluids contains a list of 263 trade names including blends for polymers used in drilling fluids The polymers are either synthetic or natural The natural polymers include starch guar gum and Xanthan gum The synthetic polymers include acrylamides and maleic anhydride derivatives 18 cellulosics acrylates Source is an unpublished OSHA document on Asbestos Most polymers sold are used for the same applications in which or asbestos is used The Xanthan gum polymer frequently referred trade name XC polymer is the polymer most and cited as a good 5,6,13,19 substitute frequently compared with bentonite to by its asbestos Circulation Materials function of asbestos in drilling fluids is to act as a circulation material i.e. a material to seal cracks holes or extremely permeable streaks in the formation through which the drilling fluid is lost When the zones into which the drilling fluid is lost contain large cracks and holes the materials added to prevent the loss of drilling fluid are very coarse grained and normally have high compressive strength such as coarsely broken walnut shells When drilling fluid is lost into formations containing medium cracks and holes grained mate- rials that are granular fibrous or flaked such as walnut shells bagasse and cellophane flakes are added For formations with fine cracks and tiny holes fine grain materials such as mica flakes or shredded leather are added Since the size of the cracks and holes is not normally known it is common practice to add several circulation materials the range of crack or hole sizes together to cover There are many low cost substances that can be used as circulation materials instead of asbestos The 1979 World Oil Guide to Drilling Workover and Completion Fluids lists over 50 substances that are used as circulation materials.g A literature source also lists over 50 substances which have been used as circulation materials and classifies them under the categories of granular fibrous and flaky This list is shown in Table 81. Normally the cheapest and most readily available circulation material in the vicinity of the drill site is used COST COMPARISON The number of materials which are used as viscosifiers is too large to permit a cost comparison of each one For some of the most common vis- cosifiers a cost comparison with the asbestos product is presented in 17,20 Table 82 Table 82 shows that asbestos is generally the cheapest of the common substances used as viscosifiers in drilling muds The bentonite and attapul- gite clays are cheaper per pound but because more material must be used the cost is somewhat higher The polymers per pound but less is used per barrel generally cost between 1.00 and 9.00 than for asbestos so the cost is more competitive Table 83 shows cost data for some common circulation materials On a cost favorably basis there are with asbestos many circulation materials which compare 298 TABLE 81. CIRCULATION MATERIALS id Granular Fibrous Flaky Beans Coarse treated bentonite Crushed rock Cracked corn cobs Crushed gilsonite Ground plastic Ground nut shells Ground coke Ground tires Peas Rice Peach pits Walnut shells Polystyrene foam Asphalt Cellular plastics Pecan shells Almond shells Ground formica Cracked wood Cotton Bagasse Flax shive Wood fiber Textile fiber Mineral fiber Leather Glass fiber Peat moss Tree moss Feathers Beet pulp Hay Excelsior Hog hair Manure Copper wool Sponges Aspen fibers Cedar fibers Redwood fibers Chopped cellophane Cork Mica Ground corn cobs Vermiculite Paper high wet strength Fish scales Wheat bran percha flakes Polystyrene flakes Linseed hulls Rice hulls Cottonseed hulls - 299 TABLE 82. COST COMPARISON OF DRILLING MUD VISCOSIFIERS4,5,17,20 VISCOSIFIERS4,5,17,20 Material Cost lb kg Asbestos Bentonite Attapulgite Sepiolite Xanthan XC polymer Carboxymethyl cellulose Polysaccharides polymer VIS Hydroxyethyl cellulose 0.40 - 1.00 0.88 - 2.20 0.08 - 0.10 0.18 - 0.22 0.16 - 0.20 0.35 - 0.44 0.20 - 0.25 0.44 - 0.55 7.00 - 9.00 15.45 - 19.85 3.60 7.95 5.00 11.00 1.00 2.20 Amount used barrel kg barrel - 4.40 - 11.00 20 - 40 44.00 - 88.00 15 - 20 33.00 - 44.00 5 - 10 11.00 - 22.00 0.5 - 2 1.10 - 4.40 0.25 - 2 0.55 - 4.40 2 2.20 - 4.40 9 17.65 - 19.85 Cost barrel 0.805.00 0.805.00 0.805.00 Reference 4,5 1.60 - 4.00 4 2.40 - 4.00 4 1.00 - 2.50 4 3.50 - 18.00 4 0.90 - 7.20 5 5.00 - 10.00 17 8.00 - 9.00 20 TABLE 83. COSTS OF COMMON CIRCULATION MATERIALS17 Material Cost in lb kg Asbestos Cellophane flakes Mica Nut shells Bentonite 0.45 1.00 0.41 0.90 0.33 0.73 0.32 0.70 . 0.10 0.22 CURRENT TRENDS The use of asbestos in drilling muds has decreased from an estimated 9,900 metric tons per year in 1978 to an estimated current annual use of less than 4,900 metric tons per 13,14 The most common polymer substitute for asbestos is Xanthan gum XC polymer This polymer has no known adverse health effects and has in fact prod- been approved by the Food and Drug Administration as a viscosifier in ucts for human consumption such as beer ketchup and salad dressing 15,19 ~ 300 The other common substitute viscosifiers are bentonite and attapulgite clays In addition Lextar of Wilmington Delaware reports that it's Pulpexa polyolefin pulp is a potential replacement in oil well drilling muds Its use is currently being investigated and at this date information is considered proprietary CONCLUSION Adequate substitutes are available to replace both functions of asbestos in drilling muds i.e. to provide carrying capacity viscosifier and to act as a circulation material A large number of substitutes exist for the circulation material needs at a competitive cost The substitute materials which are viscosifiers are the bentonite attapulgite sepiolite clays and a variety of polymers The clays are competitive with asbestos in cost The polymers are more expensive than asbestos but less material is necessary to make up the drilling mud resulting in a barrel figure that is still more expensive but nevertheless competitive The use of asbestos in drilling muds is not mandatory and probably not even necessary in most applications as adequate substitutes exist at a competitive cost As with other mud additives the type and amount of asbestos substitute will vary between drilling sites Since no typical mud formulation exists a direct comparison between asbestos and nonasbestos drilling muds cannot be made SHOTGUN SHELL BASE WADS Asbestos is used to manufacture base wads for shotgun shells Both a literature search and telephone contact were