Document QME2RM9BO06Bn8kJyxX4pNRjv

.mwiwumw H*rjwgqw i: i .w\ PH'i fiwwii'uypi" --'V */> 5*r.'ny* LIA2 4467 I LEAD INDUSTRIES ASSOCIATION tl MADISON AVINUI NEW YORK IT, M. V, March 10, 1961 SUBJECT! "TOE CHOICE OF BATTERY SYSTEMS" To Members of the Lead Industries Association' We believe that you vill he Interested In the attached paper on "The Choice of Battery Systems," uhich vas delivered at the 1961 SAB International Congress and Exposition of Automotive Engineering in January of this year. Certainly d o paper on this subject could cocse from a sore authoritative source. o Since our supply is United, copies in quantities up to 10 nay be obtained from us on request free of charge, and additional copies at 10 cents per copy. Very truly yours. RLZ:JRH Alt. r LIA2AA66 mh'Vmn'i a i.rptai PREPRINT; Sutyoct to rovWon. Pr> mluloii to publtth ftito popar, ia M r la o port, oftor Hi protft+aBoo and wHb crodit to tKo outhor ond tho Sodoty may bo ob tolood upon roqoost* Tho Sodoty U not ro tpomiblo tor ttoHmonH or pinion* odvoocod b po> port or dfKVMJont of tti Mottinga. 269D THE CHOICE OF BATTERY SYSTEMS By C. G. GRIMES and W. S. HERBERT THE ELECTRIC STORAGE BATTERY CO. Yardley, Pa. 1 For presentation at the 1961 SAE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS AND EXPOSITION OF AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING Cobo Hall, Detroit, Michigan January 9-13, 1961 Written diicviiion of thli paper will be accepted by SAE until March 1, 1961. Three double-spoced copies are appreciated. Discussion is printed if paper ia published in SAE Transactions. SOCIETY of AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERS.Inc., 485 Lexington Avenue.New York 17. N. Y. 1 O N 1716.01 LIA2AA69 - .... **-- * - -- '-*-*-*-------~^------------ i. --- ^:.tfc^-.^.li. a ; LIA24470 "ir^^-----*----* The Choice of Battery Systems C. G. Grimes and W. S. Herbert The Electric Storage Battery Co. IT SEEMS APPROPRIATE now. fust after the certfennUI of CiMn PUnre'r Invention of the lead-acid accumulator, to review the battery field and evaluate the itatui of the lead battery, as compared to other competitive systems. For a long time, the lead-acid battery hai been the workhotK In the field of secondary batteries. The relative dm* pllclty of the electrochemical reaction, high cell voltage, absence of ctiricallty In physical configuration, and a gen erous supply in nature of rather inexpensive basic materials are all factors which have contributed to tbc commanding position of lead-acid batteries. Lacking this fortunate com bination of good technical and economic features, other sys tems were relegated to a potUioo of secoodary Importance, while industrial development emphasized the lead-acid work. And. contrary to the remark to often heard to the effect that the battery in your automobile today is no different than those used tome 40 years ago, the facts are quite different. There hat been a great improvement n the battery during this pertod*-improvement In Its electrochemical perform ance, in the energy -density ratio, in packaging, and in life. Most of this Improvement has been die result of years of de velopment wherein progress has been achieved by incremen tal improvements as opposed to any profound advance which could be attributed to research, Tbc latter has been some what neglected. In general. It might be uld that research in lead-acid couples hat become a re*liiy only in the post war period. One seldom hears any reference to the electro chemical efficiency of the !cad*acld battery. This it quite understandable when, after a hundred years of development, the efficiency!! about onc-halfof what it could, and should, be. because of the rapidly growing app<evlition of the value of research, even to those Items of long-iunding ac ceptance, we fully anticipate that the advance In the tech nology of the tead-icld battery will be greater during the coming decade than during the part half-century. in the la it 20 yean, there has been a rapid growth U portable or packaged electrical energy source*. At the same time, there has been a rapidly growing demand for portable power units, or batteries, for specialized uses. In chit myr iad of new uses, the criteria by which batteries formerly were evaluated have been pretty welt upset. In most cases, a single