Document OE1Qyj1NE8Krwevp8ZYEazwaK
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&EPA
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Toxic; Substances
Office of
Toxic Substances Washington OC 20460
EPA-560/2-79-001 April 1979
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The Health and p B 99 6 9 Environmental Impacts
of Lead
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An Assessment ofjJjj^,ONT Need for Limitation^, ?0137'9
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DUP050032384
N33784
EPA-560/2-79-001 APRIL, 1979
DU PONT
NOV 20 1979
THE HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
OF LEAD AND AN ASSESSMENT OF 1 iiCriNlCAL.
NEED FOR l imit a t io n s
LIBRARY
Contract No. 68-01-4318
Project Officer
Elbert L. Dage Office of Toxic Substances
Washington, D.C, 20460
`if 4
OFFICE OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
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ABSTRACT
This study was performed to assess the health and environmental impacts of lead and its compounds and the need for additional limitations upon its production, use, or disposal, ^he investigation included an analysis of the lead industry and the uses of lead, estimates of the nature and quanti ties of lead dispersed to the environment and their effects on the ecosystem and on man, and an analysis of the scope and status of present limitations. 1
*-* (An evaluation of candidates for the application of limitations disclosed that leaded gasoline and canned or processed foods ranked highest3 Since the former has already been addressed and new limitations promulgated, attention was focused on lead intake from foods and beverages.
Food may account for from 60 to as much as 90 percent of lead Intake for the general population. Lead is naturally present in foods and this fraction of the body burden is probably unavoidable. However, significant lead contamination is inadvertently introduced into processed foods, primarily from the lead solder used in food cans. It has been estimated that as much as two-thirds of the lead in canned foods results from the solder. No other lead limitation considered appeared to offer as. great a potential benefit to the entire population as a reduction of lead in canned foods. Limitations directed at the dietary mode of exposure will benefit sensitive segments, e.g. children, and the general population alike,
Analysis of dietary intakes and blood lead concentrations indicated that reductions in mean blood leads of lpg/dl or more, provide a significant and beneficial reduction in normal blood lead levels in the general population. This level of reduction can be achieved by improvements in food can manu facturing technologies and procedures, while still retaining the economic and technological benefits of soldered can construction.
Considerable progress toward these goals is presently being made by the can industry, in cooperation with the Food and Drug Administration; it is recommended that the results of these efforts be evaluated before further action is taken,
[other potential sources of lead ingestion considered included leadglazed foodware, leaded glass, decal-decorated glass tumblers, solderjoined food vessels, and pewter ware4 On the basis of the evidence avail able, all of these appeared to be minor sources, not requiring further in vestigation at this time.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Contract No. 68-01-4318 by Battelle Memorial Institute under the sponsorship of the U.S. Environmental 'Protection Agency. This report covers the period September 30, 1976, to April 30, 1979, and work was completed as of May 30, 1979,
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DUP050032386
THE HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF LEAD AMD ASSESSMENT OF A NEED FOR LIMITATIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
Abslix^ct
TH
Tables ..................................................................................................
Figures. .............................................................................
xvii
Acknowledgement. .............. ............................ ...... xix
1.0 General Summary/Environmental Assessment. ............ 1
2.0 Introduction. ...........................................................................................
3.0 Properties of Lead and Its Compounds. ............................................................ 12
3.1 Physical and Chemical Properties .............. 12
3.1.1 Inorganic Compounds of Lead
....................... . .15
3.1.2 Organic Compounds of Lead .............. 17
3.1..3 Isotopes of Lead. .................. 21
3.2 References ......................... .2.3
4.0 The Lead Industry ........................ 25
4.1 Overview/History .............................................
25
4.2 Lead Producing Industry...........................
28
4.2.1. Primary Lead. ............... ..................... 4.2.1.1 Mining.................. .................................... ...... 4.2.1.2 Beneficiation. ............... 4.2.1.3 Smelting and Refining. ........... 4.2.1.4 Production and Products. ..........
