Document QKd9zRQL8VvvXpEoxbqmVqJ4

FILE NAME: Insurance Industry (INS) DATE: 1924 DOC#: INS075 DOCUMENT DESCRIPTION: Booklet on Industrial Hygiene by Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. Industrial Hygiene ' 1. ! g t * POUCY-HOLDBRS SERVICE BUREAU METROPOLITAN LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY NSW YORK 1924 ' % . *ff,*>.A\'. , r TABLE OF CONTENTS Fm * The Money Value of Factory Sanitation. S Medical Service.. , ......................... 6 First Aid Rooms............................ . . . . . . . . 7 . Duties of IndustrialPhysicians.. . . . y; V' 8 Duties of Industrial Nurses......... .. : Personality of Industrial Physicians and ^ \L N urses....................................... * Factory Hygiene ........................... ` | 2.V General Cleanliness........................... 12 , Washing Facilities............ ..........................' 13 Use of Washing Facilities.. ................... 14 Working Clothes.......................................... 15 Dressing and Locker Rooms.................... 16 Toilets........................................................... 17 Drinking W a te r.......................................... 19 Ventilation................................................ . 22 How to Prevent In ju ry . From D ust and Gases........................................................ 27 L ig h tin g ......................................... 30 Bibliography................................................ 37 3 /*.*<. ,r. . ty ' ; i- i . t I * *1r Industrial Hygiene ' ' * The Money Value of Factory Sanitation HPHE physical conditions which prevail in a place where a man spends the greater part- of his working time affect his outlook on life, his happiness and his ability to do useful, work. A dingy workshop with bad air results in listless workers with low productivity. Bad working condidons breed resentment and di^- trust among workers. Often such trifle as ' applying a fresh coat of whitewash to factory wails'proves die means of. greatly improving' the spirit of everybody in the p la n t Clean, , moving air of the right temperature lessees fatigue and improves plant morale. B y ' cleaning electric light fixtures and carting away rubbish, a factory manager may reverse ' his men's mental attitude toward their jobs, and incidentally cut down the accident rate. By promoting better health among his workers and protecting them from occupa tional diseases and preventable accidents, the modern employer aims to cut down absentee ism, reduce labor turnover and decrease the amount of inferior work turned out. Safety campaigns have demonstrated that it is possible to reduce materially the number.of accidents. Though the facts a t hand are less spectacular, we know that health work in 5 industry likewise pays big dividends. Hygienic measures are not a charity, but strictly good business policy. Problems of ventilation, lighting, dust elimination, the value of. the medical department, the desirability of grant ing rest periods, maintaining cafeterias and lunch rooms, are not impractical, academic questions. Sanitary facilities and other work ing conditions which promote good health among the personnel, will usually result in increased productivity that will more than cover the expenditures involved. M edical Service p L A N T hygiene is essentially a medical * question. Where the number of employees on the payroll warrants the expense, it is desirable to have the health program developed around the work of a physician or nurse, Most shops are too smalt, however, to employ a full time physician. They can afford only part time medical service or the occasional visits o f an outside physician. To secure tome of the health conservation measures' that have proved valuable in large plants, some small manufacturers have availed them selves o f the services of an association of industrial physicians, hygienists and safety engineers.* Such an organization agrees to spend a certain Axed time in the plant, con duct sanitary and safety investigations at regular intervals and supervise the health of the workers. This procedure should give, a t a small cost, the advantage of the services of a group of specialists qualified in industrial health problems. There are also interesting 6 - ami successful experiments, in cooperative medical supervision which suggest another solution of the problem. Sometimes a num ber of small plants in the same district organize a joint medical department con veniently and centrally located, to which thev all have access. Generally, the partici paring firms pay for this medical supervision on a pro rata basis. First A id Rooms TN MODERN American factories one A usually finds a suitable place set ride as a first aid and rest room. The arrangement of such rooms,, their location and their super- vision differ. Some9 B | | h Sh tim e s th e f ir s t a id equipm ent consists merely of a cabinet or box in which there are the commoner medi cines and remedies, rolls of gauze, an antiseptic, and a few instruments. The industrial codes of the 'different s ta te s specify very definitely ju st what equijpmept must he included in the first aid k it T he New A itandard flret*ld cabinet. Y ork S ta te S a n ita ry Code, for exam ple,, itemizes the instruments, drugs and dressings which must be included and the equipment which must be furnished. The minimum 7 V rrtcdicaj Requirement' for any plant is the election o f one of the standard first aid putfits.' A competent person who has been tanned, by a physician in applying first aid should be placed in charge of it and held responsible for its proper maintenance. He should render emergency aid only, and promptly