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PRELIMINARY DRAFT APPENDIX 7A ADDITIONAL STUDIES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONCENTRATIONS OF LEAD This collection of studies is intended to extend and detail the general picture of lead concentrations in the environment and in proximity to identic fied major sources as portrayed in Chapter 7. The list is by no means allinclusive, but is intended to be representative and to supplement the data cited in Chapter 7. 7.A.1 GENERAL AMBIENT AIR CONCENTRATIONS 7,A.1.1 "Seven-City Study" A special lead study ("Seven-City Study") was conducted for 12-month periods between 1968 and 1971 in Cincinnati, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Houston, New York City. Washington, D.C., and Chicago. Samples of ambient air were analyzed by atomic absorption spectroscopy. The monthly average lead concentra tions obtained are summarized in Table C-l. This study, specifically designed to measure ambient lead concentrations at a variety of sites within each of the cities, incorporated techniques that would provide the most precise measure of ambient lead concentrations available. A membrane filter was used instead of a glass filter, and the samples were collected continuously over 2 to 3 days rather than collected in biweekly 24-hour periods as in the NASN. The high annual average lead concentrations found in the Los Angeles area are largely attributable to heavy automotive emissions. 7.A.1.2 Birmingham, Alabama During 1964 and 1965, seasonal levels of trace metals were determined from suspended particulate samples collected at 10 area Sampling sites at Birmingham, Alabama, as a part of the Alabama Respiratory Disease and Air Pollution Study initiated in 1962. This monitoring study produced data representative of area source industrial pollution. Samples from each of the 10 sites were composited on a seasonal basis to give a total of 40 pooled samples. The lead data are summarized in Table C-2. The maximum seasonal 023PB8/D 7A-1 11/3/82 TEH 053034' PRELIMINARY DRAFT Table C-l. SUMMARY OF MONTHLY AVERAGE LEAD CONCENTRATIONS FOUND IN SEVEN-CITY STUDY1 City Site type3 Months of data .............. 3 Monthly concentration, pg/m Min* Max, Avg. Los Angeles Philadelphia Cincinnati Los Alamos Houston C 12 C 12 R 12 R 12 R 12 R 12 I 12 C 12 2.4 2.6 2.1 2.7 2.1 1.4 1.7 2.5 M 12 C 12 C 12 I 12 R 12 M 12 R 12 R 12 R 12 R 12 1.3 1.2 2.6 1.5 0.9 0.6 0.6 1.1 0.8 0,7 C 12 R 12 I 12 P 12 F 12 F 12 1.3 0.8 1.2 0.5 0.1 0.2 R 12 C 12 0.1 0.1 R 12 C 12 C 12 C 12 M 12 R 12 R 12 0.7 0.7 1.2 1.5 1.0 0.6 0.6 (continued) 5.8 4.2 6.8 4.5 5.0 3.6 5.4 3.8 4.4 3.1 3.9 2.5 7.0 3.7 7.6 4.8 2.7 1.9 2,6 1.8 5.1 3.8 3.0 2.2 2.0 1.4 1.7 1.1 1.5 1.1 2.6 1.7 1.7 1.3 1.6 1.0 3.1 2.0 2.6 1.5 2.8 2.2 1.2 0.9 0.5 0.3 0,5 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 2.7 1.2 1.9 1.1 3.2 2.2 4.1 2.4 2,2 1,3 1.4 0.9 1.2 0.8 023PB8/D 7A-2 11/3/82 TEH 0530346 DUP050031259 PRELIMINARY DRAFT City Chicago Washington New York TABLE C-l. (continued) Site type3 Months of data o Monthly concentration, pg/m Min, Max, Avg. R 12 1.0 1.7 1.3 M 12 1.1 1.7 1,4 R 12 1.0 2.1 1.6 M 12 1.3 2.2 1.8 C 12 1.4 2.3 1,9 R 12 1.2 2.2 1.6 R 7 0,9 2.7 1.3 M 12 1,1 2.1 1.6 R 12 1.2 3.5 2.0 R 12 0.7 1.6 1,1 C 7 1.2 2.2 1.7 C 12 1.6 3.9 2.3 R 12 1.4 2.8 1.8 R 12 1.0 1.7 1.2 F 12 0.9 1.6 1.1 R 12 1.8 3,5 2,4 R 12 0.8 1.8 1.1 M 11 1.1 2.9 1.7 M 12 1.4 2.6 2.1 R 12 1.4 2.1 1.7 R 12 1.3 2.2 1.7 M 12 1.2 2.7 2.1 R 12 0.8 1.9 1.4 R 12 0.9 1.6 1.2 R 12 0.9 1.4 1.2 R 12 0.8 1.4 1.1 aC - Commercial; I " industrial; R - residential; M ~ mixed; F - farm; and P - park. G23PB8/D 7A-3 11/3/82 TEH 0530347 DUP050031260 PRELIMINARY DRAFT Table C-2. SEASONAL LEAD CONCENTRATIONS IN BIRMINGHAM, ALABAMA, AREA, 1964-1965 (pg/rn3) PI ace Site Bessemer Birmingham Birmingham Birmingham Birmingham Fairfield Irondale Mt. Brook Tarrant Vestavia 1 3 4 5 7 1 1 1 1 1 Seasonal average concentrations Spring 0,9 0.7 3.2 1.2 1.2 0.6 0.6 0.5 1.1 0.8 Summer 0.7 1.4 2.8 1.6 1.4 0.5 0,4 0.6 1.8 0.8 Fal1 1,1 1.7 2.3 1.8 1.3 0.6 0.9 1.0 3.0 0.5 Winter 0,6 1.4 3.5 0.8 1.8 0.3 0.6 0.5 3.4 0.7 Study period average concentration 0.8 1.3 3,0 1.4 1.4 0,5 0.6 0.6 2.3 0.7 023PB8/D 7A-4 11/3/82 TEH 0530348 DUP050031261 PRELIMINARY DRAFT 3 lead concentration (3.5 pg/m ) occurred at Birmingham site 4 during the winter. 3 Only two sites showed average concentrations > 2 pg/m for the year. Binningham site 4 (3.0 pg/n ) and Tarrant (2.3 pg/m ). These results are typical for a medium-sized industrialized urban area. 7.A.1.3 Kanawha Valley, West Virginia A comprehensive air pollution study was conducted in the Kanawha River Valley in the vicinity of Charleston, West Virginia (Figure C-l), during 1964 and 1965. Twenty-four-hour samples of suspended particulate matter were collected at 14 strategically located sites. Samples from selected sites were composited on a seasonal basis (fall 1964, winter 1964 and 1965, and summer 1965) and the composites were analyzed for trace-metal content by the NASN emission spectrographic procedure. The data for lead are presented in Table C-3. Highest concentrations of suspended lead were found during the fall of 1964 at the St. Albans, Kanawha City, and Charleston sites. Lead in "dustfall" measurements (settled particulates) for the same stations are also presented in Table C-3. The "dustfall" was collected by exposing wide-mouth jars for a period of 1 month; and then composite samples were analyzed. The highest average concentrations of settled lead occurred at 2 the Smithers site (11.2 mg/m -mo), and at the South Charleston-East site (11.6 mg/m2 -mo). The combustion of solid fuels (coal and coke) is the primary source of lead emissions in the Kanawha Valley. Additional sources are metallurgical operations, asphalt hot-mix production, and other industrial processes. In most cases, these sources have inadequate air pollution control equipment. The lead concentrations found are somewhat low when one considers the diver sity of industrial activity and the meterological and topographic character istics prevailing. The highest values found were associated with Sampling sites adjacent to major traffic arteries, which demonstrates the contribution from mobile sources. 