used to gather information for this section Most of the data presented here was furnished by Ted McCawley of Remington Arms Co. Bridgeport 22 Base wads are formed from a mixture of about 36 percent by weight of asbestos 54 percent wood flour and 10 percent wax which is pressed to form the required shape Only one shotgun shell manufacturing plant operated 22 by Remington Arms Co. in Bridgeport CT is known to use asbestos In the past approximately 450 metric tons per year of asbestos was consumed in shotgun shell base wad production This amount is expected to decrease in the future The Remington Arms Co. is currently phasing out the use of asbestos in shotgun shell base wads The manufacturer is going to a piece polyeth- ylene shell which is a more stable shell in addition to being less costly The Remington Co. reported that they will have converted 95 percent of the containing shotgun shells to piece asbestos shells by the end of 1980 i.e. currently The remaining 5 percent of the asbestos- containing 1981.22 shells will be converted to asbestos shells by the end of ASBESTOS CEMENT This section includes the composition and special properties of asbestos cement as well as a summary of the contacts made during the of this report Appropriate conclusions are noted asphalt course 301 Special Properties and Product Composition Asphaltic cement consists of aggregates cemented together with ordinary 23 paving grades of asphalt such as AC and AC The idea behind adding asbestos to asphaltic cement was to increase the amount of asphalt that could be put into the mix which would increase the strength of the material and increase the life of the pavement While there is some indication that asbestos might improve the quality of asphalt cement the prevailing opinion appears to be that if there is actually anything to be gained by adding asbes- . tos it isn't enough to make it worthwhile A spokesman for the National evidence might Asphalt Paving Association said that there was 23 actually be an agent contributing to cracking that asbestos The following contacts were made in the course of investigating the use of asbestos in asphalt cement e Mr. Charles Foster Consultant National Asphalt Paving Association 6811 Kenilworth Avenue Riverdale MD 20804 301 779-4880 e Mr. Miguel Leman Manville Corporation Caryl Ranch Denver CO 80217 303 979-1000 e Mr. John Tidewell Federal Highway Administration Federal Building Raleigh NC 27611 919 755-4346 e Mr. Durwood Barber North Carolina Division of Highways Materials Test Unit Highway Building Raleigh NC 27611 919 733-3563 e Mr. Harold Schmitt Federal Highway Administration P.O. Box 1915 Sacramento CA 95809 916 440-2428 e Mr. Harold Plate ASARCO Inc. 120 Broadway New York NY 10005 212 732-9500 302 e Mr. James McGee Arizona Department of Transportation 206 S. 17th Avenue Room 176A Phoenix AZ 85007 602 261-7386 r Mr. Tom O'Neil Maryland State Department of Highways Highway Maintenance Baltimore MD 21201 301 383-4108 None of the individuals contacted was aware asbestos in asphalt paving in the United States known to be used in North America is Canada of any intentional use of The only place asbestos is FOUNDRY SANDS The make of foundry sands was investigated as to asbestos content date and possible substitutes Also included in this section is information on insulating sleeves and a complete list of contacts for this section Methodology consisted of a literature search as well as a number of telephone calls to various industry spokespersons Principal contacts were fi Mr. Ezra Kotzin American Foundryman's Society Des Plaines IL 312 824-0181 e Mr. Gary Mosher Industrial Hygienist Des Plaines IL 312 824-0181 e Mr. Phillip Berg Industrial Hygienist Asbestos Information Association Arlington VA 202 979-1150 e Mr. S. Kuhn Manville Regional Sales Office Atlanta GA 404 449-3300 e Mr. A. Penters Sales Manager Whitehead Brothers Co. Florham Park NJ 201 377-9100 e Mr. H. Manvel Pennsylvania Foundry Supply and Sand Co. Philadelphia PA 215 333-1155 303 Foundry sands are used to make expendable molds for metal castings The sand is used with a bonding agent to give the mold the necessary strength required for castings The mold is filled with metal through a system of channels called runners or gates In addition there is a system of risers which ensure that the mold is properly filled and compensates for shrinkage Asbestos is actually an undesirable material in foundry sands since it lowers the refractory point of the sand mold not used in foundry sands for making molds for For the this reason asbestos is production of castings 26 Personnel from the American Foundryman's Society as well as suppliers of foundry sands and asbestos stated that asbestos is not used in foundry sands at this date 27-30 Asbestos has been used in the past as a filler in the formulation for the manufacturing of insulating sleeves for risers on castings However due to Occupational Safety and Health Administration OSHA standards for airborne asbestos in the workplace asbestos use for insulating sleeves or risers has ceased 26,27 Substitute materials for asbestos fibers used in insulating sleeves on risers for castings include any inert mineral material that can a withstand high heat b insulate and c does not crystallize with water at high temperatures The materials used to manufacture the insulating sleeves for risers on castings are proprietary but include such mineral compounds as vermiculite perlite and diatomaceous eart2h6 SPRAYED INSULATION The use of asbestos in sprayed insulation was regulated in 1973 by the National Emission Standard for Asbestos 40 CFR 61 promulgated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency This standard limits the amount of asbestos in spray materials used to insulate or fireproof buildings structures pipes and conduits to less than 1 percent asbestos on a dry weight basis This standard effectively eliminated the use of asbestos as sprayed insulation The 1 percent limitation prevents the use of asbestos while allowing the use of other materials in which asbestos is a trace contaminant In 1978 the standard was revised to limit the use of sprayed asbestos for decorative purposes to materials containing less than 1 percent asbestos Prior to 1973 it had been common practice to coat pipes ducts boilers tanks reactors turbines furnaces and structural members with sprayed asbestos materials The typical form of asbestos used was chrysotile although amosite was used in