summon a physician in case of serious accident. In buying first aid supplies, it is o f course, necessary to consider the special conditions prevailing in a particular plant so . as to provide the materials best suited to a given industry. Duties of Industrial Physicians T H E duty of the industrial physician is to keep workers fit, as well as to treat cases of illness. In some plants, he conducts the physical examination of ajl applicants for employment and rejects those suffering from any disease which might prove-a menace to thejp fellows. He notes physical disabilities and fecommends to those in charge of hiring worker*/the kind of work the applicant is .best ablp to do without injury. He also may make a periodic examination of alt employees sp th at 'physical weaknesses and slight ill nesses m ay be discovered * and treatment provided.. ' This type of preventive medicine should lie strongly encouraged. The industrial physician cares for all acci' dept oases from the time of injury to the date qf recovery, taking particular precautions tq vert the danger of wound infection. He like wise gives emergency treatment for any of thf 8 :;|*wiv.- ( ' ,i i*b*'Ji . *'">mntor illnesses which occuj-.durjnp;'working hours. 'He supervises all cases p f serious illness y;-?rjn 4 .sees th at sick employees; jepejTP proper [. a tte n tio n .. I t is his d u ty , to'recognize im- vmifdisfeiy cases of communicabjc-disease and -^checic their spread by epfqfipipg isolation. Aided by the nursing staff, he'should instruct employees in the principles qf healthful living and personal hygiene. `.V-V-j.:, v .,. . *: Duties of Industrial Nurses' TN JJVRGE plants the industrial nurse works _ under the supervision of thq, physician and aids him in the dispensary, writes up histones and assists in the routine physical examina tions by taking weights and measurements. .Sometimes she writes up the records and ' attends to the clerical ,work of the office. When the physician is absent, she gives simple treatm ent, being careful to refer all serious .. cases to th e.d o cto r. , pnfoiftmately, some firms who do not employ a physician consider . that they have done. al| tbqt js necessary in engaging a nurse and it) plaptng her in charge of the medical work. H u W ,should work " only poder the direction pf a physician who , diagnoses cases,-orders tyeatniept and s u llie s standing orders for use in hi? absence. Though ` the nurse is careful (as she should be) to make no diagnoses, she often can discover workers in need of medical attention and encourage them to get expert advice and treatment. Sometimes she does important educational work by lecturjng to employees on specific hegitj) problems p ^ o n a ) hygiene, .4 1 '.* 1 "v I 1 Personality of Industrial Physicians and Nurses 'T 'H E success of medical work in industry is ,, A largely dependent on the personality of the doctors and nurses. The industrial pnysl- ' dan must have a creative attitude toward his job, realizing that his mission is to prevent'1 disease^and that this phase of his work is as important as his skill in caring for the s i c k . y I t is desirable for both industrial physicians > and nurses to reedve some special training for their work. In growing numbers, medical * colleges and schools for nurses are giving .. 'courses and training in industrial hygiene. Such courses should give some idea of the \ principles of factory sanitation and the special industrial hazards which must be guarded against, as well as the best method of treating accident cases so that the least possible work, ing time shall be lost. Nurses also will find helpful knowledge o f food values, family budgeting, psychology and the oiganization of clubs and health classes. Both physician and nurse must have high ideals toward their work and be imbued with a spirit o f service. The doctor must have a ' ' sympathetic understanding o f difficulties winch confront the workers who often are ignorant of American customs and standards of living. In this way he m ay well be a harmonizing influence in the plant and render valuable service through promoting better industrial relations. H e must convince the men th at health supervision results in their increased efficiency and consequent larger 11 1 earning capacity, and that his work is done in good faith and to benefit then On the other hand, the employer must have faith that the medical department is supplying him with healthy and efficient workmen who will increase production. Thus a well administered medical department rests for its success upon the sound principle of fair dealing. < Factory Hygiene % C'ACTORY sanitation includes ail measures which preserve the health of workers and prevent disease. Practically, however, its scope is limited to maintaining cleanliness; providing suitable ventilation and proper lighting; supplying pure drinking water; giving adequate toilet, washing and dressing facilities; and properly disposing of refuse and wastes. I General Cleanliness : "M O TH IN G is so often neglected by both *V employers and employees as the nuift- . tenance of general cleanliness in 'th e plant. Y et th at directly influences the efficiency and well-being of workers to a very marked degree. Dust-covered ceilings, floors, fixtures and machinery present a, disorderly appearance -.'and incidentally reduce'the.am ount of light from windows and lighting equipment. Dis orderly work-rooms produce slovenly habits of work in much the same way as an untidy household produces uncouth habits of living. D irt not only Idoks unsightly, but interferes with the smooth running o f the shop. A dis- n 1. orderly work-room encourages unhygienic practices. Refuse usually will not be thrown on a clean floor, b u t certainly will be added to the litter which clutters up unswept corners. . "Workers cannot be expected to have pride in keeping work places ship-shape if no provision ' made by the management for rite removal of dirt, and no regular attention is paid to the appearance of the shop. Washing Facilities TN ADDITION to keeping workplaces dean, * adequate washing facilities should be pro vided. The number of wash basins and faucets o f water depends somewhat on the industry. Some industrial codes require, as a general rule, one wash basin for every fifteen employees. In dusty and hazardous trades, a larger number is necessary. Where A'wethlnr end locker room equipped with indltldual bacia* and locker*. 