7.A.1.4 Study of Lead Deposition in 77 Cities (Hunt, W. F. et al., 1971) Settled particulates were collected in 77 midwestern cities from Sep tember through December 1968. Within each city, sites were chosen to repre sent residential, commercial, and industrial areas. The lead content of the settled particulates was determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry, 2 and the depositions were expressed as mg/m -mo. The highest amounts found in 023PB8/D 7A-5 11/3/82 TEH 0530349 DUP050031262 PRELIMINARY DRAFT A Bguro C-1. Location* of flaotf aampllng atatlon* In IConawh* Kiirar Van*?.* Figure C-1. Locations of fixed sampling stations in Kanawha River Valley (Faoro and McMullen, 1977). 023PB8/D 7A-6 11/3/82 TEH 0530350 DUP050031263 Table C-3. LEAD DATA FROM KANAWHA VALLEY STUDY (Faoro and McMullen, 1977) (2 0 ) 2. Tw3Ne r-"* P 0TJ PE0 tt) rin *> t- ai c ain) oc j .mcn r- Pw >, 5a-> TOB r5- X3> > --<JU *1O-- Pi/I t aR) <M r>. 40 00 40 rH ID ** CO CM iH 1 1 f o CO < o <* .4 i i 1 00 co oo a o ir-- <U a on Q. >0 > , 3 T7OP ><U 9 9i i CvJ O 1 1 4d ! o1 * 1 r-l 1 1 1 CM i rs i 1 i--l t d O D) W L0O1 P (d f|fltsi>- LtBO is CD i o 1 t 1 lO 1 o 1 ei- CO i VI * 1 OoO 1i 1 do ( u 3 r~ O') *" p <s0- a. TO o>c.m w tX) i ro CM 1 ID I 1 tp 1 CO CM i xa>) </)c ft. CD BL-r-- i di d4 o f i i d1 dd i a. ino in to f0t-) aVOt ft* n- CM CO io in CO or r^- r>. ID <x> H C| TJ rm0) cn o o d d d d d d d o o rH o r-- VO Id U. r- 1 1 in M1 1 1 r-w 1 CO O 1 d 1 d ( c>3 1 1 1 f 1 rH H *O tO C <D p T? *r~ C to cd O) C co <f- *r-- i-- P oCEmoL --Uofd CD r-1 io r^. sy VT> 0 co 3iC UJ I c o p tO c 5 tao> c o p10 CJ Of *S" CM CM ft.2 *r- ft.> ft. ft. ft.V) (O 0) J= P *r J a>> > o ft. E CO Op O) p c "iO0d) o <6L> fidt- .sc rO 5 c 3 c o p U3 CD r-- m o z id oX P(0 Of id joC JC P O s~ Id J<Cp x: p3 o CO CM CM f<t0X.3c> a ctmo> CPO to CM o Jp P<00) oI ft- p TEH 0530351 DUP050031264 PRELIMINARY DRAFT residential, commercial, and industrial areas were in South Bend, Indiana (80 mg/m2-mo in November); Nashville, Tennessee (346 mg/m2-mo in October); and 2 Omaha, Nebraska (137 mg/m -mo in November); respectively. Maximum readings by 2 month occurred in Muncie, Indiana (industrial) (105 mg/m -mo in September); 2 Nashville, Tennessee (commercial) (346 mg/m -mo in October); Omaha, Nebraska (industrial) (137 mg/m2-mo in November; and Waterloo, Iowa (industrial) (94 2 mg/m -mo in December). The data are summarized in Table C-4. Table C-4. DATA ON LEAD DEPOSITION IN 77 MIDWESTERN CITIES (Hunt, W. F. et al,, 1971) (mg/m -mo) Lead deposition Area Concentration, geometric mean Residential Commercial Industrial 5.24 9.80 12.78 Lead deposition Month Concentration, geometric mean September October November December 9.11 8.71 9.15 8.06 7.A.2. POINT SOURCE EXPOSURES 7.A.2.1 Southern Solano County, California (Maga, J, A. et al., 1972) The State of California Air Resources Board coordinated a joint study conducted by several state agencies between March 1970 and November 1971, to determine the cause of the death of a number of horses in the Benicia area from 1968 to 1970. Figure C-2 is a map of this area showing sampling site locations. The evidence strongly suggested that the horses died of lead poisoning that was caused by ingestion of lead deposited on pasture grass from a smelter plant at Selby, California. The ambient air concentrations of particulate lead were typical of those found in urban and suburban areas. It was concluded that horses in this area should not be allowed to subsist on pasture grass alone, but should receive supplemental feed. Tables C-5 and C-6 contain the data on suspended and deposited lead obtained during the study. Note that the fallout rates are on a daily basis. D23PB8/D 7A-8 11/3/82 TEH 0530352 DUP050031265 PRELIMINARY DRAFT flgwro c-2. Air Mmpttng aftoi for fiouthom Solano County. California, study.* Figure C-2 . Air sampling sites for Southern Solano County, California, study. 023PB8/D 7A-9 11/3/82 TEH 0530353 DUP050031266 PRELIMINARY DRAFT Table C-5. LEAD CONCENTRATIONS IN AIR DETERMINED BY ANALYSIS OF SUSPENDED PARTICULATE, SOUTHERN SOLANO COUNTY, CALIFORNIA, March-May 1970 (Maga, J, A,, et al., 1972) Site Distance from _ Selby,3 km Carquinez Bridge Elliot Cove Babson house Braito dump Walsh house Braito TV transmitter site Wesner pasture Wesner pasture Wesner pasture Gomez pasture Wesner house San Francisco*5 Fremont*5 San Rafael*3 1.9 3.0 3.7 5.6 5.7 7.7 7.8 8.0 8.3 10.0 10.2 22.0 20.0 19.2 3 Lead concentrations, uq/ni ------------------------ -- -------- High Low Mean 8.45 0.93 0.82 0.69 0.62 0.35 0.27 0.58 0.07 0.14 3.49 0.52 0.70 0.64 0.40 1.07 0.56 0.66 0.51 0.28 0.22 3.50 2.24 2.04 0.25 0.40 0.11 0.03 0.03 0.02 1.15 0.59 0.41 0.59 0.42 0.38 0.27 0.11 0.14 2.12 1.04 1.14 aLocation of suspected lead emissions source. See text. **1969 data provided by Bay Area Air Pollution Control District. 023PB8/D 7A-10 11/3/82 TEH 0530354 DUP050031267 PRELIMINARY DRAFT TABLE C-6. TOTAL LEAD AND LEAD FALLOUT DETERMINED BY ANALYSIS OF DUSTFALL SAMPLES, SOUTHERN SOLANO COUNTY, CALIFORNIA, JUNE-SEPTEMBER 1970 (Maga, J. A. et al., 1972) Site Distance from Selby, km Carquinez Bridge 1.9 Braito dump 5.6 Braito TV trans mitter site 7.7 Wesner pasture 8.0 Wesner pasture 8.0 Wesner pasture 8.0 Wesner pasture 8.0 Wesner pasture 8.Q Wesner pasture 8.0 Wesner pasture 8.0 Wesner pasture 8.3 Gomez pasture 10.0 Drachmae pasture 13.4 Sample period, days Total solids, mg 30 49,2 30 58.7 60 101.7 31 370 31 162 31 171.4 3,1 109.8 31 351.7 31 220.2 30 83.5 30 163.6 32 45.0 30 26.5 Total lead, H9 1435 195 520 185 155 195 255 210 4535 430 705 150 75 Lead fallout, mg/m-day 2.78 0.38 0.50 0.35 0.29 0.37 0.48 0.39 8.51 0.83 1.37 0.27 0.15 Location of suspected lead emissions source. See text 023PB8/D 7 A-11 11/3/82 TEH 0530355 DUP050031268 PRELIMINARY DRAFT 7.A.2.2 Omaha, Nebraska (Mclntire, M. S. and Angle, C. R., 1972) In April and May of 1968, a study of settled lead by the EPA Division of Health Effects Research showed central Omaha, Nebraska, to have the highest concentrations