Document VJe0DjqRa7wM5ywDzeX68r9bZ

APPENDIX A Grant No. R806269010 Special Report C6438C01 EXPOSURE TO ASBESTOS Prepared for, Richard J. Guimond (TS-794) Office of Toxic Substances U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Washington, D.C. 20460 Prepared by, Paul K. Ase Harsh Dev David R. Jones Donald L. Krystof George Yamate IIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE Chicago, Illinois 60616 February 8, 1979 HWBUI0002677 TABLE OF CONTENTS PaSe 1. PROBLEM ANALYSIS. . ............................................... ......... 1 1.1 Introduction ............................................... 1.2 Constraints on Monitoring and Measuring . Asbestos Levels.................................................................... ... 1.3 Analysis of Samples. ............................................. I 2 3 1.4 Reproducibility of Measurements................... .. .... 4 2. DEFINITIONS OF EXPOSURE INDEX AND POPULATION EXPOSURE . . 6 2.1 Exposure Index . ............................................... 6 2.2 Population Exposure.................................................... 6 2.2.1 Re leas ability (R)......................................................... 8 2.2.2 Duration (D)....................................................................... 8 2.2.3 Frequency (F).............................................................. 9 2.2.4 User (U)......................................................... 9 2.2.5 Population Exposed per User (P) . . . . . ..9 3. COMMERCIAL AND CONSUMER USES OF ASBESTOS. ........ 10 4. ASBESTOS PRESENTLY IN PLACE ...... ............................. . . 16 4.1 A.C. Pipe in Areas With Aggressive Water Supply. . . 16 4.2 Asbestos Roofing Products.............................................................-. 19 4.3 Asbestos Cement Sheet.............................................................. 20 4.4 Asbestos Floor Tile.................................................... 21 4.5 Insulation and Sprayed-On Materials....................... 22 4.6 Plastics .......................................................................................... 25 4.7 Brakes in Use................................................................. 25 4.7.1 Estimate of Asbestos Installed in Brakes. . .25 4.7.2 Brake Wear Emissions....................................... ..... -25 5. ASBESTOS EXPOSURE DUE TO MANUFACTURING AND PROCESSING ACTIVITIES.................................................... .... ` 27 5.1 Occupational Population Exposure ............................. ... 27 5.2 Non-Occupational Population Exposure . . . . ... . 35 IIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE i IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002678 TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Page 6. NATURALLY OCCURRING ASBESTOS. . ..................................................... 43 7. TECHNICAL CONTROLS. . ........................ .... ............................................... .48 7.1 Controls to Limit Exposure.............................' ... . . . 48 7.2 Administrative Action........................ .... . . ... ..... 49 References............................................................................. .... ... .... 51 11T RESEARCH INSTITUTE ii IITRI C6438C01 1 HWBUI0002679 V LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Population Exposure Codes.................................................... .... Page 7 2 Commercial and Consumer Uses........................ - . ........................ .... 11-15 3 Asbestos Presently In Place...................................................... 4 Estimated Tonnage of Asbestos In Place ......... 18 5 Airborne Asbestos in Buildings . . . . . . ... . . . .23-24 6 Exposure to Airborne Asbestos in Selected Asbestos Product Manufacturing Industries. . . . . ... 28 7 Summary of Industrial Occupational Population Exposure . 29 8 Occupational Exposure -- Primary Industry................................ 30 9 Occupational Exposure -- Secondary Industry...........................31 10 Occupational Exposure -- Consumer Industry ....... 32-34 11 Non-Occupational Population Exposure --.Primary .... . Industry (Summary)................................................................... 12 Non-Occupational Population Exposure -- Primary . Industry................................................................................. 13 Effect of Control Efficiency on Total Population Exposure to Asbestos/Cement Pipe Manufacturing Process Emissions.............................................................. .... .' . 39 14 Use of Emission Control in Asbestos Products Manufacturing Plants......................................................... .... . ... 41 15 Asbestos Disposed as Waste in Secondary & Consumer Industries................................................................ LIST OF FIGURES Figure _ ______ Page 1 Geographic Distribution of Igneous Rock Terrains . . . .45 2 The United States -- 1970 Population Density by County . 46 I1T RESEARCH INSTITUTE iii IITRI C6438C01 17 37 4 HWBUI0002680 EXPOSURE TO ASBESTOS 1. PROBLEM ANALYSIS 1.1 Introduction Between 2,000 and 3,000 asbestos containing commercial and consumer products are presently identified. The use of these products has resulted in the consumption of 550,000 to 800,000 metric tons per year (MT/yr) of asbestos in the United States in recent years. Also, asbestos is present naturally with other minerals in many parts of the country. Thus, it is not surprising that asbestos can be found almost everywhere in the air, in the drinking water, and even in some foods. The purpose of this report is to gather together the available information on asbestos sources and estimate the extent of the overall exposure to the general population. These estimates are mainly based on currently available data and information on asbestos which are discussed at length in several recently published reports (ref. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11). Four sources of exposure to asbestos can be recognized. These are: commercial and consumer use, asbestos presently in place, manufacturing and processing of asbestos products, and naturally occurring asbestos. An Exposure Index (El) was prepared as a framework for estimating and ranking the exposure. The El is defined in terms of the asbestos concentra tions during exposure, the population involved, and the exposure time. Due to the difficulties in measuring asbestos exposure and the use of engineering estimates where such measurements were lacking, the present Exposure Index ranking is necessarily imprecise. The greatest amount of data is available for occupational exposure in industries for manufacturing and processing of asbestos products where- levels of exposure are highest- and exposures span over extended" periods of time. Some measurements of in place asbestos concentration have also been made recently, but generally the levels are low and difficult to assess. A large number of people can be 11T RESEARCH INSTITUTE 1 IITRI G6438C01 HWBUI0002681 affected by in place asbestos and a potential exists for significant exposure from such uses as sprayed-on ceiling insulation and asbestos cement pipes used for potable water. Commerical use is very wide spread. Most of the exposure accessment effort for commercial use has been devoted to activities of high exposure levels such as installation and removal of insulation and vehicular brake lining servicing and replacement. Less is known about routine exposure in commercial products industries in which asbestos is not a part of the end product of that industry but asbestos is nevertheless extensively used. Those without occupational contact or exposure can receive exposure from asbestos products manufacturing plants and other local sources. Also many low level sources such as auto mobile brake linings wear contribute to the general urban background.;^ A variety of consumer products containing asbestos are readily Mj available. Generally the exposure from the use of these is minimal J due to limited use and low asbestos release. On occasion, however, levels comparable to that of occupational exposures are possible. * 1.2 .Constraints on Monitoring and Measuring Asbestos Levels Although the role of asbestos as a cause of cancer and other diseases is clear (1), the mechanism underlying disease causation are not well understood, and this impedes efforts to measure, and subsequently to control human exposures to the substance. Besides the technical and economic difficulty of measuring asbestos con centrations, two other facts of the hazard are not clear: (1) the attribute(s) of asbestos that actually, cause disease and which therefore can give reliable measures of exposure; and (2) the concentration and time period of exposure to asbestos that is hazardous. The attributes of asbestos that have been implicated in vari ous hypotheses on carcinogensis include: Size and shape of individual fibers * Number of fibers 11T RESEARCH INSTITUTE 2 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002682 Total mass of asbestos Type of asbestos Trace metal content Trace organic content Surface charge Surface adsorptive characteristics "Because of the inordinate difficulties of separating the last four attributes from nonasbestos "background", these four are not suitable indices of exposure for:routine monitoring situations. In addition, hypotheses based on trace metal or organic content have fallen out of favor. Because there is no consensus on the attribute(s) that cause cancer-and, therefore, no consensus on the appropriate indicator of risk from environment al exposure to asbestos, the "best" monitoring and measuring method is that which permits the most detailed characterization of exposure through measurement of the first four variables -- size and shape of individual fibers; number of fibers; total mass of asbestos; and type of asbestos." (1) `A single, reliable source of asbestos exposure is presently still unavailable. 