13 i the worker is exposed to great heat, excessive dost, or contact with poisonous materials, or where he handles food products, shower i baths should be available in addition to the ordinary washing facilities. Sinks and wash basins should be made of vitrified glazed i ' earthenware or enameled iron. The faucet should be of a type that will permit the employee to wash in a flowing stream of water. $oap, hot and cold water and indi vidual or paper towels should be provided, i The use o t a common towel is to be discourl aged, as this practise is often the source of i infection. Wash-rooms should be well lighted, heated and ventilated and kept scrupulously clean. Use c j Washing Facilities ! A N ACTIVE campaign mayoften be needed ^ to encourage the use of the washing facilities provided. I t is always wise to wash up before meals, but in, industries where poisons (such as arsenic, lead, mercury, etc) are handled, particular pains m ust be taken to enforce washing ' regulations. Though I , .Recently there has been a decrease in the i number of cases of lend poisoning, workers in plants manufacturing white lead for, paint, pottery, tiles, porcelain, enameled sanjtary ware and storage batteries, and in the painting trades, are still exposed to the hazards of lead poisoning. This occupational disease can be further reduced by enforcing a few simple rules, Alt traces of poison which adhere to the clothing, hands and other exposed parts 14 of the body must be washed off carefully before eating, so that the danger of swallowing poison may be eliminated. For .example, the th is ufaf*RBt Provides flowUg water for the worker U w*tb la. Pullman car shops inaugurated ( compulsory and supervised washing up, by ringing a bell ten minutes before the noon hour and requiring all employees to wash and scrub their hands. This wash-up system reduced lead poisoning from 77 cases in 1911 to none in 1912.* Working Clothes TN FACTORIES where poisonous subA stances are handled and where unusually heavy and arduous work is done, workers generally change their street clothes for *See aim page 20 fotkro'mg for a further dtscuiaion of the poiaon hazard 15 overalls or a suitable working uniform. I t is especially necessary to change the working uniform before the lunch hour in plants where poisons are handled. In a foundry the workers need special shoes and clothing in order to protect their bodies from the molten metal they are pouring. Suitable uniforms should also be worn in those jobs where there is danger of catching the clothing in moving machinery. When the work being done is necessarily djrty or dusty, a work uniform a Buiubto worUnc saves both the clothing unifoim' and self-respect of the worker. A special uniform is necessary to rotect the consumer'wherever foodstuffs are andled. In many cases the employer pro vides the uniforms and sees that they are kept dean. He should do so, if he wishes to make their use compulsory. Dressing and Locker Rooms pvRESSING rooms are necessary if wearing ^ special working dothes is to be encour aged. The dressing rooms must be large enough to prevent crowding, expedite changes of plothing and afford sufficient privacy. Dressing rooms for the two sexes should be 16 tea# separated and if possible, located in different parts of the floor. T he industrial codes of the different states specify the amount of floor space, the temperature, ventilation and amount of lighting which must be provided. I t is desirable th at every dressing room have one window, be properly lighted and kept dean and tidy. Proper provision should be made for hanging the clothes of employees in a dry, clean space. If possible, individual well-ventilated lockers should be supplied. In factories where only dean work is performed, separate clothes hooks amply spaced may be U9ed instead of lockers. Some factories provide steel lockers divided into two parts, one for the working and the other for street clothes. There are a number of lockers on the market which are good and comparatively cheap. Still another variation in taking care of employees' clothing is the overhead hanger which airs and dries the clothing. T he street clothes are kept in lockers and the working clothes ate suspended from the ceiling and raised and lowered by means of a chain and pulley. The chain should have a locking arrangement so that the dothes cannot be lowered unless the locker is opened. Toilets 'T 'H E best location for toilet rooms is A adjoining the washing and locker rooms. Most industrial and sanitary codes demand separate water closet compartments for the two sates. I f possible, they should be located 17 in different parts of the building. Where it is necessary to place them together, they should be separated by solid partitions extending from floor to ceiling. In large plants it is necessary to provide toilet rooms throughout the works and have a sufficient number convenient and easy