applications such as shaped block gagging for high temperature pipes At present however the major source of asbestos fiber emission is during demolition of existing structures and manufacturing equipment The National Emission Standard for Asbestos requires removal of asbestos insulation before demolition with adequate wetting of all exposed , asbestos during the removal process 304 Substitute materials exist for the applications in which sprayed asbestos was formerly used Both cellulose fibers and rock wool can be sprayed to equipment or structural members to provide insulation Cellulose from processed paper with fire retardant and adhesives added is used to make the cellulose material which is sprayed for insulation The fire retardants are impregnated into the cellulose to give an Underwriter's Laboratory Class 1 fire rating The sprayed cellulose installed cost is approximately 3.22 to 5.38 per square meter 0.30 to 0.50 per square foot with a 2.54 cm 1 in thickness and has an insulating R value of approximately 1.46 to 1.77 per cm 3.7 to 4.5 per inch The cellulose material has been tested for potential health hazards and no health hazards are thought to exist with the manufacturing or use of the product 32,33 Rock wool also referred to as mineral wool and slag wool can be used in sprayed applications for insulation or fireproofing 34 The rock wool is considered to be noncombustible and no health hazards associated with its use have been demonstrated Rock wool has an insulating R value of approximately 1.50 to 1.57 per cm 3.8 to 4.0 per inch and installed costs square are between with a 2.54 4.30 cm 1 and 8.61 per in thickness 34,35 meter 0.40 to The mechanical 0.80 per square foot and insulation proper- ties of rock wool may be inferior to asbestos ARTIFICIAL FIREPLACE ASHES AND ARTIFICIAL SNOWS Artificial Fireplace Ashes Between 1971 and 1976 over 100,000 logs for burning fireplace sys- tems were reported sold which were frosted or treated with containing materials At approximately 1/2 pound 0.23 kg of asbestos per log approx- imately 5 tons 4.5 metric tons of asbestos mostly chrysotile were sold annually for artificial embers In 1977 manufacturers stopped producing the product in anticipation of a subsequent consumer ban by the Consumer Products Safety Commission The ban of artificial emberizing materials ash and embers containing respirable form asbestos became effective December 15 1977 Manufacturers of artificial gas log emberizing material are currently using four substitutes in their products thetic fiber 37 vermiculite rock wool mica and syn- Artificial Snows Health considerations have nearly halted the use of asbestos in artificial 12 snows _ 305. REFERENCES HuebottEe.rE. and G.R. Gray 1965 Drilling Fluids Othmer Encyclopedioaf Chemical Technology 2nd Edition Vol 7 pp 287-307 Zwicker D.A. Glorious Mud 26-29 Winter 1979 The Lamp Exxon Corporation New York NY Lextar A Hercules Company Wilmington Literature - Table 1. Pulpex Polyolefin Pulps Asbestos Replacement Applications Delaware Product - Potential Low Temperature Telecon Peteherych D. Kelco Division Merck Co. Houston TX 713 621-0110 with Lester Y. Pilcher Technology Division January 24 1980 Notebook No. 04 Phone call No. 9 Telecon Clear E.E. Drilling Specialties Bartlesville 661-5405 with Lester Y. Pilcher Technology Division 1980 Notebook No. 04 Phone call No. 5 OK 918 January 24 Telecon Kennedy Lester Y. Pilcher No. 04 Phone call B. Messina Inc. Dallas TX 713 225-6383 with Technology Division January 29 1980 Notebook No. 11 Telecon Fenner E. Manville Corporation Denver CO 303 979-1000 with Lester Y. Pilcher Technology Division January 30 1980 Notebook No. 04 Phone call No. 13 Telecon Clear E.E. Drilling Specialties Bartlesville OK 918 661-5405 with Lester Y. Pilcher Technology Division February 4 1980. Notebook No. 04 Phone call No. 22 Wright T.R. Jr. and W. Dudley Jr. and Completion Fluids World Oil p ed 116 Guide to Drilling June 1979 Workover 10 Telecon Petri C. Monetello Co. Tulsa OK 918 Lester Y. Pilcher Technology Division February No. 04 Phone call No. 20 665-1170 with 4 1980 Notebook 11 Telecon and letter Lahon C. NL Baroid and attorney D. May Jr. L. Pilcher GCA Corporation Technology Division 2/18/80 and 3/4/80 respectively and 12 Meylan William M. et al Chemical Market Output Analysis of Selected Chemical Substances to Assess Sources of Environmental Con- tamination Task III Asbestos Prepared for OTS EPA Washington D.C. 306 13. American Petroleum Institute Bulletin 13F Washington DC Oil and Gas Well Drilling August 1978 page 6 Fluids API 14 Letter from B.J. Pigg Asbestos Information Association to Lester Y. Pilcher Technology Division February 13 1980. Amount of asbestos used annually in drilling muds 15 Telecon Binder G. Exxon Production Research Company Houston TX 713 965-4810 with Lester Y. Pilcher Technology Division Januar2y4 1980 Notebook No. 04 Phone call No. 7 16 Drilling Fluids Computer Planning and New Temperature Fluid World Oil December 1979 17 International Drilling Fluids February 26 1979 Price List 1979 Middlesex England 18. Carico R.P. and R.R. Bagshown Kelco Division Merck and Company Inc. Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME SPE 7747 Description and Use of Polymers Used in Drilling Workovers and Completions Paper presented at the 1978 Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME Symposium Hobbs NM October 30-31 1978 19 Telecon Copeland Nile Dresser Industries Magcobar Division Houston TX 713 972-2570 with Lester Y. Pilcher Technology Division January 22 1980 Notebook No. 04 Phone call No. 03 20 Telecon Johnson G. Brinadd Company Houston TX 713 644-1895 with Lester Y. Pilcher Technology Division January 30 1980 Notebook No. 04 Phone call No. 14 21 Montello Company Super Visbestos Product Bulletin 4/73 Tulsa OK 22 Telecon McCawley T. Remington Arms Corp. with R. Bell Technology Division February 15 1980 23 Telecon Foster C. Consultant National Asphalt Paving Association Riverdale MD 301 779-4880 with S. Duletsky GCA Corporation February 11 1979 Notebook No. 05 Phone call No. 49 24 Telecon Leman M. Manville Corporation Denver CO 303 979-1000 with S. Duletsky GCA Corporation February 14 1980 Notebook No. 05 Phone call No. 58 25 Telecon Plate H. Manager of Marketing ASARCO 212 732-9500 with S. Duletsky GCA Corporation Notebook No. 05 Phone call No. 60 Inc. New York NY February 20 1980 26 Telecon Kotzin Ezra American Foundryman's Society Des Plaines IL 312 