of deposited lead of 22 midwestern cities. Because automobile emissions should reflect the relatively low population density, the possibil ity of a significant contribution to air lead from other sources (two battery plants, one refinery) in the central city area was considered. Consequently, from May to November 1970, monitoring of air lead in Omaha was conducted at five sites: one industrial (I), one commercial (C), one mixed (M), and two residential (R). All samples were taken at 15 feet elevation, and all data were reported as the composited averages of 24-hour samples collected three times weekly. The monthly composite average of air lead concentrations at the sampling sites is shown in Figure C-3. Air lead levels in central Omaha at sites C and I were not only comparable with those of similar sites in Chicago, New York City, and Houston from the same months, as reported by EPA, but the maximum monthly mean at the industrial site (in July) exceeded the maximum monthly mean of all sites in these other cities. 7.A.2.3 El Paso, Texas The El Paso, Texas study was initiated in 1971 as a result of the dis covery of increased lead deposition in the vicinity of a local smelter whose emissions rose from 256 MT in 1969 to 463 MT in 1970. The El Paso City-County Health Department then began special ambient and soil sampling in addition to routine operation of their nine-station particulate sampling network. Par ticulate samples were collected with high-volume samplers over 24-hr periods and were then analyzed for lead by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The results for 1971 from the nine-station network are given in Table C-7. Daily sampling at six selected sites in Smeltertown began in February 1972. Daily lead concentrations at four ground level sites ranged from 0.49 to 75 pg/m 3 and averaged 6.6 pg/m over 86 days. Average concentrations of 3.6 and 6.5 pg/m were found at two rooftop sites. Soil lead concentrations were determined during March 1972 through June 1973 at 99 sites in the vicinity of the smelter. Results, shown in Figure C-4, indicate elevated soil lead levels near the plant (Landrigan and Baker, 1981). Some of this soil may find its way inside homes, for example tracked in by shoes. Table C-8 shows that the lead content of dust inside houses is greatest 023PB8/D 7A-12 11/3/82 TEH 0530356 DUP050031269 PRELIMINARY DRAFT Ftpur* C-3 Omaha, Ntbraaki atudy: maan monthly eompowlt* atmoapharlc toad at induatrlai, eommtrclal, mlrad, and two raaidaottal *H*. Maan la that ot rtpraaantaUv* 34- hour aamptaa eollactad thro* lima* waakty. Tha autumnal Pik at all but tha Induatrlai alt* paraKal* tha uaual Omaha paMarn lor particulataa.* Figure C-3. Omaha, Nebraska study: mean monthly composite atmospheric lead at industrial, commercial, mixed, and two residential sites. Mean is that of representative 24-hour samples collected three times weekly. The autumnal peak at all but the industrial site parallels the usual Omaha pattern for particulates. (Darrow and Schroeder, 1973) 023PB8/D 7A-13 11/3/82 TEH 0530357 DUP050031270 PRELIMINARY DRAFT TABLE C-7, LEAD CONCENTRATIONS IN SUSPENDED PARTICULATE AIR SAMPLES FROM EL PASO, TEXAS, 1971 (Henderson, J. J, and Hudson, P, A., 1972) Location Airport Northeast Canutillo Shorty Way Tillman Ysleta Coronado Kern Executive Distance aim. Ion 12.8 E 16 NE 15.2 NW 8 NW 4.8 SE 21.6 SE 4. 8 N 2.4 E 1.6 NE No. of samples 84 73 .45 75 70 71 94 26 65 Suspended atmospheric 3 lead concentration, uq/nr Range Average 0.38 to 5.82 0,12 to 3.68 0.10 to 1.50 0.18 to 4.51 0,02 to 22.16 0.18 to 4.81 0,08 to 8.62 0,12 to 7.28 0.26 to 6.67 0.96 0.76 0.46 1.03 2.69 1.39 0.83 2.72 1.16 023PB8/D 7A-14 11/3/82 TEH 0530358 DUP050031271 PRELIMINARY DRAFT > Figure C-4. Settleable particulate lead radial distribution from Helena Valley environmental pollution study. (PedCo-Environmental, Inc., 1977) 023PB8/D 7A-15 11/3/82 TEH 0530359 DUP050031272 PRELIMINARY DRAFT TABLE C-8. LEAD CONTENT OF HOUSEHOLD DUST IN EL PASO, TEXAS DURING JULY 1972 TO JUNE 1973 Distance from smelter (km) No of samples 0.0-1.6 1.7-3.2 3.3-6.4 >6.4 53 219 209 48 Lead content (ppm) Geometric mean Range 22.191 2.124 1.552 973 2.800-103.750 100-84,000 100-29.384 200-22.700 Source: Landrigan and Baker (1981). for those dwellings nearest the smelter. Analysis of lead in 1600 paint samples in these houses showed that no gradient exists in the lead content of the paint relative to distance from the smelter. 7.A.2.4 Helena Valley* Montana (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1972) During the summer and fall of 1969, a source-oriented study of the Helena Valley, Montana, area (Figure C-4) was undertaken using dustfall bucket and high-volume sampling techniques. During this period, Helena residents were 3 exposed to an average daily lead concentration of 0.1 pg/m , with maximum 3 concentrations up to 0*7 pg/m , The residents of the East Helena area were exposed to an average daily concentration of 0.4 to 4.0 pg/m3 , depending upon proximity to the source, with maximum daily exposures up to 15 pg/m . Within a 1-mile radius of the East Helena smelter, settled particulate lead values ranged from 30 to 108 mg/m -mo. Table C-8 summarizes the dustfall and sus pended particulate data acquired during this study, and Figure C-4 shows the deposition of lead (dustfall) in the area, 7.A.2.5 Southeast Missouri (Purushothaman, K,, 1972) Studies were carried out in 1971 in the Viburnum Trend or New Lead Belt in southeast Missouri to determine the magnitude and distribution of atmos pheric pollutants from lead mining and smelting operations. This industrial district has become one of the world's largest lead-producing areas by mining 023PB8/D 7A-16 11/3/82 TEH 0530360 DUP050031273 PRELIMINARY DRAFT more than 392,277 MT of lead, or 75 percent of the entire U. S. lead produc tion, during 1970. Settleable particulates were collected monthly at 10 locations in western Iron County shown in Figure C-5. Annual averages for each site are included in the figure; monthly maximum values are listed in Table C-9. Annual averages for suspended lead collected in Glover, Mo. (Site 43, southeastern Iron County), by high-volume sampler were 3,4 pg/m (20 samples) in 1970, 5.3 pg/nT* (32 samples) in 1971, and 5,6 pg/m^ (28 samples) in 1972. 