of access to the workers. One closet for every twenty persona generally suffices. Where a large number of men is employed, there should be, in addition, an adequate number of urinals suitably enclosed. Constipation, with the many unpleasant and injurious complications which it brings, often results from providing inadequate and un sanitary toilet facilities. Toilets should be properly lighted and ventilated and above all, kept scrupulously clean. H o t water is highly efficient as a dis infectant. To facilitate cleaning and to pro vide means for flushing out the rooms, a nose connection with the hot water supply lines should be provided in toilet, washing and locker rooms. If a disinfectant is used, it is better to add it directly to the washing water; but no disinfectant should lie permitted to replace the frequent use of soap and water, th e U nited States Public Health Service has issued (wo bulletins (Hygienic Laboratory Bulletin No. 82 and Public Health Bulletin No. 42) which give much valuable information on various commercial disinfectants and their usage, Pjoprs of tile or concrete construction are beaf^ T h e floor and side wails should be made of m aterial impervious to moisture and pos sessing a smooth surface. Asphalt, non- 18 u absorbent cement, tile, glazed brick or other waterproof material may be chosen. T he walls and partitions should be of material that can be easily cleaned and light in color so as to increase the illumination in the room. Water closets o f the individual bowl type are recommended and should be made of white vitreous china or porcelain. H ie seat of each water closet should be made of wood or other non-heat-absorbing material coated .w ith varnish or waterproof paint, For u n ita ry reasons, it is recommended that the bowl be of the extended l b type and.that the seat be open front and back. There is quite a difference o f opinipn regarding the best flush valve arrangem ent.' In some factories, toilets are automatically, flushed a t hour intervals. Sometimes this flush is operated by the opening or dosing of the door of each compartment or by .the raising of the seat of the doset. These con trivances arc installed so that it is impossible for workers to neglect pulling the chain or lever o f the flushing tank. But jst all events, every water closet or group of water closet should be flushed regularly and the discharge must be of suflicient force to clean the bowl a t each flushing. Drinking Water A PURE, cool and plentiful supply o f drinking water is essential to health. Drinking sufficient water in.proves the diges tive processes,aids assimilation of food and les sens fatigue because it facilitates the removal 19 of those poisonous wastes produced in the system with the expenditure of energy. .Few . people drink the amount of water which physiologists agree is necessary to keep the body in a thoroughly healthy condition. Workers should he encouraged to drink more water and educated in the value of so doing. 1 {fence, the drinking supply must be con veniently located so that too much tme will not be wasted each time a drink is wanted. The water supply must he wholesome and its source should he carefully chosen. Many diseases, such as typhoid, diarrhea, dysentery, and other intestinal disturbances arise from drinking impure water. Wherever possible the water should he drawn from an approved and safe city supply. If the plant has its own system, frequent chemical and bacteri ological examinations should be made. If the water available is not suitable for drink ing purposes it must be purified by sterili sation or filtration. Often the plant uses for industrial The dftaMoi fonolita in use. purposes water drawn from adjacent rivers, canals, or lakes. In many cases, this water is not safe for drinking and great care must then be taken to keep the two supplies separate. Employees m ust be cautioned to dnnk only the water provided for that pur- 20 A* ., j pose, as many typhoid epidemics in plants have been traced to their carelessness in drink ing impure water. A temperature between 45 and 50 degrees is the brat for drinking water. The most satisfactory system is one where all drinking } water passes through a san itary refrigerating or cooling plant to the supply pipes. The re frigerator equipment usually consists of a storage tank containing a pipe coil in which A hjrfieaic llU U il (otiaUia. ' liquid ammonia is al lowed to vaporize. Water coolers requiring ice should be used only in plants of compara tively small size. If water coolers are used, ice should not be placed in direct contact with drinking water. A refrigerating plant elimi nates the necessity of keeping the cooler supplied with ice; prevents contamination from ice; and keeps the drinking water a t a constant and desirable temperature. In the long run it will prove far more economical than the old-fashioned ice cooler. After making sure the water is pure and wholesome, the next concern is to provide drinking fountains of proper design. Many I states prohibit the use of common drinking cups and require either individual cups or a sanitary drinking fountain. If the fountain is correctly designed, it is more satisfactory and cheaper than the individual cup. I t has been found by careful experiment th at the 21  * f , . . * * best type of fountain is one discharging th<*. i water a t an angle of 15 degrees instead of vertically from the discharge pipe. This fountain retains no germ in the stream or in i the outlet and prevents lip contact as welf as i .. droplet infection. r . . ,.,..v Ventilation ' , D C p N T studies have shown that a poorly. ,'./ ,f\ j * yentilated room reacts unfavorably upon the health and efficiency of the workers in it. -' - ; * i : Lassitude and other ill effect* of faulty ' "!. ,ventilation are difficult to estimate directly, '. ' (r ,but an appreciation of their extent may be {\ i arrived a t indirectly from statistka of output, ', . p\ i accidents and sickness rates in well and badly. ' ventilated factories. I t has been supposed . th at the evils of poor ventilation were due to the reduction of oxygen, an increase of carbon . dioxide, the presence of volatile substances j given off in perspiration and to bacteria { team ed by the air. i ;" ' In industrial processes which involve the !!f '' .generation of poisonous fumes or dust, the 1 ? richemical composition of the atmosphere' is ;p 'im portant.