1.3 Analysis of Samples The most valid analytical methods for complete identification and characterization of asbestos are those methods based upon . electron microscopy. This is particularly true for assessment- of general community exposure from air or water. In some cases, where the fiber-size distributions of asbestos exposures are constant and already known from electron microscopy, the.use of optical microscopy, or other methods of continuous monitoring may be justi fied for routine surveillance. _ Complete fiber characterization and identification requires the following information: Size Distribution and Morphology Electron Diffraction Pattern Elemental Composition I IT RESEARCH INSTITUTE 3 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002683 It is not always possible to distinguish between the various different fiber types present in a sample by using phase-contrast optical microscopy. Therefore, in order to generate the complete information electron microscopy is used. "With any of the analytical methods, compromises are necessary because of the relatively 'heroic' sample-preparation methods required, especially for transmission electronic microscopy. Many of these methods -- involving such techniques as ashing, multiple transfers of liquid resuspensions, and filtrations -- tend to subdivid fibers into fibrils." Thus, it is difficult to reconstruct the original size distribution and reliably estimate concentration. For samples in which the concentration of asbestos fibers is low the analysis of only a few fibers will be seen and this will thus add to the measurement uncertainty.(1) 1.4 Reproducibility of Measurements Because of the difficulties of measuring asbestos-fiber con centration, there are large variations in the measurement of asbestos in samples of air and water, both within and among labora tories . Several studies in which a series of round-robin tests by transmission electron microscopy on asbestos samples (collected from air and water) were conducted showed large intra and inter laboratory variations. It is not uncommon for: results from duplicate samples analyzed by competent workers in independent laboratories to vary by much more than an order of magnitude.(1, 9, 25) The reproducability of optical microscope measurements are more reliable. Measurements by experienced workers are within 207o of each other. However, it is important to recognize that the results of analysis obtained by phase-contrast microscopy are not strictly comparable to those from an electron microscope because the fraction of fibers in a sample of airborne asbestos that will be visible under an optical microscope will vary by type of asbestos and by the particular industrial process being evaluated and also, 11T RESEARCH INSTITUTE 4 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002684 as mentioned earlier, the fiber characterization and identification which can be made by electron microscopy is not available from analyses by optical microscopy, alone. Some conclusions drawn from results of various studies on the comparison of electron and optical microscopy are: i The ratios of electron-microscope-visible to optical-microscope-visible fibers vary among plant emissions, the workplace, and the general environment, as well as within each of these categories. No universal ratios or factors for conversion of optical microscope.results to electron microscope results exist. In this report, when heeded, a factor of 50 has been used to convert occupational fiber levels from optical-microscope-visible to electron-microscope-visible fibers. The factor is based on a conservative estimate that 2% of total fibers are optical-microscope-visible. * No single factor for conversion of mass emissions to fiber emissions exists. Fiber/mass ratios differ markedly from the occupa tional to the general environments, and they also differ markedly within each environment. The number of electron-microscope-visible fibers per nanogram might well range from 100-10,000. - Based on the observed data available and for convenience sake, 1,000 fibers per nanogram-has been used for calculations in this paper. I IT RESEARCH INSTITUTE 5 IITFI C6438C01 HWBUI0002685 2. DEFINITIONS OF EXPOSURE INDEX AND POPULATION EXPOSURE 2.1 Exposure Index An Exposure Index (El) was prepared as a framework for estimating and ranking the asbestos exposure from the various sources. The Exposure Index (El) is defined as: EI^_ = 1 + log P^max PE. where PE^ is the overall population exposure from source i, and PEma-v t^le Maximum Population Exposure value, found by a compari son of all of the PE^'s. For the highest exposures, El * 1. The El values range from 1 to ll. These values were obtained by rounding off the logarithms of the corresponding Population Exposure values. The El values for occupational exposure (see Tables 7, 8, 9, 10) rely on measured exposure levels and thus are more reliable estimates than the El values in the Commerical and Consumer Use Table (Table 2 and 3), which are based on engineering estimates. 2.2 Population Exposure ^ Population Exposure (PE) is defined as the product of five factors. These are: Releasability (R), Duration (D), Frequency (F), Users (U), and Population Exposed (P). Levels for each factor have been quantified and coded in Table 1. Population Exposure can be formulated as: PE = R*D*F*U*P ng*hr*persons/m3*yr Table 1 has five columns, headed Releasability,:Duration,v . Frequency, Use, and Population Exposed. The numbers (1 through 4) in the first column are codes which denote for each use the level of use, releasability, duration and frequency of use, or population exposed. Table 1 gives quantities represented by each code number. lit RESEARCH INSTITUTE 6 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUK POPULATION EXPOSURE CODES j<-ui CO ro4 > C TSt at <CQu o IB* CU a --i OO CoH *eH 4-1 H $-) CQ a3 U s O 4v 44=-> co Ssrf1 r>--1v CO -/ m vO CM i--4 VO CM r-4 on X X 0 4J *r4 i--4 H <o Q S 0 -- cq bC CO fi i--4 m p-4 VO CM -vf - 0) ToJ r-4 cm on U IIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002687 < These terms are explained below: 2.2.1 Releasability (R) This refers to the degree of ease with which an. asbestoscontaining product is likely to release free fibers. Releasability ranking was reported on a qualitative basis in a CPSC memo (2), dated May 10, 1978. This scale is given below: 1. Free fibers. Not locked in at all. _ 2. I VV^ / ____ ___ ____ i Fibers locked in but are releasable in normal use or where handling is such that intentional abrasion, cutting, sanding, etc., is expected to occur. Fiber release may occur if there is a defect in the pro duct's performance. Fibers locked in and fibers not likely to be released in normal use but the potential for fiber release exists if a consumer engages in repair, accidental abrasion, modification, or if deterioration occurs because of aging or wearing out of the product. 4. Fibers locked in and are unlikely to be released under almost all foreseeable circumstances. In order to make some quantitative estimates, it was assumed that, as a first approximation, releasability:may be represented as exposure concentration. Table 1 gives the.range of asbestos fiber concentration in ng/m3, represented by this^ code system. The range of concentrations was selected arbitrarily with the. highest (100,000 ng/m3) representing 2 fibers/ccas measured with an optical microscope. Codes 1 through 4 were assigned by making 3 logarithmic intervals in the range l-10s ng/m3.. 2.2.2 Duration (D) . .... .. This refers to the exposure time for a person, working with the asbestos-containing product. It estimates in gross terms the duration of each use. NT RESEARCH INSTITUTE 8 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002688 2;2.3 Frequency (F) This number gives an order of magnitude estimate of the number of times per year any product is likely to be used by a person. 2.2.4 User (U) This refers to a gross order of magnitude estimate of the number of units of any particular asbestos-containing product which are currently in use.. Table 1 gives the range denoted by the codes used in Table 2. 