7.A.2.6 Two Smelter Study The homes of workers of two secondary lead smelters in different geogra phical areas of the United States were studied by Rice et al. (1978). Paper towels were used to collect dust from surfaces in each house, following the method of Vostal et al. (1974). A total of 33 homes of smelter workers and 19 control homes located in the same or similar neighborhoods were investigated. The geometric mean lead levels on the towels were 79.3 pg (smelter workers) versus 28.8 pg (controls) in the first area, while in the second area mean values were 112 pg versus 9.7 pg. Also in the second area, settled dust above doorways was collected by brushing the dust into glassine envelopes for subse quent analysis. The geometric mean lead content of this dust in 15 workers' homes was 3300 ppm, compared with 1200 ppm in eight control homes. Curbside dust collected near each home in the second area had a geometric mean lead content of 1500 ppm, with no significant difference between worker and control homes. No significant difference was reported in the paint lead content between worker and control homes. The authors concluded that lead in dust carried home by these workers contributed to the lead content of dust in their homes, despite showering and changing clothes at the plant, and despite work clothes being laundered by the company. Storage of employee street clothes in dusty lockers, walking across lead-contaminated areas on the way home, and particulate settling on workers' cars in the parking lot may have been impor tant factors. Based on measurement of zinc protoporphyrin levels in the blood of children in these homes, the authors also concluded that the greater lead levels in housedust contributed to increased child absorption of lead. 023PB8/D 7A-17 11/3/82 TEH 0530361 DUP050031274 PRELIMINARY DRAFT Figure C-5. Annual average of settleable particulate lead at sites near Missouri lead mine and smelter, g/nr/mo. (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1977} 023PB8/D 7 A-18 11/3/82 TEH 0530362 DUP050031275 Table C-9. PEAK DEPOSITION RATES OF LEAD MEASURED IN SOUTHEAST MISSOURI (Purushothaman, K ., 1972) C ^ o S* ews *or- cr 01 f<-D C- tTc3- <><u0 CCOO VU>J CO Voo s B5 CO 3oo: wCCMO scO-oy 2C to 00 3s 3s co rrHJ CO CO CO CO v> CSJ CM oH CM CU LU 00 co 00 CO 00 00 s CM CM CO CO CSJ Oin Pcu c l ro \ 0) MM -o E e-v* XS O O) B*c E <D -l-> _J 00 co o rH 00 LO in rv t H o If) if) I'- m CM o p<mcJ CO H<T> CO CO iH cn <7> tp CO if) c: o sP CU 3Sr- t/*mQm-J X) LU UJ UJ UJ UJ to z CO to CO CO CO co * 4r->- <*=? P CO co 0C) 0) .O - t0) r-4 cn fH 3 1 > >(0> 3 s: n P 310 Ba> P <1) X) o .O3) < Q. C<OP pu o JO BQ) > z TEH 0530363 DUP050031276 PRELIMINARY DRAFT 7. A. 2.7 Southern Vermont Watson et al. (1978) investigated homes of employees of a lead storage battery plant in southern Vermont. Lead levels in household dust, drinking water, and paint were determined for 22 workers' homes and 22 control homes. The mean lead concentration in dust in the workers' homes was 2239 ppm, com pared with 718 ppm in the control homes. Blood lead levels in the workers' children were greater than levels in the control children, and were signifi cantly correlated with dust lead concentrations. No significant correlations were found between drinking water lead and blood lead, or between paint lead and blood lead. It is noteworthy that although 90 percent of the employees showered and changed clothes at the plant, 87 percent brought their work clothes home for laundering. The authors concluded that dust carried home by the workers contributed to increased lead absorption in their children. 7.A.2.8 North Carolina Several cases of elevated environmental lead levels near point sources in North Carolina have been reported by Do!court et al. (1978; 1981). In the first instance, dust lead was measured in the homes of mothers employed in a battery factory in Raleigh; blood lead levels in the mothers and their chldren were also measured. Carpet dust was found to contain 1701 to 47,534 ppm lead in six homes where the Children had elevated blood lead levels (>40 pg/dl). The authors concluded that lead carried home on the mothers' clothing resulted in increased exposure to their children (Dolcourt et al., 1978). In this particular plant, no uniforms or garment covers were provided by the factory; work clothing was worn home. In a second case, discarded automobile battery casings from a small-scale lead recovery operation in rural North Carolina were brought home by a worker and used in the family's wood-burning stove (Dolcourt et al., 1981). Two samples of indoor dust yielded 13,283 and 41,283 ppm lead. A three-year-old girl living in the house developed encephalopathy resulting in permanent brain damage. In a third case, also in rural North Carolina, a worker employed in an automobile battery reclamation plant was found to be operating an illicit battery recycling operation in his home. Reclaimed lead was melted on the kitchen stove. Soil samples obtained near the house measured as high as 49.2 percent lead by weight; the driveway was covered with fragments of battery 023PB8/D 7A-20 11/3/82 TEH 0530364 DUP050031277 PRELIMINARY DRAFT casings. Although no family member had evidence of lead poisoning, there were unexplained deaths among chickens who fed where the lead waste products were discarded (Dolcourt et al., 1981). 7.A.2.9 Oklahoma Morton et al. (1982) studied lead exposure in children of employees at a battery manufacturing plant in Oklahoma. A total of 34 lead-exposed children and 34 control children were examined; 18 children in the lead-exposed group had elevated blood lead levels (>30 pg/dl), while none of the controls were in this category. It was found that many of the battery factory employees also used lead at home, such as casting lead into fishing sinkers and using leaded ammunition. A significant difference in blood lead levels between the two groups of children was found even when families using lead at home were deleted from the data set. Using the results of personal interviews with the homemaker in each household, the authors concluded that dust carried home by the employees resulted in increased exposure of their children. Merely changing clothes at the plant was deemed insufficient to avoid transporting appreciable amounts of lead home: showering and shampooing, in addition to changing clothes, was necessary. 