- But it is now generally agreed t' that the chemical condition of the atmosphere 7 *, in the ordinary plant has comparatively slight p : effect upon working capacity and bodily !- ; condition and that the air does-not carry \ J . ^bspferia to any extent. I t is the tem perature,; ,. < . :( hilfnHjty dust con ten t and especially t|ie . / y r, motion of the air, which determine whether ') the aif of the work-room is good or ba<|*! /JTie cause of discomfort in the ordinary. badly > - ventilated room is heat and stagnation,.pom- : 22 i _i r bincd in many cases, with excess humidity-- and it is these conditions which should be controlled. The desirable temperature for a work-room wilt vary from 60 to 65 degrees Fahrenheit for work involving much physical exertion, to between 68 degrees and 70 degrees for other ' work. Ordinarily, a temperature of 68 degrees produces the maximum efficiency and is the most comfortable for workers. A higher temperature increases the heart rate. I t affects the body temperature and blood pres sure, increases the rate of respiration and the susceptibility to respiratory disease and sub stantially reduces efficiency. I f the tempera ture is increased to 75 degrees Fahrenheit, there is a decrease of 15 per cent, in the amount of heavy physical work, performed; the decrease amounts to 28 per cent, a t a temperature of 86 degrees. The first step in factory ventilation is a definite knowledge of existing conditions. A thermometer should be installed in every factory work-room, and periodic examination of this thermometer should be an essentia! .? part of the duty of the foreman. Something . should be done when the temperature exceeds 68 degrees. Over-heating often is due, not to a defect in the ventilation system, b u t to unintelligent use of i t Generally, the temper ature can be regulated by simply turning off the heat. Such supervision not only would contribute to the health of the worker, but also would reduce the coal bills materially. Opening all the windows before working hours and during the noon recess and between 23 s W .A working-shifts will often secure (good working conditions. Where the room is large and crowded, it may- be necessary to adopt the three devices which have been so useful in school-room ventilation: 1. Location of radiation units beneath the windows to temper the incoming air. 2. Admission of air over slanting win dow-boards to avoid drafts. 3. Provision of n gravity exhaust duct for the removal of vitiated air near the ceiling. But the importance of maintaining the temperature below 68 degrees by the repula- .. tjon of heat sources and the intelligent manipulations of windows, cannot be over emphasized. Fifty per c e n t humidity o f the air is a desirable moisture content for the ordinary room a t a temperature of 68 degrees. I t is always safer, however, to run below this figure rather than above i t Increased humidity aggravates the effects of increased temperature. A desirable condition, though one of less importance, is the maintenance of a carbon dioxide content of less than ten parts in 10,000. Where a large number of men is employed, the amount of air space for each workman is an im portant consideration. T he risk of infection with tuberculosis and other diseases 19increased when the workroom is overcrowded. T hree thousand cubic feet of air an hour for each individual is the average 24 *t t requirement. The air in the room should ! be changed from three to five times an j hour. 1 Besides maintaining the purity of the air, ; it is necessary to see that it is kept in motion. Fresh air must be supplied constantly a t the 1 same time that the undean air is being { removed. There are two methods o f ventila tion: natural and mechanical. Natural ventilation comes from the ordinary openings in a building, such as windows, doors, tran soms, air and elevator shafts, and the pores, crocks and crevices that are always present j in the walls. Even when all openings in a j building are apparently closed, there are i currents of air flowing through the pores of the building material and the crevices o f the doors and window panes. B ut the air supplied ` in this way is hot sufficient to ventilate a room. Windows, which in early days were installed in buildings'for lighting purposes only, now play the most important part in natural ventilation. The best type of window is pivoted a t the center to allow the entire window space to be utilized. However, there are two serious objections to the ventilation supplied by natural methods: first, in spite , of the various deflecting devices which are j used, it is very difficult to prevent drafts; second, it is easy for any workman to tamper with the ventilation of the room. I t is, there fore, essential to appoint a competent person to regulate the winaows. To increase the ventilation in rooms, special openings are made. These inlets and outlets should be as far apart as possible and ample 25 