824-0181 with Mr. L. T. Pilcher Technology Division February 15 1980 Notebook No. 04 Phone call No. 39 307 27 Telecon Mosher Gary Industrial Hygienist American Foundryman's Society Des Plaines IL 312 824-0181 with Mr. L. T. Pilcher Technology Division February 12 1980 Notebook No. 04 Phone call No. 33 28 Telecon Kuhn S. Manville Regional Sales Office Atlanta 404 449-3300 with Mr. L.Y. Pilcher Technology Division February 15 1980 Notebook No. 04 Phone call No. 35 GA 29 Telecon Penters A. Sales Manager Whitehead Brothers Co. Florham NJ 201 337-9100 with Mr. L. Y. Pilcher Technology Division February 12 1980 Notebook No. 04 Phone call No. 29 Park 30 Telecon Manvel H. Pennsylvania Foundry Supply and Sand Co. Philadelphia PA 215 333-1155 with Mr. L. Y. Pilcher Technology Division February 15 1980 Notebook No. 04 Phone call No. 38 31 Cogley D. et al Life Cycle of Asbestos in Commercial and Industrial Use Including Estimates of Releases to Air Water and Land 79 73-D6 raft Copy October 1979 32 Telecon Kelly D. National Cellulose Corporation Houston TX 713 443-6701 with Lester Y. Pilcher Technology Division February 27 1980 Notebook No. 04 Phone call No. 55 33 Telecon Patton T. Habersham Industries Smyrna GA 404 351-7173 with Lester Y. Pilcher Technology Division February 25 1980 Notebook No. 04 Phone call No. 42 34 Telecon Felipe R. U.S. Mineral Products Stanhope NJ 347-1200 with Lester Y. Pilcher Technology Division 1980. Notebook No. 04 Phone call No. 48 201 February 25 35 United States Gypsum Chicago IL Thermafiber Bulletin 485 April 1979 36 Ray D.R. Economic Impact of the Ban of Certain Products Containing Free Asbestos Consumer Products Safety Commission Economic Program Analysis Division Washington D.C. November 1977 37 Part 1305 - Ban of Artificial Emberizing Materials Ash and Embers Containing Respirable Free Asbestos Federal Register Chapter 11 - Consumer Product Safety Commission December 15 1977 308 SECTION 12 DISCUSSION RESULTS AND CONCLUSION DISCUSSION Results achieved performance have been ability of data The in this analysis of asbestos substitute development and determined by the methodology employed and the availmethodology involved e gathering a brief description of each asbestos product including a definition of special qualities required for each application and a product manufacturing summary e expanding these characteristics to include related nonasbestos products e comparing the cost of the asbestos product to the substitute options e delineating trends and drawing conclusions for substitution possibilities for each asbestos product category To gain the information described above gathering were employed the following methods of data ' collecting and reviewing available data in the form of reports brochures literature searches etc. e contacting manufacturers users suppliers and national trade associations of both asbestos and nonasbestos products by phone ' obtaining current thoughts and opinions as well as product brochures on the status of substitute development through the CPSC Substitutes for Asbestos Conference Arlington Virginia July 1980 e reviewing patent information In addition the final report was revisetdo include comments and substitute product industry sources such as the Asbestos Association A.I.A. Bendix Research Laboratories and Victor from asbestos Information Products 309 This served both to update the original text as well as to amend and expand it where necessary As inquiries were not limited to a single type of source this assessment reflects both published technical data and expressions of user criteria for product selection Descriptions of asbestos product uses consisted of defining as concisely as possible the purposes served by each category of products To a certain extent this led to the inclusion of market segments not unique to asbestos products and provided an early indication of possible substitute products Availability of data and willingness to discuss the performance of asbestos products and substitute products seems to be a function of both a product stage of development and its marketing Five classifications may be noted e established products marketed by many manufacturers fi established products marketed by a limited number of distributors e recently developed products with a captive market e products under development e fibers under development For each of these classifications the availability of the following types of data varies product composition technical performance specifications performance record and market statistics For established products marketed by many manufacturers all data are readily available Product manufacturers and distributors do not benefit by restricting the publication of data Markets are well characterized and well known Included in this classification are asbestos pipe asbestos floor tile and asbestos sheet For established products marketed by a limited number of distributors marketing data and detailed performance data are not readily available Included here are several products in the miscellaneous category Recently developed products with captive markets tend to have proprietary compositions and manufacturing technologies Properties are known and performance statistics available Investments in development efforts can be large Data on the extent of commercialization are often considered proprietary This classification includes friction products and to some extent plastics For products under development general performance claims tend to be available and occasionally some composition data are available Manufacturing technologies are closely guarded and only limited publishable data are available Candidate manufacturers tend to aggressively promote their products and will furnish data on projected manufacturing capacities 310 For fiber substitutes under development available data tend to be speculative The final step was the assessment of available substitutes exist and whether performance and cost data data to determine whether are available Costs were often obtained by telephone contact they are as date as possible but should be used for comparison purposes only RESULTS Substitute availability performance and cost data are presented on a category basis Category discussions are subdivided as necessary Asbestos Paper Products Paper products have been grouped into nine subcategories oe flooring felt e roofing felt e beater gaskets e pipeline wrap e millboard and rollboard e electrical insulation