characteristic is of primary importance to the suc cessful application ef the battery, ocher factors being made quite secondary considerations. For example, pernaps to a specialty application, the energy-weight ratio may be allImportant; in another, it may be cycle Ufe. or shelf Ufe, or energy-volume ratio, or cost. This situation has aroused new and intensified interest in the development of new bat tery systems to meet these specialized requirements. Nearly all of these "new" battery systems are not new, but merely a new look at an old item. The nickel-cadmi um and nickel-iron cell constructions were patented at the beginning of the 20th century. The mercury cell owes lu origin to the Aron Cell, where it was first proposed as a storage battery in 1066. The use of diver oxide at a pos itive active material was proposed by jungnes In 1899, and the cell wai first patented by Morrison to 1910. Certain types of primary cells alto have applications which are part of the traditional marketing area of Itad-acid batteries. The mo<lera fuel cell li a direct descendant of Groves' vcUknovn gas cell, which he described first in 1639, and later as a battery of 60 cells in 2642, Rechargeable alkaline cells, in dry-cell configuration, can be traced to the work of Uctanche' In the 1050`s, Another new form of portable t electrical energy of concern to us ii thermoelectricity. dis covered by Seebeck In 1621. In giving the "new* battery systems a duirlng off. It li apparent that the challenge to the lead-acid battery comet, not from a new chemistry, but from the application of mod em technology to old and well-known lyttenu. Advance* to science and engineering have made possible the fabrication of battery tyitemt characterized by high energy-weight ra tios. long rfielf life, tong cycle life, and resistance to extraenvifoamenul conditions. They have alto made avail able. in many instances, quantities of torre elements and compounds at acceptable costs, materials which formerly were considered price prohibitive. Some of the new special ized applications will be best satisfied by the new battery systems. Some of them can be satisfied most economically and efficiently by lead add batteries. The electrochemical systems most prominently consider ed today far storage battery use are lead-acid, nickel-iron, nickel -cadmium, silver-zinc, silver-cadmium, and fuel cells. The latter Is ciectrochemiciily, a battery. Sack In 1639, it was known as a gas battery, quite a fitting and ad equate description. The fuel cell has been well publicised lately. It has a great potential, but much research work re mains to be done. In considering the choice of a battery system so best ful fill requirements of an application, many factors other than capacity must be weighed. Usually, it is a compromise of many characteristics, among which are weight, volume, availability. cechargeabUity, cycle life, stand life, coat, and maintenance. In Tabic 1 are listed values for 100 amp-hr sire batteries at the 10-hr rate for some of these battery sys tems. Is is interesting to note that (he lead-add cell has Table 1 - Energy Densities of Common battery Systems - 100 Amp-Hr Size Eatterv Type Lead-Add Aviation lrooclad Automotive Nickel-Cadmium fockei Sintered Nickel-lro Tub* Type Silver-Zinc Silver-Cadmium Oj -H2 Fuel Cell (Dry chemical fuel storage) Voluge Fer Cell Open Circuit A*. Volute 2.1 1.9 n 1.9 J.1 1.9 Energy Density for 12-v Emery No. of Ceils wtu/lb whr/io* 6 u.i 1.0 C u.i 1.36 < 16.0 i.i 1.28-1.30 1.14-1.10 1.2 10 ll.fi 0.4 1.2 10 11. S 0.86 l.S 1.66 On higher plateau 1.66 On tower plateau 1.40 On higher plateau Mi On love, pUtek, l.S 1.66 1.04 19 10.6 0.92 66-100 2.0 ii 60-n S.l 6.7 16 KlSO `Sated on room temperature dUrhirgca.it the 10-hr rate. II luAteat LIA244 72 one characteristic which teti It apart from those system* with which it Is compared; (hit Is, lu high cell voltage. This factor offsets the higher density of the lead, and gives, in fact, a better energy-weight ratio than Is found in the other work-type* batteries -- nickel-cadmium and ciickel-iroo. * If is also observed from Table 1 chat the silver systems of fer very great weight and volume advantages. However, this simple comparison is but the first approximation as to choice of battery systems for a particular application. Extended