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s NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 425 North Michigan Avenue Chicago, Illinois 60611 . PLAINTIFF'S EXHIBIT i 02341.00 PLAINTIFFS EXHIBIT, .. 55th ANNUAL NATIONAL SAFETY CONGRESS Papers Delivered in the CONSTRUCTION AND PUBLIC EMPLOYEES SESSIONS ; *'**> t * Five Years*of Future Dates for the. National'Safely Congress. -4 CONSTRUCTION SESSIONS Report of Year's Activities.................... .,................--Earl W. Wheeler 5 . Protection Against Trench Failures.......... .........................William,C. Land 6 - Safe Use of Explosives-in Construction.......'....... :... .M. M. Champion 10 What's Wrong With Construction Safety In the United States. Harry M. Philo 13 .' Vibration Measurement-in Construction........ ..PaulC. Hosklng 15 . How Owner and General Contractor Coordinate Safety on Multi-Contractor Jobs...^...Thomas J. Reynolds- 19 Occupational Health In the Construction Industry........ .'....Fred Ottobonl. 21. How To Foresee Tragic Accidents by Use of the High Potential .. Accident-Prone Situation Hazard Control Method.... ..William W. Allison 26 PUBLIC EMPLOYEE SESSIONS Safety In the Fire Service................. . .John R. Travail 31 Ideas Regarding Safety In a Police Department........ Mai. Adam Kllmfrowakl 34. Pinpointing the Problem Through Electronic Data Processing Calvin V. Peito 35 The Protection of Work Crews on High-Speed Expressways. Melvin Q. Lyell 37 Rotaiy Mower Guarding........ .......... .................. ................ IVarren I. Hanson 38 Hazards Encountered by the Highway Engineer^ Technician, arid Inspector. . At Construction Sites and at Material Plants........................... E.D. Sulno 39 Upgrading a Highway Safety Program ata Minimum Expense :Mark Mjarkson .42 Responsibilities Qf the Highway District Engineer to Employees'Safety J. H. Phillips. 44 Prevention and Control of Asphalt Heating Kettle Fires.......... John M. Fries 49 Can the Cardiac Be Safety Employed for Highway Workl.HarVeyJM. Kuester 50 - The Phenomenon of Automobile Tire Hydroplaning. .*.............Adolph Fram 52 Power Mower Safety mid Vegtation Control...:.............. Luther A. Tlppery 54 Officers of the Construction Section 1967-68................... ________________ 59 -Officers of the Public Employee Section 1967-68........................................... 62 Other Volumes in the 1967 National Safety-Congress Transactions. .Back Cover 3 ;: vr? .- lA NOW TO Attend agug- t ' U\ : . THE....... A itoeil HATIONAL SAFETY CONBRESS V^V' pCT^l|-a8-31, M88;>^OHRftti Hl.LfON HOTEL, CHICAGO A ,-v ... .v' .. .' ;' ,-^ "the Congress fe always a big-week, a worthwhile week v for the 13^000-safety people who attend. " - <s . wt* t'c;''. :j\; ; At .the *68. Congress you .can meet, other safety people, with the sameiprobtpms arid responsibilities as yourself. You cari 'exchange views arid ideas, oh. accident preven tion, health, hygiene, and fire prevention... on safety in industiy, traffic, school,, at home and on the farm.' ' You can see the largest of all safety-equipment exhibits - at the.Congress.. . an opportunity for you to'make, well- - informed-buying decisions for your company. ' This four-day educational program, planned and preseated by the National Safety Council, can be your most-thought-provoking, most worthwhile safety expe rience in 1968. Make plans early to attend the 1968 Congress and bring the other people in your organization who have safety . responsibilities.. . FUTURE CONGRESS DATES 1968 October 28-31 1969. October 27-30 1970 October.26-29 1971 October 26-28 1972 October 23-26 NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL . 42S NORTH MICHIGAN AVENUE CHICAGO,.ILLINOIS 60611 4 CONSTRUCTION SESSIONS . ^R^]po*Y(j^'Yearns: AcHvIfrtiis^ ,' By jnAnl/ w< -wHiiwtEtt Safety Engineer, Naval Facilities Engineering Command* Washington, D. C. The'annual ConstructionSection Congress special.bulletin on "Construction Safety- end programs' pro planned'arid arranged-by the Legal Liability." ` ' . . ' Construction . Section Executive Committee, The several working.divisions aiiid standing'- consisting of 9E>; coristraction.'iridustryj -gqv- committees of the' Construction Section art. . eminent, Insurance carrier, and union safety' currently at work on various other publica engineers, and. others interested in construc tion projects which'will be reported at Chi*- tion safety. gross tbbe'next year. ...In addition to planning and arranging .1 must' make'special mention of.our ac these annual Congress .programs, the,mem-; complishment in acquiring new memberships bers of-the. Executive Committee collaborate in die Council.' Daring the past, year vto . .in- the production', .of - Construction Safety gained .126 new'members, for a-net'gain of Data Sheets, safely releases,-, magazine' arti- 88 membere. This is the largest net gain in . riles, a monthly newsletter,jjve-minutesafety membership in ourhistory.'-. talks, .and various other,safety materials which are published by. the .National' Safety Council, to. support the accident;prevention effort of 'the .construction industry. This -is jthe -.type 'of' work doriet'-by-fhe Executive Committee throughout the yea*. . . ' Besides the Congress meeting,', we had two meetings, generally in February .and in ' May .each year, to consult and taka stock of ' jWhen Ifirstjoined-the Executive Commit-, .tee years' ago,'I was'immedfafely impressed by' die- tremendous, wealth of coastruetloq safety'know-how: in. thisgroup.and .bytho eagerness of.-these,people, to puttheirfarow-' how towOrk--to make. iticountThis talem needed only to be organized, inspired, and directed. ' ' . , -., pur progress-and to reach agreements con- We were blessed with exceptionally strong .' cerning what we:can,do for.die future in fcn,- leaders in our division and standing commit? - proving the construction' industry's accident tee chairmen ibis year,, and this accounts hr DrfiVfiD^on nerfonnance.. no small measure for die progress we banm . During the Council .year 1968-1967 we mode. .Furthermore,, we have a wealth: of . completed' two'new Data Sheets; one on such leaders among our working membersto . `'Fixed Ladders and.'Clirpbing Devices" and cany on for the future. I wish to congratu one on "Vertical Shoring For Concrete late and thank aHof them for your outstand Fonhs." These rare presently being readied, ing performance during my tenure as your for printing.'hi addition,, a first draft'on a General Chairman. Data Sheet.on ."Bituminous. Paving*, has During the past year, I have noted with been prepared.' This .is. a joint effort in col pleasure a .considerable, intake of new mem laboration'with. die Public Employees Sec bers cm our- Executive Committee.Thls .is tion. healthy. It means we have been noticed'and * .' Fifteen .^Construction Safety Releases" people want to be identified with es. To stay . wde published 'during .die year. This is a alive, to grow, to increase and -improve its continuing' project, 'and 1 am sure as many, product, any organization'needs a steady in or more, will be published next year. We flux of new blood,' new talent;' new leader also issued a special publication on "Train ship. I see -a bright future for the Cbnstme- ing.Operators ofHeavy Equipment? and a -tloir Section. - 1907 National Safety Congress ' PROTECTION AGAINST TRENCH FAILURES By VraXIAM C. LAND Dirtrio Mgr., L. B. Faster Company, Pittsburgh; Pa. - la ancient times, lam were enacted to Ft, Wayne, Indiana: "Two young college protect. workmen against construction fail students were killed in two sewer-excavation ures. A Persian king once nded that' "if a. cave-ins hero yesterday. .The.two deaths builder .builds-a. wall and does, not make`its prompted officials to order an immediate'halt construction fair and the walls bill down and to nil excavation projects in the county." kfllthe owner, then the builder shall be put to death." While no,one today would seri ously advocate that kind of "eye for an eye - Springfield,- Ohio: "A workman, died in a township' ditch cave-in Monday afternoon and charges of-negligence were died against and tooth for a tpoth^legislation, we can't the man's employer. There was'no shoring in .help but wonder what would be .die. judg ment, of the .maimed and the crippledand the dead if they could speak. the trench and part of the bank next to a house gave way; The sheriff said he would launch an inspection of-all such construction This, is a critically serious problem'. A great deal has been written in legislation'and. in the press on trench shoring. It seems.a lot of'people axe talking about it but efvidently those most 'involved are not listening, Be jobs in, the county." These are' not isolated cases.- Cave-fa i deaths and injuries are common occurrences J in practically.every part of the U.S. / To determine the nature, frequency and! cause of this, death and injury, in the:constfuction indtistiy goes on. location of trench cave-ins; a pilot study was conducted by the LJB. Foster Company's re .' 'Excavation failure is an important engi' neering problem that deserves the careful at tention of. the engineers, contractors, and search agency. Press dippings turn 600 of the;largest dailies in the U.S. were reviewed. Naturally, hot every published-item could be public officials who am concerned with safety arid public property. Accidents involv ing trench wall caye-ins are among the most common to be found in the construction, in picked up in such a survey and, no doubt, countless accidents were never reported. Let us look at some of tire results of the- survey. dustry. Trench cave-in accidents in the V.S. con If newspaper accounts are any guide, ex struction industry over .a'24-month period cavation cave-ins account for more than half ending June, 1967, have caused more.than of all construction deaths. Here'are a few ex 125 reported deaths--tragedies referred- to in. amples, chosen at random from the pages of a national business publication as "the least thenation'a.press: Pittsburgh, Poo 1*`A contractor will face excusable, of all construction accidents." It takes no expertise to know that the sides of a grand jury proceedings on an involuntary deop trench ore likely to cave in andshould manslaughter charge in the deatii of one of be sloped or shored to protect workmen. his workers when a ditch: caved in and Although the [study .is -based on only a crushed him to death. Tho trench had not portion of published trench aeddents, it does been shored -and. workmen in the area had serve to illustrate the seriousness iff tile' situ not been supplied with safety hats." ation.- The studjralso indicates that {boring St. Louty,'Mo.: "A worker was killed Friday .failure- is not the inain problem ..but that when the side of a ditch in which'he was many accidents are caused by lade of any working caved in and buried him. Tbe coro shoringat.aU. .' ner said the ditch did not require bracing . In tire survey, 21 states reported instances because it was six feet deep, and eight feet of death or injury by cave-ins. Injuries oc long." curred with alarming-frequency lit Ohio, In San Diego, Cdt}~ "A 27 year old worker diana, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. Ohio was-killed yesterday when a sever line ditch and Pennsylvania were highest in the num caved in on him. The employee was working ber of reported deaths. in a 12 ft. ditch for-relocation of a sewer High injury and deatii rates were found to pipe and was hi that port of the'ditch which be most common in late' summer and early had not been shored lip' faU, probably because of undue.'baste to Construction Section completing' projects .before; coldweather set trenches fall und$r. three .different sytrtmns. im. . :) . Where the 'soil is .stable andthe trench ,is Whet are (he prime".causes of all french - shahow,,theuse;ofstmtswhlch.bear against accidents? ;ln foe 24-incmth' period,.35. per vertical, planlcs. placed. at intervals alongthe emit of foe.trmiihes w^ ijipn^lyj'shofod; trench can be effective. Half-had np;sh6^g,at'alh.Bkckffll,pIaced too . In soft.day ar.ldosebeafingsanda, theme' . dpsatotheed^e`at.Qre'tc^sihiadwnzded ^ of..li^tweight prregular .riedLsheri: piling ltf.per.'ceht.of the taenchaccidents. Broken ' may. berequiredfc^ support,; utility lines notconsidered, inthopliuming While, steel , piling, is not foolpirobf-it- also stage of-the operation wereblamed lor'thrbe requires the;proper,useof waling:apd break . per',cast of die accidents. Therem&lnlng two fog--}thas certain`advantages, over , wood per'cent7 were , caused' by.lack' of - proper. that compensate for its higher costs. - .-.. safety warnings such as -barricades or signs. . For'example, wood has a sudden '.rupture No one has.more llabilityproblems than a point, -.whereas- steel yields' info,;failure. ' It oontreetor.'The tremendous.; costs involving takes, aboutono-thirdof the time';tb .drive'' injury .and loss of life, spiralling' insurance steel sheetpiling as it does an equal;length premiums and Workmen's compensation ben- of wood,pflmg? Because' steel sheeting-ranges. elite,' law.suits,-downtime/ clean-up and Job . in thickness fromone-eighth of :'an inch' for delay penaltira are. a'bigfoprice to pay for fodlightwelifot.saetioM to three-eighths'of an lade ofprotective sharing.` Inch for foe regular Weight sections, a negli- " In. most cases, potential caye-ins could gible -jvoid;. results'. when it'.-is. extracted, have,been qpottea by a simplo visual surVuy: Wood,becaure of to' large<dieplacenient & unshored excavations/spoil pile too doseto taj/Kas ,to.Be..left inplace on naany occa- trench; shoring-and bnidngtoo ferbehfad v don^. espectaB^ adjacentto existing Utilities, diggers; no laddersiu gettfog in and ont of tTnlifo;Wpha. sheetih&' steel sheet, piling re trench; no steel sheet piling td supplement' gnSgs ,Btfetriminiri& dimlnatiiig a related shoring and bracingkfn-'unstable sod; and safetyhazard;. lengthy delays in bracing. installations' to Excavating between driven walls of rteel avoid. Interference with other construction sheet piling.shouldjbe'fouowed'dosely. by' work--all, are obvious even .to the-casual the installation of cress -braces. Wales and observer. Supervisory personnel should dieclc braoesshould bepiecut and-ready toinstall the earth -for cracks, settling, unusual soil as soon' as possible, ftobablythe most hn- conditions, and determine the location of portant thing to. remember' about' trench underground utility.lines. Additional check braces, besides xniddng sure they are struo- should be made as digging progresses. turally designed-to do the Job,is fo leave . Accident prevention is as much a part of them in place regardless-of how much they Job planning as the size and depth; of a might interfere with pipe-laying or other op. trench. In. the pre-bid stage , of .a Job, tire orations. If they must be removed, foe sheet . contractor spendsmost of bis time develop- piling must be braced by rente other mean;.. Ing acompetitivo bidproviding fofall costs Braces'should be instdled in a level pus an adequate,profit Yet accidents still tion and can be provided with cleats to happen which are caused by lack of fore- them in place and simplify removal. Enough thought or planning. There is .usually a space should be left between braces to aUow -. technical reason for. a cave-4n,- butfo foe for foe entry of pipe sections.. final analysis, lack of Job planning is behind ..Where lightweight .steel sheet piling re-'. it ' quires upper and lower wales for lateral sup- '' -The failure of some contractors .to take port,vSrtical.posts are used to maintainwale reasonable precautions to prevent cave-ins positions. This is more economical' *ban ' can. work hardship on.tire .whole industry, welding brackets on sheets to support.walas, Qrash -legislation enacted to correct an to- thus,maintaining tire condition of tire-sheets - tolerable situation tendstofreeze methods of for other applications, operation with new standards that may be " Where it is impossible to drive continuous - undufy burdensome to foe contractor. Unless steel sheeting, a third bracing system involv- ' tire industry wants more government control, fog.- vertical H-beams' and lagging may be contractors mast develop methods of control- ' .used, commonly referred to as soldier beams ling hazards in trenching operations. ' and logging! The H-beams, where required, . Common -methods'of.shoring open cut are.supported by a system of wales and ' '7 J06/' ttaHohcit Safeiii Congrest struts'Hmflttr' to that usfcd'in the,sheeting bein'Widelyiufed-as foe1 basis for foe-re ;r. quirements of foe local codes.. . . (' 'Jto designing such 'tf^braciiig 1systemi''ltls tine bi foemodel .codes Is' sponsoredby important that fits :bradng '.im^'bers ;have The Amieiidah Insurance 'Association, .foe adequate strength, partictdarljrthe wtdesond Atrutsi'InSoihe ca^;.a:'dei&:ex<#\teftonmay require as much!steeV srfth 'as ihtrieateade' si^as'^sniall'brtdge.^,''' V '.Other splaaleqjttlimfent'such.'aB movable steel'' shields''may; boused 'effectively" for . macfogvrfiew'ft^'perhrtt the'&tfcavation' and badcf)JIiiigto'pro*d close-in'to actual jtfpelayjng; \ " Buildin\\g..<.V--'-.v--s-->-u-j----,, ----- -- *v 5 , . \H . ,Here.;fgs!a.feW; excerpts.from foe; Amerfc can-Standard.Safety Code for BulIdlngConstructionunder,section.8,.(ranches: ...,' . - In summary,shorfog ahotddbe, consid&fd -' The sides of.aU'trenches.which are four feet before the ; earth Is, toned. 'Where' SU '13 ' or!more-'in-depth'-and.where, foe earth is unstable, use tho.system.that'wulidb tire best, . 'not sloped;to foe angle'of repose-shaff he .fob'to ih&ate ina^mtmsaf^at'mTtimes.' ; securely-focld' by ;- timber bracing. . -The .!,Bectnise'of ito'compierfty, foe "building ' bracing shaO be cabie&ahmg with the ex- code system tofoe.U.S. dufootjwdescribed iiinply. A.b^dingcodeisa Collection or! 4 system. of. minimum requirements for .the construction; 'alteratibn,.!deipallticro, foalnte- : cavatiori andmust-in no :cas.be/ omitted. unless foe trench is : ait ini solid'rock or .holdsKalOo* ** *% .* AH'trendies fairfeetormore in depthshall- nance, and other activlrtes;'ndaticd ',to!!>nlldf togs' and.structures. TheMiwprireinehts are designed*) protect l^ h^d^' .tmd pm^ erty. The codes' are hotintended as 'descrip* tionspfbestdesignsan4practid^.;. .Adoption,:adnftiifoation,land enforcement i at aB times' be-'supplied'-wilh at mast one . ladder for each 100 feet in length or fine- , fjfffn TTioloddw ^i|*A 1 feetfrom the Bumce ofthe ground. .- Where a'mechanical digger Is used,-the ' bracing'shall be placed as dose as possible ' .six feet b recommended) jbf .building codes traditionally has:.been the'.' primary responsibility, of, local,government . In the U.S., .the state rather,than foe,* ' 1 boom. j shall be held to place by screw, or- by cross braces. cleated and .government its the source of Iegal-m . . to enact and enfprce:Wldlng.;Oodea..Mahy states .delegate ;most of these .powers tonra? nldpal governments. None of foe states rr tain them. foSy.: Various' estimates, indicate wedged >to place: Where.foe widfoof-foe . trench prevents this; foe lower end of foe. cross brace:shall bear against a footing to foe earth at the bottom of foe bench/pioviding adequate means are taken to keep that at least 12,000 jurisdictions issue build ing permits, or to other ways-tofluence build* - ftlrbm&I&to&otih `' 1 When the sloping of trenches to the angle tog practices. of repose does not extend to foe bottom of ''. However, there have been'a- number of foe bench,- the timbering shall be as re programs and activities at both the state and quired to -support the vertical part of .foe federal levels of government that .have a di trench. The sheeting shall extend not less rect bearing on building codes and the regu lation of budding'construction. These activi ties range:from state mfnimmn requirements for construction to the standards develop ment programs for federal procurement and .foe Minimum Property Standards of' the Federal Housing Administration. . foan '12 inches above, foe bottom of the 'dope' and. If necessary, toe boards dull he placed behind foe timbering to prevent, materialfrom sliding Into foe bench The surface' of foe slope shall be, cleared of' boulders, stumps or other hard masses of earth to-eUminate the danger of'foeir slid Efforts to overcome the diversity .of local ing tohrfoe bench. code requirements have been undertaken by virtually every segment, public and private, shall not be placed nearer than 18 Inches of the building industry. The Federal gov bom th'e sides of foe txench unless bracing ernment tried to foe late' 1820's to develop a has been installed and designed to with single national building code; In recent stand tire load. years, four recognized model codes have The safety code also lists recommended 8 ' ? V': ConsfmctkmTSectton. timbwadimenstous; for trenches' of jyarious- ,;TJiia provides an almost'^tert^thbrenstnio- widthsarid 'depths "os' well as.-for'trenches ' tum^yet'permits' efisy separation -when dm with hydrostatic pressure. 'ItalsO.suggests.. thaty yfimo desire^sted 'dna'' special tools'are not td- :jways.',peqesrafyj to'dfive sheet, piling. light . In addition to theseiocks,many construe- 1 Jade hammers or small-impact hammers can tlon..firms use other standards suchas the dp many ..Jobs, while larger, hammers pm U.S; Sxmy Corps of Enj&neen Safety Man ual, Associated General CentractoMAccidenf ifotjdr purchafothe vlbiAhuy' driver' extract . Pretention Standard* for the-mstructlori''in-. tors thathave hem seiti^'h^'^jarfonhance dustry/arid thoAmericari Standards 'Associa standards,over thel^'fomyeara/Tlify.have tion-now this U.S. American Standards In the added advantages ofrelattvoquiet oper- stitute (USASI)--for die construction Indus: . ation,'. a' significant .benefit'when woridngfa ' try. . residentlBl areas andaiohnd hospitals . ' Hie importance: of btdldirig codesasa too]' for' community ddvelepmebi Is'-better recognizedtoday roan In thepast-The detri mental' efifecta- 6f having1 a large'number of requirements are being greatly reduced hy 'die tendency of die local codes' tp' follow closely die requirement* in one of die four, model codes. : ;; -. So that all bids arp 'maintained on ap,eq uitable. basis, ^excavation,contracts should ppedfy a basic sharing inefliod. Contractors could then. consider, .alternate methods' of shoring as a means, of becoming low.bldder raflier than eliminatihg or decreasing protec tive trench shoring...: Itisobvious, then, that there is available As a result of my company's efforts in dils a Variety .of standards *which,'if fbOowed on . direction, drabnilding-codes of Jacksonville, every excavation project,; would3rasticaIly '- Florida/ now require that any major excava- reduce deatfaand injury.'As bnrstudyindi- ttonproject In lie-downtown.area.include cated, -however,. many caro&is result fidm either steel sheet piling or an approved shor totallack of sharing or -lmm inadequate shoring rather than bom "acts of God." On . further, InvfstfgnHon, ft appears-that-'maiiy ing system, Ralsorequires,that.the contrac tor srihmit.hls projposed excavation and shar ing plans for approval by the City Engineer- smaller municipal contracts, involving open ing Department before workbegins. cut work do not even specify trench protec ' Since dm basic responsibility rests at die tion. 'Consequently to get roe Job. dds may local- community level. It Is hoped -dime be the one cost the contractor omits to be comments wiB serve .to direct attention to come the low bidden He dim omits shoring this problem. I strongly urgo that it be made altogether or,-in some.icasevnse* inferior standard operating proeeddra in all local methods and materials to keep costs down. governments to have someone- trained In While thp contractor or die specification such matters* carefully review all plans and writer may not realize materials are read contract details to insure that such shoring ily available which can do the Job without systems are specified and carried out on afi undue expense. Steel sheet piling which can excavation projects. To ignore sucha precau be rented eliminates tying up capital or tho tion b to risk penaltiesthat cannotbe meas necessity for investing in inventory stocks. It ured against the cost of even the most ex is a.fised expense directly chargeable to the. pensive protective shoring system. We have ,:W$ik in progress. The- interlocking design .die tools and the' know-how. Let ns men get Joins -piling sections tightly when driven. - on with the job ofsaving lives. tiphs use; blasting.productB and fechnlques water gels and dorries-ls proving so. useful . peculiar .to the.quarrying industry.- Hie rock and. effective; even .the wet work. and. the -.e^vatittow&to.fw.xoacU'ahd 'dams is an-- very, hard rode can be. treated with these less - oilier Idnd.of.blasting operation, and tunnel sensitive products as well. ' and shaft workand other underground ezea- The ever-improving..product quality, in vattoUs meari'yet another set,of products and .. electric caps is far ahead of a.few years ago. techniques. Within these categories thereare Reliability, safety from normal, handling ha* feather variations. Aparticularroad job may ards,. accuracy, of die. delay, riming, etc., are piesentspedal blasting Safety-problems in importantly. .,better,. and adequate firing connection with'electrical hazards air difficult methods and equipment are malting today's lo^stics in guarding accesses' to'die blasting larger-Masts with fewer misfires..' . area. Another Job may be' fairly free ofunu- Computers have made it possible to de- . sual hazards.No twojobsare just alike.. sign parallel electrio blasting circuits popular / ' 'The1 safety of'construction blastfeg'is af- . in tunneland shaft woTkinsucha way that fected by many factors which are constantly misfires due .to . insufficient currant can .be changing. And yet this safety,is' still primar- . ptisittvely. VHminatied. This cfrcnitxy requites ilygoverned by basic 'ahd.fimdameritel con* sduridn of rimultaneous equations,, one.for slderationsof sound practice1and clear think* .each cap in parallel..Thusi a 100-cap' round ing. As we see the situation today,'perhaps means. 100 simultaneous, equations, to be we can accomplish the most good far safety solved, to design a distribution system with by discussing'.die changes' and' thefunda- adequate-energy, for, each cap.- Ibis was not mentals.which' surround blasting' safety in done before computers, and rules of thumb your industries. . and experiencewere relied upon, with .less The. amount of blasting done in our coun- . than complete,success, try increases, steadily.'arid greatly with die '. .Today, .die'hazards resulting from high . passing years.'Therefore, the amount of com* voltage arcing in parallel firing of delay eleo- merdal blasting products being used in- trie cap can be elimin'ated.with current lim- cireases. Blasts areblgger and there are more, iting devices. The' erratic, timing sometimes of them than ever before. And most impor- caused, the misfired hole, and toe treacher-'. tant; it becomes increasingly hard to' carry ous burning powder from arsed caps need . on safe blasting in toe growing congestion of not occur. These aresome of the product ' the cities, highwaysand countryside. .. . and technical trends toward safely. - Slnoe-there are more people,.it Is harder Another change.is in attitude. Safety has to blast withont endangering life. gained in stature and acceptance. Safety is Since there are more blasting Jobs, toe . recognized'as a prime function of line orgsn- . need for blasting crews with toe necessary ization. Each level of organization .requires . skills, experience, and judgment sometimes' safe performance fromfthe level below'in . gets ahead, of the supply. Blasting without' proportion to toe -momentum supplied from properly qualified people in charge is one of above. In other words; if you don't actively ' the most dangerous situations that can be and positively push for a safe operation, you imagined. . will be lucky.indeed to achieve it Among toe changing factors contributing '`What are toe factors detracting from safe to. Safer blasting are toe growth of toe less blasting?-Time is a major item. Even in sensitive' explosives and blasting agents. The ' - these safety-conscious days, when we would - ammonium nitrate-oil blasting mixes- have ' oQ admit that time must be taken to permit - meant that toe major quantity of explosive a blasting job to be carefully done, it is still products op many jobs is much safer to store common to 'find the powderman rushed by io . - - ' ' Comtructtoif Section the clock. Adequate' time .cut be' planned For safety, the bole .bas. to be imlpaded'.to" into d Job, and adequate crew'to'overcome the proper distance by somesafaiheans, or a unforeseen' delays can 'aDow die Job to .be. whole new look talren at .die evacuation of done withcare and drought .Werepcat; core -die new, revised hazard zone; Or a.loose'' aid thought! ; zone of rodk or cross,fracture can cause rode Beviews, ofaccident and incident records. to fly unexpectedly. diem, a.very; interesting. foots, die causes cl A'hole 9m.be unburdened by an earlier explosives ao&dentsthese days are die sarnie hole, to' fire so that-Jts explosive.toad may' -did violations"of;basio 'safe practices as years have little rode'to work on. Or a podeet of ago caused' accidents..!!'there'was a way ,to. explosives may-exist due toaesra or cham- be sure; it would probably show that care bn in-a soft seam. And'dm Hst' goes onl and thoughtwereabsent in mostcases when These are all reasons for considering the the incident occulted. Explosives on fire, danger Zona as much .larger 'than normal lightning,' dying rock from blasting drilling shot results seem to require. v - _ _ _ foto missed.holes; beating on dynamite cax^ . A dynandte. cartridge widr a cap fa It is tridges in blocked holes, failure to evacuate called a. primer, It is used-to detonate'cadi blast zone, failure to pfpperly guard, bad in-' hob in tunnel work and shaft Jobs. This pri formation on fuse burningtimes; rareless ex mer should'never .be tamped. - And yet, posure toundergrbund blast fames, blasting nearly every year, some men.are killed doing wires across rails, pipelinesand other cos* it This year, there was a fatality to another ductors^electric caps open'in die.front seat industry- when a. sash weight was used to of '& car .'or- trade where- many sources of - bang on apriiner stick which was stuck port ' electricity' are readily available--these are way donna avextical bole, la a tumid con still die kinds of things ' that hurtpeople struction Job, a man,was vray. slightly to-' using explosives.- Joredwhen his primer detonated while load . Theseare'the things' thatwo assume our ing was .to progress.'.Extremely hicky to be powdermen know- thoroughly. But- they ' afiyei he. explained later that'the primer don't in many cases. We have seen powder- .lacked, two fact of going to dm bade of dm . men send out the traffic blockers In prepara hole, so he began to pound it with dm tamp tion for-two separate blasts, without inform ing stick. Tamping that primer had dis ing the blockers that two instead of 'the rupted it so completely that a part of the dy usualone blast would take place before traf namite was found to die bode of dm hole fic should be allowed to resume; That sort of .after die blast. Put out' the word on your thing happens to a hurried man. . .. . ' projects: "No.. Tomping . of PtbnenT After We have seen-complete'mlsunderstanding all, some ,delay caps are five todies long. A in skoals by'powdennen to these traffic single, sharp ,blow of dm tamping stick can ' guards, doe to inadequate prior planning; expose that cap to the next strokes of dm When arm waving is rdled upon. danger en slide. Know that this is not happening on ters die scene. Imagine a powdefanan who your work. . ' signals that he is.'going, to blast .with thumbs-up gesture^and that it won't fire and . he doesn't know why with a pahns-up help less gesture. Traffic guards woddng with him are going to go tragically wrong some day. Use a dear, adequate signal system--sirens,' Signal,flags, whistles, or something that your . carefalthought tolls you is adequate. How much danger is lightning to a blast ingjob? The answer is, plentyl lightning'is perfectly capable offiring dectrie detonators whether they are wired up -or not, shunted or not, bit by die lightning or missed by a nearby, hit, out to the open or underground. In a training session last year, about 90 men who use and sell explosives for a living were Let's look atanother problem. How many .. taking a course from one of ns. This group reasons can you think of for unusual and se . was asked, "How many of you.have actually rious flying rock from a blast? Well, you and - experienced lightning detonations or know the powdermen should try to "think of them personally and certainly of such detona- all. The'list is long,' the causes simple, results ttonsf Approximately 80 of dm 90 raised expensive. - their hands. / . - Some holes get loaded' dear to the very There are perfectly satisfactory means of top by mistake and this fact covered up with blasting without electricity today for condi diffl cuttings. This should be a firing offense. tions when electrical hazards exist. When 11 - lpffl.fl.attotyd.. Safety Congress . , elgcWsd ;|{ttonns. apprfaieh'. blasting.work;, . *qjneoti. mi^iioiice/re^gnirre the danger, a^'.jwacuate.'"tiia.blpsfogzone'.until it . .' HUB??. does tins' on yourjobs? V rifo'f^.ban^pqitatlmii of'explMiyes, several! nude'available One offi^veiyibest.meaiu . people" havedied in tecml years. because' of.getting,safety iusbrupt^.W^ycur.nren'is loads, of.,pxpfosiyes have..binned. Tire; fires'. oi$n. are.-taef^bamis.. contributors. to.'these'' anpe..Alot of'thaii} fespgnt'hi:safety trafoihg '.sitrmtionjj., Typically^ driver defects a flat;. stoshms'.by bnf;meh.to.infofi[ig|and' seismic - . sjboBa^ sira'|to'8(XBnnoDi lasilp 'fbxf'tira ^ixe. pibqpectiiig.'.wi^.'M^'be.1 ihe i.crmstroction . change. The!hot.tiigitifes,,staxt8 the .truck'. industries, dbh't g#jheir,shaie.of our safety, . burnlng/aridis imported tdfiremen.Ky some-. instruction jeSpits; .-Vie fecognizethe diffi one eIse.'Firemen hove been'Idlledbythese culty of getting;, 'tbe '.pcwd^.'crew - info n- fires"by not'.Idiowing .tlie,. contents', of. the . room for truning imd.discussiom'We recog . tm<t or; knowing it, going on the assump-' nize that dd-powdenneh; may. not listen to. iloii' that biiniingdynanjlfo will hiit shoot' yoiing powder sa!esmen!;Butwe face thisnll ' Don't'fight dynamite fires! Don't' let others, the time. The expWrienbecf;hlastei3, die really fight them.' '' good. bni:`am' gratef|d.fo.n^injFWmiatIon^. One ofdie saddest chapters. on explosives receptive to. new idea%,.huiigryMfor safety . accidents' Is'-the list of children.who arehurt tips. These mifti are.pmongaur best foiends.' with baps each!yeariOccasionaIly, .one of and.vye.enjoy wqrkffig with tiimh.arid learn-, ' thfam dies ofdie.injuries.',The list Which''ire' . ing irom. them. /We; wfll be. glad to meet toe from the1 IMJS. each three montKstella with .them and,-their .crews .in,.training see- how children plug the wires into mB out riqnsaad.wbtkw^them on thejpb." lets, Kook themto train `transfomere/fitoh-. fightbatferfe^etc.They have no idea of the;, power arid pain,they axe.dealiiig with'; Fuse baps are hammered, dugihtowlth nails, heated with matches, thfowninto fires; etc.: Onething can be done hy.all of.us: our personalsupport Will . help. .Whether you own your company or supervise lost one helper, yonr personal .view of safety is known by otheis andmattersto them. As an . , The. rest of'the story & ahout'small fingers, example: bands.fabes; andeyes. ->. ......" Children don't buy caps; they find thfem.' Jnfmlocked magnzfnesr in tool boxes,' in' fields near theirhomes, on contraction Jobs If I.smolre around dynAmite;-! teach otbers to do' it. If T-stiiy-{uouiid others While-' they smoke, they fed tiiat I don'treaDy . -where die'Kids'don't belong but come any think these is anyhaitard there/ They have way, along the , road, and countless other, places. They find them.neat and'pretty, with. colorful wires and shiny shells. to know I'm serious. So,give.support to ex plosives safety. Let yourassbdates know you are serious about it Demand it bom than. '' An educational program With posters, ' Explosive suppliers Will.help. Get together . movies, radio and'TV, spots has been under-' with them^forthe training needCd in basic .. way far years. The number of injured chil safety with' explosives for yon and your Wm, dren Is coming down. More than 100.per. The discussions axe Interesting, informative, year lS'or 20 years ago; now down to 36 for and lively. We have never, seen a dull one 1066. yet! A regular program' would be 'a good . We ask yonr help in continuing this Job; idea, with supplementary training when spe Let us-oil be sure that our operations are not cial job conditions call for it . the source of lost or misplaced caps that can' With these tactics, then, attention to die. get into die hands,of children. ' fundamentals, adequate time' arid pt<wing ' ' Whto can .Ire done to eliminate'inexperi for safety, and cleaWmt, regular training and ence and ignorance of safety -information? qualified assistance, the safety programs Get1 safety training-for your- explosives'per* .' which you support can'be ever more effec sonneL The -basic safety facts must -be tive. > o :.vt: 1967.,National; Safety Congress ' safayyfcpecifltmttnns^ ' [. Jou?w fccturer, -fee, cjile manufacturer, and com- : cfno.' architectural>and;iai>gtne^tf.n^vfirtn-m i^nifet^p^'fznoi^clebtrenSlove^Igated fee ,the'~countirjj which- empla^;'-ayiconstructibn' 5tlrag^ay.;ipr:weel3 i^fethe.contractoTsi.and ---^ieerv It rapriresgreat arrogance '. cbnchidedthkre wasdnecause of .fee' deaths vfo -aieaet^cpeclficatltm writers''and :areblteo-,, -~#i.negllgeni''.faflure.'toinspect fee'cableway. fnffll .MwwtwKwinnmwIttef .ftocv";'wuirwitlea'' ionr*'s`aii^meatiyfirlfsceA -'installation;fn all potions of. tmyel.pribr to'. oMwitlitheir levelofBafety sophistication. -.Nof- contractor can or should .Yjte'.lawy*^condurion; wasfar more bp'\`Tiidd!:'to'':j6l>-' toleradce9'. in - fee-area !of . complete. - They-legd --Mis: -of; complaints 'safety-perforinance-that-are not partof-the .charged: : - - .7 specwcatlons npon whlch hefigured the bid' Lr-There feould^ye been a broken cable :pda0i;''V-; safety: deyIc6.,to prevent'fee -runaway of fee . - ";5.' We bave i)bt begim to adopt thesafety haulagecable'in the-eyent tbatitbroke. standards,: codes, andsafepractices which ' . '.2.i-3he .-men-.feOnld-'never;'ha.ve -been. al an required tntheexardseof duecare.' lowed to tide.a mansldp whenthey.'could be 6. There-istotally`inadequate.equipment IdHed.if. either fee load line;or. feo haulage ;^mgiiardedi-:iiot;IntetloclDed'''nr/&ibsafedi cabte broke..>(There were. six instances-, of cable failure during'this fob,,but fortunately ;-7. Fav for construction safetymehlsto- ordy.-oro idccuned. when. men,were 'to fee telly Inadequate.-1 know of.one. 440 million mmisldp.) -:'. -i;.; ' construction contract 'where the -safely iaarv . 3. Therefeouldbeve been a safety check- was'th* lowestpaidmanon fee job;.incredi- ' listfor fee-poxfeasing departmehtforuse at ble* buttyplcah -Underpaid safety:personnel are _ S. o.fte.nin_g wxnken-'to' '; -'.4. .Th'e'-,cd>Ieway^mamifact^^ mould .^be-.'tarefiir and% wear-feetr-uhsafe-dieU have '';had.-^'a,:'safev design.. checklist,- .which' mets and are nlsp'\ capable- of -.pexfondng urai^-bhro'daggedfee neeessily of provid thdr'role in a -ridiculous safety- awards, pro- ing a.broken , cable safety-device shnllar to - ' gram bnt are Incapable of recognizing 'major those,used-on .devators for nearlyone.hun- fob' hazards and- the .'safety progrerfa neces- feedyears.-; . aary-to-prevent the'unsafe condition from re S. .There :should;liave .been an installation sulting fnmafbr Infnry or death. Whue.lawyere bave allowed fee.devdop- .A There.-should nave been an inspection - meat of negligent industries, Inelndfaig -fee cheddlstv; including fee drawing, board.plot construction.:Industry, -we are . in many- re ting by.descriptive:-geometry of the head- spects .modi -.more capable of. deterihining. tower Installation.' due care.wbeh we represent construction ao- 7; There,was:'a lack'of'understanding of dderitalinjury: victims, -This Is' so because fee rappllcability. of. .fee ASA.' Conveyor most construction accident investigators have Code. .-\> : acquiesced ad of their lives wife fee negli- .8. There was'.a ..commingling- of safety gent standards of. a negligent industry. . functions .'without-proper coordination be . An example to iQusbrate fee different ap tween gdvenuhent and contractor, personnel proach to he .expected from lawyers who . -The birth .of the American'Trial'Lawyers investigate fo.fee course of adequate repre Association was'rim birth of a' revolution in sentation of their clients: legal IiabUHy. As'I said earlier, it Is only.fee - A few yearsago, four construction work beginning;' Decency.. wiQ.'not .abow . us to ers were killed'during fee budding of feo tolerate a social policy which results in Yellowtafl Dani. io Montana. A .few.seconds 110,000 accidental deaths, and ten million prior to their deaths, they were passengers in a mansldp on the' load line of a cableway. The value of fee,safety man to bis com The load line- crossed fee. main haulage pany will.increase as legal-liability expands. cable, shearing fee haulage cable.The man- - His income'comesVfirpin hislvalue. skip was .smashed against i the dde of fee As one who represents fee-widows of con dam,-and fee men.were dashed, agafost fee struction workers, the.quadriplegics, fee par- side of'fee darn and thrown several hundred' aplegfcvfee brain damaged, feose wife bro feet to their death! - ken backs, etc., I want to assure.you feat fee Several representatives ,of fee owner, fee trial lawyers are not only your allies in prev Bureau .of.ReclamiiHon, .fee cablewayinanu- enting `accidents, we .are your allies in your 14 Coiutruetton Section franflie bid price' and.have themadded at : costpliis 25percehttd tha'bidpflciewlth dignity andrespect.;.;.'.; ...- . a`national airbitiation system' to.'settfe' dis-' It*is not oidythe;safeiy'.ngtneeis.for flip putes, *. ''*.' ***... good.-companies: such as.dnl'pnt, Chicago - There, should :^e a.-.Federal Ckmstructicm. Bridge* Iroi^.Befl)leheiii>.AmeiicmBiidge .Safe^CodeWiih'owner^ liability ihnilat'td & ;Inm,-.'H:-JO. ..Ferguson.'iagtain,'.. etc.,. hnt the federal'EmployeiBLiahility Actahdthe every safety man everywhere,whofcas night Johes'Act : : mares after:the construction.catastrophe^ - I chaHenge you to help achieve tbisand adopt constniction safety stnndardseqttiva- -..In theshoit runyou stay believe thatitis lent to'those detailed in duPonfe Engineer* in-the interest of yourcoinpany to. fighflia . ing Department's Construction Safety 'Man- bility.: Xir the long tun tho development of uai-thetr' Browix Book--and. forged the low. liability wiQ increase your company's profits. level, standards reflected.in the:helpful' but - This is so because liability will separatethe inadequate Accident Prevention Manual In men from the boys. Thesafecompanles will Construction of the Associated General Coh- maximize profits--the unsafe companies will tractbrsaiid the A.SA.Safety' Code For go ont of midness.- ' - Bt^ng Construction,.' :. Safety is sophisticated, bnsihess-liability '. 1 challehge the top 400 construction firms, will bring sophistication. Sophistication will to give vice presidehtial status to their top prevent injuries and give you dignity and re safety maa, and aBtyotir.companies to pay* spect , .' . 1''.. t tire salaries and give the authority and re Can you prevent the construction death spect necessary to their safety personnel.- resulting, -from being burled olive'in a I challenge you .to -Insist qpan competent trench?. Of course you .can,. sub-contractore-those >wUh' adequate safety '.. Can you prevent the fall resulting, in.seri programs/safe equipment; and competent ous injury ior death?. Of come.you.can. .personnel.'' ; Can youprevent the coiistrnctlon' hoist ; I would urge that .yon recognine flie de failure injury? Of course you can. .. velopment of onr ordered society as desba- - Can you prevent the injury from failure ble. Develop, your professional status--yours to guard machhieiy? Of course you can..' Is a discipline as impbrtant as low, medicine ' Can you prevent tiro injury from failure or any or the professions. to cover or barricade.holej? Of course you Treat safetyas a sophisticated field. caranng. 0* Adopt strict standards and'codes. Can you.provent asbestods and lung can : When your.'employees are injured, look cer in insulation installation? Of course you. for third parHeSr-this will advance safety can. and recover sums for your own company. Can you begin to get adequate protective When your company is a defendant, look equipment? Of course youcan. ' . for potential cordefeudants. ' I challenge you .to .debate the merits for ' Together We will saw thousands of lives the next year and to come up with the pro and' hundreds of. thousands of injuries. I' gram which will eliminate major safety costs - .know of no better 'goal. ' VIBRATIQN MEASUREMENT IN CONSTRUCTION. : By PAUL C. HOSEINg/bX .* Vice TtasidenVVibration Measurement Engineers, lino., Evanston, Illinoix . 0 Every' 'construction contractor is safety' .ordainago during the course of his cohstnieconsdous. He knows he must enforce safety tion.project finally, he must protect himself -measures to. protect his workmen. He. also .agolnstuhwamrated damage.claims, musttalce precautions-to protect persons and Srich claims can occur whenever vibration structures in the neighborhood horn injury is'transmitted by the soil and'through the -IS '. 20(57' tfattondl Saffty Congress oin-.Thqy .(jccur.to projects,.of -every .sbe- ! town. (Incldejitally, thepubllcity die mayor- - irjjmblastjng for a snl$visIoa sewer' to pile' iredelyi^'throiigb.'.me''iheetlng Hay helphlin driv&g.for !a new' Jolm';Haitcodc''1Ceni6B*; or ' .to' be'reefecfedi' Sid'^!^"|l''piavided . Federal Offioa Buildtogi'` 'with alocal tfo-lii onthe project; Ton are no v.^w^sfen^il^.na.aWnmatfiftt, Jh.eWt- Ibngiijust'a''8trang^ Mend - lagel^'&omejof^wbld^has' be&.worldng bf^jhayqipr'bther.hicalbfficlal), - 'Ijijnowj^W^jiir'a. . ;' !'Tfc.e next'speaker-should hie- the president 6f,yM'\9^:rand/oir-ybuf.<:safety-:'engbieer, . Ymir;flrmhas b^/awarded the cdSiiract for. vritbalfow/well-choSenwords-about safety : eopcgvatfon. and placement of.the qecessary --hardhatsjetc.,--thislsybur field; . - . pipelines!, Yon know. that-the!bver burden is Thaitbtrdifmdmost .important speaker, I o^-bjtntbtibm l^.delep andthat, ovek a m0destly olahn< will be your yfomtibneon-; . cbMtd^ble.pmtto'of ^'excavaHoni your soltaab He will explain measurement and-vi Jkm (ifooessarity yrfQ remove b.Iotof rode bration controL on the.'projept; and tell his ' withfo.iiltyfoet.of homesalbng iherighfcof- audience:these;slmple but Important facts: way.v'.'.r'"' ../, . . k You are going to bear the shots. -. . ... We knowthot there are many waysqf re 2. Yourhouse will shake.....- moving rode' and one btl>0 .leu .expensive 3. Your dishes will rattle, ,. methods is..to use explosives to.break up die 'Always '.te5.,lthe'people these things will . rbde.in such sizes as. can Jbe handled conven- occur; otherwlse^ :they..^viIl. become alaimed . foody, withbuttyearing opiybur equipment! w]ben. the! dishes do iratthvlf. die story'is As aneapprlenced contractor, you,also, know property presented, the'homeowner wfil-ie- that properly ,used,, explostyes.-are an .excel-. membesr utat the^dishes also rattle ^hen lie lent.toalv.They are'readily'controllable'and, stomiia through the house! if;,die shooting geisvtric^y,; experts In`rode', "" Beforo'your'pfojet*: 8teits,"ihe'homes riwliant^s are. avadable'tp ajsbt yon. . along the right-pf-wbyshould t inspected; `Biit dm pmdtd^reddents-of die,commu not omjr'to'.yecbrd. the :defects '(cia'cks). to. nity In which ybur.operation will take plaice each room' of.eaeh house, but :tb point .out. --does' not sbarothb 'knowledge and easily these conditions ;tb the homeowners. This is omypanlc'nnless prepared'In. advance. A especially, important If the hointo are to "a properly handled! publto relations program pocirer.iebtlqn of,'town and if ditty are old will paydividends hi plod will and prevent andlinpbbir'roiudr. unnecessary and expensive damage claims, ' ., fJp/forinal reports 'are' necessary--Just .the The Drat step;m4dit'.he a.public meeting. Inspecdbh'nbtes of die tfbrationconsultant; TaBc to' the mayor`of .die town, .and to'.fhe. so that;. to the event of future litigation In local nevnpaper. Local offldalswfll help you volving qdq of these .hOuras,' he may then ' set. lip a meeting and usually will provide refer to lib 'notes anid'writo a report which space fir branch as die'council rooms or a could.becopro part of court testimony,- scfcoolaudltarfum. During the couise of the project;' record ..Make sure this'meeting receives adequate the vibrations with 'a portable 'seismograph: advance publicity. If die newspaper.will not Mqye'itaround so that you acquire vibration handle the meeting as a'news story. buy an' recording to various'pakts of dieprojeeb If ad in the paper to inform everyone of the you get complaints, investigate diem or, bet time .and place and pinpose of the meeting. ter sfill, have the vibration consultant inves The news story or ad should stress' drat the tigate. . project will, be explained in its entirety*-. To recap .a moment--remember, the what the project' means`to die area, the con-:, neighbors already have been told to eroeet veniences to the' Individual.: homeowner, to hearjnolses .and feel ylbratloh.. If.you bad and/or new business It will bring. Stress die started blasting .widiout pr^aring them, precautions that will be taken toinsure 'die their,reaction would be something Lke dib: Operation'wiU'be safe from :a safety ;englr "My .God! What was that? It xmdly shook neerV standpoint; and die precautions drat the heck out.of'thb house. Loolq Mabel, wilf-.be taken. to protect the -properly, of there's a.crack oyer die doorway and another.. neighbors., over die window! Tm going to odl my law At the meeting, die mayor or other local yer, You run. over to the neighbors and see if official 'should begin by describing' die ad dieir houses,were,damaged." ' . vantages of.these local improvements to die' These people are acting to good faith. If 18 ' 'Cbniitn^imS^^n. tiieir>'eii-yesLr son- slEtcds;<tii0i doboc:'*and .changes ocicur^step- tip. the j^bgram. Iuspec4 :.shakes >flte'. ' prcheckmore often .'other -hand,' fits'-firm' mutten.