1 '! in area. There are many devices and appli ances for forcing out stale air and letting in fresh air, such as tubes, shafts, ducts and fans specially constructed for ventilating pur poses. Such methods are generally adequate in small factories. B ut in work-shops where a large number of workers is employed and sphere injurious dusts, gases and fumes are produced, mechanical ventilation or special machinery for the movement of air must be resorted to. Two types of ventilating systems are used: the vacuum systcip which mechani.cally exhausts air from the room, and the plenum or propulsion system, where the air is forcibly driven and propelled into the room bjr means of fans. *T ,The exhaust system is the simplest; but it 'is used chiefly either in places where local exhaust is necessary far dust, gases and fumes, or in large rooms which are not occupied by poo many persons. The plenum system is usually installed in establishments where a large supply of air must be introduced from some remote source and where provision must be made for the modification of the incoming air either by cleaning, filtering or washing, or by tempering and humidifying. Even very difficult ventilation problems can be solved by competent engineers with complete success. W here unusually complicated systems are required, it is well to call in expert advice. I f plenum ventilation is needed a t all, it requires expert design in order to be efficient. 26 How to Prevent Injury from Dust and Gases TM JST is the great enemy of the workman. The dust and gases liberated in the course o f many industrial processes, if %not properly removed, give rise to chronic lung affections and a variety of acute and chronic irritations. The kinds of dust vary greatly in their 'hygienic significance. Some are poisonous and some act as mechanical irritants. Some of the principal poisonous dusts found in industry are lead, mercury, arsenic, add manganese. The dusts .which act by mechanical irrita tion are especially the hard irregular particles with sharp edges from iron, steel and other metals; rock dusts, such as granite or marble; while those from cal, chalk and plaster o f I .Paris are less irritating. Probably the most I harmful o f the dusts (with the exception o f ' poisonous dasts) are emery dust, which is composed o f exceedingly hand sharp particles; sandstone dust, to which workers are subject I in surfacing, polishing and crushing stone, Sandblasting, etc.; and silica which produpes serious lung disease in a comparatively short time. D ust may be inhaled or ingested o r affect the skin, eyes and car canals. Some poisonous dusts make important changes in > the blood or attack die bones or nervous system, Irritating fumes act locally upon * the tissues or the mucous membrane of the throat, nose and lungs. The hazards arising from the presence of [ 27 . these dusts and gases m ay be eliminated, in some cases, by using wet instead of dry processes which keep the dust from rising and piling the atmosphere. The installation of closed machinery methods wilt confine the dust producing processes and allow them to ! be regulated from the', outside. Sometimes, isolating the operation where dust or fumes are generated to (Lseparate room is desirable. , A mechanical exhaust system which removes |* the dust at the point of origin often is used ` and is effective ju sf as long as the system Exhaust sjatam ty sq *IctfaUtliif roan. remains in good working order. Sometimes it is sufficient for the workers to wear respira. tors, helmets or Other protective devices. 1 But usually these arc ppcomfortable and the men refuse to wear th 3 P* In many cases it m ay be necessary to com28 bine several of these measures in ordpr to prevent effectively the inhalation of dust by the worker. When the fumes and gases ate lighter than the air, an ordinary chimney flue arrangement may be all that is necessary for their proper disposal. In other cases more elaborate apparatus is required. The details of its construction must be worked out sepa rately for each individual case. A t all events, wherever poisons are used and injurious dusts and gases are present, it is essential that every possible means be employed to lessen the hazard to which the workers are exposed. Extreme heat cannot be eliminated from' certain occupations .which require m e n . to work near blazing furnaces. In iron and steej'-'-v foundries, smelters and chemical factories, special measures are necessary to mitigate , this heat hazard. One useful device h die water-cooled furnace door. Shields may be employed to deflect the heat away from the work-room. . Cold air helps materially to reduce the temperature of the work-room. The air should be kept in active motion and electric fans should be employed if other methods cannot be applied. The worker should allow his body to cool off gradually and change into fresh clothing after the completion of the- day's work. Respiratory diseases, especially pneumonia, are unduly frequent among workers exposed to high degrees of heat and, therefore, such precautionary measures are justified. In those plants where Heat and humidity far above the health limit are present, special attention must be p u d 29 TP*.- r ', i'-'. to the health of worker and they should have tjie benefit of a physical examination a t frequept intervals. ;\ f Lighting ; T iG flT JN G equipment is still far from ' adequate in most American plants, "ralthough much progress is being m ade' ip ' improvements. Increase in bQ thjhe; -&7 quality; and quantity of production''and, J inversely, decrease in the amount of spoilt '},* work, follows improvement in lighting equip ment. {letter lighting systems increased p u t - 'y, put 2 per cent, in steel mills and 10 per cent. ; ' in shoe and textile factories where the work is more exacting. In one steel plant, night o u t-' . ; put increased 10 per cent, after the.lhstaila- X .