e commercial papers e specialty papers ' beverage and pharmaceutical filters Asbestos has been used in paper products to add dimensional stability moisture rot and corrosion resistance heat resistance electrical resis- tance strength and resilience In flooring felts asbestos has virtually replaced organic and jute felt backings and is now so well established that there are no acceptable alternatives at present although some are under development Nonasbestos beater gaskets have made a significant entrance into the marketplace in just the past year and a half changing this category from one in which only limited alternatives existed to one where the substitute product promises to become competitive with asbestos in only a short time In most of the other paper product categories suitable alternatives to asbestos are available Organic felt fiberglass felt and singleply membrane systems may replace asbestos roofing felt In pipeline wrap applications saturated fiberglass extruded epoxys and resins and plastic coatings are all viable alternatives although saturated asbestos pipe wraps are currently the preferred protection system for oil and gas 311 pipelines due to their tested durability and relatively low cost However the market for pipeline corrosion protective materials is competitive and the relatively new substitute materials just becoming commercially available may displace asbestos For millboard and rollboard products ceramic boards have been developed which generally equal or better the asbestos board product though at significantly higher price Other replacements in this area are also under development Substitutes to asbestos in electrical insulation are also available but again the cost is higher In general then it may be seen that adequate substitutes are available in many of the paper product categories though not all and that they are specific to certain applications and often are more expensive Friction Materials Friction materials are used in automotive truck airplane railroad and industrial brakes and clutches They require appropriate coefficients of friction the ability to withstand high temperatures dimensional stability strength durability and a lack of abrasion characteristics Asbestos meets these requirements as do a number of materials which may be used as substitutes although substitute products may not be used in all of the applications for which asbestos has been developed Substitutes include glass fiber steel wool mineral wool carbon fiber cermets semimetallic friction materials potassium titanate fibers aramid fibers vermiculite and silicon nitride As friction applications vary so do the materials most appropriate for each use Semimetallic and cermet friction materials may be used in direct asbestos substitute applications semimetallic in disc brake pads it is projected that in 5 years nearly all original equipment disc brakes in passenger cars and light trucks will use semimetallic friction materials and cermets for aircraft brakes 95 percent of all new commercial aircraft use cermets Most railroad and metro systems have now replaced any existing asbestos with an alternative such as these also Currently all drum brake linings contain asbestos However research in this area is ongoing and nonasbestos drum brake linings may become available at some future date Research is also underway to provide nonasbestos heavy truck and industrial brakes as well as vehicle and industrial clutches To date asbestos is the best material which has been found to provide the properties necessary in these latter products For certain industrial machinery with a long service life and for which asbestos friction materials are a required component often custom fabricated in small volumes it is unlikely that substitute products will be developed for machines currently in service Asbestos Cement Pipe ble Pipe in use as durable inert sewer or waste conduits must be strong resilient flexiand resistant Asbestos fibers are used to make C pipe products as they impart these characteristics However alternatives are also available in the form of plastic pipe concrete pipe vitrified clay pipe reinforced concrete pipe ductile iron pipe and various fiber substitutes Each of these alternatives offers different qualities iron is more suited for situations involving shock loads vibration and ground 312 movement vitrified clay is cheaper for nonpressure applications for small pipe diameters iron as well as plastic tition with A pipe most suitable for and vitrified clay range diameter offer 6 to strong compe24 inches Therefore for pipe products economics appears to be the main factor influ- encing choice similar properties to asbestos may be obtained from commercially available alternatives and many areas of the country specify nonasbestos piping simply because of special parameters found in different pipe materials Asbestos Cement Sheet Asbestos imparts high tensile strength flexibility resistance to heat chemical inertness and a large aspect ratio ratio of length to diameter to this product It also gives A sheet sufficient wet strength so that it may be molded into complex shapes at the end of the production process A sheet products thus may include flat sheet corrugated sheet siding shingles and roofing shingles Substitutes for A sheet thus vary with the product in general it appears that A sheet still maintains command of specific markets where its unique properties make it outstanding e.g. laboratory table tops although even in this area alumina sheet and laminated hardboard may be adequate replacements whereas for more general use substitute products are readily available Both flat and corrugated sheets may be replaced with reinforced cement sheet which is superior to A sheet in some respects such as overall strength characteristics and impact resistance Cement board may also be used in place of flat sheet this product has been available in Europe for a number of years Alumina products galvanized steel masonry and reinforced plastics are also alternatives to the sheet products A siding shingles may be substituted by hardboard siding shingles paneling wood shingles aluminum stucco and brick Roofing shingle replacements include unreinforced concrete asphalt and fiberglass shingles Many of these products are comparable to or even less expensive than the asbestos product Therefore it appears that A sheet may continue to dominate specific applications such as lab tables and the overseas