-a'. construction .tM'.Tlb-keasoh'for aO-the preliminarywotk.is. ' project-is= si'mew-experience.- 'Ihla.'Js'jS.aew.' - to haVe'-.-prtper referertee$;:aSi:tite.'Structure '-: disturbance. ' ':' ,, progresses.!'',We-.:haVei; fdimdS.tSat.'meiarby - V BIaSting:is notthe oiriycuipriL Q(tfec:ty&. bifildingsf. fipi-..scmetimej:;awayi-&>jn jada- leal disturbances -are'-fire-IieadadiB^ball or ' sometlrues'rlfewaid ;the- project, .As -wO.-havO : frost ball and pflei,dilying.>> .hi \;ws-; i ' pinted- out,ihe. hUfldingifbwnersr.jUsiiidly EavjB.no.-real' kniJwledgeof the-condition of ' munityrelations, be careful, abput dust/iWet.- their buildiugsi-Ouisexperience tells us thatfu doWn the rdads \vheflier needed' or''bot.{ Let .roportof thdcondition previous to'constrtto- fits 'tieople 'sw'.'fiuit'ydu' ara'.bWng'td'-:be: -Hotels tworfii'.miirh.mdre fijanits.weight.in goo'd.iieighljoft;;'' ' --'r ' `i"-''. .gold; S, during constructioiy'a-neighboring . Now;:let'siput the''spotlight 'tm'-a'^large, - building;: is .iddmaged,, you-Wtet. fir know ' urban project :-'!l l,iyv**:-*.-.; -. about -it. Bunion: theother btod,,you>.ceEr' ; -'Chicago.Is^a great city; Tm'jirotid of it. tainlydo-notlwant to:pay.for any. alleged-, Bat!yhat a heck of'a.'spqt-id'bhild 'jit-cityl damage that actually existedJpriorto-your Tlib history-bocks'till us^Chiiaigtf was 'built -cdnatmctionrWork; .}'! dh'a'swffloap; 1`ahd many ciUes HKe ouis are -iThanks-.'tO.fiie.researdicarTied.out by' the built oa''iivu'',inoii^.'biB(aitisb,,our;^aibti!t' Bnreaii of:Mines and various insurance com transportation.'depended:'an-our wafeways. panies, (together:;with the research iand eJc-. - Vjlptne <^;biir'eSy' structur?s''.are. bsjdji-on. pedence' glren^ by the fiiousands.of record- ' ings.taken.by:idbr^ion consultantSj.exbeDent - tSajefvW! 'm^.ye'aiti&tRefill,carriage .-criteria . have - been established as.'. to->.how ' fheVOxisting stauimlre&.Xa sudlctee& wBreomiam&ui that"!'additioiial'!preraiitiorri'.be taken. ''.* 'v "v'' v ' ..' ' ".''.' . much viinatiosi various, structures qan with-' stand ibefme-any, damage.mi^ttl.oecux. ito them. sHerftrl am- referring to vibration, in the broad sense that fedudesjvibmtion'trans .' The .projectaofually should stert 30 days mitted by the soil and through the.air.! before gcpnnd is,b)rql(m:r$fl;fprogram that. ;v Evmi.thot^h the vibration eonsdtant can' will ensure proper safety'measures and.ree- .calculate' .^hb yflsratkm ..caused .by. tyaripus ord keeping. During fills. SO-dayj period, the c^mstructiph.procesfes,' a reobidlng of.fije'vj-. buildings adjacent .the '.project- should be lo bratioii, ata spedflc.btdldiag bir ata specific cated by a survey crew under=the. direction location' from, a -spedfio disturbance- Ide. a of a licensed, land suryeyor^ The buildings blast or. pile driving, is.proof of'what- ac 'should -(re located both,vertically and later tually happened. .' K. '' ally and' settlement.! points -established so -Wo are all familiar -with personnel proh- that at a later date.the crew can return to ' lems connected with a project When- itW> determineif the budding hasshlfted.. rninates,the snperintendent and ierews'mpve ' .These points should he.estahished at the on to Uew-Jobs, and one loses tench.'Five same time the nearby buildings are being in years later, yon have a problem, end you spected by an inspection crew'.who note, must find.out where, why, end how. To your each defect; that is, plaster cracks or cracks insurance'company and your -lawyers, this -in the exterior stone work;- A formal report is information is- most valuable. If you do not issued on each building, with copies going to have -the information available^ many, fiiou file client and to. theewners of each .build-, sands of dollara may be spent trying to ford - tag., : ' "! it ' .- ............ -. During, the-.course of 'construction,. espe ' The - vibration consultant keeps such r^c- ' cially. durfogipile driving and excavation,- re ords.' Insurance companies have come to ns cordings are made,-.under.the direction of regarding'Jobs done' ten to.-fifteen yens ago .the.,vibration consultant, of the vibration and. .and, needless-to say, they.,were very happy ' sonhd pressures-emanating from file project,. teleam weiiad fire information needed.' Also, during .construction--.the .setfiement. Just as "one picture is worth one thousand .points shouldtbe-checked by'the;survey words", an actual recording'of the' vibration: crew;-how. often they, are checked depends is worth infinitely more titan a lot of theory, on. .tha`.progress -.of--:construction ;and -on ' even though that same theory is -based on whether anychongC.is noted by the crew. S' actual, measurement If, in a lawsuit; the vi- , "1967 Notional. Safety Congreai .". bratton consultantbrings tiris-'.reearding to hjent basic;explosives records with the fol . {he stand, the attorney, shows it.totimjury, lowing information: and ft isenteredin evidehce/taaDprobabil- ; : L' Number ofboles.! ity mb, Jmy- inember' coidd analyze .toe re ,2,.Spacing.1 ] .-' cording.- However,':tha Jury; will: recognize 3. Burden.-' ; thatthia 'document Is'evidence and.will be 4. Depthof hides.1. lieve toe interpretation of.toe evidence by a - 5. Maximum explosive per delay. vibration consultant -- . '. 6. Location of tootpoint-' Although.toe, recording Is .very important, What topuldyou do when you get a com ft"-ls not a. panacea that will stop aQ com plaint? plaints. In' addition to therecording, we Despite ail the precautions you have need tp-know toe -"where? and "when? of. taken,on any large project yon-are going to tira toot1 Don'tsay, Ttwas on 5Sto Street in have' complaints. We recommend that you Hometown.'". Do say, "lie'toot was located' set up. a procedure. for handling them. As at Station NumberOTO-rSOO?' or whatever sign one person to toe deity of answering toe the'drawing description is. Add to this ihfor- .phone and.-writing dawn complaints. The vi matibnthat toe-toot was "in fomt o3620 bration consultant. can supply yon with a West 65to Street", and.add' also toe location form for recording the data. .Make sure that ' of toe seismograph; When describing the lo- . toe person..answering.toe plume, knows how ' cation of toe! selsmbgmpb/ we need more te nse flie form .and fills ft out', completely. toah "at-Mrs/Murph/s `house". There may Insist-that he.be polite to.the person com be' nidre than one Mrs. Mnqphy living on plaining! Your man should hot say "We toe street The location' of. the Seismograph didn't' do' that, 'mister, '.That was a sonic to<rald: be' described1 as "on toe:-concrete boom." He first should'intopsnre be is.right, basement floor' N.W.'comer 8617 West' 55th and. then Callthe complaining party back. Street) :In.vcffect ourdescription of toe shot .Many tones,', due to. a misunderstanding, point ,la<&Hon ortho seismograph location when we thou'ght there had notbeen a blast must be'accurate enough so that one can go at 10 o'clock; a Blast had taken place.. back to toe some spot '. The'phone rings--someone is on'toe line. The vibration consultant will record all Here are some don'ts. When die caller starts thisinfonnatlon for yon or provide yon with complaining: ' toe proper'forms -to do it yourself! The im 1. Don't hang up. - portance of keeping. good records"cannot be 2. Don't agree with him. over-emphasized.' 3. Don't disagree with him. If yon put off a blast locate it On a movIngfob, onto as a new water or sewer sys.tem, pinpoint toe blbst from toe stations As an example, foineeme calls aud says, 'That was a terrifleblart {his morningT,.' Don't say, Tt was not*. or, Tt sure was". tootfn on your drawings, locate toe seismolog and toe distance between.,toe shotpoint and toe instrument or, "We didn't .do it". You realize the'language quoted above is not nearly ft* colorful as examples each of us If your blasting is confined to one area, have heard. such as a quarry orbuilding excavation rite, Do say, setup coordinates or a gild system to locate "Just a moment* please. I want to write each toot 'A typical and good system uses dils down" letters horn north to south ana numbers Then, take notes. Fill out the form pro foam east to west With this sheet the blas vided. Get dm name, address, and telephone ter quickly can fill in a letter and a number number. Get toe date end time of day toe and',locate the toot Example: F-27. A -de caller soys, the disturbance occurred. The scription such as "West. Face" nr "North date and hour are important for comparison End. Wert Face" is not good enough be-. with your blasting operations on toot day. cause, onto we shoot tots west face, it isn't . Yon may find the caller is complaining about, there any more-ift gone. a disturbance that had nothing to do with 'Mast blasters keep excellent' records to your'operation; It is wise to malm a note of' show how much explosive is used in each. any unusual noise {hat was heard in toe vi shot To help toe vibration consultant in. the cinity of your project--an automobile oed- event of' claims' against your project aug- dent; a sonic boom, or what have you. 18 . . ... :/ Coiutriicttoii'; ^Afeinr: * * .. ..* INTHEUNITEvDj; SvTT-;AT.E"Sr !-:By .j^HRY WE;;H .-'v `^v.h j _ Partner, Marcus,. McCroskoy, Iibneiyfe^o^\W@an)i-',a^t Dfiteyy Mn8Vfigo^;MtcSbi..'-' . . -" -'lTa.wLmyeI.r.s. .'andmsmaitfiei nt_y.,xnen'aieMna>twur1alaeIlIiItmesi , . /O\mh, .PFoelbtMruHarMy; 2Oj44',1100<6y7f ,itLhWemaMaAMn.jIfa;MchlAaWrgfA0' but .too many persons believe that safety to of.'allmajor construction for'theFord Motor sirhply-'cbmmtmsense and' .they,-therefore, Cotepany-testifled tea Federal <iu$,inalter ' havealong way lb go to recognize this por that to hb opinion it was not necessary, to tentialalliance;- " i.i''-' ' .' ' ; cover- a'floor:hole adjacent to/a[.pallet".of - -We dichVustask orasehresflie question: brides and'under .whltb- employees;..of: ipon- "Howcan due care prevent Injury!'* >' tractors were'expectedto.work*; V. "A- moral-society not tolerate 2,700 ' On'July 27,1067, die assistant-director of - constarictimi deaths and -250,000: disabling safety for Graftal Motors testified.thatupon injuries- annually;1-Tbe fault ilEes not in'our '' betagsubpoenaedto-bringthe A.SA.,Safety tecJmdtogy.btrt.rathef -fa. our;soctalpoIfcy. Code PorBufldlngCorutmctfonandA.S.A, The technical responsibility for a substantial Code-Far Cronesi Derrida and,Hoists and ' reduction'Ites'withithe rnahufiscturers'pfcon- Accident Prevention'Mpnudin Construction . stractira 'ma(ditoft;''equipnlent>`i and xnaft diet be .was unable.to find diem and as for dais, ahd.'witit fcrtstruction kafety;personnel. aaheknew General Motors tieverhad them. :;! The social iteponsibflity,; however, lies, General' Moforf'engtoeets. testified, that with' k^m,jud]^,'and>Iegt8labire3,.;and their legs! deparimrat>had'more'tiiaa<flfteen thb law is beginning'to hieet thto'challenge; yean ago written thesafety,specifications of Your;invitation :td'me.to recognition-of die the'cmutruxAtoncohtract-genftal'conditions, revolntfon'tliat is begfanting to die-law of lla- and-.thafGeaeralMotors employediarchitec-' bJhtyformstnK%nfajary ordeatto toral-finhs'to custom fit the'safety.specifida- 'Yott'have:aIl: observed' die revolution' to ttons to' foo contract but knew the architects die law of liability for injuries'-caused by were incapable of writing-die Safety specifi defective'products, Tiro law nnut ahd will cations because oflack of expertise! ' -o respohd -similarly as regards construction, fa- These vignettes aresymptaihaticof what juries, -Accident prevention comes 'from. lla- to'.wreng with construction 'safety- to tbe bllity, and only from liability; Corporate ex United.States.- >>' ecutives are charged with '.responsibility for ' 'There are-seven baste reasons, all resulting maximizing profits, if there to ho legal liabfl- from a'tobdly inadequate social policy.- / ity for negligently caused construction 'Inju 1. The owners who are underttlctog con ries, then little nr no attention need be'given. struction enjoy - both' die- advantage 'of a to construction"safety. .Bnt' legal liability,' cheap bid andimmunity from liability to too where it 'exists, can be yy'expensive: It many jurtodtetibns. The contractors' who rec- ' toust be considered fa die cost of dohig'buri* ogiiize the; heed to use nets, trench shoring. dnYee_snsxt. _Tp_rh_ee_vepno' tii*no_t_no' "pn_rto,_hge_r_a_cmo__ss*t_wg_rijanl.pxtho when acclthat point ' cs.1ha_ofe*i_cpee' -rosfoncno_em-l _ph_uo_tis_int_sg_,_'te_h_tec1i,r-ac-r-oe-s-tf-sa--o-u-se--d-p-w-a--irttho-atf when it becomes more expensive to perform the bid price and loring die bid, or not cbm-. to.the unsafe way. ptttibg them ih die' bid-and therefore .being Some ten years ago, the top safety engi handcuffed fa their iise mid.winning the bid. neer for,die U. S. Coakt Guard wrote to.the Death's handyman Is the victor. ' "' a, Coast Guard Commandant and beads of civil , - %. In eyery construction bid, all .aspects ifP and naval engineering that due care required safety .are-presihnably part of the-bid price' specific safety rides in bid specifications. He on a.cost-plus basb above the bid price. was told by letter that it would be too' ex ' 3,' Hold-harmless agreements ore -legal li pensive and would limit their,ability to get censes in buL They are against public policy, contractors, since contractors would hot want and encourage negligent performance. They- to be so regulated or would insist upon 'more should be outlawed everywhere. money- if .they were compelled to perform '4.'Most construction contract specification writers'are totally incompetent to write the 13 . . V- . . CowtructtonSectton : .P^ aU.<l^.&taaIpiig.to.\AbOT!wteye^i>' by.,vibration records, yon wfllbe so.advised gates-the,complaint prrferabty;y6to'..viW- kjjrtoo vibration contolhrii^and stejpscanbe tlmi cd.asult^nt -Provided with A? factv'toe. taJten to change- the' to - investigator and torhplaindr usiiallyaieablo to. discuss toe problem reasonably and seat - istically.Ih most cams, if titocdmplafot is unfounded, toe claim is droppecland a.law suit preventwl. ' V. eliminate a'repetition.of rouble. -' f' ' ; In either.case^ vihraii n measnremeat-rtogetherwith good public relations tind .toorougb record keeping--lithe lcey.topniteo- .. If the . complaint b Justified, as indicated. tiqnfor the construpticm.contractor. , v'-:;-vijibw owner and general contractor COORDINATE SAFETY-JCIN MULTI-CONTRACTOR JOBS ; ByTHOMAS J. BEXNOLDS " ' Supvr, Plato ProtecHi& & Safety. BuiM Harber Phrit, - Bethlehem Steel Cknp^'.Cherteitob, Ibd. '. .. * . . *. * * * l'V T An -examination ofth? records indicates' their subcontractors, to assist;-them.to'plan- that prior to the.'lOOffs lack:of safety pro* ning for.;and conducting a safe operation gctpps jand; todifierence..tp..bnnian.'sdSKlng imdm.titeh-amiracts.viritii.tim^compaiiy. The were.priervalent. The steel Industry became ' guidance .provided .by. .the! code- and., the me leader in safety movements,to correct the. placement of responsibility for, .safety, lack of concern in industry'for .human life immediately began to reflect itself in n re and limb; .. duction of aD types ofncddents. Through the intervening, years, since.the .In the,early;.TOCO'S when Bethlehem early,.lOOftb.the quality of safety, programs began malting plans for what, at that-time, has steadily improved, and previously-unr was the largest private, construction .prefect thought-of .accomplishments have, been in the world, an accident prevention pro gained .through'the initiative of management gram for the project,was,included. 'With the and cooperation of labor, to the point- that, gretifyfag.resalte of planned programs to the we now thlnk of zero frequencies as our ulti iwj)]klryln tnhiiij (j^mflaf jlnnnfnp mmt mate and attainable goaL -. ,.. into toe program for safety- construction of ; In tire, earty 1050's, with program necessi- the Bums Harbor Project The plan was en tetirig greater expansion and improvement of titled "Accident Prevention . Plan^Bums operations, Bethlehem Steel Corporation de Harbor ProJectiV . veloped a program to assist contractors in . Prior to- tile, beginning of work 'on the accomplishing a safe operation while work- project, meetings between all.parties con- ing within producing operations; by- coordi cemed wereheM.Tie chief engineer ofcon- nating our. safety efforts with theirs. With ' structitin at Boms'Harbor and.his' staff to mutual cooperation costly delays, damaged. gether with other Bethlehem personnel such equipment, and, most important, personal to- as plant protection and safety met with con-. . juries could be' minimized or avoided en .- tractors and subcontractors and their princi tirety. It soon became apparent that guide pal supervision at which time'the Accident. lines would have to be set down to standard Prevention Plan and "General Safety Rules ize the safety-activities of the .various cod- for Contractors" were reviewed. At toe same ' tractors throughout die numerous operations. time, copies of each were issued toeach con In order to accomplish standardization, a tractor,and subcontractor. Once these guide code was developed after many meetings, re , lines had been established, they were contin-. visions, and .final approval. A standard ac uajfy reviewed at subsequent-meeting). ceptable. code was published arid issued In The Accident Prevention Plan was clearly 1057 entitled "General Safety Rules for Con 'and concisely worded and outlined, begin tractors" for the guidance of contractors and ning with toe objective: "To reduce to a 19 1807'>: NatUkudSafeQj Congress employees; to' promote'' rofetmum efflcfencyjimid tbeffiectsavings by pjOTenU;^(b>io^!<^'V/2Bdactog interrup tions caused byoccnpatipnal.aoc&faih " ___t records.''-'-.' Tbeobjective \ " lowed by.an outline srespblisibilities 'ofthe'contractbr.:and of'nwrtif^B of oh\ dm objective: "Hie subfobAb^Bbtoater; ' ." .' 'i;"' effectiveness iiiii'th-,_________ __________ 'L'Gofoplywith.ml provisions of toe'Acci V*fll!:''depend 'upon idiB ,-'paiCcyaHnn and dent Prevention Flan, including; attendance oooipeniUcm'df-sd^toyisda fend einplayees'.'of at and'paitiiiipation'In safety meetings. '' = all cdhbactara and snb-crnitrnrfrTtsengaged 2. Appoint, aqualified representative with on this pioject^ and tbs coordination of their fall authority to act on all matters relating to efforts in earning ont toe feBowhig'baste" tooAiccidmf.PrevcntionPlain. . procednies: ' 3. Flan wade to protect agatest personal L Flawing: all. work to.protect against.. injury, property/damago, and Iossirf(produc personalmfuiyt>pnii^ty'damage, and loss'of edtimo^/'': " ' ' < ? "*. rcoor- tom and correction of nnsafo practices.and ; .5.,:JQampiytwito dm requirements of toe conditions. t" 3; Malting nmtoMn*ttnrL'grtfnifrtnff weft ofpersonal protective wjiitpntfMt- and'rne^' 6. Fnrylde'fo employees and visitors all fjnmTwi| gnaw^tf.' t petHuul-protective equipment required by -4l Establishing'an effective system of tool' .tireeirpdniroarid ehforcethe'use of snob nitlt.flr|lllpiftphfr-iiwp<yH(W nrwl rn^fnhwiinmft equipment' .!l. *' : ' ` ' "fe EstabUsbingan educaticmalpnrgranr to' 7.1hjurdthatpn)mptflrst aid is adminis insoro toe interest'and coopentilon of aSem- tered to an injured employee'and transport plbyeMtoirou^i: - ' " him U'ttpfqbct:dinle or as 'otherwise di- - A. Personal; exampleAnd safety contacts.; reefedby the-cltoicl ' B. Instroctirin insafely toquhenenb and 8. Comply with all required accident, re " insistence' 'on compliance with such porting precedures; ! requirements.' \ Thedutlino Of the Job foreman's responsi- .CLSafety meetings. Mitiesindude: : D. oEtfnfee--cr1tsiva-Qef*e-utys- eMlumco--rfaiibu-ur-al-luetins, porters, or 1. Setting* gpod'example for the men. ' 2.Thstrocting in safe work practices'and ' E.. Investigation'of'all 'aoridmts to do- watometobd^. * tnnrrfiw their Ink-. ' 8. Use of pxbper protective equipment and big toe conective action to prevent proper tools. theirreentrenefey _ 4. Checking for unsafe conditions and 6.. EMh-mitaWi and enb-oontmeto/s .practices.' ' principal supfervfacts dull obtain a copy of ' 5. Completely investigating accidents to and'snall comply with too Indiana Safety determine causes and taking all necessary Code far' toe Construction Indnstry, and 'corrective'action. roles'and regulations applicable to me work ft. Promptly completing required Accident performed qr eadi employer on this proj Reports. ect" 7. Holding meetings with men. Following toe oatline of six methods' to .The Bums Harbor construction supervi gatetite objectives, the responsibilities of the sion and safety personnel am continually in. chief project engineer; die safety coordina- the construction areas and insist on strict tor;the contrhctora and subcontractors; and compliance with' the Accident Prevention the Job foremen are outlined. Flan, and the "General Safety Rules for Con The chief project engineer is responsible tractors". The foot that.the Bethlehem,'Steel for the entire'plan as I have outlined it to Corporation-provides workmen's compensa this-point-and; in .addition,'most appoint a' tion and general liability insurance to cover safety coordinator, authorizing him to en approved contractors on toe. project greatly force safety measures and -to recommend enhances enforcement of toe safety program -corrective action when substandard prac by Betblehem and compliance'with toe pro tices and conditions are observed.' gram by die contractors. .20- .ComtrucUqti.SectUm - WoeJdysafetyrmeetings'arBalso held ,by unionstoward a soimd;safety .j^grapt-fir^. the: craft. anion/.stcwardt.aiid:designated - quentiy. bnly. iTipi-seryice^. for .safety;.exists comidtteesfroiirthese medibgsiii torn meet, widiiwjmKiningWactta withiplant protectionandsafety:department Complltmceandcooperationon this proli personnel of tiie>Biirns Harbor planttnfnr- ect.-,has;.been, excellent.. 'Onfy-:infrequently rtiKf 'umfaf in fKw: wympTfiWtifl Ky.all amhausi , baveactionsi othfer-tiiattfomieniinderftbeeh tars' towardthidesired god of-maximum required, to bring;the' safety prqgram.badc safe worldng conditions. ,. into lintt Hie aid of.the purchdting depart- - PeriodfcaHy; die -business agents -for dje crafts make safetytoms of-the construction- nre&pwith members;of-the construction and safety departmentspointing out-various con- - slruclivo ' improvements to farther-' improve - the program. '- : ..'..Considerable tfane is spent'working 'wHh the A-FX/ craffniiion; safety representative ttiinsure'e mutual understanding that fair a safety, program {to be`effective^ 'requites :the ment iaeolistedwhentheniost teverocor- rectiveactions hayebeea.necessary and this ' procedurehas bean inost effective; - ; " Our program is hot unlike other programs in tiie conitructionindustiy.haviDg the com mon - denominator :of ) planning,; motivation; . communication,- and follow through-accom- panled with dedicated hard^work on the part' of each inditidual on die site. We attempt'to , implement our program with'enthustom and a diiectiiessofpurpose eliminating Tip serv cooperation of both management and. labor. ice" and'the attitude "we <wiH.look at the Without the complete sincere support of the problem.later'Y ' . ......... Ji : i ' . OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH IN THE CONSTRUCTION -V-..wpus|l^ ' By^PBED OTTOBONI - Senior Industrial Hygiene. Engr., Bureau, of Oocupathmal .Health, . California State Dept ofFubUo.Health, Berkeley, Calif. Occupational health in the construction last few years that' intelligent discussion-of industry is a subject ithat has. iiot yet re- the subject has been difficult. Some people ceived any real interest or attention in the interpret ft to-mean everything :from a cut 'United States. Articles, appear from, time to finger .to the social well-being of the erafis- time.in the American literature on'a specific man's family. For our purposes here, how- health hazard, such' as lung cancer in ashes- ever, occupational health.means-the preven- tos insulators, or lead poisoning in painters. -. tion of work-caused disease and disahility by Other than a few papers originating in'Cali- 'control -of.-the- work environment an- area fdmia, where a'start has been made on-the where both labor and management have'a heat,, noise, and- dust problems of. heavy clear, responsibility .far ,observation, discus- equipment operators, almost nothing/seems. sion, and hazard control,;This definition ac ts have been written on .the present health quires'particular meaning when one realizes status of the individual crafts or on die over- that tho majority of occupational diseases are dll health problems or needs of the industry, not curable; they are only-preventable,' This lade of interest and work Is signifi- .- Five conclusions have emerged-frtnn 'oar cant Either.there are'no problems in die in- _ studies of occupational health problems in dustry worthy of mention; or there Is an ap- ' the' construction industry; We fed thfey are palling lade of some vital ingredient which' is fundamental,.if progress is to be made..They necessary for -stimulating die grbwth. of n are the result of pearly five years of observa- systematic interest in- the health of. more dons in California'. Theydramatlcally reveal than four million American workers. the lack of interest, die. lack of programs and - First let's define, "occupational' health".. the lack of action that beset the .industry. It Tho term has been so .loosely used over the - is recognized-that theimmedfate demand of 21 lQBT.NattdiialSafetyCongresa pressing isafctyiuoblcms :.ini ':the>;lhdasitry' -. larger,- faster,-and more-powerful equipment; - may*-JurpaxVbe re^nd^^forsatiiiiwgiiig.- . designed without,cbnrideratiqn for.tiie'loiig- any cxmcertodiinferest 'in /health'-problems. .-term health' of - thejoperator,1 is-expected to "While iiio-tattempti-isL. mad&here/to detract intensify- this'hearing-loss problem: If alsois fromiidinimportant-responsibility I foracd- . expecfed to intiodiice silicosis.fortiro first ...dent-pretantioh>fa',the/fadustiy,vit is time. ' time as. a ctlSease.of fhe Operators of dozen, '' that- programs teiivroilc-induced disease'-pro* power shovels,-and frorit-endibaders. - vienHon beginto receivbjthe attention' they ' Theeqdpteentoperdbr.-tenbt'donein deceive.: High-accident frequencies' cannot, ' feeing .these health hazards. The. recent re- . byaiiy stretch of the1Imagination^ jnstify a placement- of . the plasterer's .conventional lade of Interest .&> healthy working 'condlr trowel;widi- a. spray .nozzle ,has introduced Sons. - - li..;.: serious bearing -loss problems insofar, as`.the ' Onr first condusion-^-there' Is a baste need - plaster gfins:that we have measured are con-. jo. -recognize,that construction workers- are ' cerned. Further, .die gun application of as-. now sufferingjob-induced diseases'and that bestos-contateing fireproof coatings continues new .diseases will.-'emerge;with ..advancing without control' and without', concern. 'Yet, technology. ' . data" coming' in iegujarly. - from studies of To the casual observer or even a member men1 .working. 'aibiind !asbestos dust' .leave ' of die fcdusby itsdf, itisreasonableto be-' very litde .doubt' that die gunoperator and lieve that occupationally-induced:diseases hi other draftsmen' in the .area' are being sub: construction wade are not a problem. -The jected to die risk of asbestosis. and'lung can .crafts have 'long histories of woddng- out cer. doors fathe fresh air with hammers, shovels, ' . Dime are many more examples. Plastic' and other tools which have in fhe'past tradi adhesive' and surfacing materials have made . tionally.presented. safety problems, but not life an itchy nightmare for the tile' setter and healdi problems.-. die cement,mason. It.is. important.to realize A-.Iook at tbe-Federalor Statehealth sta that muds of- this skfo disease is-accompa tistics appear to support this, concept: not nied by a permanent allergy to foe epoxy because there is ai lade of problems,, bht be resin: hardener used in die process. The cause neither die Federal government nor sljghtest further .exposure to die hardener.., die states--with the possible exception of brings on. a repeat case of the itch and die: California--keep any'statistics' on' the.'sub- . inari is permanently disabled for any further' feet When no diseasels reported, itisnatii- - work with the plastic. rid.to condude 'that none exists. However, Another example involves today's welder. - whatappears as no problem is, in reality, no Diero was a time when very llttle except or information on the problem. dinary steel was found on a construction Job.. Experience hi California supports this con- Ail unprotected welder could work with very duston.In recent years, 'physician's reports little hazard from fumes. Alloys are changing ' of occupational diseases among.construction this. For Instance, inhalation of die- femes workers have, been coming Into the State from manganese steel will produce an illness Health Department at-approximately-twice .which closely resembles Parkinson's disease. the average rate for all California wodeem. ' Consider also -that nickel, cadmium, vana Since 1949, when recording began hi Cali dium, and some other metals are toxic by in- fornia, this rate! -has been continuously -halation. . among the threehighest, of dl die major in- It is dear that die pick and drove!' are . dnstries- The diseases involve the sldn, the gone, and along with them went die fresh. - lungs, systemic poisonings, hearing loss-es- air and the iron' man. The `construction In-, sentially the whole.' range of illnesses1 nor dustry.has entered the era of machines and - mally bdieved to lie in the exclusive-prow, chemicals, and ifshould recognize this. fnce of factory workers. "A second conclusion--it must be recog Fieldinvestigations suggest that more is to ' nized that die methods which bave-.been.de- come. Far example,.an estimate based on vdoped for' the protection of. the .factory hearing tests conducted at construction sites worker may not be feasible on a construction by Mly-qualifled audiologists indicates dipt Job. some 20,000 heavy equipment operators now. Most of the occupational health literature woddng hi the state have permanent noise-, and practically all of the preventive methods induced hearing loss. Die trend toward in use were developed with die factory 22 Construction-Section ' . worker;to mind; .The factories.pmsented^the, for'occupationalhealth -fafaeicouhtry,' the criticd.iihdustiial health-problems `bfijhe American Conference ,of,;GoveromehtaI hr-. /. lgih.and early 0fo. .centuries' and,thlsJ is. - dnstrial;.Hygienists, i is .dqpchdent upon its where. .toe.fnterest;; mo'.'.researdi,/ and . tire duesrpayfag.v membersiSpt..-..support -''Its '; putney -.'hiu .:.<be^;.in^^ $13,000 yearly total ;budgek.will not hover. - today, although,cmrrpaiatiyeily.smaH,;l3 still., - more tiuut'a fraction.offae couptrya 'inob-. oh the factory..Asaresult; thestand^idcbn; lems/.fad.tiut'fraction will be .&ctoiy-or-. . troljinethpds .availa1?le iniah flie .testbpblffl, iented. ventilation,'isolattoiy.ehohwure,'substitution, ' .Oil.this basis, it isunUkefy thatthewidely -. aad^perM^ jprot^on.j/SLre' organized to . subsidized,wipfe ithat wentintohelping the - make practical and economical .sense, fa,a industrialist to understtad;ltb problems and factory setting^ . to custom-tailor -his., environmental control - ..The.factoiy hand works for the most part. will be 'avallaUe to-the construction fadns- In afixed location. Exposure is repetitive and- try. The facts are that the responsibility for predictable over a; long period of time.:Utili- - providing aieasonably healthy place'to work ties ore avallable'dnd.control inethods can be . lies directly'with''construction.labor;.'and., . designed,- tested, 'and finally built-in as. part construction management.-' .': V- of me company's long-term capital .invest-1 .The need far envirohmeatal standards is - ment It is not unusual to see a $20,000 ven ' growing with'each'day. Noise offers a',fine tilation, system built into a plant to-protect. 10 or 15 welders; . . example: Heavy equipment,trades, compres- ' sots, drain saws, -jackhammers, and & wide ' "- Biit look at. the welders on the' construc tion fob. In a .lifetime, each ,will have ,done varietyof power hand tools are -produefag hearinglossthatls reaching scandalous pro about-'as much work and generated as many. portions. There are choices; The individual fames as a factory welder. However, the contractor can hire an accousttcs expert and coptra! system here is.non-existent, bebause modify these tools" athlsown expense; As the' control methods in the textbooks, do .'not another- choice, he can attempt to staffear- . nulce practical or economic sense on-a eon- ' plugs in his men, a method that wfilbe of struction Job. no practical value on a construction Job, and ' Factory spray painting,is done in a venti one that will probably, reduce productivity. lated*booth; according to the books. Since a A popular alternative is to do nothing and booth would cost too much on a construction ' Job, we scratch our heads and spray paint. let the insurance companies worry about it 1 anywayi .-. The sensible' solution is to collectively . -Dust; noise, heat, and almost any.health write' a- set of performance standards fin- problem is controlled by- cookbook methods power equipment These- can be mitten l, ..fathe factory. The cookbook doesn'twork for right.'now, from knowledge at band, 'and 1^ -construction, so we live, with the problems .wouliTspeclfy maximum allowable note in and hope they will go away. . !| It is now critically necessary that we ac- tensities at an appropriate given distance from,the equipment The tool manufacturers l- Cept. die fact that a construction Job is not may have difficulties at first But their- eng!- f tiie same as a factory Job, and that tire fee-. neering and research departments are avail 1 tory hazard-control cookbook--although free able and to the best position to'control hear - --is not applicable. ' ing loss attire lowest possfirbeost' .. A third conclusion--we must begin to de- Adequate labelling also must be consid velop our own - occupational health stand- ered. Very few of toe materials capable of ` ardsi ` caustoggpe; skin, or long problems such as The golden era of occupational health in .plastics, paints,, welding rods, fluxes, sol the United States ended in the. mId-195Q*a. vents, lubricants, etc.,'have useful wanting The movement which began to the 1930's labels when tbey-reach the construction site,' wad.provided wide knowledge of industrial This has two negative effects, in addition to - diseases and -excellent textbooks is slowly toe potential far injury. First,' even'tite inter dying. The Federal program is small.and ested men cannot find out' how tp.protect without legal authority.-State progroms hot themselves. And.second, if toe material does only have, been declining in-manpower, but cause a- problem, the.men have no dear in show little interest to the construction indus formation .tint might bo riseful to selectlng a try. The traditional standard-setting agency less harmful product for the next job. 3; , 1067- NatuMdl':Safeiy. Congress' ''dramatized 'by';the'.te':- mailed enoughtb1 preVedt, further 'employ-' _____ i'pf'the'c__ ______________ ...._____ . m&t^At^tbisfjiKdnt/'csujjjwaf^ct'teluttorishlps - mi oftexT'to'.vhgiieas\to fiiake 'it impossible afe'dbsciito. No 'ridgte.eveift'can1 beheldre- for ditoa'.to'deteraiine'lt^their tho'rarfacing' le, dhd.thewdrk fatee has afewless 'material di#?atecintiitoted} to^appiyVori-'a b'die. filness.b particuIarJoS.faa'derntetiHs^causiig epoiy,'.' i;;thb' last'.ein- 1 a'l^dic^te^ftsteg niotitenP, ior a rela ________ __________ _____ ,,Je for the entire tively safe polyester. .'. ! . '. 5,:. !. dost bf'copapensatiohl Thijisno teluHoai.' ' SThenolse mid label problems are straight- - For example, earth.mpveroperators have fcrtworcL They- fbllowthe textbookclosdy. - long tespqcfed that' soniehriw'spinal prob Others maynotbe so. simple because ofdie lems' ate connectedwith their Jou. Thiamay mobile' nature of- oonstrifctioh work.. Sold* - or may not be so; there are nq statbtfcs. lt fa tfons to tbeie .wfU/ro^idro imagination' and hardly possible'that all equipment^operators -money.1Ideas ffom'tthe space -program are are 'bbm with bad; badtaf It fa .most' likely, sure.-to >be useful-and we. aspect to see.ex-! horitever^ that the vibratlohahd bouncing on- .' ploitaHon. of :tbe. controlled .Individual- envi* sometypes of'seats; oh^bhie' types of'equip ronmentin the'form.of air-suppliedsultafor ' ment iirqcaurihgfrpiiial 'damage. Unleto.it is pIa^iterersJ:.cement.'mhsons, and|wdders; and . known, first/- whether; hr - not-'operators . are'' alr^condWoned, nolse-and dust-tight capsules - truly sufferingspinal problems and second, . for;;heavy. equipment.operators;.- Standards, exactly which machines aiidwljatconditiohs once..'seftf can.make.these..easily accesslble.at are responsible'for die pteblems/pfervention of'"Back't^buble",Will be iinpossible. \ - - The-dogical apprbach''ta to accept the:*.' ` With'computers now1available/itfa feari- ` spbhslbIlUy'':arid'' beghi' `to develop tome ble to tecoid'die^ertinedt' details'' of; ev'ery standards that' can be put talb contractsand job, every'iHness/and 'every death tor every equipment `purchase1 orders;..`otherwise I die taiil wqddhg- 'in ; toe - instruction'industry. industry, faces- attriHonof ridQed manpower,' Thie:dibuld' be.'done .by eveiy: croft''union, higheir .'bompensatioii costa, bazaid pay/ arid with the cost shared' by die employer;. Bouif'the probliam `gets bad-enough; theineyita- ttae computer,'output will then tell 'us bleapplicatfon of the' ill-fitting.-industrial whether pfihi^isv'dfc young{ or equipment cookbook.to tbese Construction Jobs; r operatem-get riUcosb. or phiste^rs get em- ''A'fburth 'conclurion-records and statistics mustbekept.' .j ; -.1 rfepeat,.health information on working men; Is scarce.:This isparticularly so in .die Construction industry because eyen-tfie inform mattonthat is obvious in a-factdry-is'dCtkded by the.naturoof construction work. A 'factory is a reladvely permanent envi ronment.!. Jobs acquire reputations: ' they smell; did timers':get lung disease; this or that chemical.wilTmake you sick if:you in hale it Tbis is epidemiology in' its most primitive form, done .without the help-of die professionals or the'government. Neverthe less,1-it is . very- effective.-in - discovering' dis. eases and developing-control methods. -' phJCma, 'and whether;the lung carioer';diat has beenr'found In asbestos' insulators is being controlled or not controlled. A 'ittffli. ctmdusion-uniform, - i regidatidn' mustl insbted On. '' ' Crapetitipn b vary.teal iii construction. . afact' it appeate to be so fierce dial' it often b cited as. the Justification fargbor.bealdi' and bad':safefy"practices; For instance; die question'as1.to. why water fa not being utod to control'.dust 'On .a given haul road very often:will brlng the reply that this is highly commendable; however, "it was nqt induded in the! job;estimate because die competition never includes such thingS; and in order to ' bid die Job successfully It \ras nepessary to dlspeiuie with the water wajpma".' -' Contrastthis wifh/a. construction'Jcib.ihe . THb b'a standard, answer for many prob- office.ls'' often-a house trailer and a single Ieiiy.: 'Ita',effOct-b to penalize the legitimate cnffc'is not likely to bo'on a given job for contractors 'and to'mdm the natural growth . mate'than'a year. Who now is going to do of healtliy working cohditions next toinipos- thd - epidemiology? Work-induced /health slble.' ibis fanatic interest in cost-reduction damage siifferod'bjj'' a'craft during die course seems to' be eroding the 'few'existing health of a tfngle project very easily passes without standards accepted by; die industry. notice: If Is not uhtttasertes bf such projects . ' For example, everyone'knows diat: a sand --and' years--have-passed that disability b blaster should wear on airsupplied helmet.' Construction Section decades,^flturingthstfast 'tfeax '^^ter - hits4 'seeiif . blasters .were.'woddng*v.They m&iiellgimMlyj; f-jjjThe .competitive.:inducement. to - save won thb proper helmets^-but si6k*am'$A1 money, by"shaving health and safety costs anair-supply hose,connected to the hijlmet)- .. neied not, continue. Good applicable stand- , Apparentlythe air supply Isn't?lxfciS-'flgured ', "aids; its the^are'developed under.oiir;third into the bids anymore^ everi'thongh'-u.is stfll:' ^obiii^oh^tod'abbviqrcan be madeapart ' In die law. , of all construction contracts and all labor ''DteM "engines :in-.underground, conathu^ management contracts; In thb way,.'healthy tion'araaii example of-long-tenn, -legal .tero- working .conditions: will! be soffiddlyorecog* - siomblesels were aIlowed-undeiground6nly nized as a1legitimate .costef dding businessj . after- long; study:andj-: finally, die 'setting' of and the toll will .be' paid- tordoBara by.'tho rigorous staindards.-.by the-Bureau of;Mines; buyer!.of!services rather- dun ;'ln thohealth These; Included, speciallydesigncd.engines, and longevity, of the craftsmen who-provide matching;ejha^st.scrubbera): and.ypntflation them.' ,, rates based-,oh;numbers.which accompanied -. The canstracttoh industry- has a -host :of dia^^^t^manufactnra; Conipeti* hidden ;.and;- pressing- .occupational.: health tiveprogress oyer'me hjiftfeQ.yeanhas;tedto problems,'-with more to come. For-.the.'short tha erodon, ofstandards and .die:acceptance term,.future, government .rescue, does mot qf, any diesel vehicle,,with a'vhqnie^nade- seem possible and a serious and planned .ef- scrubber, and,ventilation rate basedon.air fist by-' management and , labor is-badly sampling medKjds.diaf.liaye.notbeen proved - needed* > ..: /reliable,. .The 'j&giiieetedand festal stand; The construction industry has enjoyed and a^'ahd'.8(d^y'&ct(ns' prepared' by iheBu- become addicted .to the.privilege? -of.-hard reauof Mines' arebetog forgotteni-Although. work,and fresh; air. Change - is iidways- dlffli- a few'contractors' sUBiaeBmeanofJgines cult ;Bnt oneway,or another, lflm.it or npt dm .technology that wo ate. usfngtochangq diistqr'has . eroded' the"minimum .'standard. the face of.the earth wffl, to die Icing run,- Onethingis; certain:. eroded standards, no change us also. X: 'fc '.`/IVi4'*;:' 'Orf.VswC o.'*i. T^EHIGH $61^ HAZARD CONTROl^ METHOD ' *;>*.* ' 't,i.: '.fe V; ' ;,:i; - -'.iv-. _.,. ,;:Safety .Director;Sandia Coip^Affiuquehiue, N. M*-.,,,. *.! .-.- ;..!-I 4.: . -v ! .'HD?0:br High ' Potential is practical, down-toarthr< accident prevention. It' does require judgement;analysis.' Bnt' it is not.a theoreticalplan;1Instead; it is a method that ]&l bbemused.successfully inchemiiMl;construction/arid atomic energyworktoprevent - needless -waste, of; lives and money. Onlyafter-years of1successfullyutingthe method, - have-1.formalised- and verffied.it by statistics andtheory.'- -; HttPO- is '.the- qualitative expression and predecessor of;the' best -aspects of the varibusforms-of systems safety. It remains the snost reliable, practical and highest, quality hOzakds'contibr method. ' thhe isMthing mysterious about High Potentials.'|'Th'e fflPO -method starts and ends'wiffi emphasis on' the mzZ hazard-con* trolpoint: thVsiftiatibu'bcfore any major damage bdinjnry `bccuis. It emphasizes the control offcauses as contrasted with afterthe-fact injury-oriented safety programs, Tim High - Potential Situation Hazards - Control method provides a teaflttlc picture of the true hazard problem areas. It pro vides guidance and direction to' effective hazards control. healffi,-sigbt;.'llmb,.equipmeator facilities?* "We cahrthusbeforewained of the future's traglc accidenbt-an'd we^cun prevent them-by concentrating^ on1' HIPO-Situation Hazard Controli'and- corrective-action-before-crip- pliriginjtiriesand major damage-occurs. '' TheHigh-Potential accident rateof HIPO aOcidents-pH- "million', houri ''Worked,' combinedwitha judgementahalysis'of facilities, provides' the safety department arid'manage ment a realistic 'picture of me-true hazard problem:'areas. It provides guidance and dir rectfo'n toeffective boards control. - ' ' Accident costsinall industries/from coinpensation claims [alone; were $1,800,000,000 in 1865; and .two'bdllon. dollars to I860..Hie compensation'costs, alone are Increasing 200 million dollars per year. One small 700-employee company is.paying $55,000more (his year. Hum last year for compensation alone. Large industrial corpo rations ore each paying out over $1 million a year.. Construction firms ore loring out on bids duo to excessive compensation costs. There.-is a pressing need for change and' Improvement from a purely economic view point There Is nothing mysterious about High' - ' Let's look at die humanitarian picture. In Potentials. HIPO's are-very simply deter all Industries in '1861, there were 13,500 fa mined by asking, "Can'this situation, pmc- talities. Lt 1865,14,000; in '66,14,800. -. tice, procedure .or process, under possibly .- In construction alone (here were; in 186$, different circumstances: 2500 deaths; in *64-2600; in '65-2700; in a. of dining, distance or sequence of '06-2800. events, In construction .(here were 210,000 disa b. of environment such as temperature, bling injuries ift 1863; 225,000 in. 1865, and -rpressure, static; moisture, wind, sand,' 240.000.in 1886. sun, storm, or sod conditions, There is a pressing, need for. change arid' -, e. of materials such as compatibilily, cor improvement horn the' humanitarian view rosion, wear, evolution or residue .of point. peroxides, conductivity, or strength, 'Why change the standard method? Why' d. of personnel such as height; weight, not just improve our efforts? sex, experience, age, strength, specific training, or habits established on dif ferent types of equipment, . e. of equipment wim different operating characteristics, controls;,etc;?* . lead to a .fatality -or to serious damage of A typical monthly summary safety report utilizes both die minor injury and the serious injury experiences. Manufacturing had a 16 per cent increase in minor injuries. Next maintenance had a 20 per cent reduction in minor injuries and a 33 per cent reduction in 26 i , ' Constructlon Secttoh serious, Injuries. .General,.services, had.a 6 nlficant.cases because they forewarn of bn- per centIncrease inmirior injuries and metal-, pending tragic injiiries and losses. , ' :i ' lurgy.hada 21per'.cent, reduction in minor In actual experience with die high poten injuries and.a 100 per cent reduction in serf-' tial: method 'with another. 6000-employee ous Injuries. . . - group,over a.ten-year period,.tite-high po , We see'an encouraging so-called trend-of tential : method- did foresee and - prevent a total overall reduction of 50 pbr cent in se tragic;1 injuries - before they occurred:.' The rious injuries! > ' HJP..method also resulted in reducing com " Hie greatest improvements are: pensation Costs'to a low of one cent per hun 1,, Metallurgy--a:21 par cent reduction of dred- dollars,-of payroll compared with a -minor injuries.andalOO per cent reduction -corporate -average cost of 29 cents per hum* dred.dollars. Poorest performances were die fl.per cent' Now we have seen that there is both an increase in injuries' in general services and economic and-humanitarian need `for im the alarming. 10 per .cent. increase of minor provement' We have seen how misleading injuries `in manufacturing, which. dictates the Injury-data reports 'are. We have seen . concentration of-safety department efforts in how the high potential accident data give a. -the manufacturing division. totally different picture. - Now let uslook at the same company's ex Perhaps we need to be'reminded that perience .hr the-same month--as it"was re prior to die fatal arid, tragic accidents in flected in the High potential Analysis space chamber tests, there were three pre Method. ; vious fires involving pure oxygen in' space A totally different picture is now clearly diamber tests! None of those three'previous shown. Manufacturing is not a problem, de high potential accidents' involved loss of life. spite its 16 per cent Increase in minor inju Repeated ammonium nitrate explosions 'Oc ries. curred prior to die horrible Texas.City.disks-: General, services is not a problem despite ter. its 6 per cent increase in minor injuries. * Hundreds of men wearing banister masks - But maintenance, despite its 63 per cent reduction in die so-catied serious injuries, has 7 high-potential accidents, so it is 'the real accident problem area; and chemical di vision and metallurgy each with one HJP. are our only, other current problem areas. went down into tanks never to return dive and thousands died in the' fire service wear ing canister masks before safety authorities finally provided them self-contained com pressed air masks and a chance to live. Hundreds are crippled or killed, when scaffolds foil. Hundreds die from inade We have only nine high-potential acci quately shored excavations, and bom die- al dents to really concentrate 'our efforts on. most total lack of understanding and appre- Only 9 for a-7000remployee corporation--in ciatiori of the high-potenlial-accldent-prone- stead of the 290 minor injury total,, or die siluatlon-concept on the part of 'the design- ' 148 rumor injuries in the three.divisions with . era. die most minor injuries. To foresee bad'prevent tragic injuries, and. We see that this H.P. accident rate, the losses, we need only to recognize, investigate number per million man hours of work, pro - and take corrective-action on- the 14 high- vides a monthly accident rate. A simple, potential accidents but .of each 100 minor ready-to-use, logical standard. No. matter and 580. near-injuries that occur. - how we apply-it, it is at least 1000 times The employees, die first-line supervisors, - more,realistic than thepresent method. the.in-plant safety engineers are already And these nine important high-potential aware of die high-potential near misses. But, 'accidents are very concisely reported on the unfortunately, our nationd safety contests,- back side of'the monthly summary form. our company contests, the standard reporting The tabulation clearly Identifies, the areas methods, and our own programs have effec and die problems where safety engineering tively discouraged reporting high potentials. effort must, be applied 'to prepent disabling . We have inadvertently taught too many su- pervisors and employees the wonderful, sav The high potentials are a small sample-- ing grace of keeping a' few bandaids bn ' .but a sample selected by die use of good hand; of burying the mistakes, .die dose judgment as those few which are truly slg- calls, the high potentials. Too many safely 27 1967 -Nattojul:<Safettf Congress programs:oioetheirpast lame to'the'stand ` yourtop mariageinentreacts logicallyby ap ard bookkeeping' method, >not- to accident pealing-to Personnel'ian&: Training'to'Step' prevenfioni 11 .)