tables of the performance and economic factors for each sys tem, under various conditions of load and temperature, would be necessary to permit logical selection of the opti mum system for a specific application. Nevertheless, it is apparent that where weight and sice are critical factors, and cycle Ufe or cost are of lesser Importance, the diver-aloe and silver-cadimum systems are to be preferred. Other factors which affect the choice of a system are shown in Table 2. These factors include ease of recharge, Ufe, and costs. When ve consider Ufe and costs, we find that the Industrial-type lead-acid battery U better than the other systems on (he basts of cost per unit energy output over the life of the battery. Automotive-type lead-add batter ies will have a lower initial cost than any of the systems, bat because of lu better cycle life, the Industrial type is the more economical, Tou are all familiar with the characteristic of the leadacid battery, and know quite well what if will do, and like wise Its shortcomings. Considering the lead-acid battery as a standard, what comparative featwea of the so-called oew systems have given rise to the reaewed and intensified inter- Table 2 Comparison of battery Systems 100 Amp-Hr gatterlea 12 v battery Type Iced-Acid Automotive 0 Industrial NickelCadmium fiocket Sinfered NlctelIna Tobulnr $Uy 2Inc Coostaat potential recharge or stepped current recharge In s*ic bechaige at cooafam potential 7-8 hr Vetoed cells can be recharged in 2 hr Sealed celts can be recharged io 10 ht. Acquire no water Charge at cornsjm potential tab-7 far Kcchnrg* *i cowunt pmatbl 4-10 Is Eat. Ufe 300 cycle* 3 jrr S-lOyr 1600 cycle* 10-20 yr 2000 cycle* 10-20 yr 2000 cycle* 18-20 yt 2000 cycle* 200 cycle* Cat. InlfUl Cos >40. HO. 3JM. $300. 3130. 8800. Coat Tear Co*t e * >13. $. 13/ 4.U 34. 7.3* >20. n* >1. I.W >300. 400* SilverCadmium if eowuni prtcaiUI 4-20 tv 2-2 >f 800 cycle* Iiooo. >400. 200* ym f-iLU2<'A73 nWifcawirtii fr : n--iYrif ufta*iawn 4 Table 3 * Estimated Battery Sales in the United States * 1969 Lead-Acid Nickel-Cadmium Nickel -Iron $425.000.000 Including more than 35.000,000 automo tive batteries valued at approximately $400,000,000 SQver-Ztoc $20,000,000 Including a Urge number of hermetically sealed cells of the button type Primary Cells $18.000,000 Mostly for military purposes $150.000.000 Comprising about 1-1/2 billion units Mostly of the Leclanche type and about 80,l/t>0,00C bearing-aid batteries (HgO/Zn) valued at $18,C0C,0l>u Table 4 - 195a Production Figures for Battery Metals (to Short Tom) Lead Nickel Cadmium Silva Zinc USA Mine 253,300 11,000 4.300 euo 417,000 Production World 2.420,200 309.000 10.000 7900 3.,071,000 Production USA Use 1,,091,000 112. 700 7000 4900 933. 800 USA U 380.700 600 too 120 25.000* foe Swage latte,tel FacaU|< of Tout USA Uw M. 0.4 1.4 1.5 2.7 Average Price ($ per Ih.) 0.122 0.74 1.40 13.30 0,116 Including dry cell batteries. ett in these batteries? The nickel-cadmium system it. of course, no stranger, and has maintained a relatively strong competitive potition for many yean. It hat several attrac tive features, among which are long cycle life, good charge acceptance, seaUbUlty. and the ability to withstand abuse. While these desirable characteristics are offset to a great ex tent by its cost and low energy-weight and volume ratios, nonetheless, in certain applications its advantages are such as to make it the logical choice. No practical system today can match the energy-weight and volume ratios of the diversloe battery. It is also characterized by excellent high tate capability and it is susceptible to ready operation in the seal ed condition. High cost and short cycle life, however, pre clude its widespread use, except in those very special ap plications, chiefly military usage, wherein weight and vol ume are of overriding importance. The diver-cadmium cell is, in genetal, similar to the silver-sine. It is superfcx to the latter in cycle life, but because of a lower cell voltage, the energy-weight ratio it less. The positions which the leading types of batteries have established in the market are shown in Table 3. Primary cells have been included in the table, In order to indicate the extent of the packaged power field covered by this gen eral type of cell. The dividing