7.A.2.10 Oakland, California Environmental lead contamination at the former site of wet-cell battery manufacturing plant in Oakland, California was reported by Wesolowski et al. (1979). The plant was operational from 1924 to 1974, and was demolished in 1976. Soil lead levels at the site measured shortly after demolition are shown in Table -11. The increase in median concentrations with depth sug gested that the battery plant, rather than emissions from automobiles, were responsible for the elevated soil lead levels. The levels decreased rapidly below 30 cm depth. The contaminated soil was removed to a sanitary landfill and replaced with clean soil; a park has subsequently been constructed at the site. 7.A.2.11 Ontario, Canada Studies of lead concentrations in soils, vegetation, and the ambient air were conducted in the vicinity of a secondary smelter and a battery manufac turing plant in a large urban area in southern Ontario. For comparative purposes, data were also collected in a similar control neighborhood that had 023PB8/D 7A-21 11/3/82 TEH 0530365 DUP050031278 PRELIMINARY DRAFT no such industrial sources. Emissions of lead from the smelter were estimated to be 17 tons per year; from the battery plant, 6 tons per year. Averages and ranges of lead concentration in Table C-ll. Both soil and foliage samples showed definite trends toward reduced concentrations with increasing distance from the industrial sources. TABLE C-ll, LEAD CONCENTRATIONS IN SOIL AT THE FORMER SITE OF A WET-CELL BATTERY MANUFACTURING PLANT IN OAKLAND, CALIFORNIA (ppm) Depth Surface 15 cm 30 cm N Range 24 57-95,588 23 13-4234 24 13-4546 Mean 4270 374 1119 Median 198 203 358 Source: Wesolowski et al. (1979) 7.A.2.12 British Columbia, Canada Neri et al. (1978) and Schmitt et al. (1979) examined environmental lead levels in the vicinity of a lead-zinc smelter at Trail, British Columbia, Total emissions from the smelter averaged about 135 kg lead/day. Measurements were conducted in Trail (population 12,000), in Nelson, a control city 41 kil ometers north of Trail (population 10,000), and in Vancouver. The annual mean airborne lead concentrations in Trail and in Nelson were 2.0 and 0.5 pg/m , respectively. Mean lead levels in surface soil were 1320 ppm in Trail (153 samples), 192 ppm in Nelson (55 samples), and 1545 ppm in Vancouver (37 samples) Figure C-7 shows the locations of elevated soil lead concentrations in Trail. Blood lead measurements shows a positive correlation with soil lead levels for children aged 1-3 years and for first graders, but no significant correlation for ninth graders. The authors concluded that small children are most likely to ingest soil dust, and hence deposited smelter-emitted lead may pose a potential hazard for the youngest age group. 023PB8/D 7A-22 11/3/82 TEH 0530366 DUP050031279 PRELIMINARY DRAFT tff)ura C*7. Soil tranaacti by two Mroolo: Curva A lowtrafffc-voluma (400 voh/day); Cum B Mgh-traftfc-voluiM (14,000 *oh/doy). * Figure C-7. Soil transacts by two streets: Curve A = low-traffic-volume (400 veh/day); Curve B = high-traffic-volume (14,000 veh/day). (Rolfe, G. L. and Haney, A., 1975). 023PB8/D 7A-23 11/3/82 TEH 0530367 DUP050031280 PRELIMINARY DRAFT 7.A.2.13 Manchester, Engl and Elwood et al. (1977) measured lead concentrations in air, dust, soil, vegetation, and tap water, as well as in the blood of children and adults, in the vicinity of a large battery factory near Manchester. It was found that lead levels in dust, soil, and vegetation decreased with increasing distance from the factor; Figure C-8 shows this trend for dust collected from the curbs and gutters of roads in the area. Airborne lead concentrations did not show a consistent effect with downwind distance, although higher concentrations were found downwind compared with upwind of the factor. Blood lead levels were greatest in the households of battery factor employees: other factors such as distance from the factory, car ownership, age of house, and presence of lead water pipes were outweighed by the presence of a leadworker in the household. These results strongly suggest that lead dust carried home by the factor employees is a dominant exposure pathway for their families. The authors also discussed the work of Burrows (1976), who demonstrated experimentally that the most important means of lead transport from the factory into the home is via the workers1 shoes. 7.A.2.14 Netherlands Environmental lead concentrations were measured near a secondary lead smelter in Arnhem, Netherlands (Diemel et al., 1981). Air and dust were sampled in over 100 houses at distances of 450 to 1000 meters from the smelter, with outdoor samples of air, dust, and soil collected for comparison. Results are presented in Table C-13, Note that the mean indoor concentration of total suspended particulates (TSP) is greater than the mean outdoor concentration, yet the mean indoor lead level is smaller than the corresponding outdoor level. The authors reasoned that indoor sources such as tobacco smoke, con sumer products, and decay of furnishings are likely to be important in affect ing indoor TSP; however, much of the indoor lead was probably carried in from the outside by the occupants, e.g., as dust adhering to shoes. The importance of resuspension of indoor particles by activity around the house was also discussed. 