\v ;<- t v up their services or-theyYassIgn-some'propa- i-> yfo ln safety cad honest]/ shairotheblame - ganda specialists to.wage a propaganda war for durlnahutd bnt unfortunate compulsion to combat tola human .clraoent that yon, to concentrate onfn/urydata; and thus-bar .yohneWes, report ;to be 85 to 85 per dent thedocrtothe .danger signals and the-les of the probleta. - -- sons which'1the highpotentfol.accidents dffer Do you realize that one result of our over ns.. Instead of learning from no-injury acd- all national safety programs.-based on-toe .dentsarid;no-damdge accidents wd-follow Standard Frequency Bates- and Serious In the VSASl standards whldvignora forewarn- jury-Indexes;- has been-to reduce; not toe tag accidents and an based solely on injuries number of injuries, but toe number of inju and fatalities. :- ' .;' . ries reported;' v.-Top'Ievel management study-groups have Surprisingly few people seem to be able to reported that I they. found our.'nationally face that fact that -what is'done under the 'standardised methods .of-: compiling- Injury name of "accident prevention" is 98 per cent data.(which;we call FREQUENCY ORAC- fnjuryprevention. It is natural that incidents C1DENT> RATES) are wanting, meaning resulting in human 'injury '- should assume less. and useless. Special.prominence ln htunan .minds. Yet; It .appears, that alert-top managements paradoxical though it may sound, this almost have classified as- "members ' of- the old compulsive .concentration on injuries is also school? all who continue to go along without - the major obstacle .to further,real advance epeakfogjaut against toe antiquated Stands ment toward provenUng serious injuries.. ard$ tocthodii . ::ia tod light,of all tola; it is.scared? an ex -.1-Urn-'President of.toe National Safety aggeration to. designate toe High Potential Coimcfl; has .roomed: us- that accidents-are Near-Miss Loss Control Method as. a 'mod definitely increasing rather .than decreasing. em key to safety,' in tune with modem tech The 6 btiUon-dbttar annual losses to Industry nological advances. . alone..and toe tragic spice accidents have, . Since, we .even Iooselyspeak of accidents, clearly Illustrated toe htrge loss: control, needs when 'we really mean injuries, let us recall thatdemand a new, more effective approach that an accident is any unintentional occur- now.' If rcefailtotake this.giant step for . - reiice that-may or may not result in injury, ward, other disciplines-will he forced to take damage or loss. .over toe fob that must bedone. - - An injury is the result of any.occurrence -.- 'About 75 per cent of-.all.Safety Directors that produces hami'to'the body. have indicated "off toe record" that "about Now, tiremajor reason given for retaining toe. only time tap executives really partici tire Infury-based "measurement of safety per-, pate in actual accident prevention activities, formance is that an injury is that (neces is when a fatal-or very serious injury,- or. a sary) readily -.identified unit of measure catastrophic accident occurs." ment" But, let sis'see if this is ready so. But why is tois so? Why? Because that .is Here we have newly developed expres too first dear notice tony have given top sions of toe accident-injury ratio. For toe management that they areIn trouble. first time we see in hold print a factor we But, did you eocr hear o a budget direc have-long hidden under the rug--numbers tor or treasurer waiting until'toe company that show the varying ratios of toe reported was in such deep financial trouble that even injuries to the actual injuries. the .public press knew about it before he nlerted the top executives? ' There are only: . 100 to 200 minor -injuries reported when Most safety reports to management do not 360 minor injuries actually occur. 'predict or forewarn of tragedy; They can There are: not forewarn because they do not include 0 to l'iiijuries reported as USASI lost-time the danger flags of the high-potential acci cases when 1.5 injuries are actually charge- dent cases that can forewarn us of tragedy able. and serious losses. Even worse,, your own There are: . - safety department reports have.typically in-, 6 to 9 serious injuries reported or charged dlcated that 85 per cent of all your safety to every 12 serious injuries that occur. . problems are toe unsafe acts of persons. So, These figures were obtained from in-depth . 28 - : ' Constrtiettoh Seetiifo interviews' with'empIoyeeis'&.KbppBrt Com ` ' 4%'of all accidents afe damage.accidehls pany and at the' Westttighouse Atomic Power ' T%% of'all accidents are riinor injuries, Division. They'were further verified `by a- reported ' '``v : jdipt study and analysis of the records of 7/100 pf .l% of all .accidents'.are.serious about' 100 Westinghouse plants; by^the late- injuries reported' `' HanyDuffus, the .Westinghouse Corporate 7/ljOOO.ofT% of all accidents are lost time Safety Director and myself;;.and subse USASI imported.............. quently by the records, of .Sandia Corpora 3/100 of 1% of all accidents:are major tion.'. injuries In every case in every company, a .drive .- :4/10 of' 1% of all accidents .are high po on reducing minor injuries resulted in dra tential accidents knowriof by employees. matic decreases in the number of.minor inju For die first time, we see some cold statis ries'reported. Li several instances a strong tical data showing.wby no two plants or fa warning edict from top levels, resulted' in cilities can.compare thehf injury, ratios. Monjr. immediate reductions'of up. to 40 per &ntiri - supervisors 'and employees feacj to die cases reported. . meaningless,. though .well-intentioned "Be At Westinghouse, Mr. Edgar' Barnes, Dr.' Careful--Reduce Injuries" campaigns- by Raymond Masters^ and I established and . giving just what is asked for-ra "better" tec-' promoted a radical procedure -that encour oid by not reporting all injuries., aged all employees,io fully utUiie'the rnedi- . Now we all.know that tha'ratios'will vary cd and first aid.facilities without''any.re to some degree from one department'to an-, quirement to obtain' supervisory' permission. other and from one company to another, .and^' Medical provided safety and the employee's one industry to andther.They will also vary* supervisor, with an individual report-on each from year to' year. Nevertheless, in every- treatment No-safety department reports"of back-breaJdng study that.has covered tens of minor injuries were issued to supervision or thousands of-incidents,- die same general ra- management except die monthly totals as an tios emerge; aside to the high potential summary.' Remember that.your-individual plant tol This program resulted in a substantial in lies have .not-included the'unreported inju crease jn the number' of minor injuries re ries and incidents. I do not intend to argue ported and a'proportional decrease in die ac- or defend.-the specific numbera nor die . tual number of serious, major, disabling, and terms. It would frankly take quite a book to losMime injuries..'. cover-the many examples and data drat ver The figures which Mr. Duffus.and I devel ify the H. F. method. oped have been combined with those develr Suffice, it to say the labels are those used oped by Mr. Heinriih and Mr; Bird. They for several decides. Arid it is amaring that show that, of approximately 13,000 on-the- any. ratios can be established. Statisticians ' job accidents, there are: te& mC that, only'when huge numbers of -10,000 No-injury, no-damage accidents cases are considered can we cancel out the 2,035 - Near-injury accidents ' 'vagaries of definitions and chance... '. 500 Damage accidents Until we devote our major efforts to these' 360 Minor injuries high-potential accidents, we will continue to. 100 to 200 Minor injuries reported be surprised by tragic accidents. We will be 50 High potential accidents tripped by the overwhelming emotional and 15 to 35 High potential accidents re- other pressures to write and publish "defen - ported sive" reports of those tragic accidents.. ' ' 12 Serious injuries 6 to 9 Serious injuries reported QUESTIONt Mr. Allison, would you say 3.5 ' Major injuries' that what you have developed and are pio- 0 to 1 Injuries reported as USASI lost- - -posing - as .the standard method of hazard time cases ! control is essentially what some of us have - 1.5 Injuries chargeable as USASI been attempting to do in our actual safety lost-time cases engineering work, as opposed to tire injury 77% of all accidents are no-injury, no- ' analysis, the injury case and injuiy'report- damage accidents. . ' ing and' contest work that keeps consuming 15% of all accidents are hear-lnjury acci the major efforts of even those of us who try dents to resist it? 29 IfHff.N.aHonal Safety Congress ANSWER} Yes,'We are in. a sense now-us ing astimdard method thatmight well be compared to. the time-test life jacket that was only, recently discovered to'invariably float thebody face down: I honestly believe that, if safety engineering as a body, does not face tip to ibis need, other disciplines will do the job that must be done now. QUESTION: Do you Ignore all injuries in your H1PO Hazard Control Method? ANSWER-. No, all Injuries are .scanned and it is amazing in practice how readily the few HEPOs among them are Identified. The over all new Accident-Injury Ratios I have shown you indicate that, statistically, only two per cent of all injuries are HlFOs Of course, you cannot literally apply exactly 2%. to the small number of injuries, your facility may have in one month or one year. It may be . many more or less fit a given small sample. QUESTIONs I. am. not sure I understood why you do not use Damage Control. Would you explain why? ~' v' l, ANSWER-. The HIPO HAZARD CONTROL Method foresees tragic or major injuries and damage so they can he prevented before' theyoccur. After many years of preparatory worlq followed by seven years of a complete program of Damage Control in its founder's own plant; he in his book; "There was no significant reduction in Disabling Inju-' lies." On the other hand, after only a few years of full use of the HIPO Method in its founder's own plant. Disabling. Injuries were practi cally elfmfnafed for years at a time and com pensation, medical and.fire losses were re- ` duced to a mere one cent per hundred dol lars of payroll .compared to the corporate average .of -29 to 89 cents: ` QUESTIONS Are you saying that- your rec QUESTION: I certainly agree wholeheart ommended 'unit of measurement-of safety edly with your concepts .and am' sure eveiy* performance as a new standard is the-cost of one who has a well' established accident- accidents per hundred dollars of payroll, and prevention program agrees that your HIPO if so, why that unit? HAZARD CONTROL METHOD is the next step we should tale to advance accident pre vention.- Why do you believe we find .so. much resistance to it from the Z16 Com mittee? ANSWER: For many, many years some cor porations have recorded their direct costs of compensation, medical treatment and fire losses on the basis of cents per hundred dol lars of payroll It provided me a measure of ANSWER: I hesitate to answer that ques- the true hazard control of approximately one - tion. I.can only tell you that most of its hundred plants with which to. compare our . members ore now proudly, winning Injury costs. This unit rather accurately reflected a Rate Award Placques. They are winners realistic measure of safely performance. In under the Standard Method. Why change deed, in auditing our performance,-it so' im the rules when you are winning? Many peo- pressed the Corporate Safety Director that' pie insist that we must have safety contests; he heartily endorsed the HIPO Hazard Con that it is tim heart of their association and trol Method. He-also said that, from his council programs. I believe the very fact, .own very knowledgeable audits of other that die contests have been tire heart of past plants, those, with'obviously poor perform `programs is the major reason that, fir this ance, invariably had a very high cost ratio.. year, 1867, we still have not scratched die Since these .costs are common to all opera ' surface, of. the gold mine of die accident- tions and are direct costs, they provide a prone`situation and design concepts that now ' base for realistic comparisons of hazard con cost industry 85,000 permanent cripples and trol or safety performance It is a cost figure $6 billion dollars a year. If safety leaders that is readily understood and accepted by insist on contests, the only realistic measufe- management'as an essential part of their re . ment Is the yardstick of dollar costs per $100 sponsibility. In other words, it makes haz . of payroll. The HIPO Rate'of HEPOs. per ard control (safety) on essential part.of the . million hpura worked is not intended for con- management function and Hits safety put of . tests. It is Intended for use' with judgment' Its nickel and dime and its mythical mid far- by your- own Safety or Hazard Control Staff. out frequency category. 'ir CONSTRUCTION SECTION NATIONAL sAiihr COUNCIL 196:7-68 I.- General Chairman--*T. S. McKosxr, Supervisor of TobDtouses, Bethlehem Steel Corp., Bethlehetn.Pa.: Wn.^UfaW QHlcami; ;n-t ... Assistant General Secretory--'Earn A. Hobnset, Jr./Product Line. Manager; Mine Safety .-'Appliances Co., Pittsburgh; Pa. DIVISIONS Buildings~ i Assistants________ _____ ______ ________________ ......... Safety Ebgtoeer', MUer Davis.Co!, MelrosePork, Dif Ralph W. Asmbihon^' manager or oaiety* l^eoD iioip^ vaucago, asHns v. vmwviui, *wv: Insurance' Manager. Henry C. Beck Company, Dallas, Texas: Paul H. CoNNKtXET, - United Brotherhood of Carpenters & Joiners or. America,- 'Washington, D. <Xs Warren, C.:HABGREAVE3,Safety .Director, FnifeCoInon Contracting Go, St, Louis; Mo.: H. F, Huber, Safely Director, Beacon Construction Co, Boston, Mass.: NobbebtJ. h Safety Director, Assodated General Contractois of Greater Milwaukee,- Igjfmxatee, Wis.; Fbedericc M. Livxncston,-Ja.i Safely Director, Turner Construction.Cnmpaiy,New. York, N. Y.| Robert D. McCaLl, Manager ofAccident Prevention, ConsbucUonJunaustry -.- Advancement Program, PittsburgbJPa.: Hdch J. McRae, Asst Secy. Bonding Constmo- Hon Employers' Assn:,. Chicago, uL: Francis L. Otto, Construction Specialist' Office of Occupational Safely, Bureau of Labor Standards; U; S;- Department of Labor, Wash ington, D. C.{ ALSium L. Perini, -Jr.; Safety rDir, Perini Corp, Fmminghnni, Mass.: RichardE. Scbroedsr, Director..Home' Office Engineering Services, American Mutual Liability. Insurance Co., Wakefield, Mass.; DonauoW. S-m-WEix, Jr., Safety Supervisor, The Ceco Corp, Chicago. HL: Cram Washerman, Safety Director, Werier Construction Company, Kao., Newton. Highlands, Mass.;. {'Robert A: Wendell, Chief, Safety Office, - U. S. Army Engineer Division, South Atlantic, Atlanta, Ga.; Jack Wilkinson, Director, Education, Welfare & Safety, Laborers' International ;Union of North America^AFL-GIO, Washington, D, C.; Ea\yiN N. Znmn, Project Manager, George B. H. Macomber Co., (Allston-'Stetion) Boston, Mass, .... Heavy--Dan C. Chbistie, (Chairman), Resident, The Christie Co., Sacramento, Calif.;. James R. Milor (Vito- Chairman), Safety- Manager, H. K. Ferguson Co., Cleveland, Ohio; 1George E. Aro, Safety Engineer, United, Engineers_ and Constructors, fee., Philadelphia, Pa.: John .Barker, Safety Supervisor,' The' Ralph M. Faisons Co,, Los Angdes, Canf.; CablvleF. Bunn, Chief, Safety Branch, U, S. Army/Engineer.District Kansas City, .Kansas CityVMo.; C. M. Cahili* Safety Engineer, Massman Construction Go.; Kansas City, Mo:; Fred S. Cameron,. Safety .Supervisor, .'Ebosco Services, Ino, . New York, N. Y.; Jack Csambebs, A1 Johnson Construction Co., Minneapolis, Minn.; "Wasne L. Christensen, Insurance .Manager & Safety Director, The Rust Engineering . Co., 'Pittsburgh, Pal; Jack R. Duncan, Director of industrial Relations, Tanner Bros. Contracting Co., Phoenix, Ariz.;' JNeil E. Gabber, Consultant, Hinsdale, BL: W. E. Hargrove, , Safety Engr., Engineering Design end Construction, Tennessee Valley Au - .thoxity: Knoxville, Term.; W. M. Hojxe. Chief, Safety Office, U. S. Army Engineer Div., New,England, Waltham, Mass.; D. F. Huddleston,-Senior:Accident Prevention Officer,. The Hydro-Electric Power. Commission of Ontario, Toronto, Ont, Canada.; Joseph F. >; Howard S. Latham; Chief Safety Engineer, Bnreanof Reclamatioii;Denver," .;-DALE'MAEHi Vice Pre*4<Safety Director, Opeiat- tag Engrs., Local Uhlan Sah-1______ : :CaIl;T-R6aattr'7*-^MAssma*------" ` Massman Construction Co;. ^gnwa City. : C. Russell Mattson, ] Prevention, Dravo Corporation, Pittsburgh, PaL; WilliamB. Mubfhe, Ch CWefdf Engineers, Department'oftbb Army,' Washtagtoni^P^^t^ Safety .Supervisory. Stone & Webster Engineering Coiporatf " ` Weill, Safety Supvr, The Floor .Coro. Ltd., Los Angeles, Calif.: Ease L. Pedley, Knowles & Co., San Francisco, Calif,; Cluff A.^I'bteeson, Director of Safety, a Carp, Alhambra, Calif.;.Frank Roberto, Industrial Relations Manager, Dravo. Coip., Belleviie.'Wash.: Abxhdb L. Schmuhl; Directoiv' Safety and Trafotag Dfvision, The Associated,General Contractors.of America. Inc^ Washington,. D.G; Thomas. J. . SBtaHmB, Safety Engineer, Tennessee Vdley AnUmrity.Kjapivino,'Tam.; JjEED.'EaAicr, Dfreetor, Loss Control, Ingram Coip, New Orleans, La.; Jacob.-J. Veatcb, Chief; Safety. OfBce U, S. Army l&^een Division, Missoni.River,'Omaha, Neb.; O. CL Wakefield; Chief,- Safety. Office* Sb Panl District, Corns of Engineers,'U.'.S. Army, St PanLMinn.; fEarlW. Wheeler, SafetyEnjrineer. NavaTFacilities Engineering Command,. Navy Department, Washington, D'. C.; KennethA. Warn?, Chief, Safety Office; Chicago Dis- . Met Corps of Engineers, Chicago, IE; Jhbomb J. Williams, Director of Safety, Mor- rison-Knndsen Co., Inc, Boise, Idaho; James R. York, Safety Engineef, Garden B. Hall, IncvDanvilIe, Callf.. .* Highway--\"Donald W. Dodson (Chairman), Manager, Engineering Dept, Aetna'Casualty . & Surety. Co., Chicago, HL; Eocene W. Robbins (Vice-Chairman), Managing Director, Contractors Division,'American Road Builders' Association, Washington, D. CL; Homeb F. QuRb Safety'Officer, Department of Commerce,?Bureau of Public Roads, Washington,. - D. C.;' Raymond R. Crowe, Director of Safety; WesterhPenhsylvnnia Heavy Br-Highway Construction1 Industry Advancement Program Fund;'-' Pittsburgh, Pa.; J.-Montgomery Farrar, Director of Education & Training, Virginia Road Buflders Assm, Richmond. Va.; , Leonard Freed, Ohio Contractors Assn, Columbus, Ohio; 'Dave Gahhteuon,'Safety Director.Johnson' Bros. Constructors, bo. Litchfield. Minn.; Philip A. Havet, Supt, Home Office Engineering, The Hartford Insurance Group,'. Hartford. Conn.; Dauc E Medskeb, Dole Medsker. & Associates,, Inc, Atlanta, Ga.; Wabhkn E Mendez, Engi neering and Grading Contractors Assn.' of CalifomIa, Los Angeles, Calif.; Charles R. Nelson. Safety Supervisor, Warren Bros. Co, Cambridge. .'Mass.; "Robert O. Niwmo, Safety Director, Peter Kiewit Sons', Inc, Omaha, Nebr.-; Rot H. Olson, Safety Engi neering Consultant, Michigan MutualLiability Co.. Lansing, Midi.; James A. Ramset, Tn_ Safety Director. Western Contracting Core, Sioux Citv. Iowa; W. B. Salzman, Mubum Brokers, Inc.. Mount Prospect; BL:. Robert E. Vebcie, -Asst Mgr. - Pacific Regional Engineering Dept, Firemans Fund American Insurance Companies, San Fran cisco, Calif. Home Budding--X*fRobert L. Moore (Chairman), Assistant Secretary. Lumbermans Mutual Casualty Co, Chicago, DL: Nelson.B. Nibsen (Vice-Chairman); Chief. Safety Engineer, Argonaut Insurance, Menlo Park, Calif.; Frank R. Dwyer. Mgr, Engineering . Dept, Reliance Insurance Cos, San Francisco, Calif.; Clement 'J.- Lorens. Consultant, - East St Lords, DL; Wm. P. Yooncclads, Jh, Managing. Director, The National Be- modelers Association, New York, N. Y. Specialty--*T. J. Lasxowski (Chairman), Safety & Claims Supervisor. TYansR Insurance Administrators, San Francisco, Calif.: JMartin F. Mulhall (Vice-Chairman). Manager, Safety Engineering Dept, .Prod. S. James & Co, Chicago, DL; Vincent 0. AuBochon, Director. Field Safety, Nooter Corp.. St Louis,.Ma; C. A. Beane. Asst Sales Manager, Fibre Metal Products Co, Chester, Pa.; Ray L. Beeler, Director of Legfatrative Affairs,. ' The Associated General Contractors of America,' Inc., Salem, Ore.; Raymond W. Brandt, Director Safety Services, O'Rourke & Company, Inc., Fort Wayne, had.; Arches W. Brown. Chief Engr, American Hoist & Derrick Ca. St Panl, Minn.; Aeon F. Burch, Safety Director, International Union of Operating- Engineers, AFL-CIO, Washington, D. G; Fred A. Campbell, Insurance Manager, J, F. Pritchard* Co, Kansas City, Mo.; . R. J. Dougherty, Corporate. Director of Safety, Steams-Roger. Corp, Denver. -Colo.; Bernie M. Enfield. Safety. & Training Director, Chicago Bridge&Iren Co, Oak Brook, DL; IGerard O; Griffin, Manager, Hazard Control,. Dravo Corp, Pittsburgh, Pa.; 60 CnAHug J, Hast, Secretary, Codes & Standards Comm., National Ekjpb^. CSitaicfgnf Assn.. Inc, Washington,,D. C.j IRobebt L. Jenkins, Coniniltahf, Potomac/Md.; Wumm W. Krac, rCiihtfietff,'SSaaffeety .OOfiffitce, U. S. Army Engineer Division, North Padfla Portland, _ . John ' San Francisco,: ..New York, N. ._ Chicago, QL; Robert C. Rbnfrob, Jadomivfki " Ontario, Toronto* , ,U1 n ____ f _______ _______ #_______ ___,__ ______, New. Orleans; La.; John G; Sellers, Safety Engineer, Combustion I&gineering, Inc, Windsor, Conn.; Hooter P. Wharton; General President, International Union of Oper ating Engineers, Washington, D. .CL; Stephen R. Whited, Regional Sales Mgr, E. D. Boflaid Co.; Barrington/Hi;- Victob E. Whkehousb,' Director of Safety, International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, Washington, D. C.; E. L. Wilson, General Supervisor of Safdy, .Ameri<^ Bridge ty, U. S.Steel Caxp,Pitt8borgh, Pa... STANDING COMMITTEES. . VrograniCommittee--V/. G. Bbtson,' Coordinator! Co-Chairmen; C; F. Spabbeii; Build-. " * " '; D. Tract (Heavy), E. W. Robbins (Highway), M. F; Muhhaix (Specialty). Memfer&tp>Commtmntitttteeee--rH. V. Cabvtoiui (Chairman), B,B. A-.Cole, ~Dan C. Christie, D. W. !>)D^,T.J.IasKOwsiiRdBEaTL.MooBK. NewsletterComniiUeer-B.MLEnpielu,Editor. * '; "v ' ^. ' " ~ RE B. Schwabts^ HN. (Chainnan), Employers.Mufaiala of.Wausau, jvabd L. McGhegob, General Saks Manager, Uni/FIexDiy, Medi- . Supp!y.Cbi';Rockford, ID.; Robeht D. Mulhall, Manager, Western^District, Welsh - .umfactnring Ctf.L.Saratbga, Calif.; Jamb T. Sloank,iln,, Construction Nurse, G.K. Newberg Con$tipction Co, Chicago, IIL; Jean R. Welsh, bat.; Construction Nurse, PbrtnettShaw&.Associates, Chicago, EL .. Research Commtttee-4!:A; HAVKT(Chatnnan). Public Rdotton* Committee--Thnrrm P. Wharton (Oiairman). Training CommOteo-r/uxtBsm L. Schmuhl (Chairman).. VUwH'MisCommittee--TL J.Douchkhtt (Chainnan). Standard*Commlttee-'DAiiC.Chiustie(Chairman). . Special ProjectsCommittee--V/m. B.Mpbph* (Chainnan). . * Off-tiheo-Job CobmmmmSBtteeee-rP&AVvt., H. CGooNnnNeElilAeEtr.(Chnairnmnnan). ,, ',, N'Toommininaattijnng CommittUteeee--EE;...W. Whekbelieehb (Chairn--n--a-n'), George E. Abo, FaEinmiac H. Deeg,.Robert L/Moohe, Robert.A. Weniielx- Honorary Life Members--K. J. Behest, C. M. Cahill. , Staff Representatfoa-CHABLES J. Popke, Jr, National Safety Council, 425 N. Michigan Ave, Chicago, Elinois 60011. . Administrative Committee (Task Force 1987^ National Safety Congress OFFICERS OF THE COAL MSNING SECTION National Safety Council 1967-68 General Chairman-'Wiiaiam Parisi, Pittsburgh Coal Co., Div. of Consolidation Coal. Co.,' Library, Pa. . First Vice-Chairman--James Westfield, U. S. Bureau of. Mines, Department of the Interior, Washington, D; C. Second Vice-Chairman--Rsum Banks, Inland. Steel Co,, Sesser, III. Secretary--H. F. Weaveb, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Department of. the Interior, Washington) ' D.C. Newsletter Editor--Rayburn H. Fraley, Consolidation Coal Co., Morgantown, W. Va. 'Labor Representatives--0Charles Ferguson (Chairman), United Mine Worlcers of America, Washington, D. C.; Albert Pass,:United Mine Workers of America, District No. 19, Mfddlesboio, Ky.; Rex Lauck, United Mine Worked of America, Washington, D.: C.; Leonard Pnakovich, United Mine Workers of America, Dist No. 31, Fairmont, W. Va. Bituminous Coal Representatives--A. E. .Copeland, Pocahontas Fuel Co., Div. of Consolidation Coal Co., Pocahontas, Va.; Robert Williams, Colorado Fuel Sc Iron Co., Pueblo, Colo.; .Coy Sooth, BeU Sc Zoller Coal Co., Johnston City; HL; E. E. Qoenon, Peabody Coal.Co., St Louis, Mo.; William Meadows, The Pittsburg & Midway Cod Mining Co., Sturgis, Ey. Anthracite Representatives--Coal Associations" Representatives--Qvmti Morton m, Execu- tive Secretory, Southern Coal Producers' Assn., Charleston, W. Va.; Harry Gandy, Jn., NationalCoal Assn., Washington, D, C.; Ford Sampson, Ohio Coal Assn.; St dairsville, Ohio; George Trevoreow, Bituminous Coal Operators' Assn., Washington, D. C.; Cbbs- ' tee Troax, American Mining Congress, Washington, D. C. U. S. Bureau of Mines Representatives-Frank C. Mbmmott, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Dept of the Interior, Washington, D, C. . Mine Inspectors' Institute of America Representative--R. D. Bradford, U. S. Bureau of Mines; McAlester, Olda. , ... * State Mine Inspectors' Representatives--Aratom Snowden, Ohio Div. of Mines, Columbus, Ohio; Robert J. Mabrs, West Virginia Dept of Mines, Charleston; W. Va.; Leon Root, . Illinois. Department of Mines aid Minerals, Springfield, EL; Dennis J. Keenan, . Penn sylvania Department of Mines and Mineral Industries, Gresson, Pa.; A. H. Mandt, Kentucky Department of Mines and Minerals, Lexington,, Ky.; Ward Padgett, Okla homa Department of Mines and Mining, Oklahoma City, Olda.; H. T. Williams, 38 .' .' ffibapm Diy,; :pf ; Sdety ;.and slnspepti^^^ 'vCorf/AfWtog Wi Joi^.AuBitETj:JWwa Department of Mines, and Mlnerals, J>es,MoLnej/ Iowa; Doi?ald JlA$?fc,/GoJbmdb.Coal . K^u) Inspfictlon. Dept , Ppnyer,:[Cplo.* yVi, FosterMuixins, -Dfeof.i.Mines/State'< of .. ,y^gfala,J31g Stone,Gap^ymjjCi^YpLBF.'C^^ Industrial! Ctfm* ^ uifnion.pfHytal^iSQltil^e/C^^ Ut^.-V -1 .?<.' f,;'i r'-'l < '*' ' V ' T '. y j.r? *t ` - Engineering Commktee^ppNAijj. Mrrai)^ (Cftafrowin.),, U. S. .BureaU.of MinevPitts- burgh, Pa.; E. J, Hlinsky, WABCO, Goodman Division, Chicago; EL; S.- Hvi Yost, ' Jeffrey Manufacturing Co., Columbus, Ohio; C. A. Bailey, Applied Research Laboratory, L..S,. Steel Coip. Monroeville/ Pa.; James-. Erap*r, 0uquwna .Wght: Ca;;<^al: iDejpt; f^burgh, !Pa.; C. B.. iWisEN/oJoy .Manufacturing Co., ,Fran]dto,r.Pa.CiLKWi8 : S. ; 'Mq^ican,; Hanna Coal.. Co.,1 Div/ of Consolidation Coal Cq./ Cadlz,,(OhIot hGlAhEWcb Je^ss, Semet-Solvay Div., Allied Clemical & Dye ^ Tralee, W. Va.; .ToM^^::^I^ .TIL$..Steel Corp.; -Frick' Div.,; Unlontown,.Pa.;.E;..>J.;,HmVusi-. Jli& :Bureau of Mines, -Pittsburgh, Pa.; S. P. Polack, U.S.cBureau of Mines, Pittsburgh^.PaV; W. W; DAN&atAw, . Bethlehem Mines Corp., Johnstown, Pa.; Ralph Keek, U. S. Bureau df ^fines,-. Pitts- ' burgh. Pa.; Harvey Younkeb, United Mine Workers of America, District No. 2, Eberis- Trarg, Pa:; jAM|a V;. Burgess;; Mndbon, W. Vai; John; Katlic, Eastern.'ASsocia^.'Coal .?'foxgL; Pittsburgh, Pa., . .0/ . * ...7;.;- ; ^r.x: hr M V./ .*-K-C ' V r ,.-'J Entertpiiment: Committee--Everett White (Chairman), Min#- Safety.ApplIantJesr Co., Pitte- l^^,, Pa.; H. E., Mauck; Mouptatoeer Coal Go^ Div. of ,Con$pHdation. Coal Co., Fsdr- > TOQpt;-.W. Vm ` :;V; <.7 ;?? : V 'f-V * .r-". Training And Visual Aids Committee-llARO'LD Davis (Chairman), Coal Age, New York, N/rYV; -S^H/Mooney, -Wood^ud Iron -Co.,.Woodward; Ala.; Maurice- Fowler, ,Du^ quesne.IJghfc Co., Greensboro, .Pa.; Paul Buhzak, Freeman,- Cp/d-Mining Corp.,jWSest Frankfort, Iff.; Walter Fleshng, U. S. Steel Cbip.,'Birmiughamf, Ala.; Juraus Cfcam, Harma Co./ Div. of Consolidation Coal Co., Cadiz, Ohio; George Eadie, McLean-Huntor Publications, Coal Mining & Processing, Chicago, HI.; D. $, Kjkgery,. U.-Sr Bureau of. ' Kfines, Pittsburgh, Pa.; F, D. Baker, U. S. Bureau- of Mines, Pittsbmtgh/.Pa.* Program Committee--Ward Stahl (Chairman), U. S. Bureau' of Mines,. Dept of the In terior, 'Washington, pvC.; El/LI BAKEn, Lynch pEtricL, U. S, Steil^ ' Charles p'. Bowiang, Semet-^Sblyay Div., iUlled (ffiemlpal &' Dye Corp7. Ixm^Spre, W. Va;^ ^aul' Luigo, Nbrth ^America Coal Coip., Ohio Div., Pov^haten Pofait,' Omo; John Reeves, Mid-Cpiitinent Coal and Coke' Corp., Carbondale, Colo;; R; L.' Vi^, Bituminous Coal Operators' Association, Washington, D. C; Charles' H. Myers,' M&el - Safety Appliances Co., Pittsburgh, Pa.; Lewis Jesalosky,..Hanna Coal Co., Div, of PoaVGo.,:cadi?.aw.,; . V' Membership Committee--Jambs Hukley (Chairman!), North American Coal Corp., Cleve land, Ohio; A. J. Bartlett, Southern Cod Producers Assn., Charleston, W. Va.; Alex':Eellman,' Annoo1 Stfeel^ Coitp:,' Coal Div./'MPhtdoal. 'W.' ya.^jfcI'E; Lnikd^ Island Creek Coal Co., Holden, W. Va.; Clarence Jesse, Semet-Sdliray 1)1^ -Alifed Chemical A Dye Corp., Tralee, W. Va.; Dennis Frailey, Old Ben Coal Corp., Benton, BL; S. H. Mooney, Woodward Iron Co., Woodward, Ala.; H. E.: M^iia^-Mbtm6iideap'. Coal Co., Div. of Consolidation Coal Co., Fairmont, W. Va.; Jesse Shepperd, Hanna .Coal Co., Dhr. of Consolidation Coal Co., Cadiz, Ohio. Roof Control Committee--Francis R. Boyle (Chairman), Frick District, U. S. Steel Corp^ Uniontown, Pa.; Paul Budzae, Freeman Coal Mining Corp., West Frankfort, DL; 1987Ndtlonal Safety Congress > John McCormick, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh,' Pa.;E , E. Quezon, Peabody <Coal Co., St. Lottis, Mo.;W. S. McConnell, U.Si Steel Corp., Gary, W. Va.; Edward Onuschkcx, Rochester & Pittsburgh CoalCo., Indiana,'Pa.; J Imery Olsen,^ Western District Coal Div., U, S. Steel Coip.yDiagerton, .Utah; D. C. Jones,'. McLeah-Hunter Publications, Coal Mining & Processing, Chicago, HI.; Charles T.--: Holland, West Virginia University; School of Mines, Morgantown, W. Va, OSHOA Smith, Eastern - Association Coal Coip,, Mt Hope, W. Va.; A. M.Shaffkr, Repu bite Steel Corp.', Union* . -town; Pa. -* Publicity Committee--Rex Lauck (Chairman), United Mine Workers of-America, Wash* ington, D. C.; Harrison Gilmer, U, S. Bureau, of Mines, Depi utment of the Interior, Washington, D. C.; Herbert Foster, Natlonal Coal Associatioh, Washingtim, b. C.; ` A' E. Flowers, Coal'Age, McGraw-Hill Publishing Corp.,New York, N; Y.;. Robert W. Van Evera* American Mining Congress, Washington; D. C.; Georce C. Lindsay, McLean-Hunter Publications, Chicago, IB.; Warren H. Moss, Continental Oil. Co., New Yoik; N. Y. ; Off-The-Job Safety Committee--Peter Ferguson (Chairman), Bethlehem Mines . Corp., Johnstown, Pa.; W. R. Park, U.S. Bureau of Mines, Mt Hope,.W. Va.; J.J.Gbmach, Jr., Virginia Div. of Mines, Big Stone Gap, Va.; Carson Hmnrrrs, District 28, United Mine Workers of America, Norton, VA.; Thomas Liddle, Westmoreland Coal Co, - StonOga Div., Big Stone Gap, Va.; William Muncie, Bituminous Casualty- Corp., . Rode. Island, HI,; E. W. Lewis, North American Coal Corp., Ohio Div., Powhatan Point Ohio. Contest-Awards Committee--"HarryGandy, Jr. (Chairman), National CoalAssn, Wash ington, D. C.; Robert Vines, Bituminous Coal Operators' Assn., Washington, D. C.; Bex Lauck, United Mine Workers of America, Washington, D. C. Research And Planning Committee--"Woods G. Talman .(Chairman),. U. S. Steel Coip.,' Pittsburgh, Pa.; "Andrew Hyslop, Jr;, Hanna Coal Co., Div' of Consolidation Coal Co., Cadiz, Ohio;- "Harry Gandy, Jr., National Coal-Assn., Coal Bldg.,.Wash* ington, D. C.; "C. E. Linkous, Island Greek' Coal Co., Holden, W. Va.; "M. F. Brennan, . United Mine Workers of America, District No. 7, Hazleton, Pa.; "James D. Reilly, Hanna Coal Co., Div. of Consolidation. Coal Co.,. Cadiz,-Ohio; "Joshua Smtth, Eastern _ .Associated Coal Corp., Mt Hope, W. Va.; "Charles Ferguson, United Mine Workers of America, Washington, D. C. Nominating Committee--6Woods C. Talman (Chairman), U. S. Steel Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa.; "Andrew Hyslop, Jr., Hanna Coal Co., Div. of Consolidation Coal Co., Cadiz, Ohio; "Harry Gandy, Jr.,- National Coal Assn., Washington, D. C. Staff Representative--Clinton H. Hoob^ National Safety Council, 425 N. Michigan Ave., ; Chicago, BL 60011. *Past General Choimton OFFICERS OF THE COAL MINING SECTION NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 1968-69 General Chairman--James Westfield (Retired), Price, Utah First Vice Chairman--Ralph Banks, Inland Steel Co., Sesser, 111. Second Vice Chairman--Robert L. Vines, Bituminous Coal Operators Assn., Washington, d: C. * Secretary--Harold Davis, Coal Mining & Processing, Maclean-Hunter Publ. Corp., Chicago, 111. Newsletter Editor--Rayburn H. Fraley, Consolidation Coal Co., Morgantown, W. Va. Labor Representatives--Lewis E. Evans (Chairman), United Mine Workers of America, Washington, D. C.; Rex Lauck, United Mine Workers of America, Washington, D. C. (Others to be designated by UMWA) Bituminous Coal Representatives--A. E. Copeland, Pocahontas Fuel Co., Div. of Consoli dation Coal Co., Pocahontas," Va.;.John Reeves, Mid-Continent Coal & Coke Co., Carbondale, Colo.; Coy South, Bell & Zoller Coal Co., Johnston City, 111.; E. E. Quenon,Peabody Coal Co., St. Louis, Mo.; M. E. Fowler, Duquesne Light Co., Greensboro, Pa. Anthracite Representatives--John Marshall, Pierce Management Corp., Scranton,' Pa. - Coal Associations? Representatives--Quinn Morton iii, Southern Coal Producers Assn., Charleston, W. Va.; *Harry Gandy, Jr., National Coal Assn., Washington, D. C.; Ford Sampson, Ohio Coal Assn., St. Clairsville, Ohio; S. W. Zanolli, Bituminous Coal Opera tors Assn., Washington, D. C.; Chester Truax, American Mining Congress, Washington, D. C. .. U. Si Bureau of Mines, Representative--Frank C. Memmott, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Dept, of the Interior, Washington, D. C. Mine Inspectors' Institute of America Representative--W. Foster Mullins, Div. of Mines, State of Virginia, Big Stone Gap, Va. State Mine Inspector's Representatives--Arnold Snowden, Ohio Div. of. Mines, Columbus, Ohio; Robert J. Marrs, West Virgina Dept, of Mines, Charleston, W. Va.; Leon Ruff,'. Illinois Department of Mines and Minerals, Springfield, 111.; Dennis J. Keenan, Pennsylvania Department of Mines and Mineral Industries,, Cresson, Pa.; Harreld Kirk- . Patrick, Kentucky Department of Mines and Minerals, Lexington; Ky.; Ward Padgett, Oklahoma Department, of Mines and Mining* Oklahoma City, Okla.; H. T. Williams, Alabama Div. of Safety and Inspection, Birmingham, Ala.; W. Dean Aubrey, Iowa De partment of Mines and Minerals, Des Moines, Iowa; Donald Haske, Colorado Coal . Mine Inspection Dept., Denver,. Colo.; W. Foster Mullins, Div. of Mines, State of Virginia, Big Stone Gap, Va.; Carlysle F. Gronning, Chairman, The Industrial Com? mission of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah Engineering Committee--Donald Mitchell (Chairman), U. S. Bureau of Mines, Pitts-, burgh, Pa.; E. J. Hlinsky, Wabco, Mining Equipment Division, Chicago, III.; Raymond H. Marlow, Jeffrey Manufacturing Co., Columbus, Ohio; C. A. Bailey, Applied Re search `Laboratory, U. S. Steel Corp., Monroeville,. Pa.; James Elkin, Duquesne Light Co., Coal Dept., Pittsburgh, Pa.; Harry Leonard,-Joy Manufacturing Co., Franklin, Pa; Lewis S. McNickle, Hanna Coal Co., Div. of Consolidation Coal Co., Cadiz, Ohio;. Clarence Jesse, Semet-Solvay Div,, Allied Chemical-&;Dye Corp., Tralee,- W. Va.; Tom . \. 32 King, U. S. Steel Corp., Frick Div., Uniontown, Pa.; E. J. Harris, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, Pa.;. S. P. Polack,.U. S. Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, Pa.; Thomas E. Kobhick, Bethlehem Mines Corp., Johnstown, Pa.; Ralph Krek, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, Pa.; Harvey Younker, United Mine Workers of America, District ' No. 2, Ebensburg, .Pa.; James VJjt Burgess,-Madison, W. Va.; John Katlic, Eastern Associated Coal Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa.; Donald S. Kingery, U. S. Bureau of Mines, . Pittsburgh, Pa.; Max Florjancic, Mathies Coal Co., Finleyville, Pa.; R. P. Hightower, Wisconsin Steel Coal Mines, International Harvester Co., Benham, Ky. Entertainment Committee--Everett White (Chairman), Mine Safety Appliances Co., Pittsburgh, Pa.; Paul C. Lingo, North American Coal Corp., Ohio Div., Powhatan Point,. Ohio Training and Visual Aids Committee--Paul Budzak (Chairman); Freeman Coal Mining Corp., West Frankfort, 111.; S. H. Mooney, Woodward Corp., Woodward, Ala.; Maurice , Fowler, Duquesne Light Co., Greensboro, Pa.; Walter Fleming, U.. S. Steel Corp., Fairfield,' Ala.; Juuus Olzer, Ohio Valley Div., Consolidation Coal Co., Moundsville, W. Va.; Daniel Jackson, Jr., Coal Age, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, N. Y.; William Hoover, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Johnstown, Pa.; C. M. Dovidas, U,, S. Bureau of Mines, Vincennes, Ind.; F. D. Baker, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, Pa. Program Committee--Ward Stahl (Chairman), U. S. Bureau of Mines, Dept of the Interior, Washington, D. C.; E. L. Baker, Lynch District, U. S. Steel Corp!, Lynch, Ky.; Charles D. Bowling, Semet-Solvay l^iv., Allied Chemical & Dye Corp., Longacre, W. Va.; Paul Lingo, North American Coal Corp.,- Ohio Div., Powhatafi Point, Ohio; John Reeves, Mid-Continent Coal and Coke Corp., Carbondale, Colo.; John McCracken, Mine Safety Appliances. Co., Pittsburgh, Pa.; Lewis Jesalosky, Hanna Coal Co., Div. of Consolidation Coal Co., Cadiz,.Ohio; Tom Kobrick,- Bethlehem Mines Corp., Johns town, Pa.; Charles H. Myers, Lee-Norse Co., Charleroi, Pa. Membership' Committee--James Hurley. (Chairman), North American Coal Corp., Cleve land, Ohio; Melvin Triolo, Logan Coal Operators' Assoc., Logan, W. Va.; Alex Keleman, Armco Steel Corp.,' Coal Div.,` Mon'tcoal, W. Va.; *C.' E. Linkous, Island Creek Coal Co., Holden, W. Va.; Clarence Jesse, Semet-Solvay Div., Allied Chemical & Dye Corp., Tralee, W.- Va.; Dennis Frailey, Old Ben Coal Corp., Benton, III.; S. H. Mooney, Woodward Iron Co., Woodward, Ala.; Wilbur Simon, Christopher Coal Co7 Div. of Consolidation Coal Co., Osage, W. Va.; Jesse Shepperd, Hanna Coal Co., Div. of Consolidation Coal Co., Cadiz, Ohio; George P. Resick, Pennsylvania Department of Mines & Minerals Industries, Ebensburg, Pa. Roof Control Committee--*Francis R. Boyle (Chairman), Frick District, tJ. S. Steel Corp;, Uniontown, Pa.; Paul Budzak, Freeman Coal Mining Corp., West Frankfort, III.; John McCormick, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, Pa.; E. E. Quenon, Peabody Coal Co., St. Louis, Mo.; James R. Vilseck; U. S. Steel Corp., Gary, W. Va.; Edward Onuscheck, Rochester & Pittsburgh Coal Co., Indiana, Pa.; Emery Olsen, Western District, Coal Div., U. S. Steel Corp., Dragerton, Utah; D. C. Jones, McLean-Hunter Publications, Coal Mining & Processing, Chicago, 111.; Charles T. Holland, West Vir ginia University, School of Mines, Morgantown, W. Va.; *Joshua Smith, Eastem'Associated Coal Corp.; Mt. Hope, W. Va.; A. M. Shaffer, Republic Steel Corp., Uniontown, Pa.; .G. R: Haworth, Continental Oil Co., Ponca City, Okla.; J. L McKnight, Union Carbide Corp., South Charleston, W. Va.; Lawrence Adler, Virginia Polytechniclnstitute, Blacksburg, Va. Publicity Committee--Rex Lauck (Chairman), United Mine Workers of America, Wash ington, D. C.; Harrison Gilmer, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C.; Herbert Foster, National Coal Association, Coal Bldg., Washington, D. C.; A. E. Flowers, Coal Age, McGraw-Hill Publishing Corp., New York, N." Y.; Robert W. Van Evera, American . Mining Congress, Washington, D. C.; George C.Lindsay,- McLean-Hunter Publications, Chicago, 111.; Warren H. Moss, Continental Oil Co., New York, N. Y. 33 Off-the-Job Safety Committee--Don F. Metheny (Chairman), Bethlehem Mines Gorp., Johnstown, Pa.; ,W. R. Park, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Mt. Hope, W. Va.; J. J. Gehbach, Jr., Virgiriia Div. of Mines, Drawer.V, Big Stone Gap, Va.; Carson Hibbitts, District 28, United Mine Workers of America, Norton, Va.; Thomas Liddle, Westmoreland Coal Co.,, Stonega Div., Big Stone Gap, Va.; William Muncie, Bituminous Casualty Corp.,- Rock Island, 111.; E. W. Lewis, North American Coal. Corp., Ohio Div., Powhatan Point, Ohio' . - Contest-Awards Committee--*Hahry Gandy, Jr. (Chairman), National Coal Assn., Wash ington, D. C.; Robert L. 'Vines, BituntinOQs Coal Operators' Assn., Washington, D. C.; Rex Lauck, United Mine Workers of America, Washington, D. C. Research and Planning Committee--*C. William Parisi (Chairman), Pittsburgh Coal Co., Diy. of Consolidation Coal Co., Library, Pa.; *Wo6ds G. Talman, U. S. Steel Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa.; *Andrew Hyslop, Jr., Hanna Coal Co., Div. of Consolidation Coal Co., Cadiz, Ohio"; *Harry Gandy, Jr., National Goal Assn.,'Washington, ,D. C.; *C. ?. Linkous, Island Creek Coal Co., Holden,, W. Va.;, *M. F. Brennan, United Mine Workers of America, District No. 7, Hazleton, Pa.; *James D. Reilly, Hanna Coal Co., Div. of Consolidation Coal Co., Cadiz, Ohio; "Joshua Smith, Eastern Associated Coal Corp., Mt Hope, W. Va.* Nominating Committee--*C. William Parisi (Chairman), Pittsburgh Coal Co., Div of Consolidation Coal Co., Library, Pa.; *Woods G; Talman, U. S. Steel Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa.1; *Andrew Hyslop, Jr., Hanna Coal Co., Div. of Consolidation Coal Co., Cadiz, Ohio Staff Representative--Clinton H. Hoch, National Safety Council, 425 N. Mi.chiga n 1 Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611 *. Past General Chairman OFFtCm OF THE ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL EQUlNiNT SECtiOM NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 1967-68 General Chairman--B. B.Turney, Corp. Safety Dir., Teams Instruments Inc., Dallas; Teat. Vice Chatman and Secretary--Alan Reed, Manager, Product Engineering, Daniel Wood- head Co, Northbrook, HL Membership Committee--B. T. King (Chairman), Safety Engineer, Charles Brnning .Co, . . Div. of Addressograph-Multigraph Corp., Mt Prospect, HL; WilliamR. Billbtt (ViceChairman), Safety Dir., Frigidaire Div., General Motors Corp., Dayton, Ohio. Program Committee--A.- F. Cichy (Chairman), Loss Prevention Mgr., General Telephone A Electronics Corp., New York, N. Y.; W. G. Moghhead (Vice Chairman), Adm., Sa & Health Dept., AMP, Harrisburg, Pa.; C. Wm. Walters, Manager, Loss Prevention, Anto- . matic Electric Co., Noxthlake, HL Newsletter Committee--N. Richmond (Chairman), Administrator, Safety 5c Benefits, RCA Service Cor, BMEWS Project; Cinnaminson, N.. J.; George Hughes (VicerChairman), Supervisor of Safety & Acc. Prevention, Westinghonso Electric Corp, Buffalo, N. Y. Research and Engineering Committee--Tootoab McRrien (Chairman), Supervisor, Safety Services, Westinghouse Electric Corp., Baltimore, McL; Icon Liman&ky (Vice-Chairman), Fellow Engineer, Westinghouse Electric Corp., Aero-Space Div., Baltimore, Md.; Jack Conway, Safety Director, Sylvania Electric Corp., Electronic Tube Div., Emporium, Pa.; ' Harvey Hopkins, Safety Director, Rauland Corp., Chicago, 111.; E. S. Hopes, Bell Tele- . ' ' phone Lab., Laureldale, Pa.; L. E. Lafehr, Managing Director, International Assoc, of Electrical Inspectors, Chicago, HL; Geobgb Mac Donald, Vice-President, Self-Insurers Service, Inc., Chicago,.ID.;. Charles H. Miller, Safety Engineer, RCA Chip., Lancaster, Pa.; Friend Miller, Safely Supervisor; Westinghouse Electric Coip., Electronic Div., . Elmira, N. Y.; J. L. Morrow, Safety Engineer, Collins Radio Co., Newport Beadi, Calif.; Robert Myles, Safety Director, Color Tube Div., Motorola, Inc., Franklin Park; HL; George H. Pope, Managing Engineer, Casualty & Chemical Hazards Dept, Under writers' Laboratories, Northbrook, HL; L. F. (Gus) Swineheart, Project Engineer, v Daniel Woodhead Co., Northbrook, HL; Ted Worhol, Safety Director, National Video Corp., Chicago, HL Education and Training Committee--A, J. Clauseh (Chairman), Manager, Health and: Safety, General Electric Co., Rome, Ga.; J. W. Looper (Vice-Chairman),' Safety Dir., National Cash Register Co., Dayton, Ohio; Russell Johnson, Safety Dir., George D. Roper Corp., Kankakee, HL; J. A. Edmonds, President, Daniel Woodhead Co., North brook, HL; Robert D. Mahon, Safety Director, Collins Radio Co., Cedar Rapids, Iowa; > Howard P. Michener, Manager of the Engineering & Safety Regulations Dept, National Electric Mfgrs. Assn., New York, N. Y.; Leo A. Miller, Chief Safety Engineer, Strumberg Carlson, Rochester, N. Y.; E. G. Van Cata, Coip. Safety Dir., Skil Corp., Chicago, HL; B. L. Weber, Asst, to Insurance Mgr., SCM Coip., New York, N. Y. 14 - ;; ;v . V- ; ` v'>; ' V* Off-t^-/o6 C<jtmn<ttce--Li-WHENCE Zkpebnick (Chairman), Safely Mgr^ FalreMd Onnwra ;&; Initrurnenf Corp., Syosset, L. I^N. Y.; Mordocb G. Pniran (VtcB^ntnmn), Safety j '^gr.>-Alim: Bradley Go., Milwaukee W&; C. E. EUtdent, Mgr., Sa. & SecarHy,PMco - GwporaiUon, Philadelphia, Pa.; G. LaWg, Supvr, of Saf.; Westtngbonsc Elec. Carp., Relay- : . Instrnm Div.y Newark, N. J.j Hehbert J. PEACE,Sfdety Engineer, General Dynamics, v Electronic Dlv., Rochester, N. Y. 'y ; Long Range Planning Committee--1\. E. Whoebidb (Chairman), Manager; Safely & Health i ; Services^ Employers Insurance of Wausau, River Forest, EL; F. C. Pehecot, Safety Engi neer, Stanford .'linear Accelerator Center, Sanford University, Stanford; Calif.; J. A. Waldron/ Saf. Supvr., Packard .Elec. Div*General Motors Coty, Warren' Ohio. , i Cameron Award Coordinaton-GEcmcE MacDonald, Vice-President Self-Insurers: Service, ... Inc.,' Chicago, I1L; R. E. Whiteside, Manager, Safety &.Health Services, Employers In surance of Wausau, River Forest, HL Staff Representative--Joseph H. Vansickle, Industrial Dept, National Safety Connell, 425 . N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, EL 60811. .Past-General Chatrmen-^1947-49, E. K. Taylor; "1949-50, H. B. Donras; 1950-51, M. F. Biancabdi; "1951-52, C. N. Focc; 1952-53, J. M. Transue; 1953-54, M. L. Mtt.tjTM; 1954-55; j. A. Edmonds; 1955-50, J. j. IAwleb; 1956-57; C. F- Scnumra^ 1^1-58, E.E. Gebhart; 1958-59, G. W. Kpca; 1959-60, W. F. McChesney; "196O-01.E. J. Turton; 1901-62, G. MacDonald; 1902-63, G. R. Smoti; 1963-84, F. C. Peeecoy; i 1984-65, H. A. Perkins; 1965-60, J. A. Waldron; 1960-67, R. E. Whuestok. "Deceased. 15 OFFICERS OF THE FOOD AND BEVEE^AGE SECTION National Safety Council 1967-68 General Chairman--'Woxxam G. Smith, Dir. of Safety, The Nestle Co., Fulton, N. Y. First Vice Chairman--Feans. J. Fessenden, Mgr., Selection & Training, Kraft Foods Div., National Dairy Corp, Chicago, HL Second Vice Chairman--Albert Cachkbat, Peis. Dir., Reed Candy Co., Chicago, SI. Secretary--Gregory Krohn, Health & Safety Admin., Joseph Schlitz Brewing Co., Milwau kee, Wis. Vrogram Chairman--Lloyd O. Staab, Saf. Dir., Grain Processing Corp., Muscatine, Iowa. Newsletter Editor--Habvey H. Mahhden, Plb Safety Dir., Kellogg Co., Battle Creek, Mich. Newsletter Co-Editor--D. EL Scheinost, Asst. Dir. of Safety, NationalJDistiflers & Chemical Corp., New York, N. Y. Membership Chairman--Donald P,. Espinosa, Saf, Dir., Pepsi-Cola General Bottlers, Inc., Chicago, BL Off-The-Job Safety Committee--Abden Danforts (Chairman), Saf. Supyr., The Stroh Brewery Co., Detroit, Mich.; WALTEa Fedtk, Safety Coord., Carling Brewing Co., CleveL land, Ohio Health Director--Moron Schulman, M. D., M. P. H. Medical Dir., Com Products Co., Argo, m.- Associations Committee--N. E. Thiel (Chairman), Dir. of. Saf., Scaliest Foods-Southem Dairies, Charlotte, N. C.; W. Michael Aicueh, Dir., 'Employee Relations, United States' Brewers Assn., New York; N. Y.; Ndcon DjeTARNorwsrr, Mgr. of Safety, The F. & M. Schaefer Brewing Co., Brooklyn, N. Y. Training ir Visual Aids Committee--Jacx Krolo (Chairman), Supvr., Saf. & Training, American Maize Products Co., Roby, Ind.; G. K. IDavib, Mgr., Empl. & Community Rel., The Quaker Oats Co., Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Engineering Committee--Glen Perkins (Chairman), Safety Engir., Assn, of Mill & Elevator Mutual Insurance Cos., Chicago, BL; John GaTjagttkh, Employee Benefit Supvr., Gerber Products, Fremont, Mich.; Jas. O. Harun, Safety Engr, Com Products Co., Argo, 111.; R. D. Wiseman, Asst, Dir. of Prod.,- Cooperative Mills, Div. Southern States Coop., Baltimore, Md.; J. R. Vetieb, Safety Dir., Falstaff Browing Corp., St Louis, Mo. . Awards, Contest 6- Statistics Committee-Eugene D. Berce (Chairman), Mgr., Safety & Security, Miller Brewing. Co., Milwaukee, Wis.; Wm. Hubon, Saf. Dept, Pillsbury Co., Springfield, BL;-Robert D. Vandenbeiig, Corp. Safety Dir., General Mills, Inc., ..