- tiop of an effective lighting system, dropped back again when the new lamps were taken out, apd returned to the higher rate when the better system was restored. >, Examination of the eyesight of groups of workers in various industries disclosed tnat a t < . vcfyvlarge number suffers from' defective i < . visiqq/^., his impairment lowers thrir 'effi- 'V- ` cicfipyl^suses eye-strain and consequent head- . achj,^fatigue and ill health. Adequate <. illupijp^tion decreases the probability of apq- dcfjpa. According to the National Safety Cquqfil, a careful analysis of 91,000 accidents fh q rg (hat about 24 per cent, were due wholly of jfi p a rt to poor lighting. T h e curve showing thc.aqisonal distribution o f accidents rises dur i pg' t he winter months :when artificial lighting is hiorre >often used.."1V . V ; ' 30 5 i One of the most prevalent types of ccident , --that of persons falling--is particularly associated with artificial lighting. The greater , the risk of accident in any operation, the higher should be the standard of lighting, Insurance companies, realizing this fact, in crease the rates of. premium in factories where the lighting is defective. Daylight n the best form o f lighting*; T H - . i essentials of daylight illumination a s ' , s u m * ' marized by the United States Public Heajtljj Sendee are that: ' 1. The amount of light admitted to;<i|he interior should be as large as possible. - 2. The light should reach the center of tlfe . room. . l; . i 3. The distribution of light upon tiie work-, ing planes should be as uniform as possible. 4. The light. should fall upon working ,, planes from a proper direction. 5. The walls and trim bf the room should ,, iI , be of such color and surface as to absorb little , * l light, white being the preferable color. 6. Manufacturing and other equipment should be so disposed a t to avoid casting attentive local shadows. I Roof lighting is preferable to tide lighting, b u tis possible only In one story buildings, or on the top floor of factories, Side lighting is the only method available in many plants. Windows should reach the ceiling, as light from the top of the window penetrates furthest For the same reason if blinds are necessary to keep direct sunlight off workers, 31 i they should toll upwards and not downwards. The minimum ratio of floor s p a a to window area is generally specified as four or five to one for factories, and seven or ten to one for office buildings. The size of the window space varies with the kind of work to be done and the amount of direct light which reaches the windows. D irty windows greatly diminish the amount of light transmitted. The ne cessity for frequently cleaning windows, both inside and outside, cannot be too strongly emphasized. Failure to wash the windows often enough is a poor economy, as it necessi tates the increased use of artificial lighting. Too much daylight may be* as bad as too little, if it is glaring and trying to. the eyes of the workers. Ribbed, roughened or pram glass is useful for diffusing light and preventing glare in those cases where the daylight strikes the windows a t an oblique angle, and where there'is a consequent concentration of light in a narrow band hear, the windows add an absence of it in the center of the room. The quality of artificial light should approach as nearly as possible to that of sun light. The most common source of artificial light is obtained from electric or mercury vapor light, though various types of gas mantles are also used. But most factories prefer the Tungsten bulb and a proper reflector as a standard unit. Important items of artificial lighting are intensity, distribution and absence o f glare. Lamps should be so placed that sharp shadows are avoided. N ot only must the supply and quality of light be adequate, but it must be so arranged as to fall 33 i v. 34 .1. on the work properly. Machines and work benches should be placed so th at they will receive proper illumination, b u t a t the same time not interfere with the distribution of light for others. The type, size and placing of lamps should be determined with especial reference to the height of the ceiling and the class of work being performed. Where lights are placed low . they should be covered with a reflector or shade of-such a size and shape th a t no beams from the light can fall directly upon the eyes of the worker. Glare and eye-strain are thus avoided. The development of new and im proved types of lights, in many sues, makes it possible to secure satisfactory and adequate illumination in any industry and under varying _conditions. In general, the overhead system of lighting should be employed wherever possible, thereby avoiding the use of individual lamps except for special cases. However, carefully shaded individual lamps are generally used for drafting, fine hand or'tine machine work. ` Switches should be arranged in such a way that the lights in the dark parts of the room can be turned mi separately as daylight fails, - without necessarily turning on the lights over the whole floor. The National Safety Council has recom mended the following standards of lighting: FOOT CAKOLBS* Roadways and yard thorough fares ...................................... 1 to a Storage spaces............................ y i to 1 Stairways, passageways, aisles.. 