construction market but readily available competitive substitute materials will fill other niches that were once almost solely those of A sheet Vinyl Asbestos Floor Tiles Floor tiles must be tough dimensionally stable long lived economical moisture resistant smooth surfaced and easy to clean To date only asbestos offers this combination of properties Although products such as asbestos vinyl tile are available they not only cost more as seen with pipe products this could be overcome with other unique properties if it was the only problem they also lack durability resilience flexibility and wear resistance which makes them inappropriate for any heavy duty use applications Thus to date A floor tiles continue to command 91 percent of the resilient floor covering market 313 Gaskets and Packings Gaskets and packings are composed of asbestos an elastomeric binder and in the case of some packings a lubricant Asbestos has been used not only because it is heat resistant resilient and strong but also because it is relatively chemically inert which is important for many chemical applications However research on substitute materials has recently brought products to a forefront which surpass asbestos in these qualities and others Replacements on a fiber basis include silica carbon Kevlar ceramic and teflon fibers Material substitutes also exist in the form of Gylon NuBoard and Victor Products brands for gasket applications No single substitute fiber material possesses all of the qualities attributable to asbestos however for any particular application a substitute fiber can often be employed to achieve the desired combination of properties It appears that many gaskets and packings manufacturers are currently using or switching to alternative products and buyers are specifying such products Both health concerns and a growing awareness of substitute capabilities have caused this trend Although asbestos combines versatility and low cost and may be uniquely suitable to some situations it does have negative qualities also and a virtually endless list of potential substitutes exists any one or combination of which could act to replace asbestos in the gaskets and packings marketplace In general compressed asbestos sheet gasketing can be replaced with substitute materials at present with the added expense to the customer at applications under 260 Graphite sheet metal and other gasketing materials can replace asbestos at higher temperatures but often at greater cost New packing materials appear to be more than viable alternatives offering less abrasion and thus lower operating and maintenance costs It appears that only sales and engineering resistance stands in the way of a total switch to nonasbestos packings Paints Coatings and Sealants Asbestos is used in paints sealants and coatings because it is strong resistent to corrosion and heat deadens sound is waterproof has the required viscosity and consistency is durable and economical It also has a unique affinity for asphalt which enables its use in roofing coatings and cements and automobile undercoatings As a result of this property asbestos asphalt coatings which duplicate the characteristics found in asbestos products have been slow to develop Although more expensive and sometimes of inferior quality to asbestos they are now available in countries such as Sweden where asbestos has been banned and to a more limited degree in the U.S. Nonasphalt based coatings made up of several minerals may be used as substitutes for asbestos These include talc barite diatomite silica clay and mica More information on performance of such products will become available as they are further developed and tested For pipe coatings asbestos alternatives include enamels extruded plastics fusion thermosetting powder resins liquid epoxy and phenolics various tapes and wax coatings polyurethane foam insulation and concrete 314 Other products which once contained asbestos such as texture paints spackling and drywall joint compounds are now banned such that asbestos products are coming online as replacements Other compounds such as the polyolefin pulp Pulpex by Lextar or worker's tools are now used to provide texture and attapulgite may be an alternative to asbestos in spackle and dry wall joint compounds Fiberglass fibrous alumina and magnesium silicate _ fiber containing asbestos may be used to replace asbestos in automobile and truck undercoatings but they are much more expensive and do not display the properties required of asbestos affinity for asphalt and viscosity control Reinforced Plastics Asbestos fibers have been used in combination with plastics since the early 1920's When added to polymeric materials asbestos acts to modify both the physical and chemical characteristics of the composite Fibers function both as fillers and reinforcing agents Asbestos combines the advantages of both a mineral and fibrous binder carrier with reinforcing action It also imparts good surface finish toughness resistance to heat and fire and less shrinkage and warpage than other fibers In addition it improves the ability to handle the product during processing There are a wide variety of fillers and reinforcements available as potential substitutes to asbestos in phenolic molding compounds All manufacturers have found suitable substitutes for certain products and many have been able to completely eliminate the use of asbestos Viable substitutes include fibrous glass clay talc mica carbon fibers aramid fibers polyethylene fibers calcium sulfate Wollastonite and processed mineral fiber from blast furnace slag and silicates While most of these materials are already economically and physically competitive with asbestos the others probably will become so as the lack of expensive asbestos dust collecting systems and similar properties at reasonable prices offset the fiber replacement cost In general it appears that there is a established and indeed much progressed trend throughout the reinforced plastics industry to replace asbestos with alternative materials Although there may still be some specialty products which require the use of asbestos the trend towards nonasbestos products will continue In fact it can be said that generally producers of phenolic molding compounds intend to phase the use of asbestos in most areas as soon as nonasbestos developments gain customer acceptance Only in some specialty applications including national defense items will asbestos then be required Textiles