`Minneapolis, Minn. Agriculture Committee--John P. Hein (Chairman), Safety-Personnel, The Larsen Co., Fort Atkinson, Wis.; J. W. Salisbury, Ins. Mgr. & Saf. Dir., The South Coast Corp., New Orleans, La.; Robert Auden, Saf. & Wage Admin., Castle & Cooke, Inc., Honolulu, Hawaii. - 49 . Fire Prevention Committee--'"L W. Shott (Chairman ),jfafety Dir.; Jos. E. Seagram, & Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y.; Wm. Camfyield, SafetyjDijfPosts Cereals,"Battle Creek, Mick; "John M. Jensen, Dir. of Sat, Com Products CkvArgo, I1L Industry Retofon5Comniftteg-"GBCBCBL.KnxmBN(ChBirman),Dir. of Safety, Peavey Company, Minneapolis, Minn.; "Gregg R. Mexers, Dir. of Safety' & Security, Pabst Brewing Co., Milwaukee, Wis. Bakers Division--Donald IL Ross (Chairman), Safety Mgr., Kitchens of.Sara-Lee, Inc., Deerfield, I1L;.Rob't Southard, Safety Adviser, The Kroger Co'., Cincinnati, Ohio; Edv. J. Zielinski, Safety Dir., Drake Bakeries Div., Borden Co., New York, N. Y. Brewers Division-Win. A. Molvenna (Chairman), Dir.' Saf., C. Schmidt & Sons, Inc., Philadelphia, Pa.; Nobman L. Heoer, Saf. Dir., Anheuser-Busch, Inc., St Louis, Mo,; B. R. I.EEDY, Safety Dept, Pabst Brewing Co., Milwaukee,, Wis. Confectioners Division--Jambs A. Case (Chairman) Saf. Mgr,, M & M/Mars, Chicago, 111.;. Hy. Vais, Safety Dir., William Wrigley, Jr., Co., Chicago, UL Dairy Products Division--0Stanley W. Parsons (Chairman), General Saf. Dir., Carnation Co., Los Angeles, Calif.; Wm. A. Cavanach, Safety Dir., Schepps Dairy Inc., Dallas, Tex.; David J. Roberts, Safety Dir., Wa H.' Roberts & Sons, Inc., Indianapolis, Ind.;- Dale N. Smith, Ins. Mgr., Central Div., Sealtest Foods, Chicago, UL; Rob't M. Thode, Dir. of Safety, National Dairy Prod. Corp., New York, N. Y.; James R. Thomas, Safety Advisor, The Kroger Co., Tncker, Ga. _ .. Distillery Safety Directors--James H. Snyder (Chairman), Mgr., Saf. & Pit Protect., Hiram Walker & Sons, Inc., Peoria, RL; Wilbur . L. Graff, Safety & Security Engr., Brown-Fonmm Distillers, Louisville, Ky.; John J. Hill, Safety Supvr., Jos. E. Seagram &. Sons, Inc., Lawrenceburg, Ind. Poultry Processing Division--S. L. Halac (Chairman), Mgr., Safety & Fire Frev., Central Soya Co., Fort Wayne, Ind.; "L. H. Gretzer, Saf. Dir., Cargill, Inc., Minneapolis, Minn.; Frank Wollney, Program Dir., Institute.of American Poultry Industries, Chicago, 111.; Wm. Muxs, Saf. Dir., Consolidated Foods Corp., Chicago, 111. Processors ir Canning Division--Jobs L. Rhkinheimer (Chairman), Corp. Safety Coord., Hunt Foods & 'Industries, IntL, Fullerton, Calif.; Fred J. Boles, Dir. of Saf., Lansing W. Warner, Inc.,. Underwriters Insurance Ckw Chicago, UL; J." F. Galvin, Jr., Mgr.. Safety & Train., Campbell'Soup Co., Camden, N. J.; Bruce N. Glaser, Safety tc Service Supvr., Gerber Products Co., Rochester, N. Y.; Milton J! Hattier, Mgr., Ins. Dept. & Dir. of Safety, The Southern Cotton Oil Cou New Orleans, La.; Marvin.Hoyt, Empl. Benefits Coord., Gerber Products, Fremont Mich.; Chas. P. Orr, QuaL Assurance Con sultant General Foods Coip.,'White Plains, N. Y. Grain Handling irProcessing Division--Robert Gabretson (Chairman), Safety Dir., A. E. ' Staley Mfg. Co., Decatur, UL; Mace Brown, Safety Dir., Penick &'Ford Ltd., Cedar Rapids, Iowa; Chas. H. Lobton, Dir. of Saf. & Sanitation, Com Products Co., Pekin, RL; John M. Rhame, Supvr., Safety & Fire Protect, Clinton Com Processing Co., Clinton,. Iowa; Lee Warrick, Saf. Dept, Ralston Purina Co., St -Louis; Mo. Nominating Committee--J., R. McCann (Chairman), Mgr., Loss Prev.. Dept.; Ralston Purina Co., St Louis, Mo.; "John M. Jensen; "James H. Snyrer; "L. H: Gretzer; "George L. Kitchen; Wm. G. Smith. Staff Representative--A. M. Baltzer, National Safety Council, 425 N. Michigan Ave., . Chicago, HI. 60611 . "Past General Chairman 50 GLASS & CERAMICS SESSIONS COMPUTERS CAN HELP * PLA N .. A SAFETY PROGRAM ; By MANUEL SPINNER Manager, Plant Engineering Dept, Gloss Division, Ford Motor Co. Ton may consider die computer as the ex needed before using it; it .is not difficult To clusive property of die "whiz Idd" fresh out understand the fundamentals, several basic of college, who plans to revamp your entire terms have specific meanings which, in-this firm with this magic wand. However, If your technique and the literature, differ from gen firm Is going to have this "new look," It will eral usage. This basic terminology allows for not be done slnglehandedly by die recent understanding die philosophy of Critical college graduate, but- by men who have Path and permits presenting a relatively sim practical .training and experience,-who can ple training course; make die computer a most valuable weapon. PERT and CPM can1 be considered as But you must provide die computer with having toe same results through activity and . data that makes sense.. . event orientation. How can this be accomplished? Of course, if yon have a new plant to construct you . Let us begin the "mini" course. have a better start;, especially when it is gen The Critical Path method is a hew man erally understood that safety is on integral agement technique for planning, scheduling, part of a plant and safety requirements must and controlling projects which consist of a - be satisfied before the plant can go "on - group of interrelated activities or Jobs that are stream." ,, ' directed toward a common goal. Too often new plant construction safety - ' The planning phase of a project consists programs are given the "stepchild" treat* ' of determining a proposed method of action meat as emphasis is placed on those items or procedure. In tiffs technique, planning essential to begin production. Consequently, . most'be. separated bom scheduling; there a plant start-up is usually void of many es fore, it is independent of timing..Planning sential safety requirements, resulting in tern* involves .making an analysis to determine poraiy implementation and many times re- what specific jobs are to be done, toe se ' qniring "crash" projects to complete. quence of work required in accomplishing A possible deterrent to this condition is ' toe project, and the interrelations between the Critical Path method of planning and jobs. scheduling which has come into its hwn in Job i, 2 "Decide on Computer" (Fig. 1.) the last five years and has seen wide accept ance in the construction field. The first step in using computers to plan a safety program. is the knowledge of toe Critical Path Pro must be completed before any other Jobs are . started. The job "Procure Computer" 2, 6 must be completed before Job 6, 11 can be started. Also Job 2, 6 "Procure Computer'' gram. This technique utilizes computer cal - can be performed concurrently with the jobs. culations which permit the "management by . on three, other paths: toe path above Job 2, exception" principle, where you can concen-' 6; the path below it; and toe path at toe bot trate. n reviewing toe status of toe critical tom of toe diagram. - items only. This technique provides safety. Drawing toe network plan on "arrow dia ..engineers with the means to participate more grams," which is done in conjunction with actively In plant construction, expansion, or the planning analysis, allows for answering renovations. -questions such as these: CPM Fundamentals. 1. What other activity(s) must be com- . pleted before tiffs activity can start? Before proceeding with how this tech 2. What other activity(s) can be done nique works, let us discuss briefly toe funda while this activity is being done? mentals. A minimum training effort in this 3. What activity(s) cannot start uqtil after method, which would be toe "A-B-CTs," is tiffs activity Is done?. 1967 National Safety Congress V;;; SAMPLE PROBLEM -- ARROW DIAGRAM Qy t SOLICIT BIDS (5). . AWARD -o(2>" CONTRACT (2) * DETERMINE SITE SPECS**' DECIDE OH -- COMPUTER PROCURE COMPUTER (25) fort\PRPREEPPAARE IZO) SITE V SELECT OPERATINC PERSONNEL \ U) I-x INSTALL a TEST COMPUTER TRAIN V,1 . TEST .OPERATING PERSONNEL X PROGRAM . (5) -**-- t . PROGRAM ' S.P0E"Aj _ DEVELOP /io\ PROCURE fo, PROGRAM11** FORMS lo' SELECT PROGRAMMING PERSONNEL (2) TRAIN. PROGRAMMING ^PERSONNEL RCD q LAYOUT (2) :/ DESIGN / -- ESTIMATED JOB TIMES (WEEKS) Mg, 1 After planning, the next major phase is scheduling. Scheduling is the development of a timetable from which time estimates are placed on the plan: The schedule indicates when each activity is to be accomplished. , The numbers.within the parentheses (Fig. 1) are estimated time, requirements for each job. They may be-days, .weeks, or months. Job 1, 2 has a time estimate Of four weeks; Job 2, 6 requires 25 weeks; etc. The time es timates must be realistic in order to produce a good schedule for meeting deadlines and avoid unnecessary project costs. The next step in scheduling is to deter mine the Critical Path. It is the longest path on the network for the project in terms of time. The project .duration is the total time required for the jobs on the Critical Path. The Critical Path is determined by adding the time requirements for the-jobs in.each path: The top path via Jobs 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11* 13,14 requires 40 weeks. The next path requires 37 weeks. The third path requires 15 weeks. The next path requires 33 Weeks. The last path requires 28 weeks. The 40 weeks required for the top path is the longest in duration of any of the paths; . arid is. the; Critical Path. This 40 weeks .is, therefore, the estimated time required to complete the project. " ' . Jobs on the. Critical Path'have, no "float." Float is defined as the time the performance of a job.may be delayed without delaying overall project completion. On all other' paths in the diagram, some flexibility is per missible without delaying the project comple tion. The actual scheduling-restablishing the start and finish times for each job--can then ' be made . by management. This includes making decisions on how to use the available float for the best- allocation of money, man power, and other resources. For small proj ects, the ; calculations . can. be made man ually; for large projects, a. computer is re quired. . The third major phase of the Critical Path method is controlling the project Exercising control of the work in a project consists of coordinating action in such a way-that'objec tives are accomplished in accord with man agement planning; .With, the Critical Path method, management personnel are provided e Glass if Ceramics Section with-' periodic reports based on outptit tive participation by the safety personnel printed by a computer. These reports keep through the use of Critical Path method, we management abreast of the progress' of the can use it os a typical example: project. The reports show (1) Jobs com The Mt Clemens paint plant doubles our pleted, (2) actual completion time of the previous paint production, as well as produc completed jobs, (8) jqbs that are on sched ing resins heretofore purchased for use in ule, and (4) jobs that are behind schedule. the paint formulation. Approval to go ahead To summarize, using a different project from the computer installation, we will com pare this management information system. with the conventional' bar chart familiar to almost everyone in industry and which has been the traditional approach to planning and scheduling. This chart provides some valuable information; such as die duration of- was given by the Board of Directors in Oc tober, 1964. Construction costs were in the millions, and the entire program required over two years to complete. As this was a new venture for automotive manufacturing personnel die complexities that were expected to be.encountered made the use of the Criti cal Path method a mandate. - major items and starting and ending times. The CPM diagram for the paint plant However, from the standpoint of effectively shows only major activities. For this size, job planning, scheduling and controlling a proj some firms would prepare diagrams of 8,000 ect, additional and more accurate information to 5,000 activities--this diagram contains is required. . For example, this, method will about 500. Our activity uses CPM to stress have an exceptionally difficult task to answer planning' by monitoring periodically con these questions: struction progress against the diagram and 1. Which portions 'of the design can be with specific reference to the status of the done concurrently -with fabricating and pro milestones. curing parts? Milestones represent die key objectives .2. Which parts of the design must be during the course of a program or project. completed before other parts of.the design So that1 the end'completion date is defined can begin? properly, milestone dates must be met: Mile 3. Which activities are to be given priority stone-Start Paint Production, Node 248, in order not to hold up completing die proj 8/1/68. AD of the activities needed to sup ect on schedule?' * port the production of paint which lead into Yet; when we note the network, we can this activity wiU determine the planning answer these questions rather readily. For .'date. A computer run predicts the ability of example: ; . confirming this date. 1. While'we are procuring parts and shop The milestone, concept, leads into the fabrication, we can be preparing the installa safety engineer's participation. Our division tion designs. safety engineer became one of'.the astute , 2. The sequence of designs, design equip students in CPM and was quick to learn the-.. ment, detailed equipment design, and instal impact of milestones. He used Node 246 to lation designs are distinctly shown. ' investigate all of his safety items and activi 8. The path--design 'equipment, detailed-' ties essential to the production of paint. equipment design, procure parts, install Such items as gate security, hose carts, extin equipment and tryout--must be given prior guishers, protective safety equipment, and ity as this is the critical path. -other industrial'relations items for which he As the Critical Path permits improved methods for controlling projects by die use of a computer, substantial time can be saved in decision making. Alternate methods can be evaluated with some degree of thorough ness. also assumes responsibility are diagrammed --"keyed" to milestones which have been ori ented to production. Most'important is the means by which he can apply logic, as sim ple as it may seem, to develop the scope of. his responsibility. CPM Application. The timing of these safety items was eval uated from computer-based' programs de Our plant engineering activity has. used signed by Ford' Motor Company with tbe the Critical Path method on a number of output reports being peculiar to Ford Motor multi-million dollar programs. Since the Mt Company procedure. The information con Clemens paint plant allowed for rather ac tained is the type of information that our or- 7 ItXffNatUmal Safety Congress ganization believes Is desirable and it may climate and equipment delivery conditions. not necessarily be appropriate tor other ac causing abrupt-changes during tills period, tivities. Information available through the the Critical Path technique did help us meet computer outputs include milestone reports, our commitments. schedule dataj. and bar charts. CPM has its share of pitfalls but a great In the milestone report the safety engineer deal of them are due to inexperience, and. can review a summarized schedule relating the problems lessen with the completion of to.his particular milestones, of which he has another job. However, there are still prob incorporated - the master- diagram milestone, lems inherent with the present method and report. Node 240, for example,.shows from the scope of these problems is .dependent on this report that he is 22 days behind schedule. the individual. Time and effort is necessary Ihe safety engineer will then look at the to keep this technique a dynamic port of the scheduled data report and will note the ac project; therefore, for effectiveness this type tivities that contribute to die behind-sched- - of work must become a portion of your ule condition. In this instance; there are a working routine. number of activities that contribute to the delays and the safety engineer is able to take each of these items and act accordingly. Where ,die responsibility rests with him, he must contact suppliers and expedite deliver ies. Where the responsibility lies with man agement heading the project, he must notify them of die impact of not having the various safety innovations on time. Based upon his review, the safety engineer communicates with management personnel citing substantial facts at an early date of die pending problems. Critical Path planning will .provide the ability to predict in advance Secondly, as the . computer essentially answers only "yes and no" questions, the programming is extensive and input data ' takes time to prepare. We at Fora would like to reduce this detail and are pressuring Operations Research to simplify as much as possible-the input, requirements. We are get ting encouraging response. Finally, an essential requirement of CPM is personal discipline for thorough analysis and thought. The program is as effective as your ability to think and plan, which you diagram.. -> | and avoid crises. My answer to those who show resistance Another computer printout is the bar to this type of program is this: I know I am chart At a glance, die Division Safety Engi "one up" on anyone else in the planning of neer is able to note the pertinent activities my project by using this technique. If there with respect to a calendar if a job is behind is a better way, I do not-know of it schedule; being performed on tone, or ahead CPM cannot provide 100 per cent assur of 'schedule. This chart is primarly used for ance of a successful program but it most cer reviewing alternatives during the course of a tainly will give you a great deal of manage program. For example, when there is a delay ment information data to;deal with potential anticipated, some planning activities con be problems and, therefore, toe ability to main juggled, based upon their proposed starting tain an orderly direction of. your project If I times.- can make any recommendations, it is that, Conclusion. computers are here to stay as the potential is boundless and we must learn to use them . . In conclusion, we. can substantiate the. properly. If I were asked to offer a sugges usefulness, of CPM with these facts: Paint tion for a basic training course essential to. . production, which , was admittedly complex, compute^ oriented operations for safety engi- was able, to start within -15' days of the . neers, as, well as any other activity, it would March 1 planned starting time. When you be to learn the Critical-Path method."Logic consider that this date was determined about is "the name of the game," and. here is a two years prior to start-tip and the labor way'to "play" it 8 OFFICERS OF THE GLASS AND CERAMICS SECTION National Safety Council. 1967-68 GeperalCholrmatyrJofiN J.. Long, PPG Industries, Cumberland, Md. . ' First yice^hairmqn--jQvn W.'Beoom, Owens-Illinois, Inc., Fairmont; W. Vo. Second Vice-Chairman--Andrew Qresick, PPG Industries, Ford City, Pa. Secretary--H; Clamc Underwood, PPG Industries, Pittsburgh, Pa. Newsletter Editor--Richard Reilly, PPG Industries, Ford City, Fa. Program Committee--E. M. Thompson (Chairman), Ford Motor Co., Nashville Glass Plant, Nashville, Term.; "C. Doan Noce, PPG Industries, Crystal City, Mo.; Andrew J. Pavlik, Hunt Foods and Industries, Inc., Perrysburg, Ohio. Health Committee--Jorge Hernandez-Osuna (Chairman), Acdon Social Regiomontana, Monterrey, N. ,L. Mexico; W. G. Hazard, Owens-Illinois, Inc., Toledo; Ohio; Ralph King, Ford Motor Co., Nashville Glass Plant, Nashville, Tenn.;'J. T. Destefano, PPG (Industries, Pittsburgh, Pa, Engineering Committee--0John V. Skendall (Chairman), Harbison-Walker Refractories Co., Pittsburgh, Pa. "Frank Manning, Ford Motor Co., Glass Div., Dearborn, Mich.; Alan Borer, PPG Industries, Clarksburg, W. Va. Membership Committee--Dave Charlesworth (Chairman); Ball Brothers Company Incor porated, Mundelein, 111.; "John RHEiNHEiMEn, Hunt Foods, Inc., Fullerton, Calif.; Richard Hucke, Owens-Illinois, Inc., Vineland, N. J. Off-the-Job Committee--Charles B< Reagan (Chairman), Ball Brothers Co., Inc., Muncie, Ind.; Donald D. Hobbs Anchor Hocking Gloss Corp., Lancaster, Ohio Training Committee--A. D. Davis (Chairman), PPG Industries, Creighton, Pa.; Charles R. Haines, PPG Industries,'Mt. Vernon, Oluo; R. E. Sourwine, PPG Industries, Pitts burgh, Pa. * Safety Promotion Committee--George W. Tetherly (Chairman), Foster-Forbes Glass Co., Marion, Ind.; C. S. Kraft, PPG Industries, Henryetta, Olda. Research Committee--James D. Shannon (Chairman), Ford Motor Co., Glass Div., Dearborn, ' Mich., Francis E. La Chapelle, Owens-Illinois, Inc., Hapeville,' Ga. Associations Committee--Rorert A. Smith (Chairman), Owens-Illinois, Ino., Toledo, Ohio; W. W. Boxell, Foster-Forbes Glass Co., Marion, Ind. . 43 Nominations Committed--'`Frank Manning (Chairman), -Ford Motor Co., Glass Dfo, Dearborn, Mich.; John W. Bloom (1st Vice Chairman), Owens-Illinois, Inc., Fairmont; W. Va.; C. Doan Nock, PPG Industries, Crystal City, Mo.; John J. Lonc,PPG Industries, . Cumberland, Md. " ' "Blowers and Buggers" Committee--(Past General Chairmen)--Feed G.Anderson, Corning, N. Y.; H. V. Gardner, Owens-Illinois, Inc., Toledo, Ohio; John P. Stephenson, Ball Bros. Co., Inc., Muncie, had.; JamEs L. Morris, The Federal Glass Co.; ' Columbus, Ohio; J. C, Dittmeb, Cranford, $J. J.; T.AR. Donochue (deceased), PPG Industries; W. G. Hazard, Owens-Illinois, Ihc., Toledo, Ohio; Harry A. Jackbon, Frigidalre Divirion Plant #3, General Motors Corp., Dayton, Ohio; J. H. Gatrkll, American Saint Gobairi Corp., Kingsport; Tenn.; John B. Fullen, Kopp Glass, Inc., Swissvale, Pa.; Russell W. Frank, , Ferro Corporation, Cleveland, Ohio; Clyde C. Roddick, Bethel Pari, Fa.; John V. Skkndall, Harblson-WaBcer Refractories Co., Pittsburgh, Fa.; Edwin L. Wray, Ball Bros. Co., Inc., Muncie, Ind.; Clinton BaLlincbr, Owens-Illinois, Inc., Gas City, Ini; Joseph E. Morrison, Houston Chemical Corp., Beaumont, Texas; John Rhkinhuimkb, Hunt Foods, Inc., Fullerton, Calif.; Rodert W. Moulton, Boll Brothers Co., Inc., Muncie, Ind.; C. Doan Noce, PPG Industries, Crystal City, Mo.; Frank Manning, Ford Motor Co., Glass Div., Dearborn, Mich. Staff Representative--Grant Shirley, National Safety Council, 425 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611 , Past General Chairmen * 0 44 VOLUME 12 National Safety Congress BNDUSmSAL NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL nm. 425 North Michigan Avenue Chicago, Illinois 60611 55th NATIONAL SAFETY CONGRESS 'Papers Delivered in the INDUSTRIAL SAFETY SESSIONS DRIVER IMPROVEMENT How to Recruit and Train a Team of Good Instructors and Keep Them Happy................. ...........R. Paul Lawrence 5 Defensive Driving Course for Traffic Law Violators in Tampa................... ............................... ................ Merrill Pollard How to Organize State Employees for DDC Training. Dr. Thomas.S. Claros 6 8 Defensive Driving Course Graduates Get Point Credits inWest Virginia Program-.................... Lieutenant R. E. Stanley j 11 MEDICAL AND HEALTH Applying Medical Concepts to Injury Control.. Julian A. Waller, M.D., M.P.H. 13 The Role of the American Medical Association in Accident Prevention............................... .. .......... .E. B. Howard, M.D. 19 The Nature and Prevention of on the Job. Accidents to Office Workers.......... Norman C. Kiefer, M.D., M.P.H. 22 EYE SAFETY--PROGRESS AND PROBLEMS Eye Protection in Industry and Education..................Francis Wlschmeyer . 29 Eye Safety--One Firm's Formula............... ...........B. S. Edmondson 32 HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING AnOvervieS/of Human Factors Engineering. Julien M. Christensen, Ph.D. 37 Application of Human Factors Engineering To Safety Engineering Problems..-.................. Ross A. McFarland, Ph.D. 49 Justification for Introducing Human Factors into an Industrial Setting......................... ..... , .Dr. Jack A. Kraft 62 i THE SAFETY SPECIALIST'S FUNCTION What I Expect of the Safety Specialist'......... -................ Arthur H. Christian 69 The Safety Engineer--What I Expect From Him........Paul A. Stewart 77 What Labor Management Expects of the Safety Specialist.. . ' J. George Eichhorn 80 Middle Management........................................................... ..... Harvey E. Jonas 82 (Continued on next page) 3 CONTENTS--continued OFF-THE-JOB SAFETY Opening Remarks....................... ............................... .........Robert F. Beeson 85 . Developing an Off-the-Job Activity...................... .. .Robert B. Regan 85 Safety Glass Demonstration.....................................Thomas C. Klapperlch 87 The Psychological Point of View___ ____ ... .................... .Howard Klopp 90 The Community Viewpoint................................................Janice R. Westaby 92 Industry Response................... ........................................... .-William J. Kerns 94 Hazards of Using Urethane Foam in Enclosed Spaces.. .Edwin M. Murphy 99 Hazards and Controls in the Industrial Use of Lasers............... R.M. Lumley 102 Maximum. Acceptable Weight of Lift............... . S. H. Snook and C. H. Irvine 107 TOAINING--COMMUNICATIONS IN SAFETY Are You Hard of Listening?...;........................................ ........Kenneth J. Lille 113 SAFETY PAYS AT MOBIL OIL Mobil's Safety Philosophy............... .................. ............ .. , .H. J. Peckheiser 116 Profile of Mobil Oil Corporation....... ................. ...........................F..J, Doolan 117 Mobil's Safety Program Worldwide............... ............................ . J. J. McKenna 119 Safety in`Mobil Chemical......... ........... ......... ....................... .C. S. Dedon 121 Fire Prevention at Mobil............................. ............ ............Leonard O. Franklin 125 Mobil Fleet Safety Programs........................... ................. Donald E. Johnson 127 We Want You to Live:...................... .......... ........................ Nicholas L. Bristow 128 Protection of Employees on the Job............. .......... .T. E. Allen, M.D. 131 Safety Research and Engineering................................. H. S. Mahiey 134 SAFETY IN SCHOOL CURRICULUM- How Can Industry Help Educators Build a Better Curriculum for Total School Safety Education.. . . .Cecil G. Zaun 137 Do Students Receive Satisfactory Safety Training...George iV. Greenwood 140 MEDICAL VIEW$ OF 3 A'S IN INDUSTRY Attihides...................................................... .......... Alcoholism i.......................................................... Absenteeism................... .................. .................. .. :viadmlr G. Urse, M.D. 145 Robert R. J. Hilker. M.D. 148 .Gerald W. Grawey, M.D. 152 Officers of the Industrial Conference 1967-68................................................. .. 155 Members of the Associations Committee 1967-68.. ................. .1................ 157 Five Years of Future Dates for the National Safety Congress.. .............. 158 Other Volumes in 1967 National Safety Congress Transactions 4 Back Cover Driver Improvement Session HOW TO RECRUIT AND TRAIN A TEAM OF GOOD INSTRUCTORS AND KEEP THEM HAPPY By R. PAUL LAWRENCE General Manager, Alberta Safety Council, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada Canada covers a vast area, but traffic is no problem over a great deal of the Northern Territory, Where it is a problem, however, it is just about as intense as in the U.S.A. . The concentration of population in Can ada is confined to the southern portion of the country, a strip about 500 miles northward from the border- stretching east and 'west across the country. In Alberta, there are two principal cities and eight small ones. Calgary,, the hpme of the famous Calgary Stampede, is about 175 miles north of the boundary-with a popula tion of 360,000. Edmonton, the capital, is 200 miles further north and has. a population of 400,000. The population of the province is about one and a half million; Recruiting Instructors. In the beginning, the Board decided as a policy of the council that .we would not charge any fee whatever for training instruc tors. We would not differentiate between, in structors who were being trained for com pany work and .those who waited to teach public "courses for us.. Naturally, we ex tracted a promise from everyone that they would teach at least two courses for us, but the main-idea was .to get them. teaching courses to someone: Furthermore, we de cided to pay the expenses of out of town ap plicants accepted by us for instructors' 'courses in Edmonton or Calgary. The Board also decided that this policy would' be-rescinded when it had accom plished its purpose of getting D.I.P. away to a running start. ,' You can appreciate that with this training policy, we could be choosy about the people we would accept as instructors. We took full advantage'of conditions and made our early instructor courses strictly invitation affairs. I can assure you that -this very selective policy of choosing and training instructors has paid off in quality of instruction. Most of the men who trained with us in the fall of 1065 are still our star performers' and ore trainers of instructors in current courses. There have been some recent changes in policy. As of September 1, 1967,; we no longer pay travelling expenses to out of town candidates. Local organizations sponsor in- . structors to our courses and it is becoming a . mark of prestige to be accepted for training . as an instructor of D.D.C. We still make no charge for training or for the Instructors, Manual. Our recruiting policy will now be moving. 35 miles or more away from centres which already have instructors. Training. The strength and effectiveness of D.D.C. stems partly from the fact that amateurs in struct. it. Professional teachers might do a more skilled job, but they might not identify with the-class as readily as a person who is making a hobby of helping his fellowman. However, we put quite a lot of effort into -'making our volunteers as Skillful as possible. For example, we limit the size of instructors' classes to 15 people. ' The first day we give, them the Defensive Driving Course itself. One of .our qualified trainers of instructors . * . is in charge. He may teach two or three of the eight sessions, but he will have arranged for several other- qualified instructors to come in. and give one or two sessions each. In this way, the class is exposed to a number of different personalities. At the end of the first day, the students receive their Instructor's Manual and are given practice teaching assignments for' the next day. The first hour of the second day is token up with "Session 9". In this session we empha size correct use of visual aids. We stress over nnd over the necessity to speak clearly and to. answer -questions clearly and concisely. We unpack an instructor's kit and re-pack it, nnd we caution students to be careful with 5 1967 National Safety Congress films. Last, but not least, we advise them to always ..dress properly when instructing. Jackets and ties are a must. At this point, the. practice teaching'begins, and a panel of about two instructors and one ' Student act as critics. If we have no more than 15 students, each student, will have al most -20 minutes on his feet.. The more stu dents there are, the less individual attention can be given to them. This procedure seems to give most of the candidate instructors a keen desire to excel and many of. them come back in groups of four or five to do more practice teaching. How To Keep Them Happy. I wish there was - a. guaranteed way to keep people happy, but I'm afraid there isn't We do the obvious things of'course: Praise - and recognition and gratitude reach the ears of their bosses, their families^ etc. Occasionally we have one of them inter viewed on radio, or T.V. and perhaps wangle a quote in a newspaper. In other words, we do all we can to boost their image in the community. . Now and then we try to arrange an eve ning. put for the instructor and his wife. Sometimes this is a nice dinner for three or four couples. At other times, I can manage tickets to some banquet and dance which they will enjoy. ' In short, we try to make D.D.C. instruct tors feel that they are members of a small, exclusive fraternity doing skilled and impor tant work for the benefit of the community. DEFENSIVE DRIVING COURSE FOR TRAFFIC LAW VIOLATORS IN TAMPA By MERRILL POLLARD . Executive Director, Greater Tampa Citizens Safety Council, Tampa, Fla. The first Instmctor. Development Course Guide for the Administration of the National was conducted for the Greater Tampa Citi- ' Safety Council Driver Improvement Program zens Safety Council by members, of National in-Florida. As incoming chairman, I was Safety Council staff, in April, 1905. Among given the responsibility for drafting the the students were four members of the Guide. This was approved by the Executive Tampa Police Department who were serving Committee arid, the Florida Highway Patrol os instructors in traffic courts of Tampa and formally accepted at the Federation's Driver. Improvement School. These men next meeting in. September of 1905. were tremendously impressed, began to com- Without this Procedure Guide, Florida pare it with the course they were giving to never would have been No. 1 in the nation traffic law violators, and came to the conclu- for number of people trained in 1906 and siori that National Safety Council Driver Im- .for most of 1967. And it never would have. provement Program was more effective than been accomplished without the Florida what they were doing. Highway. Patrol. Captain Roger C. Collar, The Florida Federation of Safety Councils Chief Safety' Education Officer, has' been had been formed early in 1964, its nucleus' spokesman for the Patrol arid its representa- ' being the Dade County Citizens Safety live at each Federation meeting. His recoin- Council, the Jacksonville Duval County Citi- mendations helped to make our Procedure zens Safety Council, and the Greater Tampa Guide the sound document it has proved to Citizens Safety Council. From its very incep- be. tiori, the Federation worked closely with the . From the time of its introduction in Florida Highway Patrol. -Tampa, the value . of the Driver Improve- At the first annual meeting of the Federa-. ment Program was recognized, and the citi- tion in May, 1965, there was agreement that zen leaders of our Safety Council gave it the Federation, in cooperation with Florida their complete support. This is best evi- Highway Patrol, should prepare a Procedure denced by ojur standing second only to Balti- 6 V Industrial Safety Subject Sessions more for number of people trained in both Many organizations, including MacDill Air 1986 and to date in 1967 among safety Force Base, took advantage of the available councils across the country. instruction and sent their drivers through the , In January, I960, the Tampa Police De school. It was also found that the students partment Traffic Division's Captain L. J. became better drivers. The repeaters were Buchanan was asked to suggest a project for less than one per cent. the Greater Tampa Freight Carriers Associa- Having heard so much about the National tion, an organization of trucking companies. Safety Council Driver'Improvement Program His twenty years of experience had led . to from his instructors. Captain Buchanan took the belief that nothing was more important the Instructor Development Course in than driver education. He suggested such a. March, 1966, and recognized that here was a program for- traffic law violators and the better mousetrap. He began to ask for details height carriers donated $500 to get it under Of administration and agreed with Greater way. Tampa Citizens Safety Council to.buy all A non-profit organization was formed and' student materials through them and report chartered by the state to run the school. The numbers trained once each month. Inde director and officers were 'the Municipal pendent Insurance Agents of Greater Tampa Court judges. Supervisors of Tampa Police . approved and supported this arrangement - Department Traffic Division agreed to serve Beginning August 29, 1966, the old- out as. instructors for the school. Knowing of the ' line was phased out and the Defensive Driv fine work being done- in driver education by ing Course became the training program the Traffic Education and Safety Division of used by Traffic Courts of Tampa Driver Im the Municipal Court of Chicago, a letter re provement School. Violators assigned by the questing details of their course' brought ' court on Monday, for example, attend four prompt response. Monday nights, those assigned on Tuesday, With this information,'an outline was de veloped to meet the problems of Tampa's drivers. The course consisted of five twohour sessions conducted at night in one of the Municipal court rooms. A violator as signed by the court had to attend school one night a week for five weeks, the fifth session consisting of tests.in the driver lab and a final examination. The first class began June 13, 1960.-Supervisors of Tampa Police De partment Traffic Division instructed on their off-duty hours. Students were traffic offend- ' ers sent to the school by Municipal Court of Tampa and the Juvenile Court of Hillsbor ough County. From its beginning, ` Traffic Courts of Tampa Driver Improvement School had the support of many organizations. Helping to . finance the program .were the Independent Insurance Agents of Greater Tampa, while the Safety Council loaned films used in the school. After'two'years both the city and the county included the school in their budgets. The Independent Insurance Agents agreed to finance one-third of the cost, with city four Tuesday nights, and so on through Thursday. Instructors were more and more pleased with class participation and are now the most ardent advocates of DDC. Captain Buchanan would- like to build a classroom . and conduct courses morning, afternoon, and night five days a week for the public. In the spring of this year, Tampa's mayor ordered all city employees who drive' city, vehicles to take the Defensive Driving. Course. Tampa Police Department was the first of twelve departments in the city to complete it--and you need not be told who served as instructors. These men from the Traffic - Division also helped to conduct courses for the other departments. Since . this* phase ,-of training.f has been completed in mid-June, the- City's Safety Director, Robert George, reports an 18 per cent re duction in accidents involving city vehicles. The Police Department, as well as the Fire Department, now includes DDC as part of its recruit training program. The course is also being offered to all city'employees. and county support adding the remaining We in the Safety Council have another two-thirds. This agreement made it: possible advantage because of Traffic Courts of to pay the police instructors for their off- Tampa Driver Improvement School. When work. ever a student misses a session' in another The school continued to grow, with new course being offered in the community, he classes being started once pr twice a week. can always make it up there. Individuals 7 1967 National Safety Congress calling wishing to take . the course ' are re ferred to the school and have their choice of one' of four nights each week they can at tend. ., Tampa has one of the. finest police depart-' meats in the nation. It has intelligent, dedi cated officers and those who serve on the Driver Improvement School faculty are among the best instructors to be found any where. Their effort has helped to keep our Safety Council first in Florida and Florida Erst in the nation. ' You may wonder why this is so important to us. Perhaps a statistic provided by the Florida Department of. Public Safety will ex plain. 'Our great state was visited by nearly 18 million people last year--82 per cent coming by automobile. Our drivers must really leam defensive driving tactics'and maintain a courteous attitude towards tour ists, one of the state s greatest assets. When you come to. Florida you, too, will be impressed with what we have to offer: An outstanding Highway Patrol will guide you to Tampa where you can visit Safety Village, also sponsored by die Independent Insurance Agents, and observe bow youngsters leam about traffic safety during the day, and then take the time to. ..visit Traffic Courts of Tampa Driver Improvements School at night --not as a violator, but for the purpose of observing, some genuine professionals in struct the people, who need it most in the Defensive Driving Course. HOW TO ORGANIZE STATE EMPLOYEES FOR DDC TRAINING By DR. THOMAS S. CLAROS . Chairman, Driver Improvement Program, State of Connecticut, Hartford,'Conn. The Connecticut State Police were the a Coordinating Committee of five to coordi- first state employees to find out about the nate the DJJP., with his Executive Assistant - . Driver Improvement Program. The State Po- as n liaison. The committee consisted of the lice Commissioner approached Governor State Training Coordinator, the Highway. Dempsey on this program. The governor put ' Chief Safety Engineer, the Executive Direc- his complete support into the'D.IJP. and we tor of the Connecticut Safety Commission, were on our way. Your first step, therefore, the Fleet Administrator, and the Command- , is .to get the -governor of your state to. sup- ing' Officer' of the- State Police Traffic Divi- - port the program. sion. We suggest that a Motor Vehicles De-. .On January 27, 1960, Governor Dempsey partment representative also be placed on called a meeting of all major agency heads, this committee. Your second' major step, some of whom were not members of his cab- then, is to have'a-committee representing inet. Present were the Commissioners of traffic; safety, training, licensing and state Highway, State Police,' Health, MOntal fleet administration. Health, Education, Auditors, Banking, Insur- This meeting received'television coverage ance. Consumer Protection, Development by all Connecticut channels, the major radio (how called Community Affairs), Finance stations and newspapers. The people of Con- and Control, Labor, Military, Motor Vehi- necticut thus became aware of the fact that cles. Personnel, Public Works, Secretary of the state was trying to make state employees State, Tax, Welfare, and a few others. At the better, safer, defensive drivers, meeting, he announced that he was starting The Coordinating Committee met after a Driver Improvement Program, gave a gen- the governor's meeting, chose a chairman-- .. eral orientation of D.I.P. to the agency the training coordinator, because it was a nat- heads,' and requested their cooperation .in ral for the training man.- This was explained making the program a success by authorizing , to me quite profusely by. the other four mem- all training to be done on state time. bets of the committee. He also announced that he had appointed. Our first official act was to draft a letter to 8 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions' be sent under the Governor's signature to all agency heads. We next met February 10, 1966, at the office of the secretary of the Hartford.Accident and Indemnity Insurance The committee felt that all stencilling, xe roxing, letter-writing, : ordering, communica tions in general should be done at one source, go to one source, and leave from one' Company, our State Fleet Insuror. The com mittee, the Hartford A & I secretary, and Carl Basl, National Safety Council District Director, were present at the meeting. Mr. source. In addition, the storage and-mainte nance of the ldts, die storage of the student materials (almost two tons) should also be in one central area, preferably close to the Basl explained the procedure to be followed training coordinator's two training rooms. in training instructors for our 30,000 state The fourth step to be remembered is the employees; how the Connecticut Safety proper selection of instructors. Commission would apply to become a coop The latter part of February we received erating agency; how to order materials and our code designation of 7-AA1 and in March the approximate costs. The secretary of the we trained 54 instructors from 29 different Hartford Accident and Indemnity Company agencies and institutions. The State Police informed us that they would, underwrite the Department, in the meantime, had trained costs. The actual costs by the way, to train ^. 22 instructors, two from each barracks, plus 119 instructors and 6,156 employees during six from the Highway Department and the 1966 was $0,762.26. It was decided that we Fleet Administrator. Our March report to would need about 100 instructors to cover Governor Dempsey showed 84 instructors 30,000 employees; ten training kits; 10,000 and 187 employees trained. student materials to receive the maximum The first class of instructors' was again discount from the National Safety Council, highly - publicized through television, radio, and that we could train our first 50 instruc newspapers, and personal interviews. This tors on March 23-24,1966. The third step to was something new, and news media gave us bear in-mind is.a sponsor. We believe that unsolicited coverage, for which we were your state fleet insuror would be the ideal very grateful. A statement from the governor sponsor for your D. I. P., or D. D, C. was also read to the graduates, and each one The third and last meeting of the Coordi nating Committee took place on February 14, 1866. At this meeting; 25 agencies and received his green, card and a Certificate of Achievement designed by us. The latter was signed by the governor, tho chairman, and institutions were selected, and allotted from the agency head. Each instructor was also one to five instructors. This was based on the given a form letter to be used'in requesting size of the agency os' well as the jurisdiction an instructor's training kit and training and physical area covered; Departments with -materials. This is still being used with great district offices throughout the state were given more instructors than those agencies located physically in one building, eventhough the latter may have had the same number of employees. During this meeting, a list of the Coordinating Committee mem ber's names, addresses, and telephone num bers were distributed to all, along with min utes of the'previous meetings. success today, as well as two monthly report ing forms to the governor. One of the forms is designed to keep a running total of the number of employees trained since its incep tion and the other one is a general report. The'fifth step in organizing DDC training for state employees is to devise a number of forms to facilitate reporting and make the requests for materials uniform. . A letter was drafted to be sent to desig The chairman made it a point to visit- nated agencies. In this letter we advised the every instructor while he was actually teach agency heads to select the number of in ing a class. He made return visits to present structors we suggested from employees who each instructor with his instructor's card. In could teach and to include, if possible, the each' instance he took five minutes of the agency motor vehicle safety officer. This class time to congratulate the participants worked out very well until we discovered that one prospective instructor who was an excellent teacher did not have a drivers license, nor could she drive. So make it a point to emphasize the fact that designated instructors should have a drivers license. and instructors, arid to bring them up to date on the D. I. P. progress. This is a ne cessity, because I did run into a situation where two instructors were not following the proper procedure and we did get into an awful mess. It was necessary to have the em- 9 1967 National. Safety Congress ployefes take.the course over again. The sixth step is dose instructor supervision. By September of 1986, we were running . into difficulties because of the shortage of in structors, but our ten Idts were sufficient. In' November we trained another 35 instructors, from 13. agencies, bringing our total of in structors to 119. At the same time, the Na tional Safety Council informed us that they were changing the'films, and the Fleet Ad ministrator informed us that the Hartford In surance Group was no longer our insurer. ' The Travelers Insurance Companies, the new insurer, knew all about our D.I.P. They agreed to continue sponsoring the program and went a step further. They permitted us . to use their training facilities to train our in structors; we trained 14 of their employees as instructors and they also became a Coop erating Agency. In December, another governor s directive was sent to all department and agency heads informing them that those agencies which had no instructors could contact us, and that their employees could attend D. I. P. in the .state office building in Hartford. Our main objective was and still is to have the instruc. tor travel, not the students.' By March of 1967 we had 15 kits and 15 new sets of films. All instructors were asked to preview the films and this was done. Dur ing this month we received the February issue of the National Safety Council News letter which reported that die State of Con necticut was fourth in the nation by number of employees trained. By this time, we were receiving a sufficient quantity of Newsletters and these were and are being sent to pll in structors. In July we ordered another 10,000 sets of student materials -and these,' of course, werethe new Student Workbook and Outline. The instructors were all asked to come into Hartford in small groups, and pur instructor went over the material in detail with them. There, were no'problems, involved'in the passout material changeover, as there were no difficulties in the film changeover. In July we renewed out Cooperating Agency status and also reexamined our instructor position, based on a communication .from the,National Safety Council. We trans ferred . some candidate instructors and. eliminated others, ending up at present with. two qualified candidate instructors, 92 quali-' Bed. instructors and four .qualified instructor trainers, .. At the present time we find that we must train additional instructors for our institu tions, such as our Health and Mental Health Department Regional Centers. This will be done some time in November. As of today, we have trained 13,498 employees of our total 30,000 at a' cost to pur insurers of $13,424.41. This, over a. period of nineteen months including October, 1967. We feel that this will be a continuing program, even though we train 10,000 a year and will cover all state employees by 1969, We have labor turnover, new employees being, hired, thus making it necessary to carry this important course as an integral part of our In-Service Training Program. Don't let the enormifj^ of the program scare-you. You can do it and you do have some guidelines that many of us didn't have when we started. All you need is self-confi dence and determination. If you want your program to be success ful: 1. Make sure DDC has the full support of the governor of your state. With his support the agencies, departments and .institutions will participate fully. The occasional gover nor's directives have an excellent prodding effect. 