1 to 2 35 0 fO OT CAMOI.CS* . .'Toilets and washrooms..............I t f to 3 Rough manufacturing such as . rough machining, rough as- ' sembling, tough bench work, * foqndry floor work................. 2 to 4 . Jlpugh manufacturing involving " closer discrimination of detail. Fine manufacturing such as fine' 3 to 6 lathe work, pattern and tool making, light colored textiles. : Special cases pf fine work, such 4 to 8 as watch making, engraving, drafting dark colored textiles. Office work such as accounting, typewriting, etc...................... 10 to 15 4 to 8 illumination ii meaaurcd b f 0 foot candle. One-foot candle ii the amount of light produced by one standard candle on a vertical semen, one foot from thh source, and ao placed that the light rajra strike the surfaftce at right angles. The necessity for washing the windows has been mentioned. I t is equally important to keep all parts of the lighting equipment dean. An effective lighting installation may be rendered worthless, if it is not properly main tained. Lamps and reflectors must be washed frequently. Burnt out lamps must be replaced as soon as they lose their power. Lighting efficiency has been found to decrease as much as 50 per cent, when this m atter is neglected. i- 36 i Bibliography . AT 'H E science of industrial hygiene is not '*new one. For many years students of in- . dustrial questions have been endeavoring to ; . discover the factors which influence produc-'-. tivity and the effect of occupation upon the health and well-being of workers. A large lit erature already exists which contains valuable information on the problems so vital to the _ best interests of the employer and the em ' ployee. In this brief summary it would be impossible to do more than touch upon a few of the underlying considerations which result in better hygienic practices in the workshop. Other matters, such as accident prevention and safety campaigns; fatigue and rest periods; recreation; cafeterias and lunch rooms; and other welfare activities, are dis cussed in other reports. For specific data on any spedai phase of the question, the following books are offered as references. There are many other excellent studies; but these prob ably will be found sufficient to give a general resum of the subjecti H ealth Service in In d u stry --# ''. Irving 7 Clark, Jr.--Macmillan Company, New / . York, 1922. . '7 . The H u m an F a c to r in In d u stry --/>* K . ' Frankel and Alexander Fleishet--Macmil lan Company, New York, 1920. The M odem F acto ry --George M . Price-- John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1914. Safe Practices--Shop Lighting--National Safety Council, Bulletin No. 22. !Af.l*bafrki* 37 t '\} S afe' P ra ctice s--D rin k in g W a te r, W ash and Loekcr -Rooms an d T oilet FacU- ' ities--National Safety Council, Bulletin No. 27. , Safe Practices--Industrial Ventilation-- National Safety Council, Bulletin No. 37. Safe P ractices--E x h a u s t S ystem s-- National Safety Council, Bulletin No. 32. D isin fectan ts; T h eir U se and Applica tion in th e Prevention of Cotnm uni- cable D iseases-- Thomas B . McClintic-- United States Public Health Service, Bul letin No. 42,1910 (Revised 1917). M ethod of Standardizing D isinfectants W ith and W ithout Organic M atter. D eterm ination of th e P henol Coeffi cient of Some Com m ercial Disinfec -- ta n ts --John F. Anderson and Thomas B. McCiintie United States Public Health Service, Hygienic Laboratory, Bulletin No. 82, 1912. Occupation H azards and Diagnostic Signs--Louis I . Dublin and Philip Leibojf --United States Bureau of LborrStatis- tics, Bulletin No. 306, Washington, April, 1922. * W a ste in In d u stry --Report oj the Committee ' on Elimination o f Waste in Industry i f the - Federated American Engineering Societies .--McGraw-Hill1 Book Company, New .. > York, 1921. ' Chapter 15--Health of Industrial Worker, p. 342-373. " 14--Eye Conservation, p. 374-390, 38 ' Industrial Hygiene and M edicine--E . W . Hope; W . Hanna and C. 0 . Stalljbrass-- Bailiiere Tindall & Cox, London, 1923. * ` Chapter 3--GeneralHygienic Conatderationa,p. 45-S9 1 4--Industrial Poisonings and Their ilifecti, 1 p. -194. " 5--Dust as a Causa o f Disease, p. 195-277. ' ' 10--Industrial Welfare; Medical Supervision, p. 596-633. Preventive M edicine and H ygiene-- M ilton y . Rosenau--D. Appleton & Com- , ! pany, New York, 1921. | , Section 12--Industrial Hygiene and Diseases ofOccu- ' _ patten, p. 1279-1324. Industrial M edicine a n d Surgery--Henry E.M ock--W. B Saunders Company, Phil- `i . sdeiphla, 1919. ' ^ , The H ealth of the Industrial W orker-- i Edgar JL Collis and M ajor Greenwood-- J . & A. Churchill, London, 1921. . Industrial F atig u e a n d Efficiency--f. Jbf, i V mro--E. P. Dutton & Company, New j York, 1921. * 1 Ventilation-- Report i f the New York Stale Commission on Vtntilation--E. P. Dutton tit Company, New York, 1923. Industrial Nursing-- Florence Swf t W right Macmillan Company, New York, 1919. 39 FJV.' ^ EAI j j g * or W le f Report r*prfeTReport r . ,4. . . c .-f#1 Pfpdwstion Survey;q{.g.Furniture F S c^ p $ * .f Vacation Plans for Bmpfeyecs. $;' - * ME |W m d k L q . M ta w L , ,. .,,,Ifi&oda of Paying litfUndry Drivers. ffijgwlppt Plan fa.ff}e garment JndMiipM^ 1 .;^ fAtwdent Survey ofji.arge Cod Company? <A 5f 1 A Budget Plan foivn`Npwpapcr.;, . i f ` : if LM Employees Stock-Ownership nans. I T f f9 A Budget Plan for' Hie Ice Cream Trade! ' SOA Personnel Progrnni for the Small Plant.-..- Rt j^aringm'jdustrial Establishmep ~ L e a fle t Series' w fp^Buslness Coritffil. kf* fPrganizing Salcsn^'s 1 1.3' . ! 1j ' ^ P -fcffig S S g f ,, ,, ,, ,.. .. ,,Fpjfctfori Plus;3 Industry** Big Need, .' -T /-f . ; 3 New Busmen Pool as aMeans to Prosperity,'' ,it: 5 .Fifteen Roads to Good Will in Industrial v . , . W -: b