2.2.5 Population Exposed per User (P) This number attempts to give an order of magnitude of the number of other people a person is likely to -expose when using an asbestos-containing product. 11T RESEARCH INSTITUTE 9 UTRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002689 3. COMMERCIAL AND CONSUMER USES OF ABSSTOS ____ ______ The exposure ranking for the general population due to major consumer and commercial uses of asbestos is given in Table 2. These use categories are taken directly from the Kearney Report (5). Several reported potential uses have never been realized and wgr^fiotin eluded. A particularly high exposure risk is indicated for braks lining repair. Other products which may give potentially>migh exposure are appliance wiring, vinyl aBbestos^li&iS^tiles, asbestos powder--texb'il^sT^'a^Ta^Hririing fluids. This list of six uses represents all those asbestos-containing products available for commercial and consumer use which had an Exposure Index of 1, 2 or 3. IIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE 10 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002690 COMMERCIAL, AND CONSUMER USES 8333 OVi vO r* i--no y) g\ B Ed a ofl4 sr eg -<r sr B wao 8&34- g sHI g eg HWaH> <03 CO si OwS Ed - Cfl 3 sf --i sr eg en .-I eg en eg <Y\ s^^eg eg cn *h cm H H cni cn ci00'ffvoHny)voiN03o\i/ir>>'Ois^'H'O'd ensrencnsrsrensj"ena-'4>-gfcnenen'a,'tfcnen<r cn , cn cn --g cn eg eg eg. --t cn eg --> eg -g h eg eg h h eg h eg h eg eg eg h eg h h h h cn enenencnen'a,encnencnenen-crcnenenegenencn 4 cn cn cn. CM cn CM ch sr eg "0* CM cn cn cn cn *4 CO 01 u ts4 3 iH 44 iH cn cd H Eg o 44 Pd 4 >% <! P- <44 3 <44 T3 CO o E< Ed g e cn 00 a 3 Pi 3 0C 3 3 Ed w H >H >H a3 3 4-4 44 4J 3 3 3 3 O oo a s o o Ba 3 a o 44 O iH a3 H 4-1 4J <0 3 CO 44 a 3 3 El iH 3 3 <3 C <5 03 CJ O S H cm cn gf m go 00 3 Hi CO 3 O 03 a Ei /-N /-s 3 CO 4-1 3 GO 03 o 4-1 >O u a aa . 3 Eg 3 3 O /--s C a CO 3 O3 3 Ei 44 *4 3 3 T5 a u E4 3 cO O 4J 03 a 3 cO 3 a 1*4 4-1 3 3 03 cn 3 Eg hI CO 3 3a 6 Eg >3 O33 _ _ a 3 3O CO O 3 3>3 -< J4 /~s a m 3 r4 M oo 3 iH a 44 , T3 CO sa-/ 3 Qa Eg a Pi Ed H 3H u CO >4 o t34 33 O oo a Eg CO H3i a> a Eg 33 a E< a O3 a- 3 33 B a 44 3 3 Eg 3 3 3 3 cO o 3 5 CO 4J Hi 3 >* Eg 44 3 3 CO TO E4 Eg 03 CO o a 4-1 33 O iH 44 *3 3 CO co %a-/ Eg 3 a a 3 3 4-1 3 3 r4 >44 l4 O 44 03 a Hi 3 >, O 3 T3 Eg a oo a 44 3 Eg Eg aw O a Eg o 3 oM Ed cn a 3 <0 3 3 3 *H0i |4 Hi a 6 3 r-? a a s *u3 a3 ar4 Eg 4O4 O 3 a Eg 3J Eg O Eg O Hi Eg 3 44 cO O o a H3i M 3(J) 3a 3 o 3 O r3H 434 cO a o CO <44 00 4O4 a 3 a hi 3 CO H B s 3aa oU 3 434 r* 3 o CO o a o o 3 Hi Eg i-4 CO 3 Eg Eg H *H c0 cO t4 CO CO ^4 o a i u u o a Ed a a a M M a ^ a a a s a cn H K K * * K p4 CM cn ^ m vO oo ov o^4 f-4 ci-m4 cn< <r H m f4 vo r^4 CO i-H ci-Hv O CM 11 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002691 _ . ; . _ -- . - Table 2 '(cont sas o mr~-rr>.vo^iovninvor<.a-vor^vn>a,3 & Ed Ed p* pw3a oo Ed u>m z Ed Ol NNlNNNMNNNMNMNNNlNN PEdi "H ----) tH --"4 --44 --t H -4 CM H ----i --M CM --"4 --4 -4 CM 3O B iW-3 CMCOCMCOCOCMCOCOCMCO-sTCMCMCOCMCMCO ww COCOCMCOCMCMCOCOCMCMCMCMCOCOCOCMCO 3 <n oo r m vo >r j' cn n m n ^ co <n m cm co CO CM CO CM -M CM CM CM CO CO CO CM C CM CO CO CO sf vO u*l cn cn cf -< CO CM CM CM H 03 -2 Em 04 - M- O 44 03 3 - czt Ed _ a U4) 03 0 4J CD 00 03 0) cs c 1-1 Em u3 CD OJ CO 03 H 03 i--1 - > CD Em 03 a) cn S 03 ai u 00 > Em i-H 3 cn < <S 03 03 o o O o C3 IS 3 3 s o cn cn 3 <D - ` ^ cs cn i u-j \o r*. 00 ON o >-* CS on ST m VO r** f-H H H rH >H pooQa M <4-1 CO 1(U4 a EM CpMcOa a. Epad v3 <! 03 3 44 <U a) Em <U 43 CO 4-1 01 -4 Em ca <U PS 0. 44 a z 3 CO 44 <2 44 SS CO iH 3 Z 01 PS rH 3 s .. H Ol 44 X c <0 o H- a cr s -4 H 44 M *0 *n4 *rl 3o M U U 03 Em ` - 3 03 0. M rH t-4 Ss 3 <41 00 PQ 01 s2 p5 CJ 03 H Em c iH rH 3 CQ 44 01 g *J PS -U u a _ Ed S XV <0 3 44 iH Ed T r U3 ^'aoOinO''T('tl/10'0'C,10'01 cnnnco-o-'fsrcno,-o,fO<t(n SwpaB -3- n<-<r'0`OJi--i<r'd--<rcNcN--4 Sto H nHN"t01NNncnrtP!HHHN(n HHNHNNNrtNNrtNW S HwM>q0 3 (ONNcncnncONC'iNcncncncnoioi n co n n cn h -1 n n ^ n sr n 3 1 w03 coenN'jcncnoiNNsfNcocncMMN `WPidNinnnHcnrtNcnpi P Table 2 (co n t cn z o M H < U H P "Ot - o. < - -q < M q - tpoq -- *51 a CJ vO i. c3n 3 03 y--\ o )-i 03 to 3 O 44 44 o pH 03 a H a) MH p cn 00 y-\ 3 03 M CO pH o a w y-\ p 44 pH 03 03 03 CO PO pH y-s 3 -r3 44 44 iH cn y"\ P 34 o 03 o o 03 03 3 pH 01 03 a Pg 0* -4J P o CO u 44 cO w 44 CO CO H T3 3 44 03 g T3 3 P w/ 3-1 o 34 pH H pH 0! *a i-l 3! o P 34 pH 3 g 3 0) J-i 44 so cO pH a u H 44 44 Q CO cO 44 O 3 H3 >s 0. 3 3-4 44 44 cO pH p pH pH iH cO 3 3 pH o 34 3 r-4 pH 0 H 34 cO 3 pH < CQ pa PQ pq a 04 CJ P 04 04 04 CM cn m vO co as o cm cn un VO p4 p4 ^4 p4 H "4 - cn 00 3 H 03 34 - 0. 3 _ a o >3 44 O pH 3 3 y-\ /-s 03 _ 03 t-i pH 03 34 o g pp 03 44 oa c cO 44 44 pH 03 3 3 44 o cn H >% 3 pH > pH 3 O cd P 34 > cj p P pH 03 a TJ 34 -a 03 o <0 o 3 O CJ 34 CO T3 "W pH cd 44 H cd w 3 44 CO pH o CO 34 34 03 34 pH p 34 a) 3 44 34 O cd pH 3 3 44 T3 3 pH P 44 pH 0- 0. u s 3 CO cO 3 H cd H 0 o P 44 q S .33 04 04 04 04 CO cn 03 _ 3 - TJ o 03 34 'O 44 pH CJ 3 3 pH r--1 44 3 03 00 3 00 3 pH 3 H pH H- pH a) 44 pH 04 X pH pH cd a) 3 34 H H 3' a - - . CO Cl O p*4 CM cn -<r m vO r> 00 Cl o *"4 p4 CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM cn " _ __ -- 13 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002693 gx |g 2xw 1z- 93 Oa Oca P4 a in VO VO mv OOvOvOvOvOr^vOvO co co co eo co co co co co co co co co B oa. M s H fH H CM O CM H M H i--4 CM H r-H 2 a>H id <to! cMCMcoeMcococococOeoeoeoco w aCA CMCMCM'^-CMCOCMCMeMCMCMCMCM vO <Jv 00 On VO vO oo cO'tfsra-eocOp4)04) HMMNHHtOO sr-3'sr'3,a,'d,srsr cospcOmpcococosi- Table 2 (co n t 0) CO 03 Ca) u o4-1 9 u3 03 CA tO 54 s 1-1 a s* <3 U 3 0) <u a CL. <u I W H a 04 a 0. CO 00 3 Ss-* 4J 4J u 3ce H 4a 03 <4-1 3 3 00 o 3 iH <u g 3 <u 03 gU 33 H w <u (U 0) 3 j-i 4-1 3 u o a o 3 C3 o r-4 o a 00 54 03 s H T3 TJ a a o o H 03 3 3 3 CA a 03 CO 3 a 54 U M u 4a 3 o ooo c3 cO 3 3 3 H 4J 4J 4J 00 4J 4a 4J o 00 00 a H 00 CA 03 03 03 s 3 3 3 a 3 9 4a oo 3 W 54a) <u 3 H 3 3 3 a 54 03 s i-l )4S3 a a a a g g cO 54 0) H tJ aCA 03 03 03 cO 3 a) 3 rH o O r--f *r4 < < < < a U u U u CJ CJ 04 CA cn * K IP- CN co <r un V0 r-* a ON O CN co H ^-4 H 4J C3O CO 54 3 4a 33 i-t 3 iH g 3 n3 O 3 54 3 OO a 44 3 4a 00 a 3 03 cO 3 E-t i H 33 H u 3 aa a a 03 54 4a 3 a )4 03 cO 9 o 3 TO cO iH a a 03 3 3 03 iH 04 >N *H CO a a 3 4a CO tH a a cO a 54 )4 54 TO fH 03 4a a 4J iH 3 00 3 o 3 03 a CO rH TO 3 a o aa 3 a 3 iH 3 03 3 a aQ 03 cO a 3 o 0) fc as <5 o O S a 2 00 H CN on <r m \o r>- a 1 14 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002694 Table 2 (cont g 2 XW! M 00 O VO o Opu 3cOn W UawEm 3O. cn ^ P`4 cn <r HMH H OCOOvOOCtCOOQOO'-^OOOOQ coeocncn^^^^cn^^^cncn CMfvICMC^CNCHCHOHi-^cncHCH'-l-H MiJ <eMpoa -tf co <r 2! i CH CH CH CO ^fo<rco<rcoco<rsrco^rfo^rvf COCOCO*-4CMCOCMCV|CV|CncO^CSfCsl a o M H < h4 < H CO ...a H M . cj eP Cc3 3-J o u |J < H op . w <-i ss SW .. 3 PL, a Mto p3q oa 2% O --4 so 3 uH cO CJ H u 4-4 OS O Ml O ft Ml 3 M 01 CO ua u 3 3 (8 60 3 CM C a H H gUL, 4-4 300 a f-j O O o <S cP op os * * H ^ CO pp 5] fa CO a o u PP o Em CO u Mw H CO 3 J54 kJ 2 Q H4 ay pp s] CO H2 o 2u kj <3 eh *P\ CO 2 o 1 ^4 - u 3 3 a 0) y os 4-1 3 s CO XH 3 >, a 4J O 0) 4J <CuL y 3 a 4J ao C T3 3 3 3 H 3 pH CO pH CO CO CO 3 CQ 3 CD CO a SO s a) *H H 3 3 -H y CL CD T3 H 3 CO <u PP 3 3 3 J3 u pH CO L4 ^ *o rH 3 rH <<<a33 H3 3 3 O 3 a o U so 3o H H N U CO CD CJ jXg 4J 3 CO CD rH Sfl CO 33 H CD 4-1 CO x oo y 4-4 CO 4-1 H o o cd PS p2 u 3 3 a 3 y 4J d CO M* 3 pa SO 3 l-l iH Ml 3 <H *4 33 3> 3 <H 4-4 X o o iH 4-1 3 X X CO a u* 'U <u dd 3' 3 y3 H O e CO 4-4 Ho 3O U3 --4 CN cn <r uo vO 00 c\ o i-4 CM cn -o* H HH H^ CD CO H -X <U 4J - CO - e3 a - 3 co iH pH P3 PU " H 4*4 3 - CO H 3 - 60 CD - 3o H 4J CO o3 44 pa CO H3 < '3 uCO ' CO 33 iH T3 - 3 u 3 3 ~ 3. TJ PP 3 3H CO O - CJ PM 3 CD S-i V4 04 O pa CO H rH cP&4 /--s <N w 3 CJ d 3 Mi 3 4-4 3 oo A SO 3 iH ^ Jai n3 CO Ml- 3-y- >, 3 mi 0) *H Mi i--I 4) H 4-4 a;- ctr pp co a-3O *H HO Em PP K -------- /--S /--s pH CN ww 15 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002695 4. ASBESTOS PRESENTLY IN PLACE A number of currently in place asbestos products are listed in Table 3, which gives a crude order of magnitude estimate of asbestos expos;ir^o^>tKeie-^n:odilfets. Potential sources of high exposure ri^k^ifh corresponding Exposure Index rankings, in paren theses, ane^ brakes in use (1) V'sprayed-on thermal and accoustical insulatiofT (2) , A.C. Pipe (^f^and accoustical ceiling tiles (3). In th^fo-l 1 ow-iag^sub-sections an attempt is made to estimate the installed tonnage of various asbestos containing materials. . These estimates are summarized in Table 4. - 4.1 A.C. Pipe in Areas With Aggressive Water Supply The exposure risk from aggressive water supplies using A.C. pipe is probably the easiest to quantify. From the results of a small sampling, it is estimated that up to 30 million persons in areas of aggressive water may be exposed to 20,000 ng/day of asbestos by ingestion. This is about 22 times more than the average inhala tion exposure to air containing 46 ng/m3 of esbestos fibers and strongly suggests that A.C. pipe carrying potable aggressive water may be a serious population exposure risk to asbestos. The following information was used to develop estimates of v population exposed to water piped in A.C. pipes. About 448,000 kilometers of asbestos cement pipe is estimated to be in place (4). Asbestos pipe is used for water supply and sewage. About 70% of A.C. pipe is used for water supply with sewer pipe accounting for the rest. Further, almost 30% of all water supplies have water conveyed in A.C. pipes. If the water entering the pipe is acidic with low alkalinity .and hardness, it is capable of dissolving the cementitious binder and releasing free fibers which enter the water supply. -~ An estimate of population exposure and mass of fibers ingested per day was made, based on the following assumptions: NT RESEARCH INSTITUTE 16 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002696 ASBESTOS PRESENTLY IN PLACE (1 ) 0a) 0] a. <4aah0d-11i as03. CU in u M 4a-1) C3O cocuui a6i <Idu a M-i on CU &4 !