2. Suggest a coordinating committee, consisting of experts in their fields: safety, your Safety Commission; traffic, your State Police; safety engineering, from your Highway or Labor Department; licensing, from your Motor Vehicle Department, and your State Fleet Administrator, the fellow in charge of all your state vehicles. 3.. You must have a sponsor and the most logical one is the insurance company which insures all. state vehicles. .Your insurer- wants to see the accident rate lowered. There is no' doubt that he will cooperate in this effort to make your drivers safer ones and accident free. 4. The future and the success of your pro gram depends upon the proper selection ofcandidate instructors. Make sure they are teachers, if possible; if nbt, make sure they can stand, up before a group and speak. They can be taught to teach, but you do-not have the time to assist them in. overcoming, stage fright. They must be licensed drivers. Having , a legless man teach running is . not too receptive by the students. 10 V (* Industrial Safety Subject-Sessions. 5. Develop fonns to be used by you and the instructors. It is time-saving and makes your operation uniform. 6. It is of utmost importance to supervise your instructors. You' have their schedules. Drop in on them. You will thus make sure that they are teaching the eight-hour course in eight hours; they will appreciate your dropping in and giving their class the over all picture and general progress of the pro gram. Visit your older instructors as well as the neophytes. Take no chances. DEFENSIVE DRIVING COURSE GRADUATES GET POINT CREDITS IN WEST VIRGINIA PROGRAM By LIEUTENANT R. E. STANLEY Chief, Accident Prevention Bureau, West Virginia State Police, Charleston, W. Va. West Virginia was somewhat of a "Johnny a known habitually reckless- or negligent come lately" in implementing its Point Sys-, driver of a motor vehicle. tern, .which was adopted during the latter This particular law was interpreted to part of 1062. There had been a great deal of mean that the Commissioner of the Depart discussion on the merits of this particular ment of Motor Vehicles, could establish a type of program in West Virginia for a num system of evaluating drivers by assigning ber of years and it had been discussed at certain numerical values to violations of the- several Coordinating Committee meetings. - road law and that this could become in ef Available information and. that resulting fect a "Point System". from| internal dialogue indicated that the ne . The main advantage of this type of system gativeness of the Point System per se'needed is that the entire evaluation system and all to be'offset by some type of positive action, procedure can be changed by administrative preferably retraining for those drivers, who order;,, however, without specific legislative habitually drove in a reckless or unsafe man mandate and financing, it was impossible to ner. establish any type of mandatory driver re These discussions indicated that the state.. training school. very definitely needed a system whereby West Virginia is, for the most part; rural reckless or careless drivers could be identi and is divided east and west and north and fied, not necessarily for the purpose of elimi south by sizable mountain ranges which in nation but that they might be rehabilitated creases the number of retraining schools or motivated to drive in a safe, law abiding needed and in effect made the cost of state manner.. sponsored and financed schools prohibitive. There are two paths that can-be followed The Point System has handled about 60,000 in establishing a driver control or Driver Im conviction reports per year affecting about provement Program. It can be incorporatedv 32,000 individual operators. Of these 32,000, into the law by legislative mandate or by only about 7,500 reach the warning letter general legislative authority to operate under level and only 2,500 accumulate sufficient administrative rule. points for hearing or suspension action. Less . West Virginia chose the latter, for two rea than one per cent of the state's total driving sons; to allow latitude in administration and population is actually suspended' os a result to eliminate the time gap between obvious of Point System action. need and legislative action. Every year there are some 20,000 con The West Virginia Motor Vehicle Code victed traffic violators in West Virginia who gives the Commissioner of the Department are never contacted in any ^manner concern of Motor Vehicles discretionary suspension ing their driving behavior. The need for power when a driver had been convicted some-type of retraining became more appar with such frequency of serious offenses ent each year; however, cost remained prohi against traffic . regulations governing the bitive.. movement of vehicles as to indicate a disres As a result of discussions between the De pect for traffic laws or a disregard for the partment of Motor Vehicles, the Department safety of other persons on the highways or is of Public Safety* and the West Virginia II nBHBSHB 1867 National Safety Congress Safety, Council,, the Defensive Driving Course developed by the National Safety Council became the obvious vehicle to ob tain the objectives of retraining without cost to the state.' The Defensive Driving Course had received enthusiastic support throughout the state and was available on a state-wide basis. It very definitely covered the needs of the state's Driver Improvment Program.' The adoption, of- the Defensive Driving Course as a part of the State's official pro gram was announced in May of this year. Several. restrictions were placed on the system's point reduction program. 1. No more than three points could be removed from a licensee's record through at tending an approved course. Three points normally represents one moving traffic viola tion, or 25 per cent of the total needed for suspension^ 2; All instructors must be certified by the . National Safety Council and approved by the West Virginia Department of Public Safety.' 3. Course must follow the format of the Defensive Driving Course as outlined, by the National Safety Council and approved by the West Virginia^. Department of Public Safety. Eilm and visual aids must be' ap proved by the Department of Public Safety. 4. Attendance must be totally voluntary; however, attendance may be made a part of probation, as determined by the Depart ment of Motor Vehicles Interview Officer. 5. Points may be deducted one time only. 6. Points will hot be deducted for a course attended prior to the accumulation of points.. 7., Attendance of the licensee at the course must be. certified by the. instructor, the West Virginia Safety Council and the Department of Public'Safety. ' 8. If points are removed as a result of at tending an approved course and the licensee accumulates. additional points and reaches. . the hearing level, the violation for which the points were, removed will be considered along with all other violations. Governor Smith, in announcing the Defen sive Driving Course--Driver Improvement Program, expressed the personal opinion that any person's driving would be improved by attending the course and emphasized that the course was available to anyone interested in becoming a safer driver. Evaluation of this program after such a short period of time is difficult; however, the state is well pleased with it's acceptance and effect at this particular time. Over 250 driv ers have taken advantage of the program and it is interesting to note that the majority of these drivers were at the three point level. In addition to the 250 who have token the program, many others have expressed a de sire to participate os soon os the course is available in their particular area. In fact I. know of three courses sponsored by organi zations because some member of that organ!-' zation desired to take advantage of the point reduction privilege. We have encountered a few problems iir administering this program in that it is not available at all locations all of the time; however, we have been able to provfde each applicant-with an opportunity to attend the course within a reasonable time and within a reasonable distance. Some people are appar ently reluctant to announce that they have accumulated points and moke' application after the course- has been completed. This necessitates the maintaining of accurate rec ords by name and National Safety Gouncil card number. ' A brochure , discussing the Point System and outlining the procedure for point reduc tion will be mailed with every vehicle regis tration plate next year. This should better in- . form the driving public of the program and increase participation. West Virginia recently enacted a Junior or Probationary license law which provides for the cancellation of license until age 18 if the licensee is convicted of two moving , viola tions; therefore, these people are unable to take advantage of the Defensive Driving Course training opportunity. This is a good example of the rigidity of license provision legislation. Hopefully this provision will be modified at the next session of the legisla-: ture. West Virginia is now considering the pos sibility of requiring the Defensive Driving Course for all state employees who drive a state owned motor vehicle. Some seven state departments have already required their fem- . ployees to attend the course with excellent results. Most of West Virginia's school bus drivers have completed the course and the Depart ment of Education is considering the possi bility of making it a yearly pre-requisite to licensing for'all school'bus drivers. 12 Medical and Health Session APPLYING MEDICAL CONCEPTS TO INJURY CONTROL By JULIAN A. WALLER, M.D., M.P.H. Bureau of Chronic Diseases, California Department of Public Health, Berkeley, Calif. The prevention and alleviation of human suffering is a common concern of the prac-. tice of medicine and the field of- injury con diseases, cancers, and emphysema. These, in turn, probably will be followed by other diS-. ease entities. trol. The similarity between the two areas, however, goes much more deeply into the historical and conceptual' bases underlying them. As, a scientific discipline, medicine un doubtedly has been on the scene for a longer time. It has gone through all of the pains of growth and development that now' beset the field of injury control. It is appropriate therefore, to examine some, of the history, concepts, and methods used by the medical profession in order to suggest how the hu manitarian ends sought by injury control programs may be more speedily achieved. Similarity of Problem Area. On the accident scene, Mrs.-O'Leary's cow or one of its descendants is not likely to kick over a kerosene lamp, children are less likely than, a quarter century ago to get arms caught in wringer washers, and few. are likely to be killed by runaway, horses. But power lawnmowers, automobiles, skate boards, motorcycles, and glass doors have come to take their place. The Wall Street Journal of September 17, . 1967, notes, for example, that the shiekdom . of Kuwait, in moving from a poverty ridden collection of Bedouin camps to a wealthy me tropolis has, in the process, purchased a traf The problem of accidental injury and the problem of human- disease can be defined in virtually the same way. In each case the problem is deeply rooted in a very broad matrix of human activity--of man's charac fic accident problem that is twice the U. S. rate. One in every five cars is in a smashup each year, and about a third of the country's non-oil industry is devoted to automobile re pair. teristics os a social animal, of his attempts to utilize his environment, and of the fact that the human organism has inherent limitations both in its capabiliy to perform tasks -and in its ability to resist a large-biological insult. Finally, despite the apparent diversity of causation, the actual mechanisms for impart ing injury are relatively limited. Viruses, xrays, and cancer-producing chemicals all ap pear to act by modifying cellular structure. Secondly, the overall problem in each case Many other/ diseases produce their damage " actually represents a mosaic of specific prob- by modifying chemical or electrochemical . lems, each with a specific cause or group of processes in the body. With respect to the .causes. The. factors involved in the occur production of accidental injury, Dr. William rence of a stroke, a case of the sniffles, ar Haddon has noted that most (but not all) thritis. of the spine, or ` a complication- of injury results from transfer of energy in an pregnancy could hardly be lumped together. amount and at a rate that is excessive for the In similar fashion, swallowing of poison by a upper limits of ' resistance of the human . child, a single vehicle crash, a boiler explo sion, and a fall by an oldster are in many ways highly dissimilar. body. Attitudes and Concepts. Thirdly, in each case, the basic problem has-been present for many centuries, but the specific pieces are constantly being reshaped. Plague, tuberculosis, poliomyelitis, fatal com plications of pregnancy, and other conditions have largely' run their stormy courses as major forms of human suffering, to be re placed by heart diseases, certain new viral " Despite the similarity of problems the atti tudes and methods of tire medical and health professions are not always shared by those who are concerned with accidental trauma. . Before describing the differences, I wish to emphasize that these are differences of de gree rather than absolute states of dissimilar ity. For the most part, I will discuss general 13 1967 National Safety Congress trends, or normative patterns, rather than the entire range of concepts and methods. The, historical development of concepts ' about causation in the medical area has been lucidly summarized in a single sentence about, mental illness but. applicable, to. a much wider range of organic and psychiatric disease conditions. Ferguson recently stated, "Behavior dysfunction historically has been viewed first as a . matter of demoniac posses sion, then as a spiritual disorder, later as a moral disorder, and later still as mental dis ease." One need only read the Book of Job, or follow the history of epilepsy, plague, or various, other disorders to realize that this conceptual evolution was not limited to men tal illness. . Where 'does injury control lie on this evo lutionary scale? First, it is important to note that even the word "accident" is a carryover from a much earlier period of thinking be cause, by definition, an accident is a random event The fact that injury does not occur randomly in a population has been proven many times over, making the word accident an ^anachronism. Furthermore, although the word actually is only a description of an out come, it has taken on other connotations, such as the connotation of an unavoidable event Therefore, wherever possible, it is preferable, to use other words to describe the outcome that we hope to avoid, such as crashes, or injury, - rather than to use the word accident., Most-people today understand injury to be the result of either spiritual or moral back sliding. During . the 1902 National Safety Congress, for example, a minister explained at a- research session -that, accidents are the result of sinful thought. A short time later he fell off the speaker's platform; The attitude that injury is the end result in the natural order of events of carelessness, thoughtless ness, woolgathering, and lack of considera tion, represents an understanding that, were, people, morally somewhat more pure, the in jury problem would' literally vanish.. I will hot quote the voluminous number of refer ences expressing this viewpoint. Distinction Between Cause and Effect. Beginning in the early 1800*s medicine ion an organized scale began to more accurately recognize the distinctions between cause and effect. Previous to such a distinction, a . socalled rrianifestational classification of disease. had been proposed around 1760. This sys tem guided medical thinking'for the next, several decades. According to this system, all diseases were classified .according to four major. groups--fevers, wasting disorders,' local disorders, and nervous disorders. Can you imagine how successful a physician would be in treating carcinoma, tuberculosis, and a streptococcal infection in exactly the same way simply because'all three had man ifested themselves with fever?- The medical profession now classifies and ' treats conditions according to a much differ ent system, viz., one based on causes such as bacteria and viruses, nutritional deficit, ge netic disorders, etc. In addition, there are many conditions which .we classify according to organ system involved .(such as heart dis ease) or mechanism by which disability is produced either at a.gross or cellular level, (such as arthritis, multiple sclerosis, or can cer); but we do not fool ourselves by believ ing that such a description provides any in formation about the real causes.' In contrast, in the injury, field we still be lieve, or act as if we believe, that speed in excess of road conditions, failure to yield right-of-way, following too closely, smokingin bed, playing with matches, inattention, etc., are ultimate' causes rather than-manifes tations only. These categories of injury "cause" can be found in drawer after drawer of "accident" report forms in industry, po lice, and fire departments, insurance compa--' nies, and many other organizations con cerned with injury control.-For most of us. they represent-some of the major structures for analyzing injuries. Consequently, they guide the planning of our control efforts, just how far some of these categories may be from true causation will become clear in some examples provided later. Concept of Multiple Causes and Multiple Effects. Finally, the medical profession during the late 1800's and early 1900s became gener ally aware of the fact that a single cause, such as streptococcal infection, can manifestitself in many ways; for example, a sore throat, scarlet fever, kidney disease.or heart disease. Much of the current investigation into the causes of certain types of cancer and of birth defects suggests that viruses may play as important a role here as in causing poliomyelitis, the common cold, 1. Industrial Safety Subject Sessions measles, and other communicable diseases. Hie medical profession has also recog nized that, because the human body has a limited number of ways of reacting to an in sult, a single sign or symptom may have a variety of causes. Fever, epilepsy, and . high blood pressure are only a few examples. In. uring rigorous scientific methods. The devel opment of such a pattern took time and was achieved only by a constant struggle against dogma. Witness; for example, the struggle to introduce the concepts of immunization, or of antisepsis or to do away with bleeding and cupping as forms of treatment this context it is important to note that chi ropractic has not been accepted by the medr ical profession precisely because it has been much too iimplistic both in its concepts of causation and in its methods of treatment. Such an approach only now is beginning to be accepted in the field of injury control and, frequently, only where fear of legal or economic sanctions literally forces us to do so. In many communities, attempts at honest Perhaps most important is'the recognition evaluation are likely to be met with indiffer by the medical profession that it takes more ence or even hostility. Despite the fact that than a single cause for potential illness to re many investigations indicate alcohol is a fac sult in disability or death. The factors that tor in about half of all fatal highway crashes, lead to disease and those that result in se most communities still have no real iriforma- vere disease may be entirely different Why tion about the extent to which it is a local does a tubercle bacillus in an Eskimo result problem, and only one study in the world in rampant illness and early death, whereas has been done directly evaluating' the effect the same type of organism in a Middle. Euro of a specific control effort on the incidence pean Jew attempting to survive in a Nazi of . cradles attributable to alcohol. In 1933 a concentration camp frequently produced/by paper was presented at the annual meeting comparison, only minor disability? Why is of the Highway Research Board indicating one person with' an elevated blood' sugar that alcohol may be an important factor in concentration severely disabled by diabetes, ' the causation of nonhighway injury alsp. The but another--in fact) ah entire segment of first scientifically designed study of this, the American Indian population--is scarcely. problem is now in progress, almost 35 years bothered by equally elevated concentrations later.. of sugar in the blood? The answers lie in an understanding that causation, scientifically Need for Qualified Personnel. speaking, is a relative term, and that several. ' Basic to the establishment of a pattern of factors may be needed in' order to initiate a scientific investigation is the presence of a specific train 'of events : and,, to carry it cadre of professionally trained personnel through to. a given conclusion. who have the interest, the pride, and the ca Contrast this level of understanding with . pability 'to accept the challenge that scien- the general attitude that "80 per cent of ac tific evaluation entails. The medical profes cidents are caused by. human failure," that sion has followed a fairly consistent .pattern injury occurs to those are "accident prone," of improving the quality of training available thht the capses of jmn-of-the mill, crashes and to its members and has set' high standards of fatal crashes are the same, or to similar for other health personnel as well. Licensing simplistic concepts about injury causation and accreditation procedures are the rule and, consequently, about appropriate' meth rather than the exception. I hardly, wish to ods for reducing the extent of the problem. suggest that all is perfect;, its not But a solid floor , of knowledge and skill underlies Need for Program Evaluation. each person who becomes accredited. To what can these differences in attitude and understanding be attributed, and what are the consequences? The medical profes sion has had a long history of scientific at tack on the problems. of disease definition and control. This has included, a basic un derstanding, becoming especially prevalent in more recent years, that whatever is of fered as new information or new procedure must be carefully evaluted and re-evaluated. In the field of injury' control, the only group with a consistent level of training is the engineers, and their concern is not spe cifically with the avoidance of injury. Health personnel are primarily concerned with., the maintenance of health. But the highway' en gineer is concerned primarily with transpor tation, not with the avoidance of injury--a point that has become painfully apparent in the recent re-evaluation of highway design. 15 1967 National Safety Congress In fact, there is no- comparable rigorously by the fact that this broad approach, which trained group concerned specifically with in is basic to the field of medicine,'came as jury control. ' Despite the.fact that injury shares with heart disease the dubious distinction of being the major cause of lost man-years-of productivity, despite the fact that 110,000 people are killed and a quarter, of the entire population is injured each year, during the past 10 years only two physicians outside of Federal service have worked on. a full time basis for any prolonged period of time in the field of injury control research, either involv- such a surprise to fhe injury control "profes sionals" during the congressional hearings that proceeded the passage of the National Highway Safety and National Traffic Safety Bills. The general public still isn't much the wiser. They must be educated, not just re garding the aspect concerned with highway injury, but about tie. entire scope of the problem. Two examples, drawing largely on our re cent investigations, will be used to illustrate .ing highway or non-highway trauma, and only a relative handful have done research even part time. The number of workers from other professions.who are similarly engaged is pitifully small. Sources of funds are, at best, capricious and, at worit, nonexistent for the concepts that have been previously dis cussed. They are chosen from the highway injury 'area but are equally applicable to in jury occurring elsewhere. Both are examples of the confusion that can exist between man ifestation and cause, of the possibility of the wen trained person who wishes to make a career of investigation into the causes and ' control of accidental trauma. I am repeat edly faced with the . difficulty of suggesting identifying a single cause where several si multaneous causes may exist, and of the im plications \hese errors have with' respect to control efforts. training and work opportunities to the sev eral young physicians who. call or visit me each year and state that they wish to . make injury control their life's endeavor. This, la ment must sound pld and stale to many who have heard similar feelings expressed by Dr. William Haddon, Dr. John Conger, and oth ers. I repeat it because, despite the recent clamor, the problem continues virtually una bated. '*' . Inattention. Carelessness and lack of at tention have been stated to be frequent causes of.crashes on the road. I believe that, especially in the middle aged and older populaton, they most frequently are manifesta tions or intermediate causes rather than pri mary causes. In. recent investigations we have found that drivers with certain medical conditions have about twice ds many crash es . per million miles driven as do healthy The Need for Diverse Approaches. The concepts and professional training in the health field have resulted in the use of a drivers of similar age.'-.'We have further shown that only a quarter to a third of the excess crashes involve obvious medical im pairment. We. also have found however, that variety of approaches-to illness covering the drivers with chronic conditions have signifi entire range of services, from prevention; to cantly more crashes involving only a single early detection and avoidance of' complica vehicle, collision with a parked vehicle, or tions to rehablitatori.' At each of these steps crashes which have been attributed to "inaN the problem is attacked both by modifying tention" or similar poorly definable cause. Is people and by changing the environment, this truly inattention or, os we now believe, the latter approach in recognition of the fact. medical impairment? that people no matter how well motivated, Laboratory information now supports the are subject to human limitations. conclusions, based on studies of actual The equivalent in an automobile crash' crashes, that inattention and carelessness, would be the prevention of the. crash, the rather than being moral backsliding, may prevention or limitation of injury once the -simply be manifestations that the driver--or crash has been initiated, and the -''prompt ' the pedestrian--after all, is human . and provirion of emergency services afterward, therefore has physiologic limitations. Re with consideration at each step of the driver cently, physicians in Philadelphia, West Ger- or pedestrian, the vehicle, the highway, and . many, and elsewhere have been using electro the entire surrounding environment. An indi cardiographs to monitor drivers, some of cation of how far behind in its concepts is whom have had heart attacks. Shockingly the field of injury control is brought home large- porportions of drivers, both healthy 16 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions more severe injury, perhaps a fatality, would altogether some 1,670 prescription safety have occurred, there was die disturbing fact frames were replaced. that the leiis, in its entirety, had left the This, then, is the end of our story, but it is frame. In no other accident involving safety not the end of the story regarding "The Im glasses, in our experience, had the lens been portance Of Following Safe Eye Protection completely dislodged. . \ Standards". : Thus came the grim realization that throughout our. plants there were' employes who did not have the complete, eye protec tion that, we thought they had. I was. shocked when I learned that an employe had lost an eye while wearing safety glasses sup plied by our company. Then I learned that It is not- enough that we adhere to one specification in our eye protection program arid forget or ignore other equally important specifications. Take, for instance, the safety frame. To meet American Standard Safety 'Code for Head, Eye and Respiratory. Protec tion, paragraph 6.3.4.2.1 provides: there were some 1,700 other employes in our "The frame with lens shall be. supported plants wearing prescription safety -glasses, on a wooden block of such size and shape os fitted \vith the.same type of inferior frame, to fit the frame securely but not to touch, the and I immediately authorized a crash pro lens. A %-inch-diameter steel ball, weighing ' gram to get'them replaced. approximately 1.56. dunces, shall be freely A meeting was quickly convened consist dropped from a height of 50 inches onto the ing of representatives from our safety and purchasing, departments, . the optical com pany who supplied and fitted the safety glasses,: the president of the company who supplied the frames to the optical company, and as a courtesy gesture, we invited a rep resentative of the Industrial Accident -Pre vention Associations of Canada to sit in as horizontal upper surface of the lens. The edge of the lens shall not chip from the shock nor shall the lens be displaced from the frame." The frame that will pass the test' and re tain the lens is not an ordinary frame as you can see from the following picture, (at this point a slide was shown.--Ed.) . an observer. On the. left-is' a line drawing showing a ' cross section of an ordinary ophthalmic or We had'borrowed testing equipment, and, dress frame with a safety lens in place. You during the meeting, proceeded to test several will note the 90 lens groove on the frame sets of safety glasses borrowed at random and the 113 bevel angle of the lens which from various employes. In some cases; the has been standard in the optical industry for glasses passed, the test OK. In others, the nearly .50 years. lenses were shattered. In every test where When the lens is inserted in the frame, the inferior frames were involved, the lenses you will note there is a clearance at the bot ' were knocked completely out of the frame. tom of thie groove for the apex of the lens In' other words, this particular type of frame bevel. With a non:heat-treated lens, this .had very little lens retention power.' Then clearance is necessary to protect the lens with all the confidence at his command, the bevel -from shock transmitted through " the .president of the frame manufacturing com frame when a . person lays or bangs his glasses pany removed the safety glasses he was down oh the edge. Such a shock could cause wearing and asked' that they be tested. the lens bevel to chip. When his glasses failed to pass the test, the From the sketch, it can be seen that a reg moment of silence that prevailed- in that ular heat-treated safety lens mounted in an room was something to experience. ordinary dress frame is inadequately sup - Needless to- say, it took very little time ported. Any.frontal blow on this lens could and discussion to work out an amicable ar readily displace it' from the frame and thus rangement, whereby the optical company the lens itself or fragments of the lens could and the frame supplier agreed to send into become secondary, missiles which could our .plants several teams of qualified optome cause serious injury. trists and technicians. These men were to re If we examine the drawing on' the right, place, check, and fit all prescription safety which is a cross section of a typical safety glasses that had been purchased by us' .frame with a safety leris properly mounted, through this source. They came into our you will see what makes a -safety frame safe. plants for both the day and night shifts and You will notice that the groove angle of the frame Is 113, identical to the bevel angle of provements in appearance, one is encour the lens. Further you will 'notice that the aged to wear his safety glasses, off-the-job as groove is off-center in relation to the cross well as on-the-job. The fact that drey are section of the frame being closer to the front ' safety glasses is not readily, noticed. How than it is to die back of the frame. Also the ever, to. appease one's vanity, there are some depth of the lens entry to the frame is employes willing to sacrifice safety for fash- . ' greater at the back than at the front. ion. Because safety frames are not available Thus it is that' the higher back bevel pro in the same multitude of styles as .dress vides a buttressed effect preventing the lens frames (simply Because such a frame just from being pushed back into the wearer's, couldn't pass die safety test in these styles) eyes when struck with frontal impact. some employes are willing to run the risk Is this such on important specification in and substitute a dress frame. our eye protection program? As far as one As safety men, we cannot afford to allow employe, a mechanic in our' Montreal Truck this practice to continue. We must get across Branch, is concerned, it was. He was about to our people that wearing safety lenses to remove a set of dual wheels from a large alone is not sufficient. We have to tell them truck. In order to loosen them, he. struck the why safety frames are equally as important ' outer edge of the axle with a sledge ham mer. The force of the blow was such that a piece of steel broke away from the head of the hammer striking him directly on the glasses with such velocity that one lens was completely shattered. The lens remained in the frame and his eye was uninjured. In a recent story in our plant magazine, "GM Topics," we talked not only about the importance of wearing safety glasses, but also why only the combination of safety . lenses in safety frames can give maximum protection. A word of caution, however, with respect Another employe realized the importance to the many- safety frame styles. At GM of of a safety frame. While performing a pro Canada it has been our experience that with duction operation, a bolt thrown up by a so many types of frames, it is virtually im ' passing, lift truck struck him on the right possible ' for supervision to recognize at a lens of his safety glasses. The bolt fractured glance whether or not safety frames ore ac- the lens but the lens remained in the frame. ' tually being worn. For this reason we insist No injury was sustained to the eye of this that all safety frames be supplied in pink employe. . crystal, clear, or flesh color only. Any single Unfortunately,-we have found that some ' exception for medical reasons must be re employes have had a dress or ordinary frame viewed with an approved by the safety de substituted for the safety frame. In some in partment stances, this substitution ,was made with the Another very important A.S.A. specifica full knowledge of management* Condoning tion is that Which pertains to flammability. . such a substitution must certainly be. the re Paragraph' 6.2.53 provides: sult of ignorance of the safety frame specifi "Where plastic materials are used, such cation and the potential injury to which em materials shall be'slow burning. Cellulose ni ployes wearing such dress frames are ex trate, or materials having flammability char posed.- acteristics approximating 'those of cellulose Why is there a resistance to the wearing nitrate, shall not be used. Flammability of of Safety gloss lenses in an approved safety the materials shall be no greater than that frame? Appearance and perhaps weight have exhibited by cellulose acetate or acetate but long been . the main criticisms of safety yrate." glasses. . Let me show you what this, means. Let us Initially, when safety glasses were first in expose, to a flame, a temple made of ceflu-C? troduced, they were .anything but attractive;' : lose nitrate. You will notice how readily it in fact, they were ugly and indeed bother bursts into flame and, in no time, the temple some because of their weight. would be completely consumed. To overcome this, the optical industry By comparison, we will take the temple of now provides safety glasses 'in a variety of a pair of safety glass frames made of acetate attractive styles. They are 'comfortable to and try to ignite it in the same fashion. This wear and certainly the objections of the past temple resists burning and when eventually have largely been overcome. With these im it does ignite, it bums very slowly. 34 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions ^ In our plant, we had an employe who was be placed between die lens and the. tube. replacing a lag bolt in the floor. Molten lead The rubber washer shall be of the quality was to be poured in the hole surrounding required for a grade A gasket in federal the bolt. The employe thought that the hole specification HH-G-156. The %-inCh steel was dry and reasoned that oil would not ball shall be freely dropped from a height of have to be poured in as is- the normal safe 50 inches onto the horizontal outer surface practice, so he proceeded to pour in the mol- ' of the lens. The lens shall not fracture from ten lead. .. the impact of the steel ball." The moisture present caused the lead to To establish that a lens has, in fact, been explode and spray the employe's face with hardened, our safety -inspectors are supplied hot lead. Only his safety glasses saved his with polarizers. 'This very simple device, eyes.- Had the safety glass frames not con when apph'ed to a lens, indicates whether or formed to. this flammability standard, the not the lens has been'hardened by the cloud frames- themselves could have burst info pattern which. is revealed. Pictured here is flames and disintegrated, undoubtedly se one of several different - cloud patterns. verely injuring his eyes.. ' (Shows slide~>Ed.) .A. lens which is not In so far as the. general requirements for hardened will show up completely opaque the lens itself are concerned, I am going to when examined through a polarizer. deal only 'with the obvious specifications A.S.A. Standard 6.3.42.3 deals with the which a layman such as myself can under breakage pattern: .. stand. A.S.A. Standard 8.32.1, which deals . ."As a test to determine the type.of break with optical quality, reads as follows: age pattern exhibited by a lens when sub "All lenses shall be made of material jected to a force sufficient to break it, a lens suitable for ophthalmic use and both sur may be broken by increasing the height of faces of the lenses shall be well polished and drop of the %-inch steel ball or by employ free from visible surface defects. The lenses ing a heavier, ball. If made of glass, the lens shall be free from striae, bubbles, waves, and shall break predominately with radial cracks' other visible defects and .flaws which would with a minor tendency toward concentric impair their optical quality." cracks. Any tendency to break with lines, of A.SA. Standard^d.3.3.1, dealing with lens, thickness, states: "Glass or plastic lenses for use in eyecup goggles, metal- or plastic-frame spectacles, or foundrymen's goggles shall be not less than 3.0 millimeters, nor more than 3.8`milli meters in thickness. "Plastic lenses for -use in flexible-fitting goggles, plastic-eyeshield goggles, ` or plastic-eyeshield spectacles shall be not less than 0.050 inches in thickness." As a result of our lost eye- accident, we' now carry out at random, spot checks to en sure that our safety glasses are up to specifi cations. . Our safety inspectors have available to them calipers which measure lens thickness. cleavage, parallel to the surface indicates* an unsatisfactory heat treatment; and the lens represented by that sample shall be consid ered as not conforming to these require ments." Should a properly treated safety lens shat ter, it will shatter or fracture in such a way to minimize the possibility of glass fragments breaking away from the lens itself and enter ing the eye. When safety lenses are shat tered, the fragments resemble large sugar granules. They are without sharp edges. In addition to the calipers and polarizers used by our safety inspectors for spot check ing, we have had fabricated for our own use, a testing apparatus to verify the fracture re sistances outlined in the A.S.A. Standards. A.S.A. Standard 6.3.4.22 deals with lens Incidentally, it is my understanding that Hardness: these standards are being reviewed and "The lens shall be removed from the among other changes, according to a mem: frame and placed horizontally oh the end of ber of the review committee, consideration is a hardwood tube having an tipper periphery being given to improving the ball drop test conforming in shape and size to the lens to by increasing the size of the steel ball from be tested and a wall thickness not greater % inch to 1 inh in diameter and increasing than 3/16 inch. A washer of rubber packing the.weight from approximately 1.56 ounces not more than % inch thick and of the same to 2.4 ounces. These revisions, if and when shape and size as the end of the tube shall they come, will be under the sponsorship of ' 35 1987. National Safety Congress the National. Society For The Prevention of- Here is a close-up of the lower portion of Blindness. the testing apparatus showing the steel ball While these revisions to the standards' . striking a heat-treated safety lens. (Shows have not yet been approved, we at GM of slide.--Ed.) ' Canada feel they are so significantly impor tant that we already insist that all of our safety glasses meet these new proposed standards. . This equipment is vital to our program of random checking that we are carrying'out to ensure that our safety glasses are up to A.S.A. standards, and that we are getting the We have, included a. means of making a test to these new revisions in our testing ap protection for which we are paying. paratus. (Shows slide.--Ed.) The tube on The . lesson we have learned about know the right is for the present standards test ing and following safe eye protection stand using a %-inch steel. ball.. The tube on the ards is one we wdl not forget. left is for the new proposedstandard using a . To those of you who have eye`protection 1-inch steel ball. . programs, 1 have one final remark to.make. . You will be interested to know that some If you were an employe working in the plant suppliers of safety glasses not only test to and your management required that you these hew suggested standards but go well wear safety glasses for your protection, beyond them to ensure the quality of their would you be satisfied with glasses that did- product. not conform to the safety standards? 36 Human Factors Engineering AN OVERVIEW OF HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING By JULEEN M. CHRISTENSEN, Ph.D. Director, Human Engineering'Division,'Behavioral Sciences Laboratory, Aerospace Medical Research Laboratories, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. The objective of this paper is twofold: To define human factors engineering and to de scribe to a limited extent the nature of the contributions-that this emerging discipline 'might make to the design of safe and efficient systems. In spite of the fact that the discussion and number of examples are quite limited, it is hoped that a point of view, re. garding design for safety' will begin to emerge that will affect the reader's attitude toward, the design problems that confront him in his profession. Definitions. Three terms should be defined and briefly discussed' before proceeding: Accidents, . human factors engineering, and systems en gineer. Accidents. Cbapanis'* definition of an acci dent has been adopted for the .purposes of this paper: "An accident is an unexpected and unde' sirable event which arises. directly from a work- situation; that is, from faulty equip ment or the inadequate performance of a person. There may. or may not be personal injury and damage to equipment or prop erty. Accidents, , however, always interrupt ' the normal work routine and are associated with increased time delays or errors." Although most would accept the above ' definition as essentially correct, many would- find it necessary to interpret "work", as in cluding leisure' activities also. - . . An accident is prima facie evidence of in- effectiveness- in a system. Some temporal or, permanent incompatibility among die men and the hardware of a system must exist or an accident could 'not occur. The term "men" as used here includes not only opera tors and maintenance men but also those who manage the system, those wh'o establish the requirements, those who design the sys tem, etc. In addition, it would seem com pletely in order to include environmental considerations, since a little thought suggests that a system might be virtually accident- free in one environment yet be quite danger ous in a different environment. A general formula could be written to express these re lationships: . SA`= f (Me, Ma, E) where SA = system accident rate Me = men Ma =5 machines (equipment) E = environment , These terms are almost certainly interne-' tive. That is, certain men will have accidents with certain machines under certain environ mental conditions, while other men (or the same men with different machines) might not, and so bn. Unfortunately, at the present time it is usually impossible to state how much of the total "accident variance" is at- . tributable to each of these terms (Me, Ma, and E) and their interactions. If (his could he-done, it would, be most helpful, since it would disclose where'effort should be con centrated in order to .have the maximum ef fect on reduction of accidents. The total ac cident variance is equal to'-'the sum of the Variances due to each' primary cause (Me, Ma, E), plus their first and second order in teractions, plus error.- a*. ,, a* , a* :+a' + a*. + SA ~, Me *' T Mn TE T MeMaE ^ ' a* , a* \ a* MeMa ' MeE ^ error ' Greatest reduction per unit of expenditure generally will' be realized by concentrating on the term(s) that make the largest contri-. button to . Human factors engineering is the applica tion of knowledge regarding human capabili ties and limitations to the design of equip-, ment and systems. It is an applied science' that draws its basic information from such biological and behavioral sciences as bio physics, ` medicine, physical anthropology, physiology, psychology, and others. It willbecome evidentlater that there is also signif- 37 1987 National Safety Congress . leant reliance on the engineering sciences, technique. The "zero-defeOts" program of particularly industrial engineering. In prac- - die Department of Defense is a variant of tice, human factors engineering is (or should this technique, including, however, all errors, be) one of the many.disciplines that'support.*whether- accident-related or not One side those -who have primary responsibility for ; 'benefit of such programs, apparently has the complex undertalcing'that is termed ''sys been a heightened awareness on the part' of tems engineering." management regarding its responsibilities to Systems engineer. The systems engineer is . its workers in attempting to produce error- the individual who must take the necessary free behavior. McFarland28 made this point information from all relevant areas of science ~over, SO years ago with respect to air trans and engineering and, within the constraints portation. A significant reduction in acci placed upon him, design a system that meets dents undoubtedly . awaits an alert and , specified requirements. He must have a more progressive management that makes this global, outlook than the term "design engi item os central to their thinking os such top neer" generally connotes; above all, as has ics os profits, efficiency, time-schedules, etc. been pointed out elsewhere8 he must have a While no-one believes that all accidents can sensitivity to, and a thorough understanding be reduced to zero, nevertheless the acci of what is meant by, interaction. dent-reduction criterion, is another criterion Solutions to. Accidents. i^-l that must be considered appositively with all the other criteria (efficiency,' initial cost, There are at least six approaches that have maintenance costs, etc.) by those who spec been taken with respect to the prevention of ify, design, procure, and manage a system. It accidents. Each has met with varying de is currently popular to say that these consid grees of success, depending upon the ap erations must be "trnded-ofF' one against the propriateness of .the approach in a specific, other. instance and upon the skill of those applying it. We will do little more than mention, the first five, devoting the majority of our atten tion to tile sixth, which is directly related to the topic of this symposium. ' . . 