4.2.2 Secondary Lead. ................................................................................... 4.2.2.1 Scrap Pretreatment ............. 4.2.2.2 Smelting.................................................................... 4.2.2.3 Refining ................................................................ ...
4.2.3 Supply/Demand Relationships ............. 4.2.'3.1 Stockpiling. .......................................................
28 28 31 32 34 38 42 43 43 45 48
.10
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
4.2.3.2 Refined Lead Prices .............................................. 4.2.3.3 Reserves.
Ease
48 51
4.3 Lead Consuming Industries................................ .... .......................
52
4.3.1 4.3.2
Storage Batteries................... 4.3.1.1 Manufacture. .............. 4.3.1.2 Production and industry Structure. ... 4.3.1.3 Future Projections. ........... Gasoline Antiknock Additives ....................... ..... 4.3.2.1 Manufacture. .... ................... ..... 4.3.2.2 Production and Industry Structure .... 4.3.2.3 Future Projections ....................... ......
53 53 60 63 64 64 71 78
4.3.3 4.3.4 4.3.5
4.3.6
Lead Oxides and Pigments................................................... , 84
4.3.3.1 Manufacturing.
84
4.3.3.2 Production and Industry Structure .... 87
4.3.3.3 Future Projections ....... .................. 90
Inorganic Lead Compounds .................................................. . 90
4.3.4.1 Manufacturing
95
4.3.4.2 Production and Industry Structure. . , . . 96
4.3.4.3 Future Projections ...... .................. 105
Miscellaneous Uses of Metallic Lead ........ 106
4.351 Ammunition.... ................................ .... 107
4.3.5.2 Solder.
^
. 108
4.3.5.3 Sheet Lead. .............................................
109
4.3.5.4 Cable Covering. ............. 109
4.3..5.5 Weights and Ballast . .... .....................
HO
4.3.5.6 Type MetalHO
4.3.5.7 Pipes, Traps, and Bands, and Caulking
Lead.................................................. ........................... . Ill
4.3.5.8 Brass and Bronze and Bearing Metals . . . 112
4.3.5.9 Casting metal .............. H3
4.3.5.10 Collapsible Tubes and Foil. ...... m
4.3.5.11 Miscellaneous Uses ....................... ..... n4
Organic Lead Compounds .................. ......... 114
4.4 References ........................................................................................... .... , , . . 115
5.0 Introduction of Lead Into the Environment,........................, , . .
121
5.1 Summary ................ ....................... ... 121
5.2 Sources- .............. ............................ .... 121
5.2.1 5.2.2
Lead Producing Industry 5.2-1,1 Primary Lead , .................. ........
5.2.1.2 Secondary Lead ...... ............................ 5.2.1.3 Secondary Brass and Bronze.
Lead Consuming Industry. 5.2.2,1 Storage Battery Manufacture . ........................
121 121
127 128 129 129
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5.2.3
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
5.2.2.2 Gasoline Antiknock Additives ................... 5.2.2.3 Lead Oxides and Pigments. ....... 5.2.2.4 Inorganic Lead Compounds. ....... 5.2.2.5 Miscellaneous Uses of Metallic Lead. . . Indirect Sources of Lead ............ 5.2.3.1 Iron and Steel Production ....... 5.2.3.2 Cement manufacture ....................... .... 5,2.3-3 Combustion of Fossil Fuels............................ 5.2.3.4 Solid Waste Incineration ....... 5.2.3.3 Sludge Oisposal,
Page
129 135 137 138 140 140 141 142 143 143
S.3 References.
....................... 145
0 Ecological Effects
151
6.1 Summary
151
6.2 Effects on Terrestrial and Aquatic Protista. ...... .153
6.2.1 Terrestrial Protista....................... ......... .154 6.2.2 Aquatic Protista. ......................................................................... 155
6.3 Effects on Plants.
156
6.3.1 6.3.2
6.3.3
Metabolism, Uptake, and Absorption, ........ Yields . ..................... .