-i M CJ CU C 03 4J rl 03 0a3s C00 t-4 4J ^ <u 03 C H CO 03 C0O) iaH0s1 0s1 0s1 cCnO vCsO 17 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002697 Table 4 ESTIMATED TONNAGE OF ASBESTOS IN PLACE -.RELEASE TO WATER ASBESTOS _____PRODUCT . APPLICATION ASBESTOS IN PLACE km POPULATION EXPOSED ESTIMATED INGESTION ng/day A.C. Pipe Water supply (aggressive water) 336,000 (2) .29.8 x 10s (1) 20,000 Water supply (non-aggressive water) 46.2 x 10s (1) 100 RELEASE TO AIR ASBESTOS _ PRODUCT APPLICATION Asbestos roofing Roofing products Asbestos cement Excluding sheet sheet used for roofing Asbestos floor tile Flooring Insulation All thermal, electrical & decorative sprays Plastics (4) Friction materials Auto & truck brakes ASBESTOS IN PLACE MT 2.19 x 10 (1) EMISSIONS MT/YR 2190 (1) 1.13 x 10 (1) 1130 (1) 1.1 x 10 (1) : 550 (1) 0.4 x 10 (3) . . 200 (1) 0.14 x 10 (1) .... 0.17 x 10 (1) 20 (2) (1) IITRI engineering estimate. (2) Interpolated from data in Reference (5) (3) Average of estimates from Reference (5) and (10). (4) Excluding floor tile, packing, gasketing, friction material. 18 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002698 ........... (1) 30% of the country's population live in areas with aggressive water supplies. This assumption was based on the observation that naturally occurring soft water tends to be corrosive (25). Further, from the distribution of naturally occurring waters (22), it was estimated that 307o of the country's population could be living in areas with aggressive water supplies. (2) 30% of country's population receive water piped in A.C. pipe (ref. 4). (3) Aggressive water supplies have 10^ fibers/liter (4) (4) Assume non-aggressive water supplies have 5 x 10^ fibers/liter. (5) Assume that on an average, an individual ingests 2 liters of water/day. (6) Assume that 48% of the population is below 30 years (23). (7) Assume that pipe is uniformly distributed. (8) Total U.S. population 220 x 10^. -Aggressiveness of water is measured by an index" defined as AI *= pH + log (AH) where AI = aggressiveness index A = alkalinity of water, mg/liter CaCO^ H * hardness of water, mg/liter CaCO^ Water with aggressiveness index of 10.0 or less:is considered to be aggressive. 4.2 Asbestos Roofing Products -~ Asbestos roofing products include asphaltic felts,"patching' compounds and sheets. It is difficult to envision release of fibers from installed asphaltic felts and patching compounds since 11T RESEARCH INSTITUTE 19 IITRI C6438C01 the fibers are tightly held in the binder material. However, fibers may be released when a roof is being replaced or when the installed material becomes old and weathered. Population exposure is difficult to judge, but it is expected to be small because of immediate dilution of any fiber emissions. The following assumptions were made to calculate total installed tonnage of asbestos roofing products. Assumptions; __ Repairs & maintenance 1.5%/yrof asbestos roofing installed - Replacement 57/yr of asbestos roofing installed Demolition 2.5%/yrof asbestos roofing installed Net inventory increase 1.5%/,,yrof asbestos roofing installed Current asbestos Consumption 229,522 MT/yr Roofing Products release free fibers @ 0.17 by weight (4). 4.3 Asbestos Cement Sheet _. It is widely used in industrial and roofing applications. It is difficult to estimate the population exposed to emissions from Sheets used in industrial application. However, weathering and wear rates are expected to be low, about 0.1% per year of installed tonnage (4). A.C. sheets have been used for the construction of warehouses and bulk storage for corrosive materials and fertilizers. Under these conditions, it is envisaged that the .asbestos fibers -may'be released if the cementitious binder material disintegrates in the corrosive atmosphere. Figures for asbestos tonnage installed in'corrosive atmospheres are not available. Asbestos cement sheets installed as roofing are considered under'the.sub-section on roofing. The following assumptions were made to calculate installed tonnage of A.C. sheets for purposes other than roofing. Assumptions: : Maintenance & Repair Replacement __ . 2%/yr of total installed.sheets 4%/yr of total installed sheets 11T RESEARCH INSTITUTE 20 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002700 Structural Demolition 2.5%/yr of total installed sheets (assume all demolished material is replaced by new construction) Net Inventory Increase Installed Asbestos Sheets 2.5%/yr of total installed sheets 1.13 x 10^ MT Wear & Release Rate: Assume that normal wear, weathering, etc. amount to 0.1% per year. Emission rate:- 0.1 x 1.13 x 106 100 1130 Ml/yr 4.4 Asbestos Floor Tile Although widely used in apartments, commercial and public buildings, asbestos fibers in tiles are tightly held in the binder matrix and asbestos release at measureable rates under normal conditions of weathering and use is difficult to. envision. However, there are no known attempts to quantify asbestos release from installed floor tiles. % An estimate of total installed tonnage of asbestos floor tiles was based on the following assumption. Assumptions: Maintenance & Repairs 2%/yr of asbestos flooring installed Replacement 5%/yr of asbestos flooring installed Demolition 2.5%/yr of asbestos flooring installed Net Inventory Increase 07o of asbestos flooring installed Asbestos Installed As Flooring 1.1 x 106 MT Emission rate based on 1.0% over 20 years: 1.1 x 10^ x 0.05 _ 100 550 MT/yr Wear rate for floor tiles was arbitrarily selected; Most floor tiles are sold in thicknesses of 1/8 and 1/16 inches. Assuming uniform wear, an 1/8" thick floor tile would lose approximately IIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE 21 IITRI C6438CQ1 HWBUI0002701 6.25 x 10"^ inches per year, an amount so small that even after ten years of wear, its thickness would decrease by only 6.25 x 10"^ inches, an amount that commonly available instruments (e.g. vernier caliper, or micrometer gauge) would fail to read. 4.5 Insulation and Sprayed-On Materials -According to EPA estimates (10) about 4% of the schools in the U. S', have some indoor surface application of asbestos, either as accoustical tiles, decorative sprays, ceiling tiles or thermal insulation. If it is assumed that the percentage of children.at. risk from asbestos exposure is the same as percentage of schools having asbestos, then about 1.7 million students are currently being exposed to it. This estimate indicates a potential for high releasability by these materials. The release of fibers into the building atmosphere has been found to be greatest from contact such as maintenance and reintrainment during custodial activities such as heavy dry dusting, sweeping and vacuuming. Asbestos emissions from these and other situations are compared in Table 5. Comparison of the optical microscope measurements in this table suggest- that high optical microscope counts relative to the fiber concentrations on a weight basis may be largely due to the presence of non-.asbestos fibers. More extensive measurements are needed to characterize the collected fibers and to determine the extent of this asbestos exposure-risk. Between 1950-1973 sprayed-on insulation was widely used in multi-storied multibuildings for fire proofing purposes. In larger buildings, air condition return air flow through plenums which also contain the building structural members. These plenums- are fire-proofed with sprayed asbestos insulation. It is conceivable that the movement of flowing air over the sprayed asbestos material can dislodge and entrain fibers to give a higher fiber concentration of ventilating air as compared to those build ings in which the air is returned through other means (e.g., through metal ductwork). To give an idea of potential exposure, 11T RESEARCH INSTITUTE 22 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002702 Table 5. AIRBORNE ASBESTOS IN BUILDINGS (1) Sampling conditions or situation Mean counts Number of Standard (f/cm3)[o.in samples Deviation 1. University dormitory, UCLA Exposed friable surfaces, 98% amosite General student activities 0.1 2. Art and Architecture Building, Yale University . Exposed friable ceilings, 20% chrysotile Ambient air, City of New Haven Fallout Quiet conditions Contact Cleaning, moving books in stack area Relamping light fixtures Removing ceiling section Installing track light Installing partition Reentrainment Custodians sweeping, dry Dusting, dry Proximal to cleaning (bystander exposure General Activity 3. Office buildings, Eastern Connecticut Exposed friable ceilings, 5 to 30% chrysotile Custodial activities, heavy dusting 4. Private homes, Connecticut Remaining pipe lagging (dry) amosite and-chrysotile asbestos 5. Laundry: contaminated clothing. Chrysotile : 0.00 0.02 15.5 1.4 17 .7 7.7 3.1 1.6 4.0 0.3 0.2 : 2.8 - 4.1 0.4 6. Office building, Connecticut. Exposed sprayed ceiling, 18% chrysotile. Routine activity 79a NT RESEARCH INSTITU TE 0 to 0,8 _ (range); -12 -: o.oo 15 0.02 3 6.7 2 0.1 3 8.2 6 2.9 4 1-1 5 0.7 6 - 1.3 . 