5; Identification of accident-prone. Much . has been written about the accident-prone individual. Undoubtedly there are such indi viduals; however, one is on perilous ground when he attempts positively to identify such 1. Selection and training. Strict adherence a person. Many'unfortunate persons proba- . to this approach requires that initially the bly have lost their jobs because they had an job be described in detail and'individuals se undue number of accidents in a specified pe-. lected and trained to do-the job. Those who riod of time when, in reality, they were vic can't reach certain criteria of effectiveness tims of chance or other circumstances over within some specified ..period of time are which they had no control or to which they shifted to activities .more suitable to their made little, if any, contribution. The final talents. . elucidation of the concept of accident-prone . 2. Education. The term as used here re ness, in our opinion, must await a more com fers to industrial and' governmental spon plete understanding of the personality and ' sored programs in safety education- and is motivational factors that relate to "aCcident- 'not concerned with the teaching of specific behavior." skills necessary to do the. job. The purpose generally is. to make individuals more "safety-conscious." ,6. Design for safety. Numerous examples . could be given of equipment that was de signed poorly'Trom the point of view of 3. Admonishment and'punishment. These safety. -One aircraft in World War II was so terms refer to -the withdrawing or suspension .difficult to fly that it was disaffectionately - of rewards or privileges; hopefully, so that known as the "widow maker." Certain auto the same mistake will not be made again. In. mobiles seem to suffer a higher accident rate a sense it is similar to what McFarland28 than others, and so on. The point is that im -has referred to as post-accident studies, provements in safety can be made in the de which he defines as " . .. attempt(s) to allo sign of almost anything. The trick, of course, cate the blame for what has happened and , is to do so without unduly sacrificing other to suggest subsequent corrective measures." qualities such os performance and economy; 4. Rewards for accident-free behavior. In - It is with respect to this last solution, de a sense, this is the antithesis of the previous sign for safety, that human factors engineer- 38 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions ing has a special contribution to make to the the inadequacies of such data when he state* reduction of accidents. Later in this paper that such classifications are inadequate . we will examine several example of designs, not only because it (they)'presuppose(s) a that tend to induce fewer errors than do oth perfect pilot, but because there is a'tendency ers.. It will be noted, that in nearly all casesit to place the responsibility on errors of judg would cost no more to design the element ment when ho other obvious cause is pre-- correctly (from the human engineering point sent" . of view) than to design it incorrectly. It might be instructive to examine one. or Tools of Human Factors Engineering. two of these "pilot error" accidents. It used to be a fairly common occurrence in a cer There are at least six tools or techniques tain type of Air Force airplane-for a pilot, that' human' factors engineers should fipd immediately after touch-down, to actuate the useful in their attempts to contribute to the lever that controlled the alighting gear of design of accident-free systems and one the aircraft rather than the . lever that con which they should use with considerable trolled the-flaps, causing the. aircraft to de- caution. None is exclusive to human factors , scend to its belly and slide down the run engineering, each being used by at least one way. Inspection of the cockpits of theseair- other discipline. Most of the contributions craft disclosed that the knobson these two that the human factors engineer makes are levers (flaps and gear) were identical in directly, or indirectly dependent on the sys ' shape and size and positioned down and to tematic' collection of data in the laboratory the right of the pilot's seat, far out of his or in the field (as in the case of anthropome line of vision which was quite correctly di-~ tric surveys), so most of the treatment that rected out of the aircraft and down the ex follows will be devoted to the last of the six, panse of runway on which he. was trying to ' 1. Accident records. An analysis of Air maintain the aircraft. Force flying accidents conducted several McFarland26 notes in another example years ago suggested that in 60 per. cent of that the mixture controls, of certain World the accidents the pilot was either a direct or War II aircraft wre exactly opposite in function; in one, the operator pushed the. mixture control forward for military (full) power; while in the other the same actuation would shut - down the engine). Numerous fatal accidents have .been attributed to the confusion resulting from an individual flying first in one type and later in another with opposite, control actuation. contributory cause. ` (Figure 1.) This alarm-: ing figure agrees generally with a figure of 75 to 85 per cent given by McFarland26 for general air transportation. (The fact that McFarland's figure is higher may be due to the fact that it also includes human errors attributed to maintenance and supervisory personnel.) McFarland clearly recognized The point is obvious. Even a minimum re spect for candor would seem to- dictate that a significant portion (how much is not . known) of the pie chart in Figure 1 should be devoted to "designer error." That is, some of the features of the aircraft were- designed so as to assure that under certain circum stances the pilot would, make an "error" and have an accident There is another reason why statistics such as those in Figure 1, if true, would be most disheartening. According to the psychologi cal tests that have been used to select Air Force pilots for approximately the past 25 years, they, as a group, represent one of the most intelligent highest aptitude groups in the population. They possess enormous po tential for acquiring skill in extremely com- ' plex fobs. Thus, if they can't do the job, who can? Human factors people would argue that 39 1987, National Safety Congress they most certainly can do the job, and any. assured anonymity and when in the presence foreseeable flying jobs, if aircraft designers of their peers who were being asked to ren will adequately consider their capabilities der similar reports. Unfortunately, they also and limitations when making. their design discovered that the types of incidents .re decisions. ported' varied as a function of the method . 2. Activity analysis. Results, of analyses of used to elicit the responses. the activities of operators, maintenance men, production workers, etc. have usually been used to increase efficiency! e.g., to reduce or eliminate unnecessary or inefficient motions). One such technique was used quite effec tively'by the writer ** to obtain information that significantly increased the efficiency of the Arctic navigator by supporting require ments for. better equipment and more efficient layout of the workplaces of the na vigator and radar operator. Time and motion -studies (a method of activity analysis) are, of course, traditional in industry. Although, there is not too much information to support - this contention, it would appear that activity analyses made from the point of view of dlsjffclosing situations that might tend to induce 4. Systems analysis. It is often instructive to try to perform a paper and pencil analysis of at least the critical stages of the "mission" ' that a system is intended to satisfy: The ana lyst can use information from similar systems or even generate synthetic task times to help himestimate where critical shortages of time may occur. A shortage of time in which to perform a task is a stressful situation and, like other stresses, causes errors and tan be s assumed to cause accidents. (It is not meant to imply that the above represents the only purpose of -mission analysis.- Such analyses are also important to those who must gener ate manpower requirements and training re quirements, and often will also disclose man ual tasks that might better be done by ma- . accidents should be quite useful. chines, or equipment tasks that might better 3. Interviews. An obvious way to gain in- be left to man. Descriptions of the various ' formation regarding the causes of accidents levels of analysis useful in human factors en is to question the survivors. If one wants to gineering may be'found in. Woodson and get at the true cause, be must be careful to Conover*1.) conduct the interview in such a way as to assure the interviewee that information he yields will not be used to implicate him in any way. One method that has been usually fruitful - has been the use of the critical incident . technique which is similar in many respects to what McFarlandTM terms the "near-acci dent" technique. Fitts and Jones1-* used 5. Simulators; mock-ups. At least the ,, major components of any . system of any complexity should be mocked-up or simu lated prior to manufacture. Things that sim ply cannot be visualized from blue prints be come apparent when presented in thrdfe di mensions. With the advent of high-speed computers, there are additional instances where signifi-- the critical incident technique to Identify ac cant portions of a system can be simulated cident-inducing design features in aircraft. with high fidelity prior to "tin bending." The McFarland and Moseley*1 used the near simulation of the dynamics of an aircraft accident technique to determine the nature flight control system is a case in point Ob . and conditions of similar features in long- jective measures of performance can be ob - haul trucking operations. These- two groups tained on the simulated control systems, of studies differed in one important respect; making extrapolations to the operational situ Fitts and Jones relied on accounts of events ation significantly easier and more valid than detailed by those who had experienced if only a pappr and pencil analysis had been them, while McFarland and Moseley asked performed. observers to accompany the truck driver and 6. Laboratory experiments and field sur record the conditions that prevailed at the veys. As mentioned previously, the source of time of the incident. Those who intend to the greatest part of the human factors engi use such techniques should refer to neer's contribution to design dies in. the re Chapanis1 before doing so. Chapanis, in re sults of laboratory experiments and field sur viewing the work of Vasilas et al,a points, veys. Most of the rest of this paper will be out, among other things, that those who devoted to a description of a representative were asked to describe near accidents were group of such studies. Before proceeding, much more responsive under conditions that however, it might be wise first to. dispose of Industrial Safety Subject Sessions a concept that we feel has caused much con them, with the expert observing the pilot's fusion among designers and design engineers ' behavior and assuring safety of flight during --that of the "average man." test? Would riot the designer of farm equip A design engineer, -lacking and often not ment, to- take another example, be well seeking information regarding the physical advised, to test his equipment'on a repre and psychological characteristics of those sentative sample of farmers, and not on the who eventually will operate and maintain his product engineers in his plant? products, has often resorted to information as to what he can do and what he prefers. Laboratory Experiments and Field Surveys. Such engineers, apparently consider them Now that we have introduced a note of selves representative' or' "average" when, in. caution with respect to the use' of data or truth, there is no such thing as an average or opinions that may not be representative of 50th percentile man, a 25th percentile man, those who must eventually assume responsi a 75th percentile man or any other percen bility for the operation and maintenance of tile man, except with respect to isolated fea the equipment in question, let us look at tures and attributes. -Seashore (in Stevens," some results that should be generally useful following the lead of Thorndike, has stated to designers. While tire conditions- of sam that the . -. typical coefficient of correlation pling have not always been ideal in these between various human abilities is of the studies, at least the variability problem has order of 0.15 to 0.25" or slightly better than always been recognized, and an attempt chance. Matters appear to be quite similar in - made to measure its degree. ' . the physical realm; the median intercorrela Controls. The Fitts and Jones study re tion for 144 anthropometric dimensions is ferred to earlier* disclosed that many errors ' -{-0.22u. (Both of these average correlations, the -{-0.25 for mental characteristics and the +0.22 "for physical characteristics, are .ob viously completely dependent on the repre- can be traced to the design of controls. Stud ies by Jenkins"- " disclosed, that controls can be designed- so as to be distinguished one .from the other by use of the tactile sentativeness of the dimensions measured. sense alone. To the extent that they are not representa tive, these averages are false. Expert opinion in both areas, however, suggests that the av erage interrelationship is low and something of the order of +0.20 to +.30. At any rate; it is inconceivable that any truly representa tive set of mental or physical dimensions would yield average intercorrelations so high --at least +0.90--that average figures could A study by. Warrick" disclosed that under most conditions most individuals have definite preferences as to which way a knob . should turn in order to control a specific function. Of fifty Air Force pilots asked to . center - the light on a control-indicator ar rangement, 44 per cent consistently turned the control knob clockwise, .6 per cent con sistently turned the knob counterclockwise, be used in design work to represent a popu and 50 per cent turned the knob sometimes, lation.) It seems obvious that engineers must clockwise, sometimes counterclockwise. War design for ranges of dimensions, both physi rick also showed that directioii-of-motion cal and psychological, and not for. specific preferences "are much stronger when both point values of any human attributes. the control and the display lie in the same Expert opinion. In a somewhat similar plane. Certain other population stereotypes vein, one wonders about the procedure of are shown in Table I. accepting any 'expert user's opinion as to whether or not a design is suitable for those who must eventually operate or maintain it. The test pilots employed by aircraft compa nies are a case in point These are magnicept pilots, but one is led to. wonder how appreciative they are of the skills of the thousands of those who, in the final analysis, will determine the success or failure of the specific aircraft. Might it not be preferable to have new designs tested by a representa tive, sample of those who eventually will use TABLE I* General Population Stereotype Reaction* 1. Handles (seed for controlline liquids are ex pected to turn clockwise for ''off'' and counter clockwise for "on." 2. Knoba on dectricxl equipment are expected to turn clockwise for "on," to Increase current, ' and eountcTvclockwise for off or decrease, in current. (Note: This is opposite to the stereo type for liquid.) 5. Certain colors are associated with traffic, opera- tion of vehicles, and safety. i. For control of vehicles in which the operator is riding, the operator expects a control motion to the right or clockwise to result in a similar motion of his vehicle, and vice versa. 41 ,1907 National Safety Congress 5. Sky-earth fanpieulona cany over Into colon and (hading*: Light shades and bluish colon an related to the sky or "up," whereas dark shades and BreenIsh or brownish colon an re lated to the Eround or "down." 6. Thing* which are further away an expected to look smaller. 7. Coolness is associated with blue and blue-green colon; warmness, with yellows and reds. 8. Very loud sounds or sounds repeated in rapid succession, and visual displays which move or an very bright, Imply ursency and excitement. #. Very laroe objects or dark objects imply "heavi ness."'Small objects or light-colored ones ap pear light in weight. Large, heavy objects an expected to be "at the bottom." Small light objects an expected to be "at the top." 10. People expect norma] speech sounds to be in front of them and at approximately head height. 11. Seat heights an expected to be at a certain level when a person' sits down. flPoodion and Conover, 1SH.) made - in the * meantime. Frost arid McCoy"' ** are among 'those who have made further investigations with the predic tor display. An example of one interesting, application is shown in schematic form in Figure 3 Warrick*4 conducted another very signifi cant study in whichhe disclosed that lags as small as 40 -milliseconds in feedback to the operator, regarding the results, of his control input, have a detrimental effect on tracking performance (single-dimension pursuit track ing, in this case). His results are shown in- Figure 3 which represents the interception of one space Vehicle (represented by the dot in the circle) by another. The current position of the controlled vehicle is. indicated'by die point at the right'end of the arc while its predicted position (in this case, 15 seconds hence) is. shown at the left, end of the arc. ' The six' diagrams show what the pilot might see at successive stages of'the interception. The diameter of the circle is proportional to the square of the relative velocity of the two ' vehicles, expanding as: it increases and con tracting as it decreases. This tells the inter ceptor pilot how he must control his velocity in order to overtake the other vehicle and 'yet not crash into it. Figure 4 shows how dramat- Figure 2. This early study made it clear that immediate feedback as to the results of one's control -inputs is important and that, in gen eral, the designer would do well to reduce all such lags to zero. This , idea later gave rise to the concept of display, "quickening," by Taylor and' Birmingham,1 which is achieved, by eliminating lags in the system. The latest development in this chain , of events is the predictor display, whose devel opment is generally attributed to Kelley.'0' " The essential idea here .is to display not only the current position of one's vehicle but also the position that it will, oc cupy some finite time in the future, assuming, of course, that no change in control input is 42 t .. Industrial Safety Subject Sessions ically performance was improved in one case with dm predictor display. Note that not only is average performance improved but also that variability of performance is greatly reduced or, put another way, performance is more consistent The concept of the predictor display is an exciting one and one can't help but wish, for example, that there currently was some way of predicting to an automobile driver the position, even five seconds hence, of all other automotive vehicles in the vicinity of his own. (Good drivers, incidentally, surely use a technique analogous to .the predictor dis play by estimating where their vehicle will be a few seconds hence with respect to other vehicles and obstacles. It would seem, that one,should always drive "out ahead" of his automobile without neglecting, of course, events in the proximate environment) The predictor display which has just been described, 'might have been included in the next section, "displays." It was included here rimply because it seems to have arisen as a logical extension of some earlier work that primarily emphasized the controls aspects of such control-display systems. Displays. The early human factors work in the displays area was characterized by in sights and innovations commensurate with those described in the controls area. One of the best known of these early studies was performed by Grether19, using as his experi mental vehicle the three-pointer altimeter. As can be seen from Figure 5, Grether was SECONDS PER % ERRORS READING* OF-1000+FT. .............. >0540 0, .0 0.0 JO.4 0.0 Hmsaa ' -97 COLLEGE STUDENTS (XCLUOtS WRITING TIME Figure 5 able to produce alternate designs that greatly reduced, both reading,time and er rors. The significance of this stujly lies not' only in the fact that it attacked a problem suggested as very important in the results of interviews and accident analyses (see Fitts and Jones*1 * and McFarland**), but also because from it Grether was able to adduce principles of general use in the design of dials, such as the general undesirability of having more than one pointer on an instru ment. It is important also to notice. that Grether's subjects did better on die new de sign, although they had never. seen the in strument before and had an average of ap proximately 1,500 hours experience on the old, less perfect design. This is frequently the case; good human engineering design can often dramatically reduce the time and training required to reach an acceptable level of performance. Similar' dramatic results were obtained by Senders*9 in the area of check reading. Hor izontal pointer alignment increases' by a-fac tor of eight the number of dials that can be check-read in a given period of time. White's world* discloses that alignment for normal operation is better at the nine o'clock position than at the three, twelve, or six o'clock position.' It is rather easy to see why nine o'clock would be better than six or twelve, since it is well known that the eye can scan much more efficiently in the hori zontal dimension than in the vertical dimen sion. That nine o'clock is better than three 9,'clock may appear puzzling until one con siders the fact that a clockwise and upwards departure . from the nine o'clock position seems fairly unequivocally to suggest in-' crease to most observers; whereas a clock wise departure from the three o'clock post-, tion is ambiguous, since those who perceive the pointer movement as clockwise will gen erally interpret it as increase, while those who perceive the pointer movement as down will generally interpret it as decrease. A somewhat more complex perceptual problem is concerned, with Which element should appear to move when depicting movement of a figure, against its background --in this case, an aircraft against a flight 1 background. Subjects did better when the point of intersection, which represents the position of the aircraft--"fly from"--ap peared to move, as contrasted to the situa tion where the aircraft would appear to re- 43 1967 National Safety Congress main stationary and the desired location (in suggesting that they should be close together tersection of die true lines) be brought to on the panel. (Also, they are placed side by ward it. The vast majority of the subjects side and not in vertical alignment; other re ' preferred the "fly-from" arrangement (2i search has shown that the human eye can of 24, with three expressing no.preference). scan much' more efficiently horizontally than Unfortunately, instruments such as the artifi vertically.) . cial 1 horizon are designed. on the basis The results led eventually to the establish of the "fly-to" principle.. Undoubtedly, this ment of six central instruments as a unity has led to many control reversals; i.e.,' move which was termed the "sacred six."'Each de ment of the control stick, iii the wrong direc signer was required to maintain these six in tion in the operation of aircraft. struments in their same relative positions The literature in the area of displays, as in wherever possible, so that an Air Force pilot the area of controls, is enormous and we could take advantage of this consistency in have touched on only a few examples. The transferring from one aircraft to another. interested reader is encouraged to consult such references as Woodson and Conover", McCormick*1, . Chapanis, Morgan, and Gamer1, and the Human Engineering Guide to- Equipment Design, edited by Morgan,' Cook,. Chapanis and Lund,*7 for additional; information. Workplace design and layout. Once it has been decided how individual controls and displays should be designed, there still re mains the-difficult question of how to ar range them in a particular workplace. Fitts, et af" used eye-movement recordings to as sist them on this difficult task.. Equipment for this experiment included a 35 millimeter camera, a mirror in which were reflected the eye movements, of the pilot, a stop watch, and a hood which prevented the pilot from seeing outside the aircraft during blind flying maneuvers. During instrument flight, the pilots of this experiment spent an aver age of 29 per cent of their time'looking' at . the gyro horizon. They fixated on this instru ment an average of 26 times per minute and spent .70 seconds looking at it each time they referred to it. Obviously, the subjects consid ered the gyro horizon to'be a very important instrument, when trying to make level turns under instrument flying conditions. From an anthropometric point of view, one of the major problems with which one is faced in the .design of Workplaces is `the mat ter of individual differences with, respect to physical dimensions^ One dimension, "sitting height,"`illustrates this problem. While an adjustment' range of 4.2 inches' will .accom modate the middle 00 per cent (5th to 05th percentile) of the Air Force population with respect to sitting height, a range of 6.0 indies is required to accommodate the mid dle. 08 per cent (1st to 00th percentile5), and a range of. 10.3 inches is needed to accom modate 100 per cent of them. Thus, an in crease in adjustment range of 45 per cent is required to accommodate 08. per cent rather than 00 per cent of the male Air Force pop ulation, and an increase of 157 per cent is. required to accommodate essentially 100 per cent rather than 00 per cent. Put another way, accommodation of the last ten per cent of the male Air. Force population with re spect to sitting height requires that the ad justment factor be. increased approximately 2.6 times over what is required for accom modation of the central 00 per cent. (These adjustment factors would be even more as tonishing if we were to accommodate fe males or even the general male population of In addition to conclusions regarding the' the United States, since the Air Force popu frequency and duration of time spent on each lation' on which this study was based in instrument, one can obtain sequential data cluded no one under 50.45 inches in height from the film, strip. These "link values," as or over 77.56 inches in height. they are termed, are obtained by simply ob Based on these and other anthropometric serving the order in which the pilot uses his data, Kennedy and Bates** have devised a instruments. For example, while descending set of standard sizes for consoles, considering ' under blind flying conditions, 21 per cent of such criteria as whether the operator should the eye movements of the pilots in this ex sit or stand, the necessity to see over the periment were between the directional gyro . console, etc. and the gyro horizon. Thus, it is concluded Sharp and Bowen" have used a func that, at least for this maneuver, a very strong tional test to determine what man can do' in link exists between these two instruments, a specific workplace situation. In a replica of 44 Industrial Safely Subject Sessions the seat for the'Mercury qpace vehicle, with study in the area , of international anthropo- n subject seated in the blast-off position. Sharp metry when they measured a sample of and Bowen required the subject to reach and 3,356 males in Turkey, Greece, and Italy, manipulate various types of controls (rotary Oshima, Alexander, et at* did .something knobs, toggle switches, push buttons) to similar in Japan. Table II is taken from these some criteria of sensitivity. They used this reports. apparatus very effectively to show the effects If we divide the USAF male, population on reach and manipulation and, with the as- into four quartiles with respect to stature, sistance of other apparatus, on workplace we find, for example, that only five pter cent volume -of protective garments, such as the . of the Turks fall in the largest quartile of U. pressure suit. S. Air Force stature while 65 per cent fall in Human Engineering Guide to Equipment the smallest quartile. The Japanese figures Design" has a wealth of information re- are even more disparate. However, the di- garding many body dimensions, and a new mensions for sitting height are not nearly so report by Damon, Stoudt, and McFarland1 is an excellent source of. information on anthropometry, biomechanics (range of motion of 5ie joints,' muscle strength, speed of move- disparate, especially for the Japanese. The conclusion is obvious: With respect to USAF males, the males of these four countries generally have relatively short legs and rela ment), human body composition, and toler"ance to physical and mechanical force. Population comparisons. The study by tively long trunks. This is especially true of the Japanese. Most of us must look. very strange to thdse Japanese who have not seen Warrick" may be considered a study of many of us with our long, gangly legs! At . American population stereotypes. It is uncer- any rate, factors such as these are extremely tain whether a sample of individuals from important to those exporting clothing, equipsome foreign country would yield the same' ' ment and machinery to. foreign countries, results as did the sample of American males Such factors could have a profound effect that Warrick used. Much work needs to be not only on customer satisfaction but also on done on this problem of inteipopulation safety. It is important to note that a simple differences. It becomes increasingly impor- - proportional scaling down of our sizes is, at . tant os trade and travel increase among the best, only a partial solution to this problem, countries of the world. A completely adequate solution would take As mentioned previously, very little has into the account the differences in body been done on the generality of human engi- proportions. neering design principles, with respect to Many authors have generated general lists other cultures. This is-unfortunate, because of principles as to, what "man can do best" many of the read.ers manufacture for export. . and what "machine can do best." .One of the.Hertzberg et al" accomplished a classic latest and best is to be found in Woodson TABLE II Comparisons of Stature and Sitting Height for Four Foreign Countries and the United States Stature USAF Quartiles Largest 25% Large 25% Small 25% Smallest 25% USAF Quartiles Largest 25% Large 25% Small 25% Smallest 25% . . . turkey Greece 5 .6 10 13 20 24 65 57 Sitting Height Turkey 12 18 25 45 Greece 13 23 28 36 Italy/ ' 7. 13 26 54 Italy 10 18 30 42 (Hertzberg et al, 1963 and Oshima, Alexander et al, 1965.) Japan 1 3 13 83 Japan 15 21 39 25 45 . Detection of certain forms of very low energy levels. Sensitivity to on extremely. wide variety. Perceiving patterns and making generaliza tions about them. Detecting signals in high noise levels. Ability to store large amounts of information for long periods--and recalling relevant facts at appropriate moments. : Ability to exercise judgment where events cannot be completely defined. Improvising and adopting flexible pro cedures. . Ability to react to unexpected low-probabil ity events. Applying originality in solving problems: i.e., alternate solutions. Ability to profit from experience and alter course of action. Ability to perform fine manipulation, espe cially where misalignment appears unex- . pectedly. Ability to continue to perform even when overloaded. Ability to reason inductively. (Woodson and Conover, 1964) Monitoring (both men and machines). Performing routine, repetitive, or. very pre cise operations. Responding very quickly to control signals. Exerting great force, smoothly and with pre cision. Storing and recalling large amounts of in formation in short time-periods. Performing complex and rapid computation ' with, high accuracy. Sensitivity to stimuli beyond the range of human sensitivity (infrared, radio waves, etc.). Doing many different things at one time. Deductive processes. "v Insensitivity to extraneous factors. Ability to repeat operations very rapidly, continuously, and precisely, the same way over a long period. Operating in environments which are hostile to man or beyond human tolerance.. and Conover". It is reproduced here as Table III. Such lists are, as' Woodson and Conover clearly recognize, of value to a de signer as long as he realizes that the condi tions that affect the trade-off. functions are never identical from one situation to another and that what man excels in today, a ma chine may excel in tomorrow. One must be' very cautious in making blanket statements regarding those, functions at which man ex cels over machines, including even the socalled ``intellectual'' functions. This leads rather naturally into a most intriguing area, that of human mental functions. Higher level functions. In comparing men and machines one frequently hears reference to man's. superiority with respect to such functions as thinking, reasoning; judgment, etc. For the moment, let's accept, the propo sition that man (or at least some men) is su perior to machines in at least some of these intellectual types of activities. Even here, however; it has been shown that machines can assist man to perform better. The Human Engineering Division has supported a series of studies at the Aviation Psychology Laboratory of Ohio State University for a number of years, aimed at determining whether or not such features of computers as (1) ability to process an enormous amount of data, (2)- enormous memory capacity, (3) almost instantaneous computation, (4) sensitivity to subtle relationships (e.g., low but significant correlations), etc. could help man make better decisions. It was found in experiments that included a wide variety of decision-making circum stances that these ``computer-aids'' generally increased man's effectiveness as a decision maker on'the order of 10 to 15 per cent Thus, it appears that, even in the intellectual realm, man and machine should be consid ered appositively and.not as.rivals or com petitors; certainly not as systems elements that are operating independently of one an other. ' A pair of studies from the Ohio State se ries may make the above somewhat clearer. 46 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions awareness (or, at least, below a level on which he is willing to make a positive deci sion). It is certainly conceivable that consid eration of these subtle relationships could often mean the difference between an out standing decision and a poor or mediocre one. This area of how best and under what conditions to use a computer to help man the decision-maker is one that, to this writer at least, holds enormous potential. Figure 6 , Figure 6 illustrates how helpful a computer can be when one has to handle many items of information.. It appears, and this appeals to1 our common sense, in the matter, that these functions will become even more di vergent as more and more items are added. Conclusions.'. Although the data of human factors engi. neering have not been used formally and ex tensively in designing for safety, it appears that such data could and should be so used. It is clear that to a greater and greater ex tent man's environment is becoming an engi- neered environment (in contrast to a natural environment). Presumably, man evolved in a manner that assured him a degree of, compa tibility with his natural environment, but it . would be ridiculous to assume that the ge- netic structure can alter quickly enough to assure a compatibility with modern "engi neered" envifonments--environments that are changing rapidly and drastically. There fore, those responsible--the design engi- neers, industrial designers, etc.--must design . the environment and its artifacts to fit man. To do this, they need information about, man's capabilities and limitations and some , knowledge of how to integrate this informa-, tion with their other design considerations. In die final analysis, this is what human factors engineering is all about Figure 7 shows that high-speed computers can.be particularly helpful when the-fidelity of the data on which the decisions are based is low. Howell and his associates have found that computers can detect significant, rela tionships that are below man's level of BBFEBBNCES 1. Birmingham, H. P. and Taylor,' F. 'V.; "A Demonstration of the Effect* of Quickening in Maltiple-Coordinate Control Teaks,"- Naval Betoareh Laboratory Beport 4380. June, 1954. 2. Chapania, A.. Morgan. C. T., and Garner. W. R.; Applied Experimental Peycholofni. New York: Wiley, 1949. 3. Chapania, A.;-.Research Technique* In Human Engineering. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1959. 4. Christensen, J. M.; "Aerial Analysis of Nay- Isator Doties with Special Deference to Equip ment Design and Workplace Layout" 1L Navigator and Kadar Operator Activities Darina Three Arctic Missions, AMC Memo randum Beport MCREXD-604-15A. Wrisht. Patterson APB. Ohio, February. 1948. 5. ChriiteoicQ, J. M-; "A Method for the Anal ysis of Complex Activities and Its Applica tion to ibe Job of the Arctic Aerial Navigm-. tor," Mechanical Engineering, 1040.. 6. Christensen, J. M.; "The Evolution of the Systems Approach In Human Factors Ernrineerinff,"' Human Factor, 4, 1062. 7. Da&on, JL, Stoudt, H. W. and McFarland, B. A.; The Human Body in Equipment Do* eign, - Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1066. 47 \ 1967 National Safety Congress . 8. Fitts, P. H. and Jones, R, E,; "Analysis of 21. Kelley, *C. R.; "Further Research on the Pre . Factors Contributing to 460 'Pilot-Error* Ex dictor Instrument;" Dunlap and Associates periences in Operating Aircraft Controls/* Memorandum Report No. TSEAA-694-12, AAF Air Materiel Command, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, July, 1947. . 9. Fitts, P. M. and Jones, BL EL; Psycholog Technical Report 252-60-2,' December, 1960. 22. Kennedy, K. W. and Bates, C.; "Development of Design Standards for Ground Support Consoles,** AMRL Technical Report 65-168, Aerospace Medical Research Laboratories, ical Aspects of Instrument iHipuy." L Analy Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, December, 1965. sis of 270 "Pilot-error" experiences in reading 28. McCormick. C. J.; Human Factor* Engineer and interpreting aircraft instruments, Mem ing, 2nd ed.* New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964. orandum Report No. TSEAA-694-12A, AAF 24. MeCoy, W. K,, Jr. and Frost, G. G.;. "A Pre Air Materiel Command, Wright-Patterson dictor Display for Orbital Rendezvous," ` AFB, Ohio, October, 1947. ' AMRL Memorandum P-79, Aerospace Medical 10. Fitts, P. H., Jones, R. E. and Helton, J. L*; Research Laboratories, Wright-Patterson AFB, "Eye Fixations of Aircraft Pilots/* IIL Fre Ohio, July, 1964. quency, duration, and sequence, fixations when - 25. McFarland, R. ` A.; Human ' Factor* (n Air flying Air Force, ground-controlled approach Transport Design, New York: McGraw-HUI, system (GCA), AF Technical Report 6967, 1946. Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, February, 1950. 26. McFarland, R. A. and Moseley, A.L.; Human ' 11. Frost, G. G. and McCoy,. W. K.s "A pre Factor* in Highway Transport Safety. Har dictor display for on-board rendezvous op- vard School of .Public'Health, Boeton, Mass., . timiration/' AMRh- Technical Report 65-81, 1954. Aerospace . Medical Research Laboratories, 27. Morgan, C. T., Cook, J. S. Chapanis, A. . Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohto, October, 1966. and Lund, M. W. eds.; Human Engineering 12. Grether, W. F.j "The Effect of Variations In Guide- to Equipment Design. New York: Indicator Design Upon Speed and Accuracy MeGraw-HiO, 1968. of Altitude Readings/* Memorandum' Report' 28. Oshima, U., et al and Alexander, H.; "An- TSEAA-694-14, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, . thropometry of Japanese Pilots/** AMRL September, 1947. Technical Report 65-74, Aerospace Medical 18.Hertsberg, H. T. E,, Daniels, G., and Church Research Laboratories, Wright-Patterson AFB, ill, E. "Anthropometric Surrey of Flying Ohio, March, 1865. Personnel-1950/* WADC Technical Report 52- 29. Senders, V. L.; "The Effect of Number of 821, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, 1954. Dials on Qualitative Reading of a Multiple 14. Hertsberg, H. T. E.;"8ome Contributions of . Dial Panel,** WADC Technical Report 52-182, Applied Physical Anthropology to Human Wright-Patterson AFB, - Ohio, November, Engineering," Annals of New York Academy 1952. of Science, 68:616-629,-1955. (Also catalogued SO: Sharp, E. D. and Bowen, J. H.; "An Explor as WADC Technical Report 60-19.) atory Investigation tof the Effect of Wearing 15. Hertsberg, H. T. et aL; Anthropometric Full-Pressure Suits on Control Operation Survey, of Turkey, Greece and Italy. Agardo- Time," WADD Technical Note 60-90; Wright- * graph 78, Pergamon Press, Oxford, England, 1968. . Patterson AFB; Ohio, May, I960. 81. Stevens, S.- S,, ed. Handbook of Experimental' 16. Howell, W. C.'; "Some Principles For the ' Design of Decision Systems: A Review of Six Years of Research on a Command-Control .System Simulation/* AMRL`Technical Report 67-186, Aerospace Medical* Research Labora tories, ^Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. (In Printing) 17. -Jenkins, W. * 0.; "A Follow-Up Investigation of Shapes .for Use In Coding Aircraft Con-' trol Knobe," AMC Memorandum Report TSEAA-694-4A, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, August, 1946. 18. Jenkins, W. O.; "Investigation of Shapes ' For Use in Coding Aircraft Control Knobs," AMC Memorandum Report TSEAA-694-4, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, August, 1946. 19. Jenkins, W. O.j "A' Further Investigation of -. Shapes For Use in Coding Aircraft Control Knobs/* Memorandum Report TSEAA-694-4B, Wright-Patterson . AFB,- Ohio, September, 1946. Psychology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1951. ' 82. Vasilas, J. N., Fitzpatrick; R., Dubois, P. H. and Youtx; R. P.; "Human Factors in Near Accidents/* Report No.- 1,' Project 211207-0001, USAF School of Aviation Med icine,. Randolph Field, Texas. 88. Warrick, M. J.; "Direction of Movement in . the Use of Control Knobs to Position Visual Indicators," AMC Memorandum Report TSEAA-694-4C, Wright-Patterson AFB. Ohio, April, 1947. 34. Wqrrick, M. J.; "Effect. of TransmissionType Control Lags on Tracking Accuracy/* USAF , Technical. Report 6916, Wrighb-Patterson AFB, Ohio, September, 1949. 86. White, W. J.; "The Effect of Pointer Design and Pointer Alignment Position on the Speed and Accuracy of Reading Groups of Simu lated Engine Instruments/* AF Technical Report 6014, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, July, 1951. 20. Kelley, C. R.; "Developing and Testing the Effectiveness of the Predictor Instrument," Dunlap and'Associate* Technical Report 25260-1. March, 1960. 86. Woodson,^ W. E. and Conover, D. W.: Human Engineering Guide for Equipment Designer*, 2nd ed. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1964. 48 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions APPLICATION OF HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING TO SAFETY ENGINEERING PROBLEMS By ross a. McFarland, Ph. d, Guggenheim Frofcssor of Aerospace Health and Safety, Harvard School of Public Health One hundred and thirty-six years ago, a . British physician wrote, "We see no plump and rosy tailors: none of fine form and strong muscle. The spine is generally curved .. . pulmonary consumption is also frequent. However, in regard to his present faulty working position, let a hole be made in a board of the circumference of the tailors body and let his seat be placed below it-- the eyes and hands will then be sufficiently near his work; his spine will not be unnatu rally' bent; and his chest and abdomen will be free."50 Although Dr. Thaekrah's interests. lay in the. direction of occupational disease and in the influence of working conditions on'health and longevity, the paragraph just cited con tains the suggestion of more than one of the advantages proposed for the application of human engineering principles and and.data> to the design of jobs,. working procedures, and equipment used by' workers. Among the benefits which might be expected from these newer approaches are: (1) more efficient operation, (2> fewer errors in operation, with fewer, accidents resulting in injury, damage, or work spoilage, (3) reduced op erating costs, especially through reduced ne cessity--for redesign after equipment is put into production, (4) reduced training time and costs, and (5) more effective use of per sonnel, with less restrictive selection require ments^ The Analysis-of Accident Causes. Many have pointed out.that research on the causes of accidents has been hampered by-the lack of a .satisfactory definition of what constitutes an accident, or an adequate ' delineation of the range of events in an acci dent continuum. For our purposes, however, the practical goal of accident prevention .ft easily defined; i.e., the prevention, of death and injury to persons and, frequently., - of damage to things. In. the analysis of accident causes and the design of specific preventive measures, the greatest advances have been made in regard to relatively stable situations which tend to be repetitive, as in industry. In such in stances, there are factors in common which can.be identified and controlled. The major ity of injuries, however, occur in the home, on the highways, and in a wide variety of activities such os recreational pursuits. These are less homogeneous in regard to common variables; and. multiple causes and interrela tionships between factors frequently need consideration. It is necessary to relate the characteristics of the persons suffering inju ries, the.predisposing factors of the environ mental situation, and the agencies or forces * capable of producing injury. Thus, accident prevention measures are being developed through the same epidemiological . ap proaches - which have brought about such striking advances in the study and control of disease.80 It seems particularly appropriate' * to reiterate the observation that all accidental injuries (and damage) result (1) from the application of specific forms of energy in amounts exceeding the. resistance of the tis sues (or structures) upon which they im pinge, or (2) when there is interference in the normal exchange of energy between the organism and.the environment, (e.g., as in suffocation by drowning). Thus, the various forms of . energy--mechanical, thermal, electrical, chemical, and radiation--consti tute the direct causes of injuries in accidents. (See Table 1.) Also; prevention of injuries can often be achieved , by controlling the' source of the energy, or the vehicles or car riers through which the enrgy reaches the body.18 . While the specific types of energy which give rise to injuries are quite limited in num ber, the forms in which they , abound and the variety of the vehicles or carriers of.energy are innumerable. Man himself ft constantly compounding this situation as he develops more powerful sources of energy and puts the various kinds of energy to new uses. The concept of energy as the cause of in jury has the important implication that pre- 1987 National Safety Congress Table 1 Descriptions of. Injuries Due to the Delivery of Energy In Excess of Local or Whole Body Infury Thresholds* - - Type ot Enennr Delivered .. Mechanical Thermal n* Electrical t Ionising Badiation ' Chemical Primary Injury Produced Displacement; tearing, * breaking and crushing; predominantly at tissue and organ levels of body organisation. Inflammation, coagulation, charring, and incineration at all levels of body organi. cation. Interference with neuro muscular function, and.co agulation, charring, and incineration; at all levels of body organisation. Disruption of cellular and subcellular components and * function. Generally specific for each . substance or group. Examples and Comments Injuries resulting from the impact of moving ob-` Jects such as'ballets, hypodermic needles, knives, and falling objects; and from the impact of the moving body with relatively stationary structures as in falls, plane and auto crashes. The specific result depends on the location and manner in which the resultant forces are exerted. The majority of injuries are In' this group. First, second, and third degree burns.* The'specific result depends on the location and manner in which the energy is dissipated. .Electrocution, burns. Interference with neural func tion, as in electroshock therapy^ The spfdfle. result depends on the location and manner in which the energy is dissipated. Reactor accidents, therapeutic and diagnostic Irra- diatlon, misuse of isotopes, effects of fallout. The specific result depends on the location and manner in which.the energy Is dissipated. Includes injuries due to animal and plant toxins, chernles! burns, as from KOH, Bra, Fv and HaBOt and the less gross and highly varied injuries pro duced by most elements and compounds when given in sufficient dose. vention may be achieved through'environ mental controls, which often may not require voluntary participation on the part of per sons exposed to risk. Thus, harrier measures may be devised to prevent the delivery of specific types of energy to `the body; e.g.f machine guards.' Or, the characteristics of the vehicles or carriers of .injurious forces may be modified to. prevent or attenuate the transfer of energy; e.g., grounding electrical appliances, rounding comers on children's furniture, padding surfaces in automobiles. . With regard.to the potential of human en gineering for reducing industrial, accidents, there is implicit in the above. statement a broader definition of accidents than is cus tomarily associated with traditional safety activities. For the human engineer, an acci dent has-been defined as "an-.unexpected and undesirable .event which arises directly from a work situation; that is, faulty equip ment or die inadequate performance of a person. There may or may' not be personal injury and damage to equipment or property. Accidents, however, always interrupt the normal work routine and are associated with increased time delays or errors."