157 159
Organolead Compounds,
160
6.4 Effects on Aquatic Biota.
`160
6.4.1 Invertebrates. ..... .................. ........ 260 6.4.2 Fishes, ...... .................. .......... >XS1
6.5 Effects on Terrestrial Biota
6.5.1 6.5.2
Invertebrates. , . . Vertebrates. , . , , 6.5.2.1 Birds. . , . 6.5.2.2 Mammals. . .
6.6 Environmental Interactions,
163
163 163 163 *165
166
6.6.1 6.6.2
Physical and Chemical Behavior.
166
Environmental Transport and Transfers. ...... 171
6*6.2,1 Air/Plants.
171
6.6.2.2 Soil/Plants. .................................................. , . 175
6.6.2.3 Plants/Animals . . ............................. 176
6.6.2.4 Aquatic Systems.
^ 177
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
6.7 References.
180.
7.0 Effects on Humans.
192
7.1 Summary
197
7.2 Biological Pathways. .................. .197
7.2.1
7.2.2 7.2.,3
Uptake and Absorption ............... 197
7.2.1.1 Inhalation. . ....................... .... ................................197
7.2.1.2 Ingestion. ................ 197
7.2.1.3 Skin Absorption. ............ .200
7.2.1.4 Placental Transfer. ........... 200
Transport and Distribution. ................................................... 202
Elimination. .......................................................
211
7.3 Toxic Effects.
........................ , 212
7.3.1 7.3.2
7.3.3
Toxicities of Inorganic Lead Compounds. . ... .
Reproductive Effects. ...... ........................ , .
7.3.2.1 Fertility Reduction,
1.3-.2.2 Mutagenicity.
7.3.2.3 Teratogenicity. . . . .....................................
Carcinogenicity.
........................
212
215 215 217 217 218
7.4 Lead Poisoning in Children.
219
7.4.1 7.4.2 7.4.3
Adverse Effects of Lead....................... .... Load Dose Necessary to Produce Adverse Effects. . Estimated Lead Intake in a Child with Pica for Paint. .....................
220 220
226
7.5 Epidemiology
7.5.1 7.5.2
7.5.3
Studies of General Population. .......... 230
Intermediate Level Studies. ............ 242
7.5.2.1 Mobile Emissions Sources. . ....................... , '243
7.5.2.2 Populations Impacted by Stationary
Sources, ................. ............ 245
Studiesof Occupational Groups........................
252
7.5.3-1 Threshold Levels for Clinical and
SubclinicalEffects. ................................................ 252
7.6 Organic Lead.
264
7.6.1 7.6.2 7.6.3 7.6.4
Uptake and Absorption. .............. TissueDistribution............................. Elimination. ................... Toxic Effects. ..................
266 267 268 268
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
7.6.5
7.6.4.1 Acute Toxicity of Various Organolead Compounds.
7.6.4.2 Neuropathology.................................. ................... 7.6.4.3 Metabolic Effects............ 7.6.4.4 Enzyme Effects. ............. ......................................... 7.6.4.5 Reproductive Effects. .......... Epidemiologic Studies. ..............
268 269 269 271 271 271
7.7 References......................
273
8.0 Lead in the Environment. ....................................................... ....
292
8.1 Summary
292
8.2 Lead in. Air,
296
8.2.1 8.2.2
Air Lead Concentrations in the U.S. ....... Localized Source-Oriented Studies. ....... 8.2.2.1 Antiknock-Related Studies, ....... 8.2.2.2 Smelter-Related Studies. ,............................
8.2.3 Trends in Atmospheric Lead Concentrations. . . .
8.3 Lead in Water. ....................... .... ...........................................................
8.3.1 Water Lead Concentrations inthe U.S, . , . . . . 8.3.2 Lead Concentrations in Drinking Water, ................... 8-3.3 Trends in Water Lead Concentrations........................
297 301 301 305
309
334
335 325 334
8.4 Lead xn Soils. ,
,
8.4.1 8.4.2 8.4.3 8.4.4
Soil Lead Concentrationsin the U.S.. .....
Localized Source-Oriented Studies. . . . . . , .
Lead in Urban Dusts. ...........................
.
Trends in Soil Lead Concentrations. .......
324
325 325 328 330
8.5, Lead in Roods and Beverages..............
8.5.1 8.5.2
8.5.3
Determinants of Lead Content,
........................
Lead Content of Individual FoodCommodities, . .
8.5.2.1 Food and Forage Plants. . . .....................
8.5.2.2 Processed Fruitand Vegetable Products,
8.5.2.3 Meat, Fish, andPoultry Products. . . .
8.5.2.4 Milk and InfantFormulas. .......
8.5.2.5 Beverages, Bakery Products, Sugar, and
Condiments. Adventitious Lead in ProcessedFood. ......
331
332 333 333 336 337 339
341 o,,
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TABLE OB CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
8.6 Source Contributions to Lead Intake by Humans.
. 351
8.6.1 8.6.2 8.6.3 8.6.4 8.6.5
8.6.6
8.6.7
Lead Intake Prom Air. ............. Lead Intake From Drinking Water ... ..................
Lead Intake From Soil and Other Non-Food Items. Lead Intake From Foods and Beverages...... Relative Contributions of Various Media to Body
351 355 356
357
Burdens....................... .... 8-6.5.I Adults' .......... 8.6.5.?. Children'
Recommendations Concerning Safe Levels of Dietary
364 364
367
Lead. ......... Effects of Reducing Adventitious Lead in Canned
373
Foods on Dietary Lead Intake. ...... ................... 376 8.6.7.1 Methods for Deriving Food Consumption
.Levels. .... ........ ..... 376 8.6.7.2 Daily Dietary Lead Intakes from Different
Foods for Various Age-Sex Groups. .... . 384
8.7 Lead Dp take/Blood-Lead Relationships. . ....................... ....
390
8.7.1 8.7.2 8.7.3
Relationship of Blood Lead Levels to Lead
Exposure in Humans, . . . . ...................................................
Distributional Characteristics of Blood Lead
Values in General Populations. ...........
Effects of Reducing Dietary Intake on Mean Blood
Lead Levels
.
8.7.3-1 Approach to Estimation' *''
8.7.3,2 Example Case*
.... . .....
390 392 39 3 ^95
8.8 References.................. .... ,, . . ............................ .... , . . .......................
' 40^
9.0 Assessment of the Need for and Possible Approaches to Limitations on Lead .......................................................................................
9.1 Summary. ................................................................ .... ...............................
` to 415
9.2 Need for Limitations
................... 418
9.2.1 Acute Lead Poisoning.
^
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9.2.2 Limitations at Low Lead Levels. . ................................ .... . 419
9.3 Approaches to Limitations. ................................................................ .... . 426
9.3.1 9.3.2
Criteria for Prioritization ............. 426 Prioritization of Possible Limitations. . , ................... 427 9.3.2.1 Leaded Gasolines ......... ................... 428 9.3.2.2 Adventitious Lead in Food and Beverages, . -430
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)
9.3,3
9.3.2.3 High-Lead Paint in Homes. ................... , 9.3.2.4 Lead-Based Paints. ......... 9.3.2.5 Printing Inks. ........... 9.3.2.6 Lead-Acid Storage Batteries. .... 9.3.2.7 Lead in Plastics and Rubber , . . , , 9.3.2.8 Lead Ammunition ........... 9.3.2.9 Miscellaneous Uses of Metallic Lead , 9-3,2.10 Emissions from Lead in Industry
Processes, 9.3,2.11 Emissions from Indirect Sources. . .
Non-Struetural Approaches
Page
431 432 433 434
434 435 435
. 436 . 436
437
Existing and Proposed Limitations, ........... .438'
9.4,1 9.4.2
Direct Limitations on Lead ............ 441 9.4.1.1 Nonferrous Ore Mining and Milling. . . , .441
9.4.1.2 Ferroalloy Ore Mining and Milling, . . , .442 9.4.1.3 Primary Lead. .............. 442
9.4.1.4 Primary Copper. ............. 442 9.4.1.5 Electroplating. ............. 442
9.4.1.6 9.4.1.7 9.4.1.8 9.4.1.9
Lead Storage Battery Manufacture. .... 443 Chlorine-Caustic ............ 443 Lead Monoxide. ............. 443 Chrome Pigments. ......................................... .... . 443
9.4.1.10 9.4.1.11 9.4.1.12 9.4.1.13
Television Picture Tubes. ..... 443 Hand Pressed and Blown Glass,........................ 444 Lead-Sheathed Rubber Hose. ...... 444 Gasoline Antiknock Additives. ..... 444
9.4.1.14 Lead-Based Paint. ........... 445 9.4.1.15 Lead--Based Paint in Federally-Owned
or Assisted Housing. .......... 446
9.4.1.16 9.4.1.17 9.4.1.18 9.4.1.19 9.4.1.20 9.4,121
Occupational Exposure to Lead...................... 447
Drinking Water Standard, , , .......................... 447
Evaporated Milk. ...... ....................... 447
Ambient Air Standards...............................
443
Lead Arsenate.............................................................. 445
Lead Shot... ............. 449
9.4.1.22 Ocean Dumping..........................
449
Indirect Limitations. . ...............................
449
9.4.2.1 Primary Lead Smelters. ...... , . . 449
9.4.2.2 9.4.2.3
Primary Copper Smelters................................ . 450 Secondary Lead Smelters. ........ 450
9.4.2.4 9.4.2.5
Secondary Brass and Bronze Ingot Production Plants..................................................... 450 Ferroalloy Production Facilities. , . . .450
9.4.2.6 9.4.2.7 9.4.2.8
Electric Arc Steel Furnaces. ....................... 450 Incinerators. ............. *450 Sludge Incinerators, .......... 450
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page.
9.4.3
9.4.2.9 Portland Cement Plants.*..................................... 9.4.2.10 Petroleum Storage, 9.4.2.11 Gasoline Vapor Recovery. . ................... * * Recent Enabling Legislation,
450 450 451 45^
9.5 Case Study: Analysis of Alternatives for Limitations on Lead Intake from Foods and Beverages,
452
9.5.1
Lead in Processed Foods and Beverages. ...... 9.5.1.1 Food Can Technology, ........... 9.5.1.2 Alternatives to Lead-Soldered Food Cans. , 9.5.1.3 Good Manufacturing Practices......................... 9. 5.1.4 Economic Effects of Limitations
Alternatives................................. ....... 9.5,1.5 Industry Trends and Outlook. .......
9.5.2
Lead-Glazed Foodware* 9.5.2.1 Glaze Technology, .......................... 9.5.2.2 Historical Perspective- > ............................ . 9.5. 2.3 Alternatives to Lead Glazes. ...... .
452 452 458 460
463 471
* 472 473 475 476
9.5.3
Miscellaneous Sources of ingested Lead, .... 9.5.3.1 Decal-Decorated Tumblers ....... 9.5, 3,2 Lead Glass ....................................................... .... 9.5. 3.3 Solder-Joined Food Vessels, . . .... . 9.5.3.4 Pewter- Ware* ............. 9.5.3.5 Drinking Water. . ................................ .... . .
477 478 478 479
479
9.6 References. ................. ................... , 481
Appendix....................... ...........................................................................
434
Lead intakes from Various Foods for Selected Age-Sex Groups .... ................... ............ ...............
484
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