0.3 36 0.1 8 1-6 8 1.8 to 5.8 .(range) 12 0.1 to 1.2 (range) 3 40 to 110 (range) 23 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002703 Table 5 (cont.) Sampling conditions or situation Mean Counts Number oi Standard (f/cm3) samples Deviation Under asbestos ceiling Remote from asbestos ceiling 7. Urban Grammar School, New Haven. Exposed ceiling, 15% chrysotile asbestos Custodial activity: sweeping, vacuuming 99a 2 40a 1 643a '_ T - - 2 8. Apartment Building: New Jersey, heavy housekeeping. Tremolite and chrysotile. 296a 9. Office buildings. New York City, Asbestos in ventilation systems 2.5 to 200a Quiet conditions and routine activity 1 186 to 1100, (range) 0 to 800 (range) ^anograms/cubic meter. Determined by electron microscope. ^Reference (7) 11T RESEARCH INSTITUTE 24 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002704 in 1973 there were 53 million employed (23) white collar and service workers in the labor force. Assuming that 4% of them were employed in buildings containing asbestos insulation, there were (2) million people who may have worked in. situations with a potential exposure problem. From figures in"references (4) and (7) it is estimated that about 440,000 MT of installed insulation may he in place. Wear and Release of asbestos fibers from installed.insulation were calculated at the rate of 0.05% per year of total installed tonnage (5) . - 4.6 Plastics __ Asbestos fibers are tightly bound in the resin matrix of most molded plastic items. However, its use in common plastic items found in automobiles, homes, offices, and commercial environments is,widespread. But, it is difficult to envision a fiber release under ordinary conditions of use, wear and tear..; Based on the following assumptions, the quantity of asbestos.in plastics currently in use was estimated: Repair, Maintenance, and Replacement @ 12%/yr of asbestoscontaining plastics currently in use. Net growth of plastics inventory 1.5%/yr of existing inventory Annual consumption of asbestos for plastics ----- 19,000 MT/yr 4.7 Brakes in Use . ____ . 4.7.1 Estimate of Asbestos Installed in Brakes' It is estimated that in 1973 there were about 103 million -passenger cars, tra^llr^, motorcycles, and 20;90 million trucks and buses of all type,^(4) .J Assuming that the lighter vehicles (passen ger -cars, etc.) haSse^g lbs of asbestos in their, brakes and the heavier ones have 8 }hs of asbestos, the total;amount of asbestos in brakes may be estimated to be about 0.17 million metric tons. 4.7.2 Brake Wear Emissions .. A quantitative interpretation of asbestos emissions from.auto- 11T RESEARCH INSTITUTE 25 IITRI C6438C01 mobile brake lining wear can be made by using urban dispersion model (21). Assuming that the density of automobiles in the United States is proportional to the population density, emission concentration can be estimated for New York City. The total brake,emissions in New York City have been calculated as 3.4 x 10^ ng/yr, based on a national average emission rate of 10 tons /year (4) . This value corresponds to 1.1- x 10 ng/ sec. Since New York City has an area of roughly 300 sq. miles, the emission rate on an area basis can be calculated to be 1.4 x 10"^ ng/sec-m^. Average asbestos emission concentrations of'0.15 to 0.36 ng/m at ground level is calculated for wind speeds in the range of 1.5 to 5.5 m/sec. This can be compared to an average of 8 to 30 ng/m^ of chrysotile asbestos which was found in various boroughs of New York City (9) and also to an average asbestos concentration range of 1 to 10 ng/m found in the urban air of 48 U.S. cities (9). The source of the asbestos is uncertain since it may include much reentrained material from brake wear dropout as well as other possibly much larger inventories of asbestos emissions. Some of these are listed in Table 4. They are all sources which vary directly with population density. 11T RESEARCH INSTITUTE 26 ITTRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002706 5. ASBESTOS EXPOSURE DUE TO MANUFACTURING AND PROCESSING ACTIVITIES The manufacturing industries were considered separately under three different categories: * Primary Industries Secondary Industries . Consumer Product Industries Exposure ranks were assigned to each industry segment based on the definitions in Section 2 for exposure index, and pop ulation exposure. Population exposures were calculated as 3 the product of exposed concentration (ng/m ) exposure time (hrs/year) and number of people exposed. 5.1 Occupational Population Exposure Exposure to asbestos in the work environment was estimated by Assuming th^f^ih^ the primary industry, I fjf 6 -- mm isure was 1.0Sfibers/ccf 2.0 fibers/cc in secondary industries, and timer industries. For the purpose of this cJsTculatioi^ these were assumed to be the same for all segments ,/ of any ijnf dustry category. In Table 6, some typical concentra tion ^asurements. for primary and some secondary industries is further assumed that the average occupational expo sure rs z,000 hrs/year. Occupational exposure figures reported by Daly (9) were used to develop the exposure ranks. : Based on these assumptions, the occupational population exposures are reported in Tables 8 through 10 and summarized in'Table 7. Taken collectively, the occupational population exposure of the primary industry is dwarfed by the large sizes of the secondary industry, the consumer products, and brake service and repair category. IIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE 27 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002707 Table 6 EXPOSURE TO AIRBORNE ASBESTOS IN SELECTED ASBESTOS PRODUCT MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES^ Asbestos Concentrations (Time-Weighted Average In Fibers/ml)^ Typical Friction Products Primary Secondary 2 Asbestos Paper Primary Secondary 1 Asbestos-Reinforced Plastics Primary Secondary 1 Cement Pipe 1.5 Cement Sheet Primary Secondary Floor Tile 2 0.3 - 8.7 1.0 - 6.0 1 0.5 - 4.3 7L Textile Primary Secondary Paints, Coatings and Sealants 4 0.25-10 2.0 - 6.0 1 1.0 - 2.5 - (1) Reference (6). (2) Optical microscope visible fibers, 5 ym long or longer. 28 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002708 CO CT\ o O sr NO cr CmO X NO < H N u 8s >N U u CO u to -3a 3 a M3 wc co 4-1 3. 3 3 X3 iHM 3 * 9 3 iPHi 3 a 3 w Si a sH c99o 2 tn 4OJ 4o-1 CO `3 a 3Ni 'O 3 sH eOa Pi 3 to Pi ua <d -3d 3 oJH *t3H 9> PI Pi 3 33 s c3n 3 3a 3Pi fid <3 3 3H P>i C3O r 3 3Pi 9 CO CJ 9 M ,, . pH CM co co <u a 0Uo0o1 a pt<o-d4} U a o 29 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002709 Plastics Packing & Gaskets Coating & Compounds Insulation Textiles Other TOTAL 19,500 (3) 18,200 18,100 8,100 6,700 18,700 655,422 900 600 350 400 (4) 1,200 (4) 360 (4) 14,910 (1) Based on occupational exposure of 1.0 fiber/cc. (2) Excluding roofing operations. (3) Excluding flooring, packing & gaskets. (4) IlTRI engineering estimate. (5) From Ref. (9). (6) From Ref. (5). (7) EC * elsewhere counted. 9 x 10 10 6 x 10 xo 3.5 x 1010 4 x 1010 12 x 1010 3.6 x 10 10 149 x 10 10 4 4 4 4 4 4 30 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002710 Table 9 OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE - SECONDARY INDUSTRY - INDUSTRY SEGMENT ESTIMATED PRODUCTION WORKERS (1) --------- -- ----- ----------- OCCUPATIONAL POPULATION EXPOSURE (2) ng-hr-Persons/m3-year EXPOSURE INDEX Asbestos Paper 158,400 3168 x 1010 . 1 Asbestos Cement Sheet 19,200 384 x 1010 2 Gaskets & Packings Asbestos Reinforced Plastics Asbestos Textiles Insulation Other TOTAL 12,000 8,400 6,000 2,300 (3) 15,700 (3) 222,000 240 x 1010 168 x 1010 120 x 1010_ 46 x 10l . 314 x 1010 4440 x 10xo- 3 3 3 3 2 (1) From Ref. (9). (2) Based on occupational exposure?of 2.0 fibers/cc. (3) IITRI engineering estimate. 31 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002711 OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE CONSUMER INDUSTRIES- 3 UX s at 3o0. 4Mc3 X Ed n iom-^'ainuia'tf'f'a''f>o<oiniflinin<jin>ain<,i<') in cn ct -O' H- Po at -h P3t X a On 4 Ed a) eo o at H U u at Hto eIh aCUXn 0Ot 0eI1T Pno.^.'..Ot.i.nm.n.r..ss.n.Mf.O..iv.V.Po..'.caa.o.v.Ti.s.oN..-p.Haa. --fafr.-l.''.pvHa..oa.'v.o.r.op'.O.o.a..Mo-.M.o.n.o.O.'.Oo..Oo.ov..sOo..MpOaM..pv.H.'oa.j.'o.O-.M.o.s.fo.4f^.o.a^.'.Mt.pf.o.Ca.nO.p.r.a^. O^ 3ia.n.t.c.-cp.toHm..fp.oo.-.a.t.sP.ro4.f-.c.caS.oj.*a.o.N.^o..mrs.-.r-. co at at >> o i-H rH & 3 43 .6.3 at Ed O 3 n-t c3 Oa OtI X 4-i Ed MC at o iU !Z ooooooooooooooooooooooo ooooooo NrOin-<>coMo'pOso<oiiNncHMCMOri'nfmo\ocM\an'i.naowoNav3oican<v-o'oo-opMan\<af\ocM\Qin sr(cMm orNCrMs c<t in m sf pa vo -3' pa pa pa i" ZpcnpM-toooaiN cn sr - i--4 i-4 un -<T -- * --- - - ca axt t--co4 - o ca _ 4-1 a 3 43 M 'O Oc 4Ue-1 --; at c1o4 o 4-1 ca u 4a33 O s-> P4 a Id Pt J3 ca CJ = u M Pt ca at Pu Pt at Ed "d 09 o Pt e CO JS m cj 3 4J 4-1 0 pi 4-1 u 55 cn c J* 4H O0c a 3u 0- 09 3 CO 03 0 ca O 0 i-l 40 Ed c 00o 3 T3 H CJ .a 3 0 0 J3 43 rJ U rH 3 H 03 u Pt Z 00 O 0 rH 3 a ca 4J o O jQ i--4 4-1 pH 3 3 XI 3 CO CJ >3 O 4-1 3 3 4-1 Pt s 3 H a 3 Pi 4J 00 rH cd P4 U <4-1 cj a PI O 3U3 04 3 4-1 |0 P* a e 0. 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W 3 0 3 CL PI 0 J3 3 H a - co a u tH 4-1 4-1 CJ 3 "3 03 T3 rH Pi v9 04 c0 Pi o 4-1 E O 0 3O 3c a 3 JS X 3 43 3 4-4 Id o C *H 3 H rH 04 0 3 0 3 Pi 3 PI 3 - a 0J rH 3 M 3 3 3 43 p4 3 <0 o CP CO Pt 43 0 0 a CJ 43 0 ^ e: 'C EH cj o H pet 3 4J pet pet 3 43 04 4H 3 O 3 3 > *-! 00 0 4H O rH u 43 3 O Pt 2 Pet 3 33 pH c Pt CQ CP 4-1 H H a rH pi 00 Pt rH o 3 pH CJ Pt 04 3 O 43 3 Pi >4 O 0 CO Ot 3 Pi (0 U 4H rH X 0 04 rj E rH 3 *0 o 3 4-4 3 3 Pt 3 P4 Pt JZ iH 0) H a 3 4J 0 a 0) 3 H s H 0 3 J3 . PI ca M H 0 rH On )-t >4 zca CO o3 ES Vi J3 3 pet 3 3 a3 N a Pt pet 3 O pH pet CP 3 3 -X Pt 3 0t 03 3o 00 o 3 pH <73 <J U U o P3 pi 43 > O OO CO Pd a.0) pH pH CO CO Ol 3 > c o CJ *H 0 0 CO 0 T3 0 M 3 3 pH CJ o 0 g <4H 3 Pi 04 00 00 4o3 rH 3 rH O a 3 rH pJ SMS 0 a 3U a033 p-t 3 X CJ pJ . 32 IITRI C6433C01 HWBUI0002712 u3 x 33 to o -ca CL t--t 'a,^fncnsftfio<fco zQ QzNsf't-fMnf'wosf-jnnnnMnnn X Ed H' o 3 -4 >4 3X CO O <n 8*4 Cd a o3 oco 14--44 La>i m p-. d> 3 (4 OCL 4I= PL 0C C orON*oNO*ovIcO*MoC*-iO0JI'O^0*ON0*NO0*'Ov4*O<CW*n-l Q O-N''4flmOa)H'NJ'COOfOO^Ot-'JiOiNn^vOOoMvOolMfclOoO-NOfWrJSOoIoOINNOiuNfifoilHOoiM'i4ri f'l H "4 --< -<f Z Z O >-i i--i co m oo CM CM r-4 r4 r4 - -4 CM T able 10 (c o n tin u e d ) -- .-. - - " . - -- -- _ ... .. ... CO >34 oo 33 H H a 44 CJ -- 4J 3 3 --4 O3 ^u cj 3 u 3 44 CO M -H Li CuO Cd Zo .' 0) H 3J 00 44 33 uo Z CO a a C 3 80-rl 3& >, 3 Li p-4 cu H 3 3 Cd o Ss UCQ Li 3 >. Li 3 3 i-l 3 cj 3 PL * a 3 00 Cd 3 H z 44 Cd Z a 3 ft a 00 Cd -3H Z 44 3 1-4 CO 44 3 H ue co 3 'Cd Z 3 33 33 . 44 pL 3 Li -3 CL 3 PL 3 CJ -U d w 0) s CJ Cd ... Z- 44 " - -- - 4J 44 3 00 & Ll 3 H3 a3a o O 3 OTJ CO 3 3 P3 ixOLs Z4oJ ctt w c3a 4i-3u54 Ll t4 SS PL PL 43 3 (0 44 Li 3 Cl a) 3 -3n 00 o 3 Cl Cd 3 i-4 45 44 Pi a. o 3 o h n 3 3 t3: Ts3 PL PL 2 < 3 3 Li 3 Z 25 4.. H CO 44 a* - 3 Cd ^33 3. 3 CL- H 3 O* Li 3 o Li 03 1-4 44 CO --4 U 3 Li 3 00 03 3 00 H <0 H 3 3 .X O >. 3 -X H u Li O t4 o 03 Li Li CO 44 CL 3 T3 i--4 3 3 3 d -U u2 CO d u U CO d a 3 Cd .. d 03 a 3 CO HD 3* 3 i-l d -3 ~ 3 3 3 O CJ a i--4 U na d d co 03 d i--4 a 33 3 --4 Li Cd 3 >. 3 S 1-4 3 44 --4 33 33 6 Li 3O CJ PL -r4 Z 3 3 O Li Li 3 <44 3 O z 13-4 r-4 --4 r-4 C r-t PS O OS s 3 Li 3 3 H CL s a3 o r-4 cj 3 M CL Li JJ H 3 CO 3 3 3 3* H T3 Cd 43 d3 M 00 3 32 "H d 44 E a 3 Li d33 cu SB El Li CO z H- d n3 --4 r-4 d Md 3 44 H 3 rH 2 U d CQ *H 44 da3 'd d 3 Md a co 4VSi dH 3 3 a* T3 s d W3 H CO --4 3 r-4 Ll d3 u d 33 SB a 3 CL rL O3 4= 1-4 Cfl xz 3 3> 3 t4 Ll 4B O 3 44 3Q 22 d 3 3 > a r-4 d 3 -U >d A a rl aC)u Hd 4 S o o rH d dM Ud d H 3 r*4 O P H 3 3 1-4 ,3 a 3 2 CO d -a wd a) a H > M d CO CuO d s u* Ho 0) d d w H Md rH d a H H a d rH pa O s iH d a H M -U CJ d rH w 3o O CJ H >3 3 i-l P3 3 o 00 Ll 3 44 1-4 o Li 3 t4 i--4 Z Cd 14 rC 44 -O 3d 3o i--4 CJ Cd U 3d 3 rH rl H 00 d 3H Cd _o -irt .. 44 -3 44 ;N O L 3 3 L3i H. 33 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002713 0u) x 3 0 OX CO CM MD Mi--fl r-* ca 0) 0) >, o > 0o) 9 9 iC-aS4d o 1nOoe99-4 Tacaax3o> U 4G4 Cd a 9o o ar z o o oM l! a tJ-24 9 H <n 0 _ 00 0a. h9 e9a 9 Ui M u Tt 'G Cd H 0 9 9aa9 z h CO CU V 9 9 qj POu4 9 0a1i uC 9 44 a 0 aj r-l CO jj P9O 9O 9H M9 O 0H w H0 CU 400U UCO Cd 4J O 4 44 9 wB .$9 494 99 9 r-t 43 9 44 44 OO 99 II II O a cd zz VM a) Pi *8 o "m UH aUt 9 4-H0 4) *44 JP 4-1 00 *44 * H O <44 oo 44 0) OH a) c9o u C9O oau 9 xu 9 t4 9 9 C9U 9M O 44 -a 44 9 99 93* 9 00 9 44 O >h 99 O9 T3 9 9 .X 9 9 >94 M x*"4 X-4 w44 wCM 34 ,, -- _ -- - - -- -- -- -- - - _ -- _ . _ IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002714 5.2 Non-Occupational Population Exposure The asbestos emissions to the general population sur rounding a plant are a result of both process emissions and waste disposal emissions. Although they often occur together, . they are treated separately here so that their individual contribution can be assessed. Process emissions.were based on control efficiencies of 99.99% (20). Waste disposal emis sions 'were based on field measured values (19)^ Non-occupational population exposure from process and disposal-emissions were calculated by taking the product of population exposed, expo sure time, and concentration. The number of people exposed to the emissions was found by assuming each disposal site and plant as point sources, and then applying Turner's Atmospheric Dispersion Model (12) to each individual source. -The model was used to calculate the area of a circle in which the population would be exposed to an average.concentration of 46 ng/m3 . This concentration level is given a code rank of 3 for Releasability in Table 1. This area.was then mul tiplied by a population density and the number of emitting sites. The following assumptions were made to estimate the pop ulation exposure. Process emission rate is 0.01% of the baghouse. waste collected Disposal emission rateis 0.16% of waste per year -Plant opera&esk foiTSO Greeks/yr x 8 hrs/shift x_2shifts/day 6p days/week---^ Disposaly4ites emit for 52 weeks/yr x 24 hrs/day-x 7.days/week Plant s-ize: average for industry segment /2 Population density in the plant area - 1,931 people/km / NT RESEARCH INSTITUTE 35 IITRI C6438C01 'J The number of persons exposed +o qve. of 46 ng/m is determined using atmospheric diffusion estimation methods (12). X- a ux 2 where x represents the average concentration at a receptor from a single point source at a distance x from.the receptor. Dispersion calculations are based on the following assumptions: Emission rate, Q, ng/sec Source is at ground level Vertical dispersion rate @ distance \ from source, a z Wind velocity at 4.5 m/sec, u Wind stability, D Threshold concentration, x " 46 hg/m : With the above assumptions a graphical solution is used to determine the distance x at which --x = 46 ng/m3 . This dis tance is used to determine the population exposed to signifi cant asbestos concentrations. - r.-. . . . The resulting Exposure Index rankings for process emis sions and disposal emissions are summarized in Table 11; This table summarizes emissions for twelve manufacturing industries within the primary industry. The details are given in Table 12. ": : Process emissions to the non-occupational population are -highly dependent on the emission controls used.at a given plant. The effect of control efficiency on population.exposure is . demonstrated in Table 13 for the A.C. pipe primary industry. Wet scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators, which will give around 90% efficiency, are not very effective .in.reducing NT RESEARCH INSTITUTE 36 IITRI C6438C01 Table 11 NON-OCCUPATIONAL POPULATION EXPOSURE -- PRIMARY INDUSTRY (SUMMARY) INDUSTRY SEGMENT 1. Roofing 2. A.C. Pipe 3. Flooring 4. Friction Products 5. Paper 6. A.C. Sheet ' 7. Plastics 8. Packing & Gaskets 9. Coating & Compounds 10. Insulation 11. Textiles 12. Other EXPOSURE INDEX PROCESS DISPOSAL EMISSIONS EMISSIONS 64 74 76 54 75 75 65 76 6 N.D. 66 77 97 N.D. = not determined. 37 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002717 NON-OCCUPATIONAL POPULATION EXPOSURE PRIMARY INDUSTRY- CO ZMXtQeJ Cd 3 o0CwCOOL 0 zo CO Cxd 03CO4 OCL Xw CCCOOd o 04 CO zoM CCMOO ' -T xfr 0 000 m in m 0 1 0 Px. px* r*. 0 Px. 0 0 px. Ok EMISSIONS ! 5 6 .0 X 10 99.0 1.5 14.0 3.1 1 1.0 npHp s gn cn g 0Cl4 CL MCO s? Q o\ OkO^H Ok opH Ok o Oko*4 OkO^4 OkO Ok pO4 opH o opH OkO XXX oo m 0 cn X X X 1 X Px* o X fXp o o xoXO o X PH xCCOMM owZ H L4a1i V X wmCfCCOidOJ CO oZMCO 6? 0oCL S to o0C4L CXMCOd a\ op4 Ok OpH Okop4 Ok op4 Ok o Ok o(M4 Ok Op* OkOip4 Ok O^4 Oko*-4 Oko Okop4 Ok O-4 X O' cm X C*M4 X M0l o X o Ok --* X CCMM Q X r** 0 X p- p4 X Pi o X pp* CM X C0M o X px* CM O ^X4 Q o O X Xpx^. px. CM CO 3 S>p-aHs/ Q M CCOO CO0CwOLO CoO S3 Q s Ed a-* Cl oMz SJ 5 CofCCZMHOOO CCCCOOeJl 04 Pk 0- s OE-* oX004 SoH cn z wMCCOO s53 CO X*, s 0M4* Q04 to H<CoOCMOOL 0 0CeCPOsO3*l < CCauOO o04 0 /x, '-LJ g s <5 CO o HCEOd CO oWss H CO o<zj 04 fXc gCMO z '* szC*d oCC2Od ooo* oo o 0opH o0o oo o 0pH Ooo o" p4 OoO <0n ooo Ok ^4 ooo c<nrm ooQA 1 7,700 740 CM SoT ooo x0c4n- .CM ooOk cn 0oo oo 00 ^H 0tn 066 780 654 0o0 P^ xOoO Ok x0o -T CoaM pH CpOOHM xpTH xCM .0o *4 0 m0 00 0cn Ok *T rx mCM O OPki pH Ok pH o cn Px o^H r**4 o CM O CM o oV oV oV OV oV n 0ov* ON -Cfp-4Mr* 00 O O0^*4 C0M o 0<* CM 0 o CoM o 1 <0 Pp*4X cr*nx Ok oo XcCMn* o o oV x^ XT oxl Px 0o pH CM O C00M <<n4 o O^4 o p4 Ok o p4 o o^4 0 o p4 0pH Oook 0CxMT o o o O o o o o V o V oV o V o V pH CM w4C"M\ /0-V CCmMM ooo ooo ooOk poo4 Oo0 ioOn oCoM oopH oopH oopx oopx xCCMMfr COCMMN px. CM oC^4O U"k 0CM oCM o* 0pH 0pH 0 0 0 pH 0nin cn AcJa CJ T33 LOi 0 <G4HL 0Oa 4aH1 0 CJ < 0 eH Uo o 0 0 uC0H CHJ 0U AJ 4411 M4&1 A0 CJ 0<3 < n tAaLJ cn o 0 4a4Ln1 OB CJ 0 *0erf CJ 0 n G CO00H3J. 0 tCuf0fa-Jlll AoeHJ fHfl 3fl Me 4f1l Awi 64X-1 4L1i A u O x<J oe- I fl U 41 0f3l M 00 Li >v 0) >k^ oa 0 0) u dcO ^ CO U-CO M- a A - ^4eJ *^hfO4l ^ofWl o 0n- O r* O 00 AJ 0 0 CM CO CL 41 fl 00 0crt:0 iH0c0 i-Lc4 U Lh O 41 O O OocHo Ol uHn <w oo 00 <y ax 41 x a OGJ *iC-0t ""HC3 OC01 p4CO <4 CO CO H 0)M 3 3 * 41 cj Qa &- cj o 44 O CO w X x OJ U M 2- aHUCdtf n N PI lO O 38 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002718 Table 13 EFFECT OF CONTROL EFFICIENCY ON TOTAL POPULATION EXPOSURE TO ASBESTOS/ CEMENT PIPE MANUFACTURING PROCESS EMISSIONS CONTROL EFFICIENCY % 0 90 99 99.9 99.99 TOTAL PROCESS EMISSIONS, MT/vr POPULATION EXPOSURE 670 2.3 x 1013 67 2.0 x 1012 6.7 1.7 x 10u 0.67 1.4 x 1010 0.067 1.2 x 109 EXPOSURE INDEX 2 3 4 5 6 39 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002719 population exposure compared to a well-maintained baghouse system. Table 14 shows the results of a survey (24) of process emission controls, employed by asbestos users." Ninety percent of the control devices in use were baghouses. : The highest exposure from manufacturing and processing activities is among those who work with asbestos. Their large numbers make them an important group within the' general population for special concern. One million persons now living in the United States either worked in the past or are currently working in the asbestos manufacturing industry (1). It is further estimated that._n^ie^oxis,umer, products industry. workers"wxth continuous exposure to asbestos currently.m 5.8 million persons. This figure does not include 900,000 persons who are continuously exposed to asbestos in their: vwork related to the repair and servicing of automobile brakes Luenfs from process waters are virtuallv__non^exitent and the plants are considered to have zero discharges:(27). From the existing data, only gross estimates of non- occupational ^xpoaure-^'itr^T'Imafy manufacturing, indusl po^adrbTe7*^These estimates suggest that the population expo' hire in the area surrounding manufacturing plants from ^aste disposal may be comparable to the population exposure ie the ^occupational population. The population exposure from process^ ^ssions (assuming baghouse filtering is usedl. appearsH^De: considerably les-o-.--Bato--were--l-aeking--forrCTmaking_ even gross estimates of non-occupational population exposures from secondary and commercial products industries. --Gross- esti mates of asbestos emissions from these industries are shown in Table 15. . NT RESEARCH INSTITUTE 40 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002720 Table 14 USE OF EMISSION CONTROL IN ASBESTOS PRODUCTS MANUFACTURING PLANTS (1) Control Device Plants Total ' Using Device Devices Used No. Percent No. Percent - Baghouse 72 80.0 335 90.1 Scrubber 6 *6.8 8 2.1 Cyclone-baghouse combination 4 4.4 12 3.2 Cyclone Filter systems 4 4.4 7 !. 9 3 3.3 6 1.6 : : .. Scrubber-baghouse combination 1 1.1 4 1.1 TOTAL 90 100.0 372 100.0 -- (1) Reference (24). IIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE 41 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002721 Table 15 ASBESTOS DISPOSED AS WASTE IN SECONDARY & CONSUMER INDUSTRIES 2 f 42 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002722 6. NATURALLY OCCURRING ABESTQS-. The geographic distribution of igneous metamorphic rock terrains and the population density by county, are shown in Figures 1 and 2 respectively. Asbestiform minerals are known to occur in these terrains or in the weathered sediments in close proximity to these rock types (11). Comparison of Figures 2. and 1. indicates those regions of the U.S. having a high population density and also have a . high potential for fugitive asbestos emissions. The most critical areas appear to be in eastern Pennsylvania, south eastern New York, south western Connecticut, the San Francisco area, and the Los Angeles area. However, there is little in the way of heavy mining in these areas. Most areas containing igneous and metamorphic rock which do support heavy mining activity tend to be sparsely populated. One study (11) has shown, albeit inconclusively, that the ambient air concentration in the vicinity of mines containing 5% asbestos as gangue is about 0.3 - 10 ng/m . From this it would appear that substantial populations surrounding mine sites where asbestos is present as an accessory mineral are _ not exposed to significantly high concentration-levels. Natural waters from several rivers, lakes and creeks were analyzed in a study done in northern regions of Vermont andNew Hampshire, southern Montana, the Washington Oregon region, northern California and the boundry regions of Georgia, Carolinas, and Tennessee. Asbestos fiber have been found in the natural sites in;. Montana, California and along the Connecticut river at levels as high as the mid to upper 107 fibers per liter range (15)(.H.) In an earlier study on the asbestos content of water supplies in "several large metropolitan cities asbestos was found in four. 11T RESEARCH INSTITUTE 43 IITRI C6438C01 of the ten cities sampled. All four cities were located in geographic terrain known to favor occurrance of asbestos. Cities which had a detectable asbestiform fiber concentration in their raw water supply were Boston, Philadelphia, Atlanta, -and Seattle. Water supplies of New York, Chicago, Dallas, Kansas City and Denver were relatively free of asbestos (18). The areas of the U.S. where high concentration of asbestiform phases have been observed in underlying bedrock correspond to the geographic distribution of igneous and metamorphic rocks shown in Figure 1. Although, these rock formations cover 30% of the U.S., data are lacking on the amount of asbestiform containing rock which is quarried and used. This may be used where sedimentary rock is not readily available. Calculations were made to estimate the amount of asbestos which might be emitted from the use of asbestos containing rock for surface applications on uhpaved roadways in the United States. - The following assumptions and values are used; Total unpaved roadway, UR Gravel Roadways as % of UR, GR Asbestos containing rock used as % of GR, AR Asbestos Content of AR, A Silt content of AR, S Silt finer than 30 um aerodynamic diamter, SF Annual vehicular traffic, VT Vehicular speed, V Vehicular traffic rate, T Annual wet days with rainfall >0.03 cm, W 1.2 x 106km 50% 1% 0.5% 12% 60% 4380 hrs/yr. 64 km/hr. 10 vehicles/hr 90 days lit RESEARCH INSTITUTE 44 IITRI C6438C01 e U fa C cn /e IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002725 IIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE 46 riTRI C6438C01 F ig u re 2. The U n ite d S ta te s - - 1970 P o p u la tio n D e n s ity by C o u n ty (R e f. 11) :j HWBUI0002726 vehicular traffic emission factor (28) is calculated E = (0.23 S) (^ (3||gH) E = 2.77 x 10 -2 Kg/vehicle-Km Kg/vehicle-Km Emission Rate = E SE A UR AR GR VT Emission Rate = 2.2 MT/yr. This valxie-J-s in the same order of ucle range as the emissions expected from brake lining wear However, unpaved roads are usually in areas of low population density and the population exposure may be much less than that for brake lining wear. It appears that natural occurrance of asbestiform material could lead to population exposure, but the extent and degree to which this might occur is difficult to determine with the data available. This is true for both the rock used on unpaved roadways and for the potable water. One difficulty in dealing with the data on city water supply is that adequate information, regarding the presence of other man-made sources up stream of the sampling points is not `reported. Without.this information it is difficult to judge the real source of the asbestos found in these cities' water supply. NT RESEARCH INSTITUTE 47 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002727 7. TECHNICAL CONTROLS The thrust of the EPA effort is to control the population exposure to asbestos. This control requires coordinated effort in several areas. These include improvements in asbestos exposure measurement methods, collection of more complete and accurate data on existing sources, control of exposure to emissions from the most significant sources including industrial-, activities related to asbestos product and commercial product manufacture, and admin istrative actions. 