* In this paper, we will attempt to show how safety, in both the narrower sense of in jury and damage and in the broader context just mentioned, may be considerably im proved through refinements in. the design of all types of equipment and working areas in accord with the human capacities rind limita tions of the operators and workers. It is in teresting to observe, that, in a sense, this completes a full turn in the spiral of the de velopment of industrial safety. Irptially, tile approach was an engineering one with emphasis on machine guarding "and protective devices. This brought about a rapid decline in machine risks, and signifi cant gains were accomplished by the appli cation of basic safety engineering principles to the design of machinery, plant layout, and working methods. . The initial engineering approaches were followed by a phase emphasizing the role of personal factors and the "human element" This involved, for example, the proper place ment of employees, based, on job analysis and evaluation of the functional capacities of workers, training, and the' control of working methods. This approach also included a rec ognition of the importance of supervisory practices and of the mental and emotional adjustments of the workers. While very substantial improvements have 50 ' Industrial Safety Subject Sessions been made in industrial safety through the Analysis of the workers' performance re above approaches, the rate of Improvement vealed there were at hast 20 ways in which has been slower in recent years. This sug the operators could influence the weight of gests that methods previously used may be the stockings. In general, variations arose reaching the limits of their effectiveness, and from such causes os tie order in which ma newer- approaches may be needed to effect chine controls were us< d, the way the opera further reductions. Now there ore indications' tor set the controls, and the way he handled that an engineering approach may again be and inspected the hoss. during knitting.8 In of prime importance in achieving control this particular situation, redesign, and stan over accidents; an approach, however,' in dardization of the wo: k procedures and re which there has been a reorientation, so that training of the operato rs was an effective so engineering is tied in with the findings of lution. In other situations, redesign of -the the human factors research developed in the machine to control or offset sources of varia past decade.28'88 bility among operators may often be re In the percentage distribution of compen quired. sable . fatal and permanent disability indus- - A few examples may be given to illustrate trial accidents in the United States in 1066, the point of view of human factors engineer as reported by -the National Safety douncil, ing, and to bring out the potentiality of this vehicular accidents, falls, and the handling of approach for increasing the safety factor. If objects appear to be very important -in the an auditory warning signal is used to indi-. fatal 'accidents''80 "Struck by falling objects'-'- cate the malfunction of equipment,, would it and "machinery" each give'rise to approxi not' be best to select a frequency band to mately 20 per cent of the total of permanent. which the ear is most sensitive and which- disabilities..In regard to injuries resulting in lies below the frequencies which' older peo teinporary disabilities, approximately -50 per ple hear poorly? cent hi' 1986 were received in vehicular acci-, dents and hills. Many of these fatal and seri ous accidents might be prevented by the in troduction of principles of the field of human factors and safety engineering. If muscular "feedback," as -well as vision, is important in controlling the directional stability of a vehicle, should not the- resis tances in a power-steering system be related. to information about human "muscle sense"? ' Before dealing explicitly with industrial . If two control knobs are located dose to safety, a simple illustration may be given to gether on a.console, might not deisgning emphasize the point, that, even with modem, them so that they can readily be differen standardized, automated equipment, varia tiated by touch help, prevent inadvertent op-' bility in human performance can effect the' eratfon of the wrong control? output of a man-machine system. The,'"unexpected" and "undesirable" events in this il lustration were not injuries' or damages-- rather, they were- undesirable variations in the final product; in this case, nylon hosiery. It would seem that if the number of stitches and rows were pre-set in the machine, few Does the machine -operator, while, work ing, have a seat so designed as to insure maximum comfort and efficiency and to eliminate the back. strain and fatigue so often present in contemporary industrial situ ations? . '. errors would result. The operator's function The questions of importance in the analy- was merely to pull certain levers as the ma - sis of design of industrial equipment and chine completed each stage. However, many, systems will vary with the type and purpose discards resulted from lack'of uniformity in of the operation. Usually they will indude the finished product. most of the following; The question was raised as to whether the operator could in any way influence the weight of the finished stockings. Three dif ferent operators were asked to operate the some machines, pre-set for the same size stockings. The hosiery made by operator A 1. What sense organs are used by the op erator to receive information? Does he move into action at the sound of a buzzer,' blink of a light, reading of a dial, verbal order? Does the sound of a starting motor act os a cup? . were uniformly light and less variable than 2. What sort of discrimination is called those made by B. C tended to produce light for? Does the operator , have to distinguish stockings, but they were as variable as B's.. between lights of two different colors, tones 51 1967 National Safety Congrats of two different pitches, or compare two dial 1. Operational fob analysis: readings? (a) Requirement* of the task 3. ' What physical response is he required (b) Working area to make? Pull a handle? .Turn a wheel? Step (c) Displays on a pedal? Push a button? (d) Controls 4. What, overall physical movements are required in the .physical response? Do such movements interfere with his ability to con* ttnue receiving information through his sense organs? ( For. example, would pulling a han dle obstruct his line of vision to a dial he is ' 2. Blue print phase: (a) Analysis of task (b) Prediction of efficiency . ( c) Prediction of errors ' (d) Human limitations required to watch?) What forces are re quired (e.g., torque in turning a wheel)? 3. Mock-up stage: (a) Task performance 5. What are the speed and accuracy re .(b) Physical size of operators quirements of the machine? Is the operator (c) Age of operators required to watch two pointers to a hairline (d) Skill levels accuracy in a split seind? Or is fairly, close (e) Accessory equipment approximation sufficient? If a compromise is (f) Interfering structures or motions necessary, what is more essential--speed, or (g) Physiological changes accuracy? (h) Errors 6. What physiological and environmental (i) Near-accidents conditions are likely to be encountered dur ing normal operation of the machine?' Are It should be assumed at all times that no there any' unusual temperatures, humidity worker is perfect! In fact, he may be far conditions,' crowded workspace, poor ventila below the ability adjudged by the designer.- tion, unavoidable fumes.and so on? Will the If his duties are too complex, the cumulative operator come to work from, presumably, a burden becomes too great and he may reach normal good night's rest and work in well- or exceed his limits of attention and ability. ventilated, well-lighted, cheerful conditions? Therefore, a wide margin of safety should be Or will' he be working under various stresses provided to eliminate any possible situation imposed by aspects of die operation and its environment?1'28.^'29 The Principles of Advance Analysis in Human Engineering for Safety. that places the operator near his maximum ability with regard to aptitude or effort, es pecially when adverse factors are present27 The Contribution of Anthropometry and Bid- The initial phases of a human engineering mechanics to Industrial Safety, program should consist of an advance analy sis. of all possible faults in the equipment and in the working area. If defects'are pres ent, it is only a matter of time before an op erator fails and either shows .a decrease in the efficiency of his performances or has an One basic .approach to industrial safety re lates the physical characteristics and capabil ities of the worker to the design of his equipment and to the layout of his work place. Where this is done, the result should be an increase in efficiency, a decrease in accident. ' " ' ' '. Advance analysis consists of -an opera tional job analysis that should include, a sur vey of the nature of the task, the work sur roundings,'the location of . controls and in struments, and the way the' operator per forms his duties. A functional concept of ac cidents should be maintained throughout; i.e., the errors that may occur while the op human error, and a consequent-reduction in accident frequency. However, in order to carry out this approach several different types of information are needed; namely, a description of the job, an understanding of the kinds of equipment that will be used, a description of the kinds of people who will use the equipment and, finally, the biological characteristics of these people. erator is working at the machine should be In general, the' first three items--job, anticipated. The repetition or recurrence of equipment, and users--can be defined both near or real accidents clearly indicates a need accurately and easily. Their biological char for redesign. The following is an outline of acteristics, however, can often be determined the chief considerations in advance analysis;. satisfactorily only from surveys specially y planned to yield descriptive data on human body size and biomechanical abilities and lirnitations.'. Anthropometric Data. The anthropometric data- consist of various heights, lengths,- and breadths which are used to establish the minimum'clearances and spatial accommoda tions, and the functional arm, leg, and body -movements, which are made.' by. the worker during the performance of his task.*7 For ex ample, to determine the proper height of a chair one needs to know the range of poplit eal heights (floor .to under-part of thigh immediately behind the knee) of the people likely to occupy the chair; the kind of leg movements, if any, that will be required; and- whether or not a foot rest will be used. (See Fig. I)84 Figure 2. Figure 1. ` Static and Dynamid Measurements. Two kinds of body dimensions; static and dynamic; are pertinent to the anthropometric problems of human engineering. Static di mensions, taken on the human body with the ' subjects in rigid, standardized positions, are easily obtained and readily applied to equip ment design. Dynamic dimensions--those . taken on the human body at work or in mo tion--are more complex and difficult to measure. For example, functional arm reach, a dynamic dimension, is not a simple deriva tive of anatomical arm length, hut is a result ant of such mechanical factors as shoulder height and breadth; length of' the several segments of the arm and hand; and range of motion at the shoulder, elbow, wrist, and fin gers. Functional arm reach, therefore, changes with each placement and motion of the body, arm, hand,, or fingers. (See Fig. 2)o The outer limits' of the workspace at which controls, tools, or materials handled by the worker can be placed must be deter mined on the basis of the functional, arm reach of the' smaller workers. Factors in- fluendng functional reach which must be taken into account include arm length,. shoulder height and breadth, the range of movement at the joints of die shoulder, elbow,.wrists and fingers and,.finally, the amount of permissible body movement that can be used .to supplement .arm reach. Such information will permit the engineer to define the outer limits of the "space enve lope" available for the worker's' use. It will not, of course, necessarily tell him where the optimum locations are 'for placing controls, or other items, nor can it tell hinrwhat kinds of equipment or controls should be used or the best way in which they can be operated.' These questions can be answered .only-on the basis' of additional descriptive data on the biomechanics of- human physical per formance, with reference to the specific popr illation of workers under, consideration..10 An. interesting example of the sometimes critical role that body dimensions can play in accident causation is afforded by a. U.S. Navy study that showed that "tail" pilots, i.e., those over six feet, had a significantly higher rate of involvement in jet aircraft ac-. cidents than would have been expected on , the. basis of chance (p=.0I). Similarly, "short" pilots, those below 5'9", had a lower ' 53 1987 National Safety Congress than expected accident rate (also p=.01).i3 This objective finding. is supported by the opinions and experience of many Navy pil ots, including one who has stated that: '1 have observed from numerous, vociferous complaints from pilots . . . that anyone taller than, six feet is liable to be so cramped and uncomfortable in the cockpit that his per formance will be noticeably harmed."21 As a result of this situation, the Aerospace Crew Equipment Laboratory, U.S. Naval Engineering Center, undertook a detailed human engineering evaluation of cockpit di mensions with special attention to the distri butions of body size of Naval pilots. As a re sult^ an "Aircraft Utilization Code" .was de veloped that would permit the assignment of Naval aviators only to aircraft in which they could be safely accommodated in terms of their body dimensions. It is interesting to note that, while the cockpits of some Naval aircraft can safely accommodate almost all pilots, the cockpits of three aircraft ore so spatially constricted that only the smallest 15 per cent of the entire naval pilot population should be permitted to fly diem, according to the Aerospace Crew Equipment Laboratory.11, around the body (especially for larger driv ers) ; and seats too high or too deep for short drivers, and too low or too short for tall drivers (better adjustability needed.) In fact, it is unlikely that adequate vision and performance from the driver's position can be worked out for the entire population un less adequate adjustability is provided.81 Many examples can. be given from, the problems that are developing in the newer designs for automotive equipment. One re lates to the use of shoulder restraining de vices in certain vehicles. It is difficult to in stall such equipment in automobiles without considering the location of the three-point attachments in relation to the size of the driver. Also, head rests must be considered in relation to the height of the back seat. Fi nally, what should be done about the design of seat belts for pregnant women? The im portance of this problem is emphasized by Dr. G. Anthony Ryan, who offers a prelimi nary estimate that about 5,000 foetal deaths occur each year in traffic accidents in the United States.*8 This is in addition to the. 50,000 motor vehicle fatalities now recorded every year, and represents a hitherto unob served part of the highway safety picture. An even more striking and obvious exam ple of a safety hazard resulting directly from the lack of consideration of anthropometric ' data in establishing design dimensions is demonstrated by the escape hatches of cer tain multi-engine World. War II aircraft Here the hatch dimensions were of a size that effectively prohibited the passage of larger pilots wearing flying gear and para chutes. Again, certain kinds of hand controls have been designed in such -a way that al though they can be operated perfectly satis factorily by the ungloved hand, they can only be operated with great difficulty,' if at all, by larger hands wearing gloves--and gloves are normally worn when operating these controls. ' In motor vehicles, various kinds of prob lems ' relating to safety have Resulted from lack of consideration of the range of body sige of the. drivers. Examples of the more commonly occurring problems are lack of proper vision,from the vehicle by short driv ers (eye level too low); inability to reach and operate quickly certain controls (inade quate- design -compensation for short arm and leg reaches); crowding and cramping because of inadequate spatial clearances Biomechanical Data for the Prevention of Accidents During Lifting and Carrying. The injuries resulting from accidents in the manual handling of objects and materials are especially prominent in the total of com pensable injuries, as has already been men tioned. . Furthermore, the National Safety . Council suggests that the number of disa bling back injuries suffered by workers each' year seems to be increasing more rapidly than other types of injury, presently reaching an annual total of about 400,000.80 This is obviously a problem of considerable concern to the safety engineer^ and represents an area where the biomechanical data relating to lifting and carrying can be applied in the design of jobs and work layout which re quire this kind of handling of materials. The relevant data concern: (a) .the meth ods of lifting and carrying and, (b) what a worker can lift and carry in. terms of how heavy, how high, how long, of what bulk, and the like. While probably all safety engi neers are conversant with the basic principle of lifting with the legs rather than with the back, information relating to (b) above is less well known^ and recommendations based 54 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions on the available data have been summa of human energy needed. In lifting weights rized10 and are reviewed briefly below; ranging from 4.4 to 22.0 pounds from one Lifting. table to another, through vertical distances varying between 2.0 and 17.3 inches, the 1. Location of Object. The most important most efficient rate--in terms of mechanical determinant of lifting force is the distance of efficiency--was about twenty to thirty lifts the feet from the grasping axis. Lifting force- per minute. An 11-pound weight lifted 4.7 is greatest when the weight lifted is in the inches and back ten times in 17 seconds, fol same vertical plane of the body, and de lowed by a 13-second rest, required only creases .sharply as die weight moves away half the energy as the same work carried out from the bo'dy.B3 in ten lifts evenly spaced over the same 30- The best height for lifting (vertical pull) second period. However, for smaller loads of is at or slighdy above the level of the middle 4.4 pounds or heavier loads of 22 pounds, or fingertip, measured with the subject wearing .when the rate was increased to forty lifts per shoes, and standing erect with arms' hanging minute, no difference was found between the by his sides.4 Middle fingertip height aver two techniques.45 Thus; optimum rates and ages about 28 inches, and varies from 25 patterns need to be established for each dis inches in men 65 inches tall, to 31 inches in tinct type of repetitive lifting task. men 75 inches tall. Above middle, fingertip height, lifting power decreases very rapidly; Carrying. below it, more slowly. With a load, near the Handles. In general, objects weighing floor, lifting force may be only 75 to 80 per more than 10 pounds should have conven cent of that at the best height11* **>51 ient carrying handles, located above the cen 2. Body Position. In general, "leg lift" with , back'vertical and legs', bent, affords a stronger vertical pull than "back lift," with legs straight and back bent4 although at lift ing heights from five to 20 inchest there is no appreciable difference between the two methods. Leg lift entails so much less risk of back injury that it is certainly preferable. ter of gravity and at least 4.5 inches long, with the inner surface of.the handle at least two inches from the surface of the object.16 Size of Containers. The more compact the container, the more easily can it be carried. For bulky equipment, the center of gravity should not be more; than 20 inches from the carrier's body.18 3. Maximum Weights. The 'heaviest Maximum Weights. Solely by- muscle weights that can be lifted to various heights' power, a normal man can transport about by men of the 5th percentile in lifting 200 tons a day through a horizontal distance strength were calculated from tests on nine of one meter, or SO tons through a, vertical teen healthy young men.14 The weight, an distance of one meter.88 The maximum indi aircraft ammunition case 25 inches long, 11. vidual loads,'if carried in either hand by inches high, and six inches wide, with han means of handgrips, should be about 60 dles at either end, was lifted mainly with the pounds for short distances and 35 pounds for legs. The tests were not carried to the point . longer distances. of fatigue. The weight of bulky articles, around 30 Thp^fnaximum weight of- compact equip inches to a side, should not exceed .20 ment (boxes 12 x 6 x 12 inches, equipped pounds.10 In'general, a weight , is `'heavy" with .handles) that can be lifted from the when it reaches 35 per cent or more of body floor six times, one minute 'apart, without weight.8 Carrying one heavy weight a given strain by at least 99 per cent of a young, distance costs less physiologically than car healthy male population is as follows: to rying two weights, each weighing half as knee level,. 62 pounds; to waist level, 38 much, the same distance in two trips.88 pounds; and to shoulder or eye level, 27 While the"above statements-on lifting and , pounds.48 '. carrying are by no means as definitive and Women, when measured by their ability comprehensive as desirable, they represent a to lift a weight, demonstrate about 55 to 65 synthesis of the currently available data, and per cent as much strength as do men.1 they illustrate the kind of potential contribu 4. Lifting Pattern for Repetitive Work. tion that human engineering, specifically bio For some tasks which involve continuous mechanics in this case, can make to indus lifting, rest pauses can decrease the amount trial safety. 55 1967 Notional Safety Congress Design of Displays to Prevent Errors, a green light, or no light, to indicate normal A machine operator can successfully con trol his equipment only to the extent that he receives clear, unambiguous information/ when needed,'on all pertinent aspects of his task. Accidents, or operational errors, often ity, and a red light to show failure, danger, or faulty operation. 2. The quantitative display, which indi cates an exact numerical-value to be read; e.g., speedometer, clock, thermometer..' occur because a worker has misinterpreted, 3. The qualitative display, which indicates or was unable to obtain information from, whether, and' in what direction an operation his displays concerning-the functioning of has deviated from a desired level, without the equipment Displays are usually visual in presenting precise quantitative data; some nature, though they may also be auditory temperature gages are used in this way and, (ie., warning bell rather than a warning in fact, many quantitative displays could light), especially when there is danger of profitably be changed to this simpler type of overloading the visual sensory channels. indicator.. Typical errors which might be anticipated Any display or indicator, regardless of and tfae possible sources of such errors are type, must possess the following basic char- . brought out in Table 2.20 1 acteristics if it is to be as nearly foolproof as Three basic types of indicators supply ma-. possible: (1) It can be read quickly and in chine operators with information. .They are: . the manner desired; i.e., as a check, qualita-' 1. The check display,, which indicates tive or quantitative display. (2) It can be whether w not a given condition exists; i.e., read as accurately as is required (and, pref erably, no more accurately). (3) There is ` Table 2 . * no ambiguity or likelihood of gross reading Typical Human Errors in Equipment Operation12** errors. (4) The information'is provided in the most immediately useful form and does not require mental translation into other Type of Error Poealble Causal Factors units. (5) Changes in value are easy to de- ' Failure to 1. Input overload, detect slffna). * a. Too many significant signals. b. Too many separate Input channels. 2. Input underload. a. Too little variety of signals. b. Too few signals. -. 8. Adverse noise conditions. a. Poor contrast. b. -High intensity of distraction stimuli. Incorrect Identification of signal. 1. Code form or typology,unclear. 2. Lack of differential cues. 8. Inappropriate filtering set (ex pectation). 4. Conflicting cues. 5. Conflicting identification re quirements. .. Incorrect sloeweighting or priority ' assignment. 1. Nonlinear predictions required. 2. Multiple or complex value-scal ing required. 8. Values poorly defined or under stood. 4. Contingencies vaguely defined. ' tect. (8) It can be easily identified.and.dis- tinguished from other instruments. (7) The information is as current as possible;, i.e., lag ' is minimized. (8). If inoperative, it either cannot be read or the operator is properly warned. (9). When applicable, the jnstru- ment indicates which control to use, and in which direction to use it, when changing its reading.2- 2D The necessity of applying human engi neering techniques to the design of displays is well illustrated by the frequent difficulties which even experienced operators have in correctly reading certain* types of instrur ments. The conventional aircraft altimeter, for example, is equipped with three pointers^-^ each requiring separate interpretation before the pilot can determine his altitude. Errors Error in action. selection. Error of commission. 1. Matching of actual and required patterns faulty. ' 2. Consequence of courses of action not understood. 8. Appropriate action not avail able. 4. Correct action inhibited. ` a. .Cost considerations. . b. Procedural prohibitions. 1. Correct tool or control not available. 2. Action-control relationship not understood. 8. Action feedback unavailable or delayed. caused by this type of instrument have been . frequently reported by pilots in confidential statements, and misreading of the altimeter has been cited as the cause or probable cause of a number of recent aviation acci dents in the United States and Great Britain. The most common type .of error reported has been that of misreading the altitude as either 1,000 or 10,000 feet too high. The design of the instrument has been improved by pre senting' altitude in thousands of feet by nu- 56 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions morals in a window on the dial face, with ations has been shown by Previns.-48 Since interpolations between thousands of feet there is a wide variety of machine controls read from a single pointer. Studies compar ranging from the simple on-off action of ing the errors made in reading , the old and push buttons to very complex two-dimen improved altimeters by both novices and ex- . sional graded effects, advance analysis must perienced pilots have shown that the new be made of the task requirements. On the design can be read much faster and with far basis' of a considerable body of experimental fewer errors. ' ,. ' , evidence, it is possible to recommend the Even with good vision and excellent light most appropriate control and its desirable ing, including high, contrast between target range of operation. and background, the size of the target, or In general,, from the standpoint of human pointer, in relation to the overall size of the engineering, it is essential that the mechani instrument is important. During an experi- cal design of equipment be compatible with ^ mental study, while watching one dial, it the biological and. .psychological characteris was found that subjects failed to report one- tics of the operator. The effectiveness of the third of the pointer signals. It was noted, man-machine combination can be greatly en however,- that the line of sight was directly hanced by treating the operator and the on the dial.at the instant the signal was equipment as a unified system. Thus,-the in given. The per cent of errors in. form identi struments should be considered as extensions fication was clearly related to the width of of the. driver's nervous and perceptive sys the visual display in degrees from the fovea. tems, the controls as extensions of the hands What better example could be given of and the feet as simple tools. In general, any "looking without seeing", or in other words, control difficult to reach or operate, any in making an error that, was "built into" the de strument dial of poor legibility,' any seat in sign of the instrumentation.2 ducing poor posture or discomfort, or any _ Design of Controls for Operational 'Effi ciency and Safety. unnecessary' obstruction to vision may con tribute directly to an accident. In regard to controls, an operator must de Techniques of Measurement in Studying Im cide upon the proper course of action and paired Performance in Relation to Environmanipulate them in such a way as to pro mental Stress and Accidents. duce any. desired change in the machine's Before summarizing some of the experi performance. The efficiency and effectiveness mental 'findings relating to environmental with which controls can be operated de stress and accident causation, it is in order to. pends upon the extent to which information consider the techniques of measurement. on the dynamic's of human movement, or The more subtle influences may often be biomechanics, has been incorporated in their masked by the learning process or by "trying , design. This is particularly true whenever harder," making it difficult to detect such controls must be operated at high' rates of factors in gross measures of- performance speed, against large resistances, with great such as overall speed, number of errors, or precision, or over long periods of time.1. 37 total output. What appears to be required . Controls should be designed so that rapid, are tests of performance which reflect dele accurate settings can be easily made without terious effects in spite of attempts to over undue fatigue. If so, many accidents and op come them, or tests which detect increased erational errors would be avoided. This the effort at the task. Hecently, techniques have sis is strikingly illustrated by the landing been developed in. sensory and perceptual gear and landing flap controls of many mod research which may be of value in develop em aircraft. These two controls, having very -. ing tests of both kinds. different functions, are sometimes placed f , Some of the primary features of such tests very close together, and sometimes have include: (1) a high degreee of sensitivity, so their locations reversed on different aircraft. that small changes can be readily measured; industrial machinery until very recently (2) precision of the physical measurements has not been designed or evaluated accord involved in the test; (3) independence of ing-to basic principles in the field of human the results from the degree of conscious, or engineering. The suitability of various con unconscious effort which may be exerted; trols for different purposes in industrial, situ (4) stability of the function during control 1987 NationalSafety Congress experiments when the physiological stresses are not. applied, and (5) for more complex performance including insight, and decision . making, tests which involve timing of per ceptual response and information. processing.82* 86 Measures of Speed and Accuracy Com bined. One way of adjusting one's perform ance to offset the deleterious effects of stress or specific environment might be to sacrifice factors, such as speed for accuracy, or vice versa. Such trade-offs, however, need not in dicate degradation in capacity. Until re cently, there was no way of combining these two measures. With the development of <n7 formation theory, a nonarbitrary way of combining measures of speed and accuracy into a single rate-of-iriformation-tranmissipn measure is available. In this way, it is pos sible to determine the magnitude of a .taskinduced stress required to'produce an envi- ronmentally interacting effect. Tests That Detect arid. Scale Increased Ef fort. Two. avenues of. research offer tests of increased effort.. One of these is concerned with capacity and/or peripheral. attention. The deterioration of performance on "a pri mary task with increased load at secondary task is a good example of this area of testing. .The effects of environmental stress can be measured in terms of the steepening gradient of these spare capacity measures.42* 49 The other area'of research relates to physiological measure of arousal, of tension, and so forth. A number of techniques for measuring not. only muscular tenseness but also central ner- . vous system activity, and even specific com ponents of neural reaction to signals, have been developed.54 Some of these measures appear to be promising for the study of varying degreees of; impaired performance. tha.t the number of task elements affected by . a given level of stress, and the extent of such impairment, depends on the total informa- ' tion processing load imposed by the task. Control of the Physical Environment to Pre- vent Accidents. In Some instances, the control of accidents depends on the regulation of the interaction between the worker and .the internal and ex ternal environments. The more important physical variables of the environment are - temperature, humidity and ventilation, noise, vibration, and toxic agents such as carbon monoxide. Extremes of any of these variables .will result in discomfort and ' lowered efficiency of the worker or driver. The ranges of comfort and discomfort and the ex tremes that may contribute to accidents have been reasonably well defined. .. Temperature, Humidity, and Ventilation. A change in any one of these variables will affect the other two insofar as they influence comfort. Hence, all three variables must be considered as a unit. '. The ventilation problem is concerned with the 'amount of fresh air and air movement provided. Low rates of -air movement pro duce feelings of stuffiness and fail to, prevent the accumulation of body odors and tobacco smoke. Optimally, 35 to 40 ft/min of fresh air should be supplied per individual, at ve locities of between 20 and 60 ft/min in order to maintain an atmosphere'of freshness without creating undesirable; drafts. It should be remembered that increased air ve locities tend to have a cooling-effect, which may be advantageous in summer but which may cause discomfort in winter. Poor venti lation causes lethargy and sleepiness and can contribute to accidents. In studies of the effects of noise and vi bration on human performance, there is evi dence of strong interactions between such environmental stresses and task difficulty in determining the amount of performance dec rement that will appear under a given amount of stress.82 Task difficulty is a major variable and failure to consider this fact has given rise to many of the discrepancies found in studies relating environmental. stress to performance. These studies have re sulted in the hypothesis that the most de manding aspects of a complex activity are those which will be most sensitive to the ef fects of environmental stress, and further Composite curves have been developed to show the various comfort zones and the typi cal subjective responses to heat, cold, and humidity. The optimum temperature range is 68-72F (dry. bulb) for winter and 74" 78F for summer. A relative humidity of 30-70 per cent is' acceptable in these zones. ' Excessively high humidities cause discomfort at high temperatures and result in feelings' of coolness .or dampness at low temperatures. Vyhen humidity is below 15 per cent, the membranes of the eyes, nose, ancj,throat be come uncomfortably dry. Experiments with industrial workers have shown that human performance deteriorates significantly at ef- . Industrial Safety Subject Sessions fective temperatures of about-85" and above.24 (See'Figure 3). Many of the skills that show deterioration are directly re lated to safe , driving or safe working prac tices or conditions.815 demonstrable effects of carbon monoxide is . the reduction of the sensitivity of the eye under low illumination. For example, chron ic- cigarette smokers are known to have four to eight .per'cent carboxyhemoglobin in their biodd, ah amount that corresponds in effect to an altitude of about 7,000 ft. .If additional amounts are received from the exhaust sys. tem of. the vehicle, a dangerously high level of oxygen deficiency may restilt. In motor, vehicles, dangerous concentrations of carbon monoxide usually result from leaks in the ex haust system and from openings in the floor boards or other parts of the vehicle body. It . is desirable to limit the amount of- carbon ' monoxide to 0.003 per cent.27'28 FIGURE 3 Noise. Environmental noise is now reach ing alarming proportions in many phases of modem life. This is especially true in indus try, and 'it has; long been recognized that noise levels which interfere with speech communication give rise to many accidents. Suggested criteria for use by the safety engi neer and industrial hygienist have been worked out by numerous authors. Every at tempt possible should be made to reduce noise levels in worldng environment to below established recommended levels.22 ' Carbon Monoxide. Carbon monoxide poi soning is an ever-present possibility in the operation of motor'vehicles. The problem is becoming increasingly' serious because of the amount of smog and the concentration of idling vehicles in metropolitan areas. Small amounts of carbon monoxide are absorbed rapidly by'the blood stream resulting in an oxygen deficiency that may at first be unno ticed by the individual. The initial reaction to carbon monoxide poisoning consists pri marily in lowered attention, difficulty in con centration and retention, slight muscular incoordination, sleepiness, and mental and physical lethargy. These effects could easily contribute to an accident. One of the earliest A schematic interpretation of- the various .' environmental stimuli encountered in indus try is given .in Figure 4 in terms of environ mental comfort zones.72 Because of the inter-. dependence of' the variables, these values should not be -considered rigid -standards. The difficulty- in giving a single numerical value as a standard is exemplified by the . limits indicated for carbon monoxide. .The. ' generally accepted maximum value for pro longed exposures is 100 parts per million (ppm) of carbon monoxide in circulating air. This amount may b,e satisfactory for a . person. sitting quietly at sea level, but it . must -be smaller ,,if die amount of exercise, the degree of ventilation, or the length of ex posure are altered. Linear scales of straightline functions are not' so adaptable to the . study of human variables as are nomograms, in which one can ascertain the effects that, the 'altering of any one variable, has upon the other variables. System Safety Engineering as a New Disci pline.- in recent years, a great deal of attention is -being devoted to system safety engineering. A system may be defined as "an assemblage of objects united by some form of interaction or interdependence; generally, a group of men and machines operating together for the accomplishment of a common objective." In.brief, the primary objective of systems safety engineering is the reduction or elimi nation of all hazardous consequences of equipment operation. It characteristically in volves a systematic application of special an- . alytical techniques, derived criteria, evalua tion methodology; and management skills.,' Since it emphasizes prevention rather than 59 1887 National Safety Congress ' correodon'of problems, particular attention is placed' upon early engineering design and procedural analysis. It is broadly conceived to take into consideration all aspects of the planning, design, development, fabrication, test, installation, maintenance, operation, and system evaluation of complex'man-machine systems.40! 41 .. System safety engineering can become a separate discipline and make a contribution to industrial safety only, if safety specialists (1) participate in design functions from the mark-up stage, and not from making correc tions alone, (2) assume responsibility for safety from the original inception of the'de sign features, including the development, test, and operational phases, and (3) use all fields that are required in the development 60 of basic data for human factors engineering. In various fields of public health and med- . icine, the basic disciplines of biostatistics. and epidemiology are used to' analyze the possible causes of disease and injury where numerous possible causative factors are in volved. Many aspects of these approaches are essentially the same .as now emphasized by systems engineers. Where nonspecific etiologies- are involved, it is necessary to use techniques which consider interactions andmultiple relationships. Summary. Many major problems in equipment and workspace design have resulted from the failure to give sufficient consideration to human capabilities and limitations. The ef- Industrial Safety Subject Sessions fectiveness of any man-machine system de-pends upon the integration of the biological 6. Chapanis, A. Research Techniques in Human Engineering. John* Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Md. 1959. ' ' >. characteristics of the operator with the me chanical design of the equipment and work 7. Chapanis, A^ Garner, W. R. and Morgati^C. T; Applied Experimental Psychclopy-Httnian''Fac tors in Engineering Design. Wiley, N.Y., N.Y. ing areas. The initial phase of a program in human engineering, or ergonomics, should . 1949. 8. Coakley,. J. D. "Human Operators and Auto. matie Machines." Personnel Psychol., 8:401- always consist of an advance analysis of the equipment, including a survey of the nature 411. 1950. 9. Damon, A^ Stoudt, H. W. and McFarland, R. A. "Anthropometry." Ch. 11, Human Engi of the task, the work surroundings, the loca neering Guide to Equipment Design, op, cit. tion of controls and instruments, and the 10. Damon,'A., Stoudt, H. W., and McFarland, R. A. The Human Body in Equipment Design. way the operator performs his duties. The Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. basic data needed in. human engineering in 1966. 11. Dempster, W. T. "Analysis of two-handed clude those .which describe, the range of ; pulls using free body diagrams." J.' Appl human body .size at rest and in motion; bio-mechanical abilities including range, Physiol, 18:469-480.. 1958. 12. Dreyfuss, H. The Measure of Man: Human Factors in Design. Whitney Library of De strength, speed, and accuracy of motion; sign, New York, N.Y. I960. sensory abilities; and human reactions to. the 18. Ely, J. XL, Thomson, R. M. and Oriansky, 3. "Design. of Controls." Ch. 6, Human Engi physical variables of the environment. Only - neering Guide to Equipment Design, op* cit. by the application of these kinds of data to 14. Emanuel. L, Chaffee, 3. W. and Wing, J, "A Study of Human Weight Lifting Capabilities the design of the workspace, controls,.instru fpr Loading Ammunition into the F-864 Air- ments,. and environment,'.can the worker . craft," WADC Technical Report 56-867, Aeromedical Laboratory, Wright Air Development be assured of maximum comfort, efficiency, . Center, Wrlght-Patterson Air Force Base, and safety in the performance of his task. In Ohio. 1956. 15. Fogel, L. J. Biotechnology: Concepts and Ap conclusion, it is important to note that plications. Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, human-factors engineers are in an unusually favorable position to assist in improving the NJT. 1968. 16. Folley, J. D,, Altman, 3. W., Chapanis, A., and Cook, 3. S. *Design for Ease of Mainte -accident rates in industry and in various nance." Ch. 9, Human Engineering Guide to Forms of transportation. Equipment Design, op. cit 17. Gifford, E. C., .Provost, 3. R., and Laso, J. A Study to Determine the Relationships between Fiauss 1. Some of the primary 'static body meu* Naval Aircrew Station Dimensions and the urementa needed for the design of equipment for Anthropometry of Naval Aviators. Aerospace use by a seated operator.84 Crew .Equipment Laboratory, U.8. Naval Air Fxoubb 2. The figure illustrates the need for dy namic as well as static measurements. The*opera tor is functional, and.may have to perform com plex movements or assume unusual positions.10 . Fioueb 8. Effect of high temperature and humid ity on skilled performance (wireless telegraphy re ception). The curves show both the deterioration in performance with increasing effective tempera ture. and with duration. of the exposure to high* temperature and humidity.** FlQURB 4. Physical variables of the environment which influence, the comfort, efficiency, and safety of workers. The area between the circles indicates the range from comfort to the limit of tolerance. Beyond this limit great discomfort or physiological harm Is encountered.11 Engineering Center. Philadelphia, Pa.. 1964. . 18. Haddon, W. 3r. "The Prevention of Accidents." Preventive Medicine, pp. 691-622; Clark, D. W. and HaeMhbon; B. (Eds.) Little, Brown and Co., Boston, Mass. 1967. 19. Hertshezg, H. T. E. * Handbook of Instructions for Aircraft Ground Support, Equipment De sign, Rev. Paragraph c.1-2.,8.1 Anthropology .Unit, Aeromedfeai Laboratory, Wright-Patterson'Air Force Base, Ohio. 1956. 20. Kidd, J. 8.' "Human Tasks and Equipment Design." Ch. 6, Psychological Principles-, in System Development, Gagne, R. M. (Ed.). Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York, N.Y. 1962. 21."King, R. R. Jr. "Some Challenges to the Aero space Medical Association From a Light At tack Pilot." Aerospace Med,, 85:1161-1164. REFERENCES 1004. 1. Bqetjer, A. M/ Women in Industry, Their Health and Efficiency. W. B. Saunders Co.. Philadelphia. 1946. 2. Baker. C. A.' and Grether. W. F. "Visual Pre sentation of Information." Human Engineer* ing Guide to Equipment Design, Ch. 2. Mor gan, C. J., Cook, J. 8., Chapanis, A. and Lund, H. W. (Eds.). McGraw-Hill, N.Y., N.Y. 1968. 3. Bedales. E. M. "Comparison of the energy ex penditure of a woman carrying loads In'differ* ent positions." The Effecte of Posture and Rest, in Muscular Work, Industrial Research Board, Medical Research Council, Great Britain. 1924. 4. Bedford, T. and Warner, C. G. Strength tests. "Observations on the effects of posture on strength of pull." Lancet, ii, 1828-1829. 1987. 22. Kryter, K. D. and Lieklider, J. C. R. "Speech Communications." Ch.- 4, Human Engineering Guide to Equipment Design. op, cit. 28. Lodge, G. T. Pilot Stature in-Relation to Cock pit Size: a Hidden Factor in Navy Jet Air craft Accidents. Behavioral Science Division, Aero-Medical Department, U.S. Naval Aviation Safety Center. Norfolk, Va. 1968. 24. Hackwortb,, N. H. Researches on the Meas urement of Human Performance. Medical Re search Council, Special Report Series No. 298. His Majesty's Stat, Office, London, England. 1950. 25.,Mackworth, N. H. "A Stand Camera for Lineof-SIght Recording." Perception and Psycho physics 2:119-127. 1967. 6. Broadbent, D. E. Perception and Communica 26. McCormlek. E. J. Human Factors Engineer tion. Pergamon Press, London, England. 1958. ing. McGraw-Hill, New York. N.Y. 1964. 61 1967 National Safety Congress 27. McFarland, R. A. Human Factors in Air Transport Design. McGraw-Hill, Hew York, H.Y. 1946: 28. McFarland, B. A. Human Factors in Air Transportation: Occupational Health and Saf ety. MeGraw-HUl, Hew York, H.Y. 1958. 29. McFarland. B. A. "Machine Design and Hu man Engineering/' Modem Trends in Occu pational Health, pp. 288-248; Schilling, B. S. F. Ed.) Butterworths; ` Ltd., London, Eng land. 1960. 80. McFarland, B. A. ."The Epidemiology of Mo-= tor Vehicle Accidents." Journal American Med ical Association, 180 (4): 284-800. 1962. 31. McFarland, B. 'A. The Bole of Human Engi neering in Highway Safety. Ch. 12, Human Factors in Technology,- Bennett, E.; Began, J.: .and Spiegel, J. (Eds.). McGraw-Hill, Hew York, H.Y. 1968. * 82. McFarland,. B. A. "Experimental Evidence of * the Relationship Between Ageing and. Oxygen Want: in Search of a Theory of Ageing/* ' Ergonomics 6:889-866. 1968. 38.' McFarland, R. A. "Human Factors Engineer ing/* J. Am. Soc. Safety Engs. 9 (2^:9-20. April, 1964. Reprinted by the Daniel and Flo rence Guggenheim Aviation Center at Cornell University, New York, H.Y. 42. Posner, M. X "Components of Skilled Perfor mance.** Science 152:1712-1718. 1966. 48. Provins; E. A. "Men, Machines, and Controls.** Ergonomics for Industry. Ho. 7. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research's Infor mation Division and the Warren Spring Labo ratory, London, England. 1965. 44. Reijs, J. H. O. Tiber die Veranderung der Kraft wahrend der Bewegnungi Pfiugers Ar chie. fA. gesamte Physiologic 191, 284-257. 1921. 45. Rttnnholm, H., Karvonen, M. J7, and Lapin- leimu, V. O. "Mechanical Efficiency of Rhyth mic and Paced Work of Lifting." J. AppL Physiol, 17:768-770. 1962. 46; Ryan, G. A. .1967. Personal communication. 47. Stondt, H. W. Damon, A.. McFarland, R. A., and Roberts, J. Weight, Height, and -Selected Body Dimension of Adults: United States, 1980- - 1962: Vital and Health Statistics, Series H., . U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D.C. 1966. Q 34. McFarland, R. A. and Stondt, H. W. Human Body Size and Passenger Vehicle Design. Spe cial Publication' 142A, Society of Automotive Engineers, Hew -York, H.Y. 1961. 85. McFarland, B. A. and Teiehner, W- $L "Effccts of Environment on Human Performance.