line which differentiates be tween primary and secondary batteries is. Indeed, a broad, gray area. Recent developments in primary batteric* ^ve :..o.c"'u1rcchitgible cells,or secondary batteries, Likewise, certain type* oi activated silver-xlnc batteries a 4 f * may be considered as primaries, while sealed secondary bat teries have been produced In the past few years which are maiketcd in the primary battery field. If we are to consider any of the rival systems as possible ref>ticemenu for all, or even a significant pan. of the leadacid production, because of any superior electrochemical performance, then let us consider the availability of mate rials. Shown in Table 4 are the figures for the 1959 ruttona! and world production of metals used in batteries. From these figures may be deduced some Interesting conclusions. If It is assumed, lor example, that but 30`S* of the lead used in lead-acid batteries enters info the electrochemical reaction In the cells -- the remainder being utilized for grids, posts, connectors, and 'inactive* active materials -- the amount of lead used annually In the United States for the electro* chemically active component of lead-acid ^attulei would be 30^ of 3d0, 700, or 114,000 tons. Vaklng t no account the difference In densities between lead and cadmium, the Faraday capacities, and the fact that .\admJurr is used only in the negative plates, it is determined that il,0o0 tons of cadmium would be required annually 1* catteries to replace the Icad-aitd type. This requirement for lotteries alone represent! about three times the vo'ld's annt.il production, or more than seven times the annual ortp-C in the United States. Looking at U another way, it U cal elated that Sib f of cadmium would be required a teplacemcsj for the 19 lb of lead In the average automobile battery. **Mi means a  wjiHj'iwn' iwmw>AaMwg^gw LIA24474 $ o cost of about $6.50 for cadmium, complied to $2.30 for lead, for one of the basic materials alone. Similar consider ations apply to nickel and silver. Battery usage is so wide spread today (bat any system, to be widely used, must util ize only those materials which are plentiful. This Is par ticularly true for automotive batteries which account for 90% of the lead used In batteries. So far, we have considered the choice of only electro chemical syttemr which are generally considered as storage batteries. There Is also a choice of other systems which, al though not considered as storage batteries, are capable of fulfilling many of the same requirements for portable pack aged power. These include nuclear batteries, thermoelec tric cells, air or gas depolarized cells, small rechargeable alkaline cells in dry ceil configuration, and the gas battery or fuel cell. Nuclear batteries offer a great potential but the develop ment of high-rate. high energy-density. inexpensive bat teries must await the development of new knowledge, for the foreseeable future, the nuclear battery will have appli cation as a high-potential source, but will be seriously lim ited in rate performance, watts per pound, and cost. Ther moelectric cells, used for the conversion of heat energy to electrical energy, are merely a new approach to an old pt'oblem. The technics '* this field is still developing and currently the systems suffer srom low efficiencies, low energy density, and high c o m*. Remarkable progress has been made in the past 10 yean in the development of a practical fuel ceil. Most of the reported work In fuel cells doae to date involves die use of hydrogen or mixtures of hydrogen and hy<frocarbon at die fuel, and oxygen as die oxidizer. While most of the inter est in fuel cells Is focused on their use as power-generating sources, they also have some potential when utilizing car bonaceous fuels as chemical reactors producing both power and a useful byproduct. Likewise, the fuel cell electrode system is readily adaptable to use In chemical processing. Other features of the fuel ceil make it very attractive to cer tain military applications, tanging from submarine propul sion to auxiliary power units in tpace satellites, and silent power sources for ground use. In considering the impact of a practical fuel cell on the storage battery field, one must keep in mi-vd the fact that a fuel cell Is an electrochemical battery wherein (he `active materials* are stored externally to die cell, and are capable of being fed in continuously. In other words. It is a battery capable of continuous discharge for extended periods of time. Consider, therefore, that the fuel cell consist! of two major components: 1. Tha *active materials* or fuel and oxidant. 