Textiles may be broken down into six different categories resistant materials thermal insulation electrical insulation packings and gaskets friction materials and specialty textiles In each application asbestos fibers have been used for strength processing ability heat and acid resistance high tensile strength resistance to abrasion and durability Substitutes for many of the applications include fiberglass ceramics organics graphite carbon quartz cotton and special wool blends Many large manu- facturers of asbestos textile materials are currently manufacturing substitute products such as fiberglass and ceramics along with their asbestos products 315 Government specifications such as for resistant materials are being revised due to health concerns which acts to encourage the sale of various substitute products The viable substitutes cover a wide range of products although they are in most cases more costly than asbestos Thermal insulation products using asbestos have been loosing their share of the market to fiberglass and ceramic materials electrical insulation substitutes which are suitable are readily available packings and gaskets and friction materials appear to have adequate alternatives and specialty textiles using asbestos have been decreasing although there still may remain a small number of minor applications such as lamp and stove wicks for which no satisfactory alternative appears to exist at present even though substitute product manufacturers claim that replacements exist for every asbestos textile product Overall nonasbestos textile products although higher priced appear to be readily available to step into the one time dominated market Miscellaneous Uses Miscellaneous uses of asbestos include e drilling muds e shotgun shell base wads e asphalt asbestos cement e foundry sands e sprayed insulation e artificial fireplace ash and artificial snows Asbestos has been used in these applications for various reasons increases the carrying capacity of drilling muds without significantly increasing the mud viscosity and also acts as a circulation material for the mud it is added to asphalt cement to increase the amount of asphalt that can be put into the mix thus increasing the strength of the material and the life of the pavement this is no longer thought to be a worthwhile trait and it acts as a resistant filler in sprayed insulation Health considerations have since caused a ban on sprayed insulation and artificial fireplace ashes Both cellulose fibers and rock wool are now used in place of asbestos in sprayed insulation Foundry sands no longer use asbestos as it is undesirable since it lowers the refractory point of the sand mold it also appears to be undesirable in asbestos cement as it may contribute to cracking In shotgun shell base wads asbestos use is currently being phased out The sole manufacturer is quickly shifting to a one piece polyethylene shell which is more stable in addition to being less costly As for drilling muds asbestos use is decreasing due to health concerns Adequate cost competititve substitutes are available to replace both functions of asbestos in drilling muds-the carrying capacity and as a circulation material In general the miscellaneous uses of asbestos are small and nonasbestos products are being 316 developed to fill in voids where the asbestos product simply does longer and thus is not replaced asbestos has been phased out not warrant production in the at all In some cases marketplace any CONCLUSION In certain product categories data were limited In part this reflects the difficulty inherent in obtaining accurate and complete information on a large and complex sector of the economy Production volume data for many asbestos and substitute products could not be obtained except as gross composite estimates Technical details concerning exact composition or manufacturing methods were closely guarded in some cases Nevertheless it has been possible to determine whether acceptable products are available in the marketplace With the exception of a few specific applications each asbestos product category has commercially available alternatives These alternatives are listed in Table 84. Required characteristics of the asbestos product substitutes including availability performance characteristics cost and additional comments are summarized in Table 85. Resilient floor coverings constitute a major asbestos product category for which an economically viable direct substitute product is not available For any particular application the variety of available substitutes is a function of many factors including e customer preference e product performance e economics e labor union demands e regulatory controls e construction trends e.g. sewer construction In light of these complexities and changes over time it will be advisable to consider such factors when applying the data of Tables 84 and 85. In other words these tables represent present conditions in a rapidly changing market Definition of the properties required in each application has frequently shown that asbestos products are overqualified for many applications That is not all of the properties imparted by asbestos are required for all applications Often a single asbestos product is employed for a range of applications differing in severity The result is that inexpensive substitutes may be available for mild service conditions whereas more expensive substitutes are required for severe service applications In no case is there a fiber or material alternative that can completely replace the special qualities of asbestos in every use instead a wide range of alternatives are offered each fitting only a small niche in the range of 317 TABLE 84 Anbest Po ee ea oe ee ae product egory POTENTIAL SUBSTITUTE PRODUCTS Potential substitutes substitutes PAPER PRODUCTS a Flooring felt Backless sheet vinyl cushioned backings Place and press vinyl Carpet wood etc. tile squares Roofing felt Organic felt felt Fiberglass felt Single membrane system Beater gaskets Ceramic paper Teflon metal Silicone rubber Pipeline wrap Millboard Saturated fiberglass Coating materials wax etc. Fiberglass Mineral wool Ceramic boards Electrical insulation Commercial papers Specialty papers Beverage filters Aramid paper Cellulose Fiberglass Ceramics Cellulose Fiberglass - Plastics Cellulose Aluminum Steel Ceramics Fiberglass Cellulose Glass FRICTION PRODUCTS a Automobile brakes Heavy truck brakes Railcar brakes Aircraft brakes Industrial brakes