7.1 Controls to Limit Exposure _ __ . .......... Many engineering alternatives are available to control asbestos emissions during processing and disposal of asbestos (1). Some are economic and others are not. The control methods include enclosures, exhaust ventilation, isolation, treatment of fibers, burial and substitution of alternative materials. For process emissions, the baghouse filter system is the most effective. Other types of particulate control-methods are less efficient, often by orders of magnitude. For those facilities with adequate process emission control, .waste disposal can still be a serious source of emissions. Daily burial with six inches of soil cover is recommended. Bagging,pelletizing, lagooning, or covering the loose fines with a chemical stabilizing agent could be equally effective without the expense of daily landfilling. The current asbestos process and disposal practices and the extent- of their usage in the primary, secondary, and commercial products industries are not known at this.time.. Such information would He useful for determining the extent to which further EPA effort is needed. -Population exposure risk to sprayed-on asbestos in schools .and other actively used buildings will be greatly reduced as those buildings with the most highly friable asbestos-are identified and I IT RESEARCH INSTITUTE 48 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002728 remedial steps are taken to reduce their emissions by chemical sealants or by complete removal of those coatings whose state is judged to be beyond repair. ..........Custodial activity due to its regular frequency is an important source of high dust emissions and has been identified as a source of high asbestos concentrations in buildings with sprayed asbestos ceilings. The contribution of outdoor ambient air to the settled asbestos which is reintrained during custodial activities is not clear at this time. At any rate, cleaning methods other than dry dusting and sweeping could greatly reduce reintrainment emissions. Serpentinite and other asbestos bearing rock may be the sources of local asbestos exposure. The prevalence of their use should be examined in surface applications, such as unpaved roads, playgrounds, and parking areas, where they are likely to be emitted into the ambient air or pass into surface waters. Stabilizers to control emissions from such surface applications is the subject of a current program. *...^Fugitive emissions in the dust from the mining, milling and processing of other minerals in which asbestos may occur as an impurity should be monitored and examined to determine the possible extent of asbestos exposure from such sources. ..........Municipal incineration of commercial and consumer.products . containing asbestos, such as floor tiles, plastics, and roofing material, may be a significant source of asbestos in the urban air. .This should also be examined to determine-its importance. 7.2 Administrative Action . Administrative action can be a highly effective method for reducing exposure to asbestos fibers in many situations. It is particularly attractive due to its low cost and speed of implementa tion. Administrative action can be applied in.two areas, the occupational area and the consumer application of asbestos products. Among the most effective administrative measures are those which alert the individual of his hazard and offer a relatively 11T RESEARCH INSTITUTE 49 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002729 simple remedy. Warnings regarding a potential health hazard, when coupled with simple instructions to reduce the hazard (such as "wet before cutting", "mix in a closed bag") have been found helpful in many situations. Difficult or inconvenient remedies are apt to. get a . poor response from the public. Similar work rules in the secondary asbestos product industry can be used. Clear, concise instructions for.both the rationai; and the ~ imp ortance ,of -the-mires'- -In dus,tries such as the brake relining industry could easily be /^targeted-for rules to encourage stringent house-keeping, isolation / of drilling and polishing operations, personal sanitation, and Xtnedical standards. Some of the rules , par ticulanLv^-feho'S'^'affecting only employees, are perhaps more in the purview of OSHA, however the rules may insure the proper disposal of asbestos waste and reduce the secondary emissions caused by inadequate containment of dust and scraps. .......... Since a number of companies are doing so anyway, it might not be inappropriate to suggest to asbestos industries to limit, future hirings of asbestos workers to non-smokers only. .......... Ways to discourage commercial and consumer use of friable ______Til,,,. forms-of-asbestos might be examiriedT" .....Ways to encourage development of brake formulations to- give low asbestos emissions could also be considered. 11T RESEARCH INSTITUTE 50 IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002730 REFERENCES 1. Levine, Richard J., M.D., (ed.), "Asbestos: An Information Resource". DHEW Publication No. (NIH) 78-1681, May 1978. 2. Simpson, Glenn, Memorandum, U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, May 10, 1978. 3. EPA (1978), "Asbestos Source/Effects Review" (Phase I Reports), Prepared by Assessment Division, QTS, USEPA, Dec. 1978. 4. Meylan, William M., et al., "Chemical Market Input/Output Analysis of Selected Chemical Substances to Assess Sources of Environmental Contamination, Task III. Asbestos". USEPA 560/6-78-005, August 1978. '5. "Review of Asbestos Use in Consumer Products", Report by A. T. Kearney, Inc. (Prepared for U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission). Apr. 1978. 6. Daly, Allan R., Zupko, Alan J., and Hebb, Jery L., "Technological Feasibility and Economic Impact of OSHA Proposed Revision to the Asbestos Standard" (Construction Exclude), Asbestos Information Association/North America, Mar. 1976. 7. Sawyer, Robert N., M.D., Spooner, Charles M., M.D/, "Sprayed Asbestos- Containing Materials in Buildings: A Guidance Document", USEPA 450/2-78-014, Mar. 1978. * 8. "Petition to the Environmental Protection Agency to Control Asbestos Emissions from Spray-On Materials Which Have Been Applied in Public School Buildings for Insulation, Fire-proofing, Decorative or Other Purposes", Environmental Defense Fund, Dec. 21, 1978. 9. Nicholson, W. J., "Chrysotile Asbestos in Air Samples Collected in ^Puerto Rico", Report to US CPSC, CPSC No. 77128000, Mar. 1978. 10. Dekany, John P., Deputy Assistant Administrator for Chemical Control, Office of Toxic Substances, U.S. EPA. Testimony Presented to the Subcommittee on Elementary, Secondary, and Vocational Education of the Committee on Education & Labor, House of Representatives, Jan. 8, 1977. 11. Kuryvial, R. J., Wood, R. A., and Barrett, R. E., "Identification and Assessment of Asbestos Emissions from Incidental Sources of Asbestos", Office of Research & Development, USEPA, EPA-650/274-087, PB-241/999, Sept. 1974. 12. Turner, D. Bruce, "Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates", NAPCA, PB-191-482, 1970. 13. Reitze, William B., Nicholson, William J., and Holaday, Duncan A., "Application of Sprayed Inorganic Fiber Containing Asbestos: Occupational Health Hazards", AIHAJn, Mar. 1972. 11T RESEARCH INSTITUTE IITRI C6438C01 51 HWBUI0002731 14. Rajhans, 6. S., Bragg, G. M., and Morion, J. S., "A Review of Asbestos Exposure in Ontario", AIHAJn, 3, 9, Sept. 1978. 15. Stewart, Ian M., et al., "Asbestos Fibers in Natural Run-off and Discharges from Sources Manufacturing Asbestos Products, Part II Non-Point Sources and Point Sources Manufacturing Asbestos Products, Walter C. McCrone Assoc., NTIS, PB-263-746, Oct. 1976. 16. "Asbestos Fibers In Discharges from Selected Mining and Milling Activities, Part III", Walter C. McCrone Associates, Inc., PB-264-288. 17. Buelow, Ralph W., Millette, James R., and McFarren, Earl F., "Field Investigation of the Performance of Asbestos-Cement Pipe Under Various Water Quality Conditions", Pre-publication copy. Journal of the American Water Works Association. 1977. 18. Stewart, Ian M., "Asbestos in the Water Supplies of the Ten Regional Cities", Final Report - Part I, EPA -560/6-76-017, Apr. 1976. 19. Stinson, Mary K., Harwood, Colin F., and Ase, Paul K., "Asbestos Waste Emission Control", in Second Symposium on Fugitive Emissions: Measurement and Control, EPA-600/7-77-148, Dec. 1977. 20. Siebert, P. C., Ripley, T. C., and Harwood, C. F., "Assessment of Particle Control Technology for Enclosed Asbestos Sources - Part II", Office of Research and Development, EPA, EPA -600/9-76-013a, PB--251 ,623. Feb. 1976. 21. Holzworth, George C., "Mixing Heights, Wind Speeds and Potential For Urban Air Pollution Throughout the Contiguous United States", USEPA, AP-101, Jan. 1972. 22. Shreve, R. N., Chemical Process Industries, 3rd Edition, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York. 23. Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1974, (95th edition). Bureau of Census, U.S. Dept, of Commerce. 24. Harwood, C. F., Siebert, P. and Blaszak, T. P., "Assessment of Particle Control Technology for enclosed Asbestos Sources", Final Report, Phase I, NERC-EPA, Research Triangle Park, N. C., Jan. 1975, EPA-650/2-74-088, NTIS Publ. PH 239926, Oct. 1974. 25. Lange's Handbook of Chemistry, Lange, N. A., (editor),_9th edition. Handbook Publ ishers Incorporated, Ohio, 1956. 26. "Comparison of Ambient Asbestos Levels Determined by Various Laboratories", Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, ORD, EPA, Research Triangle Park, Sept. 1977. NT RESEARCH INSTITUTE co IITRI C6438C01 HWBUI0002732