7.A.2.15 Belgium Reels et al. (1978; 1980) measured lead levels in the air, in dust, and on childrens' hands at varying distances from a lead smelter in Belgium (annual production 100,000 metric tons). Blood data from children living near the 023PB8/D 7 A-24 11/3/82 TEH 0530368 DUPQ50031281 PRELIMINARY DRAFT NEW MEXICO JV yTEeXx AaSs RIO GRANDE U.S.A. _ MEXICO SMELTER SMELTERTOWN ppm , 6^ SHOO fFR 100-200 F573 200400 VTTJfK 400-000 I 1 100400 400-1000 1000-3600 0 26 SCALE IN KILOMETERS Figure $. Survey areas and surface aoll lead concentrations, El Paso, Texas, 1972, C-H A Figure C-8.y Survey areas and surface soil lead concentrations, El Paso, Texas(U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1973) 023PB8/D 7A-25 11/3/82 TEH 0530369 DUP050031282 PRELIMINARY DRAFT TABLE C-13. LEAD CONCENTRATIONS IN INDOOR AND OUTDOOR AIR, INDOOR AND OUTDOOR DUST, AND OUTDOOR SOIL NEAR THE ARNHEM, NETHERLANDS SECONDARY LEAD SMELTER (INDOOR CONCENTRATIONS) Parameter Arithmetic mean Range * n Suspended particulate matter dust concentration (pg/m3) lead Concentration (pg/m3) dust lead content (mg/kg) Dustfal1 dust deposition (mg/m3/day) lead depositon (pg/m3/day) dust lead content (mg/kg) Floor dust amount of dust (mg/m3) amount of lead (pg/m3) Dust lead content (mg/kg) in "fine" floor dust in "coarse" floor dust 140 0.27 2670 15.0 9.30 1144 356 166 1054 370 20-570 0.13-0.74 400-8200 1.4-63.9 1.36-42.35 457-8097 41-2320 18-886 463-4741 117-5250 101 101 106 105 105 105 107 101 107 101 *N number of houses. (OUTDOOR CONCENTRATIONS) Parameter Suspended particles dust concentration (pg/m3) lead concentraton (pg/m3) (high-volume samplers, 24-hr samples, 2 months' average) Lead in dustfal1 (pg/m3/day) (deposit gauges, weekly samples, 2 months' average) Lead in soil (mg/kg 0-5 cm) Lead in streetdust (mg/kg <0.3 mm) Source: Diemel et al (1981). Arithmetic mean 64.5 0.42 508 322 859 Range 53.7-73.3 0.28-0.52 208-2210 21-1126 77-2667 023PB8/D 7A-26 11/3/82 TEH 0530370 DUP050031283 PRELIMINARY DRAFT smelter were also obtained. Air samples were collected nearly continuously beginning in September 1973. Table C-14 lists the airborne concentrations recorded during five distinct population surveys between 1974 and 1978, while Figure C-9 presents air, dust, and hand data for Survey #3 in 1976, Statis tical tests showed that blood lead levels were better correlated with lead on childrens' hands than with air lead. The authors suggested that ingestion of contaminated dust by hand-to-mouth activities such as nail-biting and thumb sucking, as well as eating with the hands, may be an important exposure path way. It was concluded that intake from contaminated hands contributes at least two to four times as much lead as inhalation of airborne material. 7.A.2.16 Helsinki, Finland Investigators for the Agricultural Research Center in Tikkurila, Finland, an industrial and residential area near Helsinki, found high lead levels in soil. To clarify the origin of this excess lead, the Institute of Occupa tional Health conducted a dustfall lead survey in the area. Eighty collectors o were located over a 40-km area for a period of 1 month, October 6 to November 7, 1970. Individual ashed samples were analyzed by emission spectrography and the water-soluble fractions were analyzed by atomic absorption spectroscopy. The highest lead deposition values in Helsinki were observed in areas with heavy traffic and ranged from 10 to 20 mg/m /mo as compared to 0 to 4 mg/m /mo in predominantly housing and residential areas. In the Tikkurila area, industrial contributions increased deposited lead values fortyfold in some areas. The deposited lead values ranged from background in outlying areas to as high as 200 mg/m /mo near a lead smelter, with most of the values below 100 mg/m2/mo. 7.A.2.17 Meza River Valley, Yugoslavia In 1967, work was initiated in the community of Zerjav, situated in the Slovenian Alps on the Meza River, to investigate contamination by lead of the air, water, snow, soil, vegetation, and animal life, as well as the human population, the smelter in this community produces about 19,954 MT of lead annually; until 1969 the stack emitted lead oxides without control by filters or other devices. Five sampling sites with high-volume samplers operating on a 24-hr basis were established in the four principal settlements within the Meza River Valley (Figure C-6): (1) Zerjav, in the center, the site of the smelter, housing 1503 inhabitants, (2) Rudarjevo, about 2 km to the south of 023PB8/D 7A-27 11/3/82 TEH 0530371 DUP050031284 PRELIMINARY DRAFT TABLE C-14. AIRBORNE CONCENTRATIONS OF LEAD DURING FIVE POPULATION SURVEYS NEAR A LEAD SMELTER IN BELGIUM* Study populations X Survey <1 km (1974) 2.5 km Rural 2 Survey <i km (1975) 2.5 km Rural 3 Survey (1976) <1 km 2-5 km Urban Rural 4 Survey <1 km (1977) 2.5 km 5 Survey (1978) <1 km 2.5 km Urban Rural Pb-Air (pg/nr) 4.06 1.00 0.29 2.94 0.74 0.31 3.67 0.80 0.45 0.30 3.42 0.49 2.68 0,54 0.56 0.37 *Additional airborne data in rural and urban areas obtained as controls are also shown. Source: RoeIs et al. (1980). 023PB8/D 7A-28 11/3/82 TEH 0530372 DUP050031285 PRELIMINARY DRAFT Pb IN AIR Pb IN DUST L I 7S0 1600 Pb ON HAND L I I ICO 300 n 18 cr 20 9 H I "Tr AT 26 km FROM LEAD SMELTER M/m* 2260 M/0 I 460 Mg/htnd in i RURAL - HERENT CHILDREN 1976 3RD SURVEY > Figure 7C-9. Concentrations of lead in air, in dust, and on children's hands, measured during the third population survey of Table E. Values obtained less than 1 km from the smelter, at 2.5 km from the smelter, and in two control areas are shown. Source; Roels et al. (1980). Figure C-9. Concentrations of lead in air, in dust, and on children's hands, measured during the third population survey of Table E. (Roels et al., 1980). 023PB8/D 7A-29 11/3/82 TEH 0530373 DUP050031286 PRELIMINARY DRAFT 1 I 3I t ,u,, C4. ***.*. rf M mte. * ........ atudv.n Figure C-6. Yugoslavia, Schematic plan study. (Fugas, of M. lead mine and smelter from Meza Valley, D. et al. , 1974). 023PB8/D 7 A-30 11/3/82 TEH 0530374 DUP050031287 PRELIMINARY DRAFT Zerjav with a population of 100; (3) Crna, some 5 km to the southwest, popula tion 2198, where there are two sites (Crna-SE and Crna-W); and (4) Mezica, a village about 10 km to the northwest of the smelter with 2515 inhabitants. The data in Table C-10 are sufficient to depict general environmental contami nation of striking proportions. 7.A.2.18 Kosova Province, Yugoslavia Popovac et al. (1982) discuss, lead exposure in an industrialized region near the town of Kosova Mitrovica, Yugoslavia, containing a lead smelter and refinery, and a battery factor. In 1979, 5756 kg of lead were emitted daily from the lead smelter alone. Ambient air concentrations in the town were in the range 21.2 to 29.2 pg/rn in 1980, with levels occasionally reaching 70 o pg/m . The authors report elevated blood lead levels in most of the children tested; some extremely high values were found, suggesting the presence of congenital lead poisoning, 7.A.2.19 Czechoslovakia Wagner et al, (1981) measured total suspended particulate and airborne lead concentrations in the vicinity of a waste lead processing plant in Czecho slovakia. Data are shown in Table C-16. Blood lead levels in 90 children living near the plant were significantly greater than in 61 control children. TABLE C-16. CONCENTRATIONS OF TOTAL AIRBORNE DUST AND OF AIRBORNE LEAD IN THE VICINITY OF A WASTE LEAD PROCESSING PLANT IN CZECHOSLOVAKIA, AND IN A CONTROL AREA INFLUENCED PREDOMINANTLY BY AUTOMOBILE EMISSIONS (Wagner et al., 1981) Exposed Control n X a min. - max. 95% c.i. n X a min. - max. 95% C.i. 300 113.6 83.99 19.7553.4 123.1-104.1 56.0 92.0 40.5 10210 102,7-81.3 303 1.33 1,9 0.12- 10.9 1.54-1, 87 0.16 0.07 0.030.36 0.17-0 023PB8/D n - number of samples; x = mean of 24-hour samples; s = standard deviation; 95% confidence interval. 7A-31 11/3/82 TEH 0530375 DUP050031288 PRELIMINARY DRAFT 7, A.2.20 Australia Heyworth et al. (1981) examined child response to lead in the vicinity of a lead sulfide mine in Northhampton) Western Australia. Two samples of mine tailings measured in 1969 contained 1.2 percent and 2.8 percent lead; several additional samples analyzed in 1978 contained 2.2 to 15.7 percent lead. Surface soil from the town boundry contained 0.03 percent, while a playground and a recreational area had soil containing 1.1 percent and 1.2 percent lead respectfully. Blood lead levels measured in Northhamptom children, near the mine, were slightly greater than levels measured in children living a short distance away. The Northhampton blood lead levels were also slightly greater than those reported for children in Victoria, Australia (De Silva and Donnan, 1980). Heyworth et al. concluded that the mine tailings could have increased the lead exposure of children living in the area. 7.A.3 CONCENTRATION OF LEAD IN SOILS AND URBAN DUSTS As mentioned in Chapter 5, surficial materials in the continental United States contain an average of about 15 ppm of lead; 94 percent of the measure*meats showed 30 ppm or less. Higher concentrations are encountered in the vicinity of lead ore deposits and, of course, in the proximity of human activ ities involving lead. Soils apparently receive lead in the amounts of about 1 pg/cm /yr from precipitation and 0.2 pg/cm /yr from dustfal1 (Lombardo, 1973) in areas remote from intensive human activity. These small additions to the lead content of the soil are not detectable by ordinary means because they add only about 0.2 percent to the total lead in the top 6 inches of the soil. Lead levels are higher in surface soils than in deeper layers. Swain and Mitchell (Pinkerton et al., 1973) studied lead profiles in 8 soil types in Scotland and showed that the lead content at 115 cm (45 in) averaged one-half that at the surface. The reduction of concentration with depth is also sub*stantiated by the findings of others. Goldschmidt (Ter Haar and AronOw, 1974) proposed the theory that lead is concentrated in the humus or organic fraction of soils in forests because it is taken up slowly be tree roots and transported to the leaves, which fall and decay. Tyler (Shapiro et al., 1973) points out that a passive ion exchange favors an accumulation of lead and other heavy metals in dead organic matter, litter, and humus. He also states that most 023PB8/D 7A-32 11/3/82 TEH 0530376 DUP050031289 PRELIMINARY DRAFT plant material subjected to decomposition usually shows an increase in the concentration of lead, cadmium, nickel, iron, copper, etc,, calculated on dry weight. The use of leaded gasolines has produced elevated soil lead levels adja cent to most streets and roadways. This phenomenon was first observed as early as 1933 in England, (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973) and has been intensively studied in recent years. (Rameau, 1973) An example of this phenomenon is taken from a study of the Saline Branch watershed, which includes Champaign, 111ionis. One facet of this comprehensive study (National Academy of Sciences, 1972) consisted of analyses for lead in soil at increasing dis tances from a low-traffic-volume street (400 vehicles/day) and a high-trafficvolume street (14,000 vehicles/day). As shown on curve A in Figure .0-7., lead concentrations stabilized at about 20 ppm beyond 15 meters from the low-volume street and rose slightly near the house. Unfortunately, the exterior con struction of the house is not described. As curve B in Figure 0-7 shows, lead concentrations of about 1800 ppm in the soil adjacent to the high-volume street are 9 times higher than in soil adjacent to the low-volume street; the concentration drops rapidly to a minimum of 30 ppm a little more than 20 m from the street and then rises again abruptly near the house to 90 ppm. This house is described as brick and unguttered. Although some leaching of lead from painted trim may be involved, the increase hear the house is believed attributable chiefly to lead particles in traffic dust washed from the unguttered roof by rain and deposited in the soil next to the house. Soil lead levels in the vicinity of stationary sources of lead emissions are often very high, and, unlike the rapid drop-off near highways, very exten sive. This is particularly true for old installations. Figure C-8 shows levels recently found near an old smelter in El Paso, Texas. (Needleman and Scanion, 1973) Similar data, compiled from a 3-year-old Russian lead smelter, (Landrigan et al ,, 1975) are shown in Table C-12. The concentraton decrease with both depth and distance is also apparent here. Information on soluble lead levels in soil near a similar complex in Great Britian is presented in a report by Little and Martin. (Needleman et al., 1974) Baltrop reported values up to 30,000 pg/g in villages in the eastern half of Derbyshire County, England, (Yankel et al., 1977) In this instance, the soil included lead contamination from old mine tailings and possible natural mineralization, i.e., the concentrations were not exclusively atmospheric in origin. 