Vehicle clutches Industrial clutches Semimetallics Hybrids Semimetallics Cermets Carbon composite Rubber polymer Cermets Carbon composite continued 318 Asbestos product category A PIPE TABLE 84 84 Moa fe continued Meroe 2.2.2.2.2 2.2.2.2.2 2.2.2.2.2 2.2.2.2.2 2.2.2.2.2 ATTEN ... SAMAR ELMART Potential substitutes ATTEN VREDE sie Cast and ductile iron Steel Reinforced and nonreinforced concrete 0 Plastic - PVC Vitrified clay Glass GRC and carbon fibers A SHEET FLOOR TILES CASKETS AND PACKINGS SEALANTS -- Asphalt b Nonasphalt REINFORCED PLASTICS Cement wood board Glass ~- GRC <Plastic - reinforced concr^te sheet Polypropylene layered cement sheet Aluminum sheet Masonry galvanized steel wood Cellulose fibers 'Synthetic polyolefin pulp Solid vinyl tile vinyl blends Rubber tile 6 Wood carpet Silica ceramic graphite aramid teflon fibers 4 Inorganic and inert fibers Fluorocarbon particles Precursors to carbon fibers bonded and rayon Volatiles and ash Cellulose Fiberglass polypropylene polyesters acrylics cotton Talc barite diatomite silica clay mica . Fibrous glass carbon fiber aramid fiber Wollastonite processed mineral fiber and polyethylene fiber Clay Talc 1 Mica Calcium sulfate TEXTILES Glass Ceramics 0 Organics Carbon Quartz Cotton continued 319 Boe L eS Anbentos product product category category 10 MISCELLANEOUS a Drilling muds b Other * Corresponds to Table 85 TABLE 84 continued . PotentiPaotenltial substitutes e Bentonite or attapulgite clay e Xanthan gum polymer @ Corn cobs peat moss vermiculite etc. e Polyethylene for shotgun shells e@ In the other categories asbestos is either undesirable or banned 320 TABLE 85. SUBSTITUTE PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS Asbestos product re rar oes Ce or a as ek 2 tae 2 Ake Re eo eT ene tee lan mama category Availability Performance characteristics Costs a ANEKA ANEKA $ Comments 1.2 1.17 1.6.2 PAPER PRODUCTS a Flooring felt Under development b Roofing felt C. Beater gaskets d Pipeline wrap e Millboard f Electrical insulation 8 Commercial papers Specialty papers 1 Beverage filters Commercially available Meets all requirements Commercially available Meets many requirements Commercially available May be less durable Commercially availabile Meets many requirements Commercially available Meets all requirements Commercially available Meets some requirements Commercially available Meets all requirements Commercially available Meets most requirements Material substitutes such as carpet readily available fiber felt substitute still under development Comparable Some substitutes substitutes date asbestos best covering varies with roof Higher Substitute development quickly underway Higher Higher Higher Asbestos pipeline wrap presently preferrred Substitutes not available for all applications Extensive substitute products available Much higher Comparable Substitutes not available for all applications Durability may not equal asbestos Higher For haze removal still superior asbestos FRICTION PRODUCTS a Automobile brakes Heavy truck brakes C. Railcar brakes d Aircraft brakes e Industrial brakes f Vehicle clutches 8 Industrial clutches A PIPE A SHEET FLOOR TILES GASKETS AND PACKINGS Commercially available Meets all requirements Commercially available Commercially available Commercially available Meets Under development Under development Under development Commercially available Meets all requirements Commercially available Meets most requirements Commercially available Less durable Commercially available Meets most requirements Comparable Proprietary composition All new brakes cermet some asbestos still in use Many diversive uses Comparable Several available substitutes Some higher Substitutes for high temperature applications more costly Higher Currently no substitutes comparable to asbestos Variable Equipment redesign required in certain cases SEALANTS a Asphalt b Nonasphalt based. REINFORCED PLASTICS TEXTILES 10. MISCELLANEOUS Under development Commercially available available Expected to be less durable Meets some requirements Comparable Generally higher Specially treated cellulose fibers Asbestos banned in some products Commercially Metsmost requirements Commercially available Meets most requirements Variable Higher Many manufacturers have already switched to substitutes Substitutes available for most applications Commercially available Meets most requirements Some higher Some asbestos products banned drilling mud substitutes may be much more expensive 321 applications for which asbestos has come to be counted on Although costs of substitute products are generally higher other considerations may act to increase the asbestos product cost while at the same time increased production of substitute products may drive their costs down effectively negating the current cost gaps by bringing nonasbestos products and their individual properties into wide acceptance and use It seems likely that at least in the near term there will be a core of products requiring asbestos This includes products which cannot function without containing components unless they are redesigned Thus substitutes for these products are not available for the replacement parts market but they might be available for the original equipment market Also included in this core are products for which no technically and economically acceptable substitutes have been found for all applications e.g. vinyl asbestos floor coverings Products such as specialty papers roofing felts A pipe and aircraft brakes are to some extent being displaced by products which have been available for several and sometimes many years Many of the available substitute products fulfill some but not all of the requirements placed on asbestos fibers Asbestos still provides the most complete haze removal of any beverage filter it is presently the preferred pipeline wrap due to the length of time it has been on the market it is the single best component of tough vinyl floor tile it is sometimes unique in temperature A sheet applications and it is a low cost viscosifier in drilling muds Nonasphalt sealants many C sheet products gaskets and packings reinforced plastics and textiles fall somewhere between - substitutes are available but often the cost is higher the product lacks the durability attributed to asbestos or certain applications may not be filled by the nonasbestos product Products still in the development stage include flooring felts various types of brakes and clutches and asphalt sealants 322