2. The assembly of catalytic electrodes, fuel and oxi dant handling systems, end product disposal system, elec trical connections, electrolyte, and container. The second group of components we will term the 'reactor.* Hence, regardless of the watt-hour capacity of the unit. there is a definite fixed weight and volume attributable to the reactor. This, in turn, is directly related to rate and voltage. The fuel cell is. therefore, at a decided disadvan tage. weight and volume wise, when applied to uses where in the demand for continuous power supply is of relatively short duration. A comparison of the energy-derulUes versus duration of continuous discharge for storage batteries, fuel cells, and solar converters, is shown in Fig. 1. From this figure. It is evident that the theoretical hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell employing fuel storage Ln the solid state to reduce weight will have a lower watt-hour per pound rating dun will a sealed silver-zinc battery, when the duration of con tinuous power demand is less than 6 hours. Compared to the lead-acid battery, the cron -over point is slightly in excess of 1 hr. For the sotax converter In 100% light, the values are 10 hr and 1. S hr, respectively. There are many possible types of fuel cells, varying in complexity, as well as efficiencies. And just as la the case of batteries, no one type will best fulfill all applications. The more complex types, is general. vU be best suited to fixed installations, while the simpler ones J-l have more use in portable units. At the present state-of-the-art, U it extremely difficult to predict the economic factors. Tec, to gain widespread use, the fuel ceil must be economically competitive with other systems, because of the great in- create in efficiency possible in such a system, we are con fident that eventually, It will be not only cost competitive, but w iv.J' *" ^rooomic advantages. There has been a great amount of pubucicy relative to the fuel cdl--pubUcUy which has aroused widespread inter est and excitement, and has resulted ln many very extrava gant cLaims. We th'nk that, perhaps, the underlying reason Fig. 1 * Comparison of energy-densities MjJ.u "mu m1 4J! * w LIA24475 4 for All this may be attributed to the glamour Attached to the name "fuel cell. " Unfortunately, but few of the claims caa be substantiated by factual data on actual performance. To evaluate the possible challenge to die storage battery posed by the fuel cell, one must keep in mind the two points which we have mentioned*-that a fuel cell Is lust another battery, which, first, L capable of long sustained discharge periods; and second, for short periods of discharge is at a decided weight and volume disadvantage compared to the conven tional -type secondary batteries. Consequently, we believe that the fuel cell, in general, will create Its own markets as an extension of battery applications, rather than as a replacement. We don't mean to Imply that (he fuel cell to which we have referred Is just around the corner. Such a cell Is a few years away, end a tremendous amount of work in research and development yet has to be done before such a iytem Is developed to the point where it may fulfill the role we have predicted. However, in view of today's technological cli mate and the confidence characteristic of science and en gineering. the fact that suert a cell is theoretically feasible constitutes sufficient incentive to ensure eventual success. In 1859, Gaston PUnte^vrote, "The secondary electro motive force obtained with lead plates In water, acidulated with sulfuric acid, was greater and persisted longer than that of other combinations." A hundred years of battery devel opment work, on which has been built a giant industry, has failed to upset that statement. We believe that foe many years to come, the lead-acid battery will continue to main tain its position in the florage battery field as the preferred auxiliary power source foe automotive use. 0 r * :