023PB8/D 7A-33 11/3/82 TEH 0530377 DUP050031290 X. * PRELIMINARY DRAFT <$ Table C-13, derived from studies done in 1959 and I960, (Landrigan et al., 1976) gives lead levels of soil adjacent to another Russian lead smelter. The plant is located in a valley surrounded by mountains that hinder natural ventilation, In addition, plant emissions are inadequately contorlled. Methods of sample preparation and analysis of the soil samples are not given, however; nor is It stated whether the solid weights used were for dried or undried material. Paluch and Karweta (1968) reported observations on soil lead near a new lead-zinc primary smelter in Poland. Soil analyses were made in several areas prior to operation of the factory and after 1 year of operation. Samples were extracted with hot concentrated hydrochloric acid and analyzed for lead content by the dithizone method. Levels found are given in milligrams of lead per kilogram of dried soil. Values given are the average of three samples. Two sites are of particular interest, a woods of young pines 2 km from the smelter and a tree nursery at 3 km. Before and after lead levels in the top 5 cm of soil at these locations were 39 and 89 mg/kg for the former, and 54 and 81 mg/kg for the Tatter. At other sampling sites the data were quite variable, but these were agricultural lands subject to cultivation, to fertilization, or to both. The wooded sites were not disturbed in this manner. 023PB8/D 7A-34 11/3/82 TEH 0530378 DUP050031291 PRELIMINARY DRAFT REFERENCES Barltrop, D. (1975) Significance of 1ead-contaminated soils and dusts for human populations- Arh. Hig. Rada Toksikol. 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J, Soc, Chem. I rid. London Trans. Commun. 52: 189*192. Elwood, W. J.; Clayton, B. E.; Cox, R. A.; Delves, H. T.; King, E.; Malcolm, 0.; Ratcliff.e, 0. M.; Taylor, J. F. (1977) Lead in human blood and in the environment hear a battery factory. Brit. J. Preventive and Social Medi cine 31: 154-163. Fugas, M.; Majic, D.; Paukovic, R.; Wilder, B.; Skaric, A (1974) Biological Significance of Some Metals as Air Pollutants. Final Report. Part 1: Lead. U.S. Department of Health. Education, and Welfare. Consumer Pro tection and Environmental Health Service. Washington, DC. Goldschmidt, V. M. (1937) The principles of distribution of chemical elements in minerals and rocks, J. Chem. Soc. (London) 655-673. Hauser, T. R.; Henderson, J. J. ; Benson, F. B. (unpublished) The polynuclear hydrocargon and metal concentration of the air over the Greater Birmingham Area. Human Studies Laboratory, U,S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. Henderson, J. J.;; Hudson, P, A. 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L.; Temple, J.; Pearson , R. 6.; Smith, M. L. Lead contamination of urban soils and vegetation by emissions from secondary lead industries. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 16(7): 650-645, Little, P.; Martin, M. H. (1972) A Survey of zinc, lead and cadmium in soil and natural vegetation around a smelting complex. Environ. Pollut. 3:241-254. Maga, J. A.; Hodges, F. B,; Christenson, C, B. *, Callaghan, D. J. (1972) A Joint Study of Lead Contamination Relative to Horse Deaths in Southern Solano County. Los Angeles. State of California Air Resources Board, p 178. Mclntire, M, S.; Angle, C. R. (1972) Air Lead: Relation to lead in blood of black school children deficient in glucose-6-phospahte dehydrogenase. Science 177; 520-522, Morton, 0. E., Saab, A. J.; Si1berg, S. L.; Owens, W. L.; Roberts, M. A,; Saah, M. D. (1982) Lead absorption in children of employees in a leadrelated industry. Am. 0. Epidemiology 115: 549-555. National Academy of Sciences (1972) Lead: Airborne Lead in Perspective. 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(1972) Air Quality Studies of a Developing Lead Smelter Industry, Rolla, University of Missouri Press, 13 p. Rice, C.; Fischbeiin, A. ; Lilis, R.; Sarkozi, L.; Kon, S.; Selikoff, I. J, (1978) Lead contamination in the homes of employees of secondary lead smelters. Environ. Res, 15: 375-380. Roels, H. A.; Buchet, J-P.; Lauwerys, R.; Bruaux, P.; Claeys-Thdreau, F.; Lafontaine, A.; van Overschelde, J.; Verduyn, G. (1978) Lead and cadmium absorption among children near a nonferrous metal plant. A follow-up study of a test case. Environ, Res, 15: 290-308, Roels, N. A,; Buchet, J-P.; Lauwerys, R. R.; Bruaux, P.; Claeys-Thoreau, F.; Lafontaine, A.; Verduyn, G. (1980) Exposure to lead by the oral and the pulmonary routes of children living in the vicinity of a primary lead smelter. Environ. Res, 22: 81-94. Rolfe, G. L.; Haney, A, (1975) An Ecosytem Analysis of Environmental Contami nation by Lead. Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Illi nois at Urbana-Champaign. 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(1974) Lead analysis of housedust; A method for the detection of another source of lead exposure in inner city children. Environ. Health Perspect. 7: 91-97. Wagner, V.; Wagnerova, M.; Wokounova, D. *, Kriz, J.; Madlo, Z.; Mohyla, 0. (1981) correlations between blood lead concentration and some blood protein levels in children residing in lead-polluted and control areas. 0. Hyg. Epidemiol. Microbiol. Immunol. 25: 97-112. Watson, W. N.; Witherell , L. E,; Giguere, G. C. (1978) Increased lead absorp tion in children of workers in a lead storage battery plant. J. Occup. Med. 20: 759-761. Wesolowski , J. 0.; Flessel, C, P.; Twiss, $.; Stanley, R. L.; Knight, N. W.; Coleman, G. C.; DeGarmo, T. E. (1979) The identification and elimination of a potential lead hazard in an urban park. Arch. Environ. Health 34: 413-418. 023PB8/D 7A-38 11/3/82 TEH 0530382 DUP050031295