** 1968. Ch. 10, Harnett Engineering Guide to Equipment Design, op. cit. 36. McFarland, B. A., Mackworth, H. H. and Teiehner, W. H. Human Performance in Ad. verse Environments. Guggenheim Center for Aerospace Health and Safety, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Haas. 1967. 37. McBuer/ p: T. and Krendel, E. 8. Dynamic Response of Human Operators. WADC Tech. Rept. 56-624, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. Ohio. 1957. < 38. MOIler, E. A., Vetter, K., and BlOmel, E. "Transport by Muscle Power Over Short Dis tances." Ergonomics 1:222-225. 1958. 39. National Safety CouneiL Accident Facts, J9ST. 48* Switter, S. A. Weight-lifting Capabilities of a Selected Sample of Human Males. Technical Doe. Ho. MRL-TDR-62-57, Aerospace Medical Research Laboratories, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio; 1962. - 49. Teiehner, W. H. Stress, Adaptation, and the Interaction of Behavioral and Physiological Processes, unpublished manuscript, Guggen- - helm Center for Aerospace Health and Safety, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Mass. 1968. 50. Thackrah, C. T. 1881. The Effects of Arts, Trades and Professions on Health ana Lon gevity. Republished by E. and S. Livingstone, London, England. 1957. 51. ..Vernon, H. M. "The Influence of Rest Pauses and Changes of Posture on the Capacity for Muscular Work." The Effects of Posture and Rest in Muscular Work, Industrial Fatigue Re search Board, Medical Research Council, Great Britain. 1924. National Safety Council, Chicago, HL 52. Webs, A. &, Goddard, C., and Allen, R. W. .40. Peters, G. A. and HAD, F. S. " Sources of 'In Human Performance under Random and Slnua- formation in Human Factors Engineering, In cluding Associated ` Areas in System ' Safety, , oidal Vibration. ARML-TR-66-209, WrightPatterson Air Force Base, Ohio. 1965. Maintainability, Personnel Subsystem. Life Sci 68. Whitney, R. J. "The Strength of the. Lifting ences, Quality Assurance, and Reliability En- Action in Man/* Ergonomics 1:101-128. 1958. . gineerlng. Rept. R.H. 8898B, Eoeketdyne, Cs- 64. WUklnson, R. T. Changes In Performance due noga Park, Calif. 1964. to Environmental Factors. Pp, 127-185 in 41. Peters, G. A. and Hall, F. S. System Safety Symposium on Medical Aspects of Stress in the as a Technical Discipline. American Industrial Military Climate, Walter Reed Army Medical Hygiene- Conference. Philadelphia, Pa., 26-80: Center, Washington, D.C. 1964. ' JUSTIFICATION FOR INTRODUCING HUMAN FACTORS INTO AN INDUSTRIAL SETTING By DR. JACK A. KRAFT Asst. Mgr., Biotechnology, Lockheed Missiles & Space Co., Sunnyvale, California My presentation will deal, with the human factors engineering practice in the aerospace industry; techniques used by human factors engineers to influence design, operational, and safety aspects in system development; specific examples of human factors engineer 62 ing application; and some benefits derived from use of the discipline. Human Factors Engineering. The nature of human factors engineering has already been defined during these pro - Industrial Safety Subject Sessions ceedings. However, it is important to iden tify clearly the difference, as commonly des ignated in' industrial settings,' between the orientation of. the human .factors, engineer and the functions of specialists in' various re lated but distinctly different disciplines. Traditionally,' the industrial psychologist anil personnel specialist are primarily con cerned with selecting the best people. for jobs and of fitting these people to jobs or to the machines. The industrial engineer is mostly concerned with how the job is done,, and tire environment in which die work is performed, The safety engineer is concerned with assuring that the job is performed in the safest manner, without injury to the worker or Hazard to plant or facility. . The human factors engineer is concerned with fitting the' machine or system to the man. Human engineering involves the appli cation bf known principles of human behav ior to die design of equipment so that it will be-better adapted to the capacities and limi tations of the human operators. Christopher Celent, in 'Electronic Industries magazine of February, 1960, states that "Man, in many ways, is similar to a ma chine. He receives his inputs ' via sound, sight, touch, smell, taste, and the propriocep tive senses and, in turn,- operates on the inputs with a complex of mechanical, chemi-. cal, and electrical systems, and delivers a workable, output in terms of force 0_ dis placement to. the system. He is-often com pared to a. servo system. He receives aninput signal, feeds badk an output signal, ' and compares the results with the input. "The human factors engineer 1 wants to know which functions are best assigned to the man, and which to the machine. He wants to know how well man can do the job assigned to him arid what factors influence his performance. He wants to know how many in a given population can do specific tasks and how to discover them. He knows that the reliability of a given system is no better than the weakest link and his job is to make sure'that the weakest link in the manmachihe system is hot the man. "The human engineer knows that ma-' chines are best at making rapid responses and computations, handling simultaneously many complex operations, applying force smoothly and precisely,, and performing re petitive tasks. Man excels where inductive reasoning, judgment, imagination, and broad memory are required." The human factors engineer -uses his knowledge of. the characteristics of. man and machines in recommending the assignment of functions to man and. to equipment dur ing the development of a system. He makes use of knowledge developed by, or he works on. teams comprised of, such specialists as industrial and experimental psychologists, industrial engineers, industrial, designers, -physicians, physiologists, biolo gists, biophysicists, anthropologists, life-sup port systems engineers, environmental .engi neers, toxicologists; simulation engineers, mathematicians, systems analysts, and physi cists. Historically, the human factors engi neer has. been trained in psychology and has learned to use the tools' of math, physics, and engineering. If he is successful, he has also learned how to convince the design en gineer of the necessity of using human fac tors principles in a given man-machine de sign. - THe Justification for Human Factors Engi neering. Over the'last 20 years, there has been a growing demand for the knowledge and ca pability provided by professional and other personnel who can be categorized as "human factors specialists." This , growth is dynamic, and all'signs point toward an increasingly significant future for the discipline of human factors engineering. It is my estimate that more, than 3,000 persons, whose qualifications and responsibil ities place them in the human factors spe cialist category, are-currently employed in the United States by industry, business, uni versities, research'organizations, and govern ment agencies.. If we can then consider as valid criteria for "success," these facts of (1) a dynamic existence and-influence, (2) widespread use of the discipline by impor tant segments of the industrial, academic, and government communities, and (3) a large number of human factors specialists in current practice, the justification for intro duction of the specialty into a wider spec trum of industrial setting is substantially es tablished. The National Safety Congress is con cerned with safety in its broadest sense, and since one of the objectives of the human fac- . tors specialist and the industrial safety spe- 63 1967 National Safety Congress cinlist Is to assure that man can perform his engage, have you ever .'failed to notice the tasks safely, one assumes. that the safety malfunction because the flasher signal and movement should benefit from human fac auditory signal were too weak to command tors activities, and otee versa. your attention? To return again to the nature of human factors, engineering,, one might ask how human factors engineering, as' a specialty, differs from'other design engineering prac Have you ever heard of an aircraft acci-. dent'caused by a pilot activating the wrong control, misreading an important instrument, or being unable to actuate a control in time? tices, whether or hot it really is only the ap If you can't think of a single, instance . plication of common, sense during the design where a mishap, a. serious ! accident, or an process, and who really needs it. inefficient operation has occurred because of Human factors engineering is, of course, an integral part of design engineering, dif fering only in that, it concentrates on the human aspects of man-machine design. Too frequently, the designer'becomes engrossed in developing a new. piece of equipment to perform a given function and concentrates on the mechanical ' features, size, . weight, inadequate attention given ' in the design process to the human operator and his known limitations, you have been an unu sually fortunate user of equipment engi neered with exceptional concern for its. human factors aspects; or, 'your critical or perceptive faculties may. be somewhat insen sitive. power requirements, mean time-to failure,' With respect to merely applying common . and the relationship of the' equipment to sense in the design process,' human factors other equipment items. The man, and the engineering does incorporate common sense nature arid effect of his predictable behavior to a considerable degree. In. fact, much of as a component of the system, have often human factors engineering is, essentially, the been relegated to .last place in the design de organized integration of information . ob liberations, and the engineer frequently uses tained from observation, experience, (direct a "seat-of-the-pahts" or. self-testing criteria as well as. vicarious), and the application of for.his design choice.' The "if I can do it, human vision and creativity to' project reach it, or read it, then it's O.K." philoso- ' known data in order to anticipate action or phy has prevailed more times than we would results. ' like to admit! One does not have to look - However, common sense alone may not very far. to find .instances of the application always 'lead the designer to the right deci of this questionable assumption. For exam sion, particularly in man-machine systems in ple: volving relatively new technological environ Can you readily tell, which knob controls'' ments ' for which human experience is too. which burner on your kitchen stove, or the limited to provide a "common' sense" basis . volume on your television set? for a design decision. Many of the facts he Can you shift gears in any U.S. or foreign' must know to make the right man-machine automobile without some concentrated design decision are not commonly known, or study? if known, are frequently overlooked. Our Are the safety features on 'machine tools knowledge of human behavior, the abilities actually foolproof and do they help or , and limitations of humans, and how a hinder efficient operation?' human responds under stress is, linfortu-. . Do you know what color combinations in nately, quite incomplete, highway signs are most easily detected from your auto or. which automobile colors are. most readily visible at twilight? Have you ever been confused by express way direction signs, on-androff-ramp traffic patterns, yield-right-of-way signs, or other highway instructions? Even the human factors, specialist will quickly admit that ,he. doesn't have all the answers. He does have, however, some good ideas and some proven techniques for ob-. taining most of them. He also knows how.to use and interrelate the knowledge of many other disciplines in order to arrive at valid Can you quickly and accurately read auto- ' and practical solutions to the man-machine mobile dashboard instruments at night or. lo interface problems. cate critical car controls without removing - In answer to the question, "Who needs your eyes from the road? human engineering?", my reply is, simply, ' When you car's turn indicators fail to dis that every designer of a piece of equipment 64 ' Industrial Safety Subject Sessions for which, a mon-machine interface exists, every builder of such equipment, every per son who uses it and/or maintains it, and ev eryone who markets it needs human factors engineering, whether .such service is per formed by a trained specialist or .by a well infonned designer. It is'needed for cost ef required for the function, and specifies the . most productive sequence of performance. From this analysis, he establishes manequipment interdependencies,- operator-tooperator relationships and dependencies, critical events, environmental. constraints, and personnel selection and training criteria. fectiveness,'in order to keep redesign, re trofit, arid modification costs down, to reduce the cost of selection and training, to improve operational efficiency and to prevent costly and, frequently, deadly accidents! The time-line analysis is developed in as sociation with design engineers and systems planners with, the human factors engineer serving as spokesman for the man in the man-machine system. As such, he makes rec Human Factors Engineering Techniques. How does the human factors practitioner participate in' and, hopefully,. improve the man-machine design process? In most indus tries, the human factors specialist, is a mem ber of an interdisciplinary team. He collects and synthesizes data- pertinent to the human who operates or maintains a system. ommendations concerning work-space; selec tion, location, and arrangement of controls , and displays; seating and illumination" re quirements; protecting man in the system environment;: safeguarding against hazards; , operating and emergency procedures; visibil ity requirements; .comfort and sanitation pro. visions; feeding, recreation, work-rest cycles, crew re-cycling, and personnel selection and His first responsibility is to understand-the purpose of a newly conceived system. The operations research analyst or the mission/system analyst hopefully have described the purpose and' requirements in detail. Through a painstaking task-equipment analysis, the human factors engineer takes a first cut at the 'assignment of. tasks in gross terms to the machine and to the human component. This task allocation is based on the human factor engineer's knowledge of the state-of-the-art capabilities and limitations of man versus, machine. training requirements; and any other aspect that may affect human performance and safety. It is important to note that the human fac tors engineer makes recommendations; but that these recommendations must' be ac cepted and implemented by the design engi neer who must be convinced-that the sug gested human factors provisions are essential and practical. To-help convince-the-design engineer of the soundness of these recom mendations, therefore,.the industrial designer ' and -mockup developers are often called on Once this gross determination--the begin ning of a highly iterative , process--is made, the- human factors- engineer may review how similar, systems have been operated. He in terviews experienced operators to determine the manner in which tasks were performed; when and how frequently their performance was required; which tasks can be considered critical; what operating difficulties typically ' occur; which elements or circumstances cause discomfort, fatigue, or error; and the' reasons for' performing a task in a given fashion. He analyzes accidents associated with such performance, performs error analysesj or develops a theoretical model of the total task performance. to construct either a scaled-down mockup of part of the system in which manikins can be placed to establish man-equipment inter faces, or a full-scale soft or hard mockup of. the system in which various test subjects cah perform specific tasks required to fulfill im-. portant functions. A soft mockup can -be constructed quickly and inexpensively of foamcor, a cardboard-like material, or ply wood. If the mockup is to be used fre quently in tests or demonstrations to the cus tomer, it may be made of materials with greater structural integrity and with equip ment which has greater "face validity," that is, the ability to look and even operate much - like the system to be actually built The next step is the development of a theoretical time-line analysis in which the human-factors engineer sets forth, for each required function, the separate tasks to'be performed, identifies the elements' of each task, provides an estimate of the total' time We call this use of mockups and task sim ulation, "design verification," since it pro vides tiie-designer and the human factors specialist with an opportunity for checking out design concepts through the use of hu man subjects. This part of the procedure V;':' 1967 National Safety Congress may well be one of the most cost-effective steps in the entire design'process since It occurs before a design is frozen and permits redesign to take place at low cost.. It is cer tainly on effective tool for the human engi. . neer to lie fa'establishing the importance, of early recognition of human performance and reaction problems. . .: I recall a recent experience in which a .. customer could not be convinced that a "given requirement was unrealistic arid uri workable, despite engineering analyses, drawings, arid "table-pounding." In despera tion;, the human. factors engineer arranged for buildinga dynamic hard mockup to re solve the impasse. Only one demonstration to thb customer representatives was necessary .to inake the point This solution to such a problemmay seem like. an expensive way. to , make a design point; ' however, the Cost of the mockup will, I am stfre, everitually.be V-" . ' saved many, times over in view of the result-, tog important changes made in the design before it was frozen; Further, .the developers . of .this- mockup. had 'sufficient foresight to build' it as. a design simulator, and. it has been'and will be used many more' times in further design verification studies arid, possi bly, to operator training. Mockupsare also used for.the systematic empirical study of man's performance and behavior. For. example, a theoretical' time- ' line analysis can be made more credible through a series of performance trials of the tasks to- be performed. One such study was designed to develop estimates of the time re quired for a single space-suited astronaut, to conduct a series of biomedical and behav : ioral experiments, in a small spacecraft such as. the Apollo Lunar Excursion Module. 'A full-scale mockup was built, and mockups of experimental equipment were constructed and installed. Subjects experienced to con ducting die. simulated experiments and sub jects without such experience were observed while performing space experimental tasks to a shirt-sleeve environment or while wearing space-suits. .. < Theoretical estimates as well as computer ized estirhates had been made of the times to complete the tasks; When subjected to empirical tmalysis, however, significant differences, between - theoretical and actual data were found to performance times, to . the logic of the sequences, and. in the inter relationships among the experiments. New sequences became apparent; techniques .for experimental integration were discovered;. and important design., characteristics were developed to ensure that the tasks could be conducted efficiently. Further, we know that' even more information must be gained from . more sophisticated experimentation and sim ulation before the actual biomedical- /behavioral experiments can take place fa space. I should like to emphasize that the fore going steps do not need to be sequential or independent. They may occur fa . a different , order or be accomplished simultaneously and still be ofvalue, because of .the need for. many.iterations fa the design process. \ . A more complete' and sophisticated simu- . lation'usedl'in the human factors engineering process . is system simulation. Man-to-theloop simulation, for example, is another tech nique, employed by the human factors engi- . neer (as well as by a number of lather disci plines) and is a considerably more expensive tool. The .greater cost is incurred because an effort is made to achieve; a higher degree of fidelity, that is, causing the simulation to. re semble the actual system as much as possible fa terms of appearance, accessories, environ ment, and equipment functioning and con trols. The equipment is made functional through the use of flight-type hardware, ana log, digital, and hybrid' (analog/digital) computers, and-elaborate computer programs that'make the simulator behave much like the real system. Many . of you are' familiar with simulators used for flight' training, but the human factors engineer also uses such equipment as part of the design process. These simulators may duplicate part of the tasks to be . performed by the crew or vir tually all of the aspects of a complete mis sion to the extent that these can be dupli cated on earth. A part-task simulator may be .developed to study just one critical aspect of a space mis sion, such as how effectively an astronaut dm maneuver his spacecraft,' or to conduct a study of all tasks to be performed by the crew. Simulators also may approximate some of the environmental conditions to be found fa space,, such as weightlessness'or the ef fects of the low lunar gravity. In addition to the development and use of system simulation as a design tool, the human factors research specialist engages fa a wide variety of behavioral experiments and 66 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions simulation studies in order to develop the principles of human behavior and to predict how man will, perforin tinder new and, fre quently, high' stress conditions. The results obtained from this research are both quanti tative and qualitative. They are presented in technical reports, reference guides, and de sign handboolcs and are applicable to system design, and operations planning. An example of- an environmental simula:tion facility is die Lockheed Biotechnology environmental chamber which reproduces some of the environmental aspects of opera tions in space. The chamber is 18 x 18 x 36 feet and produces an altitude equivalent of 325,000 feet. It has a separately operated airlock which is 10x10 x 10 feet, and which is' equipped with ' a Lockheed-deyeloped two-gas, regenerative, environmental control system. ' Human factors' engineers" are also, inter ested in assuring that the. equipment (hey use experimentally is well-designed in terms ' of human factors aspects. To this end, Lock heed's biotechnology specialists in human engineering,' industrial design, aerospace, medicine, human physiology, and environ mental simulation designed the control con sole of this chamber to assure efficient and safe operation of the equipment. The importance of safety to human factors and biotechnology specialists, not only in equipment and system design and operation, but in conducting hazardous - experiments with human subjects, was- dramatized in a . recent program at the Lockheed biotechnol ogy, facilities in Sunnyvale, California, The space environmental chamber had been scheduled for use in a series of tests to evaluate the two-gas, regenerative, environ mental control and life-support system which had been installed in the airlock of the cham ber (setup to represent an early lunar shel ter), and to simulate selected aspects, of lunar missions in the main chamber. The test program provided for four volun teer subjects from Lockheed and Litton In dustries living for. five days in the airlock early lunar shelter at ah 18,000-foot equiva lent altitude and breathing an atmosphere of 42 per cent oxygen and 58 per cent nitrogen. This `atmosphere was provided by the twogas, regenerative, life-support system, and drinking water was obtained by reclaiming it from urine, and atmospheric condensate. During the fourth and fifth days of the test, two of the subjects took turns in per forming lunar tasks at % gravity, through use of this partial-gravity simulator in the main chamber at an equivalent altitude of 100,000 feet. The test subjects wore Litton hard suits and simulated, personal, life-support back-pack systems which delivered pUre oxygen for breathing at a 3.7 psi differential. A similar but shorter lunar surface simula tion study had been .conducted by Lockheed one year earlier. Our biotechnology specialists had spent more than one year in the development of requirements and specifications for the space environmental chamber to assure that it could be man-rated for safe operation in manned testing. Nevertheless, when we planned to conduct this manned test after the Apollo fire tragedy, we learned that NASA did not consider our facility to be ready for manned testing in an oxygen-rich environment. Although our study was not under con tract to NASA, we were fortunate to have a NASA safety procedures review committee inspect our facility, evaluate our procedures, . and advise us concerning safety of opera tions.' This very competent group of seven highly trained specialists recommended man datory or highly desirable steps to be taken to man-rate die facility. A considerable num ber of precautionary actions and changes were therefore completed by Lockheed be fore conducting the five-day manned test in June 1967. Some of these steps, typical of. points to be considered in man-rating a facil- ' ity and related experimental procedures, are as follows: - 1. Special emergency lighting, independent of the building's emergency system, was . installed for. the chamber airlock, cham ber, chamber control station, and medi cal room. 2. Additional back-up emergency voice communication equipment was installed. .3. Emergency oxygen-supply equipment, for the life-support back pack was pro vided. 4. A nitrogen repressurization system was installed in the airlock. 5. A hyperbaric chamber was installed for treating-bends. 6. A pull test was conducted of all environ mental control system hoses and fittings to assure that they could not be-inad- . vertently dislodged. 67 1967 National Safety Congress 7. Special fire-protective clothing was pro- Experts in one field can learn a great deal , vided for test subjects and rescue per from, experts in another. There is little room sonnel. for smugness or complacency in this busi 8.. Intensive training in emergency proce ness, particularly when human life or well dures was provided the test subjects and being is at stake, whether it be in system de . test conductors, and a detailed record sign and operation, or in experimentation. was maintained of each step in the My purpose in describing the objectives, training process as a specific guide for concepts, techniques, activities, and prob future training. ,, lems characterizing the application of human 9. A water-spray, firo-fighting system .was factors engineering has been to develop a installed in the airlock. greater understanding and appreciation re 10. All equipment was disassembled or garding the nature w this discipline and its - drawings checked to ensure that compo ' present influences and staitus. I have also nents could meet the new NASA specifi tried , to emphasize the potential it offers for cations pertaining to nonflammability in producing maximum effectiveness, efficiency, oxygen-rich environments. and safety in man-machine systems. 11. Components were replaced, as necessary, The considerations I have presented do re with materials which - could meet the flect somewhat the influence of the con new flammability standards. siderable system complexity and high devel 12. An extensive failure inodes analysis was opment costs prevailing in the "aerospace in conducted for the airlock, chamber, en dustry. However, many of the principles and vironmental-control system, and emer techniques described can be applied by gency equipment to assure that no single human factors engineers, with some modifi or double failure could occur in a com cation and on a smaller scale where ap ponent critical to die life of the-test sub- - propriate or necessary, to improve any man- jects and experimenters.' machine system, operation, or relationship. The five day test was successfully con This applicability exists for any area of . tech cluded in June 1967. A valuable lesson re nology or industrial or economic effort where emphasized by this experience was that the man seeks to augment his strength, his skill, ' learning process never stops in any aspect of his perceptivity, or his productivity through human factors, design, or safety engineering. the medium of the machine. The Safety Specialist's Function WHAT I EXPECT OF THE SAFETY SPECIALIST By ARTHUR H. CHRISTIAN Division Safety Engineer^ FMC -Corporation, American Viscose & Chemical Divisions, Philadelphia, Penn. President, American Society of Safety Engineers In this time of Big Sciences, in this era and other moving machinery were gradually called the Space Age, in this generation - closed to prevent people from coming in growing increasingly accustomed to the lux contact with this moving equipment This uries of instant "everything" (including in was good. stant death), it is not surprising that some As the mechanical equipment became bet workers, and, indeed, some management,- ex ter protected, and yet accidents and result pect instant industrial safety. - ing injuries continued to occur, emphasis I soy, "Humbugl" was placed upon the importance of the indi Like everything else in life worthwhile, in vidual's' behavior and its contribution to dustrial safety, and, for that matter, safety in ' these events.- This was good. any' area of human activity can .be achieved About this time, someone came up with-a only -by intelligent hard work. theory -that all accidents could be attributed Industry currently seems to have a num- - either to "unsafe acts" or "unsafe condi-' ber of vexing problems in the accident pre tions," and that accidents could be catego vention 'area. Without question, processes rized as primarily the result of either one or and products are getting more sophisticated the other of these. This was bad. It made a and exotic, there are more real technical nice simple package, and if true, all acci problems. Even more challenging ore the in dents and the resulting injuries or loss could creasing demands by people--the heart of be put into one compartment or the other-- the-'accident or safety problem. As part of and sometimes in both--but it was an over their desire .for more security, they want simplification. both easier jobs and less effort required for Concurrently with these developments, the discharge of their personal responsibility there.has come into being a number of indi for safety. Compensation laws are becoming viduals who specialized in finding ways and increasingly generous and this, coupled with. means of preventing these accidents and currently stylish third-party law suits for their 'injuries or loss. Gradually, as knowl product liability,. represents just one more edge .was increased in this field as well .as. ever present increase in the cost of doing others, and as our own .civilization has be business. Surely, all will agree that there is come more complex, there came an increas some risk in all human activities* It is diffi ing realization that accidents are not simple . cult for me to imagine a totally safe enter occurrences but, rather, are very complex in-' prise-even Federal. deed insofar as identification.of the causes is In the industrial community, when indus concerned. At the same time, it also has be trial safety and industrial accident preven- come generally accepted that there is some . tion began to assume importance around the risk' or hazard to practically all undertakings, early 1900s as a result of the adoption of and that the word "safe" is not an absolute compulsory Workmen's Compensation Insur term but rather a relative term; It merely de- ance in -many of the states, attention was fo .scribes something as being either more.safe cused on the hazards created by the various than something else, or less safe than some types of machinery which were being devel thing else. It is- not a "go" or "no-go" situa oped . and installed and used . to produce tion. goods. Because the accidents and injuries The American Society of Safety Engineers which resulted from these accidents were firmly believes that preventing accidents and usually dramatic, and also very serious, pri injury or loss by developing control mecha mary emphasis was devoted to "guarding" nisms is a specialized field. Loss prevention the equipment. Exposed gears, belts, pulleys. is a sophisticated business and requires a 1967 National Safety Congress - scientific approach. Nothing less will do. If effort in carrying out job safety analysis we are to remain competitive as individuals, (both of proposed operations as well as ex . plants, corporations--yes, even as a nation isting ones) yet it yields quite impressive and possibly as a-planet--safety must be in . and worthwhile returns. Certainly, it is a far cluded, and given a fair share , of attention. better approach than flag waving and poster ASSE, therefore, embarked upon a program posting or, for that matter, even periodic five which is designed to identify the work that minute talks using a shotgun approach. these' specialists should be doing--the lands Often it represents a refreshing change in of knowledge and abilities that they should pace, since it uses specifics as opposed to acquire to perform-the task; and to develop generalizations. While there are a number of ways and means whereby individuals can be ways of doing this, basically it is merely given the kind of education that will enable breaking any job operation down into the es theni to perform this work more effectively sential elements, identifying the obvious and in the future. . not so. obvious hazards, and then deciding Phase I of a three phase program, defining how these hazards either are going to be the scope and the functions that the individ eliminated, mitigated, or safeguarded. For . ual should perform,: has been completed. existing facilities, certainly, I would recom The essential elements of these functions mend no crash-basis program, but instead a are presented with the thought that this is gradual and ongoing program, beginning ei- the way the Society sees this field of .special ' ther with one segment of a very hazardous ization as it should develop in future years. process or a widely used operation that lends. There are four major areas: - itself to the technique. 1. Identification and appraisal of accident and loss producing conditions and practices, and evaluation of the severity of the acci dent problem. . 2. Development of: accident prevention and loss control methods, procedures, and programs. 3. Communication of accident and loss control information to those directly in volved. 4. Measurement and evaluation of the ef fectiveness of the accideqt and loss control system . and ' the modifications needed to achieve optimum' results. Along with this must be feedback to be used for modifica tions at any step of the procedure. Identification and Appraisal of the Accident Problem. The first function is described as "identifi cation and appraisal of accident, and loss producing conditions and practices, and evaluation of the severity of the accident problem." Certainly, identifying the kinds of .hazards and the magnitude of the hazard in sofar as its* potential results are concerned is the first and most-important step. This is like any problem solving situation where the most important thing is to identify and clearly state the problem. Only then have you made a beginning. , Identification of Hazards. Hazard analysis of existing facilities, operations, and products' represents a modest investment in time and As recommended, the' procedure hopefully uncovers hidden hazards that well might not be realized until after an accident or injury. Obviously, it is completely undesirable to. take a post-mortem approach to safety and correct either unsafe practices or unsafe acts only after a loss occurs. Moreover, this proc ess enlists the active cooperation of employ ees, often in a greatly more effective fashion than many other approaches such os general promotion or even emphasis on overly-de- , tailed departmental safety regulations. It lends itself to use as a training device and' safety orientation of new or transferred em ployees. Most important, the first draft should be done initially by the first line su pervisor on each shift (if it is done by some one else, such as the safety engineer, it would be comparable to someone else eating your dinner-for you). It should be reviewed with each operator to establish valuable two-way communication about safety or the specifics of the job done every, day, with the same equipment, and with tire same mate rials--the only difference,, theoretically, being people. A composite, then should be made, possi bly utilizing the staff services of safety per sonnel, or even the well-educated, welltrained, well-experienced industrial engineer-. ing staff. Eventually, a final draft should be made after review either in a group or indi vidually with all concerned, so that the sin gle best way of doing the job with' the same 70 ga . Industrial Safety Subject Sessions process, equipment, and working environ causes can be more, clearly defined and ment is firmly established by agreement. thereby- controlled.. . Subsequent periodic, review, well may reveal Aii example of this would be the thorough startling "Saturday afternoon short cuts" and investigation that' is nude on all aircraft innovations. crashes. Pieces of the aircraft are gathered Evaluation of Losses. The economic losses together and may even he reassembled; in that result from accidents need to be pre struments have been developed which will sented in a fashion which make them, easily . shed information oh what was occurring understood, and need, to he developed with immediately prior to th: accident. Similar a high degree of accuracy. Again, there have procedures are used in chemical explosions. been certain "rules of thumb" which have been talked about in general terms, but there is ample evidence to indicate that there is very little factual data to support some of these rules of thumb. It is extremely probable, in. my, judgement, that two differ ent industrial establishments in the same city might sustain different economic losses from an industrial accident which results in an in jury, depending on the kind of operation or the kind of process that is .being conducted in the two establishments. Even off-the-job injuries can fool you--with today's employee Often, the most glaring apparent cause has the least to contribute. It takes real re search. This specialism. also would include providing the lands of advice and counsel that would be necessary to insure that the industrial establishment was in compliance with the applicable laws, regulations, or codes existing throughout the area in which it was located. This is becoming increasingly important. The Need For Other Disciplines. One of' the important attributes of any specialist-is to recognize that there are others with cer benefits, they are just as expensive as work injuries, just as disruptive to orderly conduct of business, and -almost without, exception there are vastly more off-the-job injuries than tain specialized knowledge who can assist in the solution of the problems that are pre sented. Certainly, in this area, the safety spe cialist would recognize the need for consul work injuries. tation with medical personnel, perhaps in Probability of Human Error. If we utilize dustrial hygienists, psychologists, fire protec the' concept of systems along with some of tion engineers, etc., who could assist in the the more reoent information that is available solution of a particular problem. on the probability of human error in per Included. in this area would "be keeping forming certain tasks, we can develop some abreast of the technological developments evaluation of both the probability of error and the problems that these would create in and the result that it will produce. The error sofar as the safety and health of personnel that humans make may be the error of the and the protection of property were con worker, supervisor, or--would you believe cerned; The conduct of research studies of --the manager! Some errors will result in technical- safety problems--i.e. establishing rather minor problems or minor injuries, but the true safety .parameters of complex chemi- others obviously may result in the loss of an . cal reactions is an excellent example of a entire production facility. Certainly, we vital activity that might be a full-time job ought to spend the greatest time and effort - for a safety professional. and most money eclectically on problems Development of Accident and Injury Con and areas that will do the most 'good and trols. Having evaluated the kind and severity give the greatest return on money. Concen of potential loss-producing situations, it now trate on the important. becomes necessary to develop methods of Valid Data of Causative Fjfbtors. One of the most important function^ to be - per formed is the development of methods of de termining the multiple causes that contribute to the occurrence of an accident and the re-, control. At this stage, the job- is to develop a system or method or protective device that either will eliminate the probability of acci dent occurrence or reduce its severity to the point where it can be tolerated. suiting injury or property damage. This pre Standards, Policies, Systems. Develop poli sumes the obtaining of valid, reliable infor cies, codes, safety standards, and procedures mation, in depth investigation, and develop that become part of the operational policies ment of specific categories and factors which of the organization. It should be realized have relevancy to the accident so that the that it is practically impossible to develop 71 1987 National Safety Congress rules and regulations that would cover eveiy ample of the latter point is the provision of conceivable situation. The rules and regula eye protection or head protection; which is tions that exist should be reasonable and not in fact preventing the occurrence but is practical, and. management should be pre in essence providing the individual with pro pared to enforce them, unwaveringly. Re tection so that he will not be injured as se gardless of what policies, codes, standards, verely as he would without it and procedures are officially issued, there The. safety engineer should consult' with should be great emphasis on the fact that those who are involved in the modification . each person must discharge his personal re . or the design of new equipment or proce sponsibility for safety. dures or operations to assist in focusing at One concept that has been successful is tention upon those operations or facilities that of "positive control." The approach is to that would create a higher .degree of hazard try to emphasize to supervisor and worker than can be accepted 'under the present state alike that they must view each job situation of knowledge. ' with a personal evaluation as to whether or By working with those who have the re not safety is .under positive control. This can sponsibility' for selection and placement of range from such highly technical approaches personnel, he-could assist in the placement as .recommending that safety parameters of of personnel in the lands of activities which safety processes be established by in-depth are best suited for the capabilities 'of the in study of the same , type that reactions, qual dividual in question. ity, yield, profitability, and other factors are He would continually keep abreast of the given, down to such simple precautions as technological, developments and equipment having office filing cabinets and shelves posi designed to eliminate or minimize hazards tively fixed to walls to insure that they can't and determine whether these have applica fall over regardless of-unstable loads or other tion to those operations or activities with strains imposed on them. . which he is directly concerned. In carrying out this function, the' safety professional uses his specialized knowledge of accident causation and control to pres cribe an integrated accident .and loss control system designed to: He may and should become involved in the safety of the product that is being manu factured, because of his specialized knowl edge in the area of accident causation. This is an increasingly important area. 1. Eliminate causative factors associated with the accident' problem, preferably before an accident occurs. . Communicate Loss Decision Makers. Control Information to ' 2. Where'it is not possible to eliminate After identifying the' hazards dnd the se the hazard, devise mechanisms to reduce the. verity of the accident problem that exists degree of hazard. and then developing methods, systems,- and It should be emphasized' here that the techniques whereby these hazards can be safety professional should not be expected to kept under control, it is now vitally impor devise and carry out all. the loss .prevention activities himself, but rather should recom mend and participate in the approach. The safety engineer, himself, is not. totally re- tant for the safety specialist to be able to communicate this information to those di rectly involved-and who have final responsi bility for the operation. 'sponsible for the prevention of 'accidents! Thus, he would compile and analyze arid The safety engineer's primary emphasis is provide interpretation of the .data that is going to be attempting to foresee the situa tion in advance and, utilizing his. knowledge of the multiple causative factors that are in volved, taking such measures as will elimi nate as many of those causative factors as possible. If it isn't possible, as it may well not be, to eliminate them, he.may take some intermediate step to at least reduce the haz available and would prepare reports that would be meaningful to those who have ulti mate responsibility for taking'action. How ever, data should riot be gathered for- data's sake. The intelligence from such data should be used in the plant or. in the department or in the- group where it is generated at the earliest time possible. ard or even reduce the severity of the results Recognizing the need for specialized edu of an accident, utilizing specialized equip cation and training programs for those di ment designed for that purpose. A good ex rectly involved in the operation, he would 72 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions assist in the development of this .material find that one of the truck drivers might have with the purpose of reducing the probability been there for twenty years with never a dis of human error. ' abling injury and possibly six first aid cases; He must persuade, using, every means at whereas at the other extreme, another opera- hand, those who have ultimate decision mak- tor has one or two disabling injuries a year ing responsibilities to. adopt and - use those and a first aid case almost every week. This controls which a preponderance of evidence approach best can be done in a low-pressure indicates are best suited to achieve the de fashion without a formal announcement, sired results and the end objective. doing it on the basis of "What can we do to A variety of' communication methods help?" Effort put into programs of this type would be utilized to demonstrate useful al will be most rewarding. - ternative methods and their application to those who have the ultimate decision making responsibility. The communication tech Measurement and. Evaluation of Accident . and Loss Control System. niques he will need develop are those which ' Lastly, the safety specialist should evalu ore going to be timely and. readily urider- ate and measure the results of the effort and stood from the frame of. reference of. the par the control methods that have been insti ticular type of activity involved.. tuted to determine whether they are produc The safety engineer provides advice and counsel on the type and channels of.communicatidns to insure the timely and efficient transmission of useable accident prevention information to those concerned. One ap proach I like-is-total loss prevention. Total loss prevention is not an unrealistic goal. While difficult of accomplishment, and long range at best, it is a worthy objective. For. example, we must be interested' in preven tion of all hostile fires, not just those that might level the plant. Similarly, we should strive for prevention of injuries of the slight est degree, ndt just disabling or lost time in juries.. . To do this, it. is necessary to develop so cial pressure in behalf of accident prevention --that is, to get the .individual worker to the point where he thinks accident prevention is his idea. Social pressure can best be in creased in the direction of total injury- pre vention by .competition; for example, be tween shifts in a particular department on the basis of total injuries, rather, than serious ing the desired results. In other words, the' best program or the best controls that can be devised may not be producing the kinds of results that .are needed; if so, there should be some way by which they- can be evalu ated and measured so that changes or modi fications can be made to make them more ef fective; -Thus,, the specialist would develop some type of measurement technique to fit a par ticular operation, so that he could determine at any particular time whether the control system is effective or not. He would also de velop a method that would determine the cost of the.control system in terms of its ef fectiveness and its contribution to the reduc tion of accidents and losses and injuries. He would provide a means whereby information concerning the effectiveness of these control measurements would go back to those who have ultimate decision making responsibility and would include , with these those recom mended modifications or changes that would be indicated by such analysis. . or disabling only. