Document RaOwr6rXVX90ZGbYx1mp2aM2V

lic beverage the previous day. The coefficient of (pmbl/1) by different predictor variables 1. agreement (Kappa) was 73 % 14. Male Female SDs N SDj Blood lead analysis Venous blood samples were taken with a vaccutainerR free of heavy metals,' containing sodium heparin. The samples were stored at a maximum of 4 Celsius until they were mailed to an analytical laboratory. Mailing was without cooling (average mailing rime 1 -2 days), but never over a weekend. Samples from the same day and/or the same' medical-practice were distributed to different' analytical batches. The laboratory and the analyt ical method were identical to those used in the 1984 Western -Switzerland blood lead study-(and its repetition in 1991).'This allowed a comparison of the two data sets. Methods, and quality control data showing the data's precision and accuracy, have been described previously4'5,15. Occupation'2 >50% in painting-. 33 " 0.51 0.21 printing-, construe- 153 0.36 0.1.6 tion-, metal-pro- " : t = 4.<kp's rafooi cessing industry else --- alcohol intake never seldom > regularly (nearly every day or more) 17 0.29 0.16 28 0.27 0.19 121 0.34 0.17 161 0.28 0.16,, , 93 0.44. 6.20 50 0 35 0.17' F=12.8; p 0.0001 F=.(5.5; p== 0.0017 smoking, . nevr former casual regular :v . . 64 0.31 " 0.14 , 106 -&28 -tei7 74 0.38 0.21 .52 0.28 0.18 13 0.41 0.23 8 0.26 0.17 79 0.41 0.18 70 0.34 0.16 F=4.9;p = 0.0025 F=4.08;p= 0.0076 place of residence Place of residence Basle Riehen 199 0.38 0.18 33 0.32 0.20 0.02 208 0.30 0.17 31 0.25 0.13 t = 1.44;p = 0.08 . 'rt ii JO U* d ii frequency on;the stre&ibo^ residence;'1 THi" *l Age-adjustriient d idaotirifluemx compairisons)ahdgclometric means, information was provided by the noise emission 2 comparison only among males, since no females in exposed registry of Basle16. groups. Statistical analysis level about 30% above women (men 0.37 gmol/1; ^omon'0.29 pmol/I). Within each age/sex .category The data Were analysed witii: the SPSS-X software participants had an arithmetical average blood lead package. Blood lead concentrations were distributed level 30% lower than subjects in a study of blood log-normally, and the analyses were therefore car lead in Western Switzerland examined apprpxi-?, ried out on logarithms ofbloodlead concentrations.: ,.jnape3y?3;years earlier (figure l)4,5.. - 5 ' IT The result^ of statistical anatysjis. geometrical means (Xg). We used multiple linear regression analysis to control for important con- Multiple linear regression analysis founders. Discrete independent variables were, , coded as dummy variables. For model building (he; Gender,ngej. occupation^ alcohol consumption and ' forte# entry -Method wa'S "Selected: 'gender ;ahSrage'' J Siholatfg as havingan independent were introduced first, followed by other variables predictive value in multiple linear regression analy according to their predictive value in univariate sis (table 2). In the crude analysis participants living regression analysis. No interaction terms were in in the area of Basle had an average blood lead level troduced into the model, because analysis of the 20 % higher than those living in Riehen, a suburban data did not reveal any major interactions for the community without much traffic (table 1). Place of determinants of interest. Results are reported as living and hourly car frequency were, however, not cumulated R? and as partial regression coefficients significant independent predictors when they were: withassociatedT-rstatisticS:. ' fev introduced last into' the multiple linear regression model. Introducing occupation and alcohol consumption Results into the model considerably reduced the estimated regression coefficient for gender. Since gender dif The results of the crude analysis are presented in ferences in smoking prevalence were less prominent, table 1. The average geometrical mean blood lead and owing to its correlation with alcohol intake, level in the sample was 0.33 0.19 pmol/'l whole entering smoking into the model did not further blood, men having an age-adjusted average blood decrease the regression coefficient for gender. Part m-po-i HI 1 - So I -Soo - I -coo X- 11 Lfot/ Alcohol consumption and other lifestyle factors: Avoidable sources of excess lead exposure Nicole Probst-Henschv Charlotte Braijii-Fahrldettdef, Andreas Bodenmann% Ursula Aekermann-Liebrich. Iastifote of Social anji JPreyentfve .asJe, ^ Blood lead studies in different countries have shown Materials and methods a downward tread in the population's lead burden :.patallelhng;flie reduction of lead i%.petrol. Between ^ Poptifatten 49-76 ahf 1080' the- National Health-andiNutritioh . Survey found an average blood lead reduction of Blood samples were available from participants in a 37 % in the U.S. In the same time the total amount study on cardiovascular risk factors and nutritional ;pfiead-used In petrol production decreased from behavior 1. . , . : ;.. , yv v ,v - approjdmatbly 53'OQp'td 24 000 tons-pSf quarter1. A In August 1989 a random saihple .Ofresidents; of ` correlation between lead content of all petrol sold in Basle aged 20 to 74 years was selected from the Massachusetts between April 1979 and April 1981 register of inhabitants. Turkish-speaking persons and the concentration of lead in umbilical cord were excluded. A letter with an invitation to partici- blood from births at a Boston hospital could be patewas followed by telephone contact. Only 3 % of demonstrated 2. In Sweden a follow-up study found all subjects could not be contacted. 471 persons an average decrease in blood lead of 34% between participated (59%); there was no difference be 1980 and 1984 for residents in the inner city area of tween the sexes. Participation was lower for persons .Stockholm3. . aged 20 to 24 years (45 %) and for foreign rodents The first general population survey on blood lead in (52 %), The sample's sex''ahd ' haribhhpty" Switzerland, conducted in 1984, revealed average bution was representative of Basle's population blood concentrations comparable to those of other aged 20 to 74, Turkish residents excluded. The age European and North American populations at that distribution for males, however, was not represen time4,1. Since then, lead emission has decreased tative of Basle's male population, with a higher drastically in Switzerland. Emission from traffic, proportion of older subjects in the sample. accounting for 65 to 75 % of total lead output (680 tons in 1984), decreased by about 40 % T'JIowever, lead in airborne particulate matter and in soil still Data collection exceeds the legal limits in Basle, an urban in dustrialised agglomeration in. northwestern. Swit zerland (the Swiss legal ambient air quality stan were examined in dard for lead is 1 pg/m3 (annual mean) in airborne Examination included: blood 'pressure, height and particulate matter and 100 pg/ (mz day) (annual weight, and venous blood sample for determina mean) in dust precipitation). It was therefore of tion of cholesterol levels and lead. A question er,. exposui qu'et^IfiBforhiaffifePon dem<Igrhj>hie'factors and absorption. nutrition, as well as smoking and drinking habits, A population's basal lead level-as a result oflead in Was filled in by the participants. The participants atmosphere, food and beverages - can be lowered were subdivided into two different categories on the by collective preventive actions. The first aim of this basis of their job-descriptions: those working less study was to determine the effects of the achieved than half-time, or working in occupations where reduction in petrol-related lead emissions on the lead exposure is unlikely, and those working at least population's exposure, and to compare the data half-time in occupations where it is possible or with previous national and international'data. The second aim was to identify environmental and sure may occur. lifestyle factors which result at the individual level Questions on alcohol consumption were validated in blood lead concentrations Exceeding the basal by comparing the general statement with the level7"9. . . twenty-four hour recall. 124 out of 143 participants : ;i`4 -J ; rFjry .h, mV'.TiT on the food frequency questionnaire also reported having consumed an alcoholic beverage the day before the examination. 44 of 45 self-reported DUP040008867 Tab. 4. Mean lead content (ng/i) by colour of wine on Basle market. Colour N mean SD range red wme rose white wine 81 53 16 21-102 5 44 12 18-54 ' TO ' 23-53 Total -.99 50 17 _ 18-102 red versus white wine: t == 6,86: p < 0.001. lead in wine on sale in Basle. Wine was sampled from five appropriate supermarkets in Basle- The samples represented mhfiiiy ' '{!&' lowest price seg ment, which included two thirds of the total amount of wine sold in Basle. We determined the lead ' concdntrafion of 99 wines of different origin and colour, and with different'types of bottle cap. The wines wei e mainly from Switzerland, Italy, France, Spain, and Algeria. The analytical method and quality control data have been described17. The average lead' concentration was 50 + 17 pg/1. Red wine contained significantly more lead than white wine (table 4). The 31 Italian red wines contained significantly more lead (62 + 15 jag/1) than the 50 red wims from mother countries. When wme in bottles with different types'of closure was com pared, essentially no differences in the lead content were found if the sample analysed was taken directly from, the bottles. However, high lead con centrations of up to more than 300 jig/1 were found for wine bottles with tin-lead, closures if the wine was pou.re.dimto a glass before .-being-analysed. Lead corrosion products on the edge ofthe bottle, coming from the closure, were obviously dissolved in the wine. Discussion Average, blood iea<L,levpIs in Basle (xg = 0.33 0.19jimol/i) were low.-compared to those'found in Western European and North American cities some 5 to 10 years ago (0.5-1 .Opmol/I)18. The same low level was, however, already found ih inner city residents of Stockholm in 1980, Daily nutritional lead intake in Switzerland and Sweden is estimated to be 25--30 pg3,19, whereas in Great Britain - with an average blood lead level twice today's Basle level - it is 75 pg20,21. In addition, lead in drinking water'is negleetably low in Basle (well below 25 pg/1), and lead in can solder is legally limited (< 10% lead)19*22-24. The most plausible reason for Basle's low blood lead level, though, seems to be the fact thatthestudy was conducted at least five years later than compar able investigations, namely after a period of drasti cally reduced airborne lead emission in Switzerland. A comparison of the Basle results with data from the 1984 Western Switzerland blood lead study supports this hypothesis4,5 (figure 1). In terms of environmental and demographic determinants, comparability of the populations in Basle and Western Switzerland is a valid assumption. It is true that a higher percentage of participants in the Basle study did' not consume alcohol, and this ittby have' accounted in part for the lower exposure. However, a comparison ofrhe Basle results with only the urban subjects of the study in Western Switzerland would have resulted in-an even greater difference since the latter included a rural population with lower exposure. The comparability assumption is further validated by the repetition of the survey an ; Western Switzerland in 1988/89. which resulted in blood lead concentrations comparable to the levels found in our study25. Furthermore, in 1984 the Swiss results were not low m an international comparison. In view of all these facts, the reduction * in lead emissions since 1984 is the most plausible reason for today's low lead levels in Switzerland; The association between lead and gender, age, occupation, smoking, and alcohol consumption con firmed the results of earlier studies4,5,26-30. Men's higher blood lead levels may partly be due to their higher hemoglobin concentration. The age depen dency- though small- correlated with coipparable data and is probably the result of accumulation and the long half-life of lead in bone. Sources of lead exposure in construction, painting, printing, and metal-processing are lead in dust and soil, old paint or lead containing alloys 26,31. Since lead type is no longer used in the printing industry, printers' high blood lead levels might be a sign of high'exposure in the past. The finding that alcohol consumption and smoking - despite their correlation - were both predictors of blood lead supports the results of previous studies that. identified -them as independent risk fac tors4,5,18,20,29,32,33. Lead persistence in soil as a result of the widespread use of lead arsenate as an insecticide in tobacco fields in the past might still give rise to lead dust contamination of tobaced plants. But the average lead content of a cigarette is estimated to be 1-2 pg, which is too small to account for the total difference observed between the blood lead levels of smokers and nonsmokers33,34. The smokers' higher hand-to-mouthactivity, leading to a higher lead dust absorption is therefore another possible source of exposure. Occupationally exposed smokers have been shown, to have the highesfblood lead levels if-they smek'cat their working place9,21. ' " Regular alcohol consumption (at least one glass of wine a day) has been found in other studies to increase the basal lead level by 30-5Qi%,29,35. Grandjean and co-workers concluded; on the basis. of their multivariate model that a daily intake of 1.35 cl of pure alcohol (one glass of wine) increases the blood lead level'by 0.025 to 0.050 pmol/1 whole DUP040008868 Tab, 2, Multiple linear regression model on log(Pb-B) as dependent variable: 4log(Pb-B) -- b0 + b, (gender) 4- b2(age) + b3 (occupation) * b4 (alcohol intake) + b5 (tobacco consumption) + e N -- 471 b Mb 1/P R2 cumulation ^"cfsange/P sex 0 ==fsiftale;! 1 = male' age (years) - .. >'.... occupational exposure 0 = no; 1 = yes alcohol intake seldom regukuiy (reference; never) tobacco consumption 1 -20 cigarettes/day > 20 cigarettes/day - varkms.tobaeep'; products -.V ;; (reference: never) : - v ,V> 0.056 t. 0.016 3.4/0.0007 7.0 36.5/<0.0001 -4'-'4 fv-i----. : -:,-a *-*4474 ^444*. ? 4,- . ;;4 i, w 0.002 0.001 3.9/0.0001 9.8 15.7/0.0001 - . i'-'-'-i'-r'-.A ,,, 0139 0.031 ..... X.. 4.5/<0.0001 14,5 26.6/<0.0001 0.034 0.114 0.026 0.028 " "" " ' 1,3/0.19 4.1/0.0001 ... . 19.6 0.048 0.019 2.6/0.009 0.095 0.028 3.4/0.0009 0.136-r - - - , - -0.041 . :......., 3.3/0.0009 ... , ,:: - 17 23.0 .. ................... 19.0/<0.0001 7/ ' : ; 4., " ., . Ji 11.2/0,0009 of the difference in blood lead levels between men and women was therefore due to the fact that men were occupationally more often exposed and drank Tab. 3. Sex specific geometrical mean blood lead concentra tions (pmol/1) by average alcohol intake and by previous day's alcohol consumption1, .^mpre alcphol. thanwomen. But jsven if four coa- alcohol intake Male Female ihto accouidM&'Sfijybhd'an average blood lead level 6% higher than that of N x8 SDs- *4 v : SDs women. Agei was a robust, but very Weak predictor. Loga "never" and "nothing yesterday" 17 0.29 0.16 27 0.27 0,19 rithmic transformation of the variable did not sub "regularly" and stantially improve its predictive value. "something yesterday": The high blood lead.level .ofworkers in painting or - beer only yesterday 18 0.35 0.21 - wine oniy yesterday. ,30 0.48 0.20 ' printing, construction -or jthetal-fifbeeSsmg ihdhs^ -- various kiephOlic 32 0.50 0.18 tries was also partially explained by their high beverages yesterday 6 0.30 0,08 26 0.37 : 0.17 8- 0.39 : 0.15 alcohol and tobacco consumption. But an un- F=8.0;p< 0.0001 F = 3.4;p-=0.02 cpnfounded average blood lead level 14% above the Scheffemultiple , "wine only" vs. not significant level of all other participants was estimated to be comparison p < 0,05 ' "never"; ' - ' 7 - > \-4 * associated with occupational exposure. '' If smoking status (see table 1) was entered into the model, the regularly smoking subjects had an "different" vs. "never", and vs. "beer only" " unco nfounded -average blood lead level 8% above -tbeTeVel 'of those who raver sinoke.` Smokers were' further subdivided into persons smoking 1-20 i -^participants with regular alcqlwLintakfi had consumed cider or liqueurs the previous day; this limited nutnbendoes not allowany inference about the effect of these beverages. cigarettes/day, > 20 cigarettes/day, and^ several tobacco products or something other than cigarettes (table 2). The partial regression coeffi sumed only wine the previous day had a higher cients were significant for all three subgroups of blood lead level than persons who had taken only tobacco consumption, indicating a dose-effect beer, although the difference was not significant relationship. Five men who smoked pipes had a (probably owing to the small number of partici- high blood, lead concentration (5^ == 0769 umoi/l, , pants'in both subgroups). The alcoholic beverage 95% d = 0.381 -1.240). consumed the* previous dpy by regularly-drinking Subjects who drank alcohol regularly had blood subjects in most cases represents the preferred lead concentrations on average 12% higher than alcoholic beverage, therefore giving an idea of the those pf abstinent subjects after controlling for effect depending on the kind of alcohol. confounding. ' *: " ' 7'7 ; . Data on the average alcohol intake was further stratified by the reported consumption of alcoholic Lead in wine beverages the day before the examination (table 3). The observed association between alcohol con Regularly-drinking participants who had con- us of DUP040008869 Despite today's low lead levels there are several Resume reasons to strive for the lowest possible lead expo sure in the general population. The lead levels Consummation d'alcool et autres facteurs lies au style observed today still exceed the lead content found in de vie: Sources evitables deposition au piomb human bones from pre-industrial cultures. Lead La plombemie d'un echantiilon representatif de la Serves nofunction in tfya human, organism., Adverse,, .population (n 47,l),agee de 20 ,a,74ans et vivant au health effects have been identified at blood lead Bale a ete deterxninee par spectrophotometrie a concentrations observed in the general population; flamme en 1989-1990. Les participants a_ cette for these effects no threshold has been'found as " 6tude transversale ont rempli un questionnaire yet. Little is known about interactions with other relevant des donnees demographiaues, les habi- environmental pollutants42,43. The 'successful re-'' ' tildes eii-mSliere de nutrition, de corisommation ducriri; of blood lead levels in the general popu alcoolique et tabagique. La moyenne geometrique lation f vc - toe last decade is an eccelknt end de la plombemie, ajusiee pour Page, etait de mot it r.< t . mrilc tor the ntroducmui ol* mea- 0,-3& 0,19 pmol/l pour les | hommes et de sure' for envi1 omul TilrJ pioticLion like die inlro- 0,29 0,17 pmol/1 pour les femmes. Ces vaieurs li.'ct'i'ii ol un coded petrol. The results of this .'md/ moyennes etaient d'environ 30 % inferieures a cedes furthci h'ghlighi rhe importance of Lhe prcveut:cn xnesurees dans une population comparable de of uloahol atme and smoking Pregnant won.en are. Suisse orientate cinq ans auparavant. Les emissions an i"ipofiaiu tii-gu group Future cr search is de piomb en Suisse onl dimmue d'environ 40 % -tJUTd to in'.eaiyelt whether alcohol, tmokuig, entrel3S.ld.1990 suite,il?diHrmndcpli^ j ii plus and lead have synergistic effects on the fetus. large cks eaiburants iiis piomb. ce qui repres mte l'expbi alien la plus phus olo air -.riciirs Je plom bemie basses mesurees a Bfile. Le sexe, l'agc, la Summary profession i pern ires cn batiincnn lmprimenrs. em ployes do la cor.rtraction ou ce ia meLdluigiei, les Lead concentration in whole blood of a representa habitudes tabagique* ci la ;oi<s'.rn.rr.r-uon dhncooi tive sample of 471 subjects aged, 20 to 74 years and (de vin en paiLicuberjont etc imr tifics ccmiuc des living in Basle was determined in 1989/96 by flame predfetcurs mdependants Jc In plcmb mile dans une atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The partici analyse de regression lme.na mnJtvit. Les '\nvjm- pants in the cross-sectional study filled in a ques Hiateuri quondicns d'akool ;r aient en n'c,enne tionnaire on demographic factors, nutrition and unepJombeniicUt. i2o sapeneua a jx.itrstiiK.: tsiet drinking habits. The age-adjusted geometrical mean les fumours natiitneis. uno > aLur cle ^ % plus flevee blood leaa level was 0.38 + 0.19 pmol/litre ofwhole que les suet. u'ay.iiL |^mas fume Le ir u tie blood for males, and 0.29 0.17 junol/litre for residence er "i dmsue Irctic automociki: a females. The average lead burden was about 30 % proxii lite du domicile nont pas de iac o'fles below the mean concentration found in a compar camme des predid curs inJUrn'TJnnls L'unal so de able population in Western Switzerland five years 99 vin., diSDoniolek. -ur ir nmcht, baiois i ivele earlier. Lead emissions m Switzerland decreased by umk : concern: atlon de piomb moy-nr.e de about 40 % from 1984 to 1990 through restriction of 50 + j7 'imoL'i do vn'. Compafee in. appi r. par lead in petrol. This offers the most plausible expla les alimmis is. true <. ?5 pa/j cn fun-sc,.,,c` tc \ ileur nation for the low blood lead levels found in Basle. jast.ekvie. I 'hyp-fh *c d ime .cianon cnuaPlf- entire Sex, age, occupation (employment in- painting or `plomnernk *r conrominohon de ' `a ost y n-e. printing, construction or the metal processing in dustry), smoking and alcohol intake (especially wine consumption) were identified as independent Zusammenfassung blood lead predictors in a multiple linear regression analysis. Participants who consumed alcohol daily Vermeidbare Quellen der Bleizufuhr: Alkoholkonsum had blood lead 'concentrations on average 12% und indivfduelle Einflussfaktoren r. higher than those of abstinent subjects. Regular Im Rahmen emer Querschnittstudie wurde 1989/90 smokers had an unconfounded average blood lead die Bleibelastung der 20 -74jahrigen Bevolkerung *.KQr rihef GohaltSanafs * lysk jmiit^E Atomabsorptions-SpektfopJibtomstrie! that area were not identified as independent predic wurde emer reprasentativen Stichprobe (n = 471)' tors in the model. The analysis of 99 different wines venoses Blut entnommen. Mitteis Fragebogen on the market in Basle showed an average lead wurden soziodemographiseher Hintergrund, concentration of '50 17 pg/litre wine.' Compared Ehiahrungsgewohuheiten. Rauchen '-and Alko-j ' to an estimated 25 jig daily nutritional intake oflead `hoikonsum erfasst. Die altcrskomgierte mittlere in Switzerland the value appeared to be high. The (geometnsche) Bleibelastung des Kollektivs be- hypothesis is presented that there is a causal rel trug 0.38 0.19 pg/1 Yollblut fur Manner und ationship between lead in wine and lead in blood. 0.29 0,17 pmol/1 fur Frauen. Die mittlere Bleibe- DUP04I 20-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 age .55-64 65-74 Fig. 1. Arithmetical means for blood lead levels ( one standard error) by sex and age decade for Basel, sample (1989-90) compared to values for Western Switzerland collected in 1984. blood36. With an average blood lead level of highways or inside streets3. To identify the effect of 0,36 pmol/I in Basle, and assuming that regularly - traffic density on blood lead, information about the drinking; subjects conSr^^dai^aveiag&r<^4.^indoor-/outdoor ratip for lead and about the time glasses-of wine, the 12%.4ucreas'e in avemge lead. spent at home .is needed. :' level as compared to abstinent persons is in good agreement with the above-mentioned results. Previous studies have also found, a stronger effect qf Conclusions winethanof beer37,38. Wine is, furthermore, the - most frequently consumed'hlcolidiie beVerlge iff' The Idw basal blobd lead level found in this study Switzerland39. The analysis of99 Afferent wines on population is expected to further decrease with Basle's wine market showed an average lead-eon- systematic lead reduction in petrol. Because there eentmtion of 50 |7 pg/1, which .appeared to. be are lead reservoirs in the skeleton, and owing to the high compared to an estimated 25 pg daily nutri- long half-life this decrease might pause, at some tional lead intake in Switzerland19. Assuming that intermediate blood lead level An individual can lead from alcoholic beverages is absorbed to a reduce his/her blood lead level primarily by reduc- w cause of high lead levels in regularly-drinking 0.3 mg/kg wine has been set based on the described subjects. results, and caps containing lead alloys must be {The:place ofresidence had no independent, predic- . replaced by 199441. TheJssue of lead in wine has 4ive- vulde In Sis Urban 'populhtibpv: A difference been carefully investigated by the U.'S. FDA. Majojr between raril and urban subjects' blood lead levels efforts to reduce lead in wine and to inform the was shown in earlier studies4'5,20'28,32, but no public about safety aspects are currently being difference existed between urban subjects living on undertaken. ,; DUP040008871 ; #- '< V ,, < - :." ife 4:" ' - , ; : > W;- 'i-v'kiWi, .j -a,y : - , 33 Brockhaus A, Freier I, Ewers U, Baginski B, Kramer V, 41 Bundesamt fur Gesundheitswesen: Bulletin, Bern 1992: ML Dolgner R. Epidemiologische Untersuchungen zpr dkologi- 42 Levin A. Reducing lead in drinking water: a benefit analysis. schen Bleibelastung von mannlichen Grossstadtbcwohncrn Office ofPolicy, Planning and Evaluation. Washington, U,S. in Nordwestdeutschiand. Int Arch Occup Environ Health Environmental Protection Agency, 1986. 1980; 46:59-10. 43 Rayce SE, Needleman HL. Case studies in environmental 34 Watavabe T, Kasahara M, NakatsukaH, Ikeda M. Cadmium medicine. Lead toxicity..Atlanta, U.S. Department ofHealth a* the world. Sei TotaTEnviron 1987; oarZS-Tr. 35 Bortoli A, Fazzin G, Marchiori M, TrabuioG, ZottiS. High h-'oij -rph B nndCfhB indULulb/, kolioi ,,na si.wi l,i , Lekkas TD Heavy metals in the environment; International conference, Athens, September 1985. Edinburgh, CEP Con* Acknowledgments, 36 Grandjean F, Olsen NB, Holtnagel H. Influence of smoking and alcohol consumption on blood lead levels. Int Arch We are indebted to Prof. Dr. M. Guillemin and M. Berode from the Instifut umversitatre de medecine et d'hygiene du tra.ad in ,, ,5. an j Lausanne foj blood and to Dr. A. Herrmann from important source, oflead exposure. Food Add' Contain 19S8; the Kahtonalen `La&ofatortiim' BhsefBtadf for kupemsibn of: 5:641-644. wine analyses. 38 Sherlock JC, Bickford J, White GF. Lead in alcoholic becerages.'Food Add Contain<1986; 39 Fahntfkrug H[ Mueller R. Gesunder ins Jahr:.20'00?;iE5ne ,r Address for correspondence: _ Onteiijuebung dei ` Schweizeriscben FachstgJb.Jilii: AlMo* Nicole Probst-Hensch: ' holprobiemf (S FA) za Gesundheit und AlkdpbillbpSIBp id^ Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine 15- 74iahrigernSchweizer Bevclkemng. of the University of Basle 40 Smart GA, Pickford J, Sherlock JC. Leai|; Ip jaicsH^lic Steinengraben 49 .. beverages: a second survey. Food Add Contain 1990; 7; CH-4056 Basel/Switzeriand 93499t ! R23| satis,. Miy Sif^Si f mT-- A*SA'>.|s DUP040008872 lastung betrug rand 30% weniger ais 198'4 in einem vergleichbaren Westschweizer Kollektiv. Seit 1984 giagen. die Bleiemissionen durch den Verkehr in der Schweiz um 40% zuriick. Somit ist der erfolgreich gesenkle Bieiausstoss die wahrscheinlichste' Hj'saehe fii-r- die h&ut&,verglaicbsw,eise niedrjg^. 11 Zemp E. Frauen und Gesundhcit Ergebmsse dgr Gesundheitsbefragung SOMIPOPS. Dissertation Mcdizinische Fakultat der Universitat Basel 1988. 12 Muster E. Zahlen und Fakten zu Alkohol- und Drogenprdblejhbn 1988. Lausanne, Schweizerische Facbstelle fiir Alkohciprobleme 1988. 13 MQNICA-Suisse. Premiere enquete depopulation dans les Regressiojisanal yS. ,,wurden (jreschlecht, Aller,^ 54 Cohen J. A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales, licl'uf ll<itigk'*ii Mi 7d;tall\Cr'ifcdtlinfr. ' * rtl IcJLurMt ana 1`sycholngicr-t' Weasirre'rvni Drackerei- r nd Bfuge^'erbe), Rauchen und Alko- 46. hoikons t r (mVne-.-cndere- Win) aK unabh+Wgigs^W1 Dac'iHiicmi'.Li iduilifizicrt. die beim E'nzdnen zu einer Blj:bk`ikelas>.uiig iiber du`> durch die Uniwelt absorption spectrometry. Atomic Absorption Newsletter 1972, 71:120-121:. acgeixne G uiiima>s iieiiiT. 1 fie luglica ciurcli >i'l rilfVli 12 `liiK-iM Rcscner.. Rcgehialiue Riiichir hattea f'% I -Iisic uituc-'c B'utMciv cle Ja Rjrs@neh?|:||e:J Programm Schwermetalle in Lebensmitteiu. IV. Blei in Wemen auf dem Schweizer Markt. Teil A. 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In: Lansdown R, Yule Eii. n'tbvn'ue1 i.r Anb..ypunk dr JA Pio\mtion ein.i inu)'ii b hen Bleihek dung hcmt damit identifizierl:. ht/ilti Lonuon '-vlnoy ( room PC ir 19t 6, % rl2o_ 22 Kantonales Laboratonum Basel-Stadt. Schwermetallgehalte imTrinkwasser. In: Die Durchfuhrungder Lebensmittelkon- troile in der Schweiz im Jahre 1984. Mitt Gebiete Lebensm Hyg 1984; 75:3l2-31A References .. ......,............... 23 Etvtood PC, Philips KM, Lowe N, Phillips JK, Toothill C. Hardness of domestic water and blood lead levels. Human 1 Armest JL, Pirkle JL, Makuc D, Neese JW, Bayse DD, Kovar MG. Chronological trend in blood lead levels between 1976 Toxicol 1983: 2:645-648. ............ ` ` - A5 `i" 24 Mahsffey KR. Factors modifying susceptibility to lead toxicity. In: Mahaffey KR. Dietary and environmental leadr and 1980. N Engl J Med 1983; 308 :1373-1377. human health Effects. Amsterdam, Elsevier Science Pub 2 JtabmQwitz MB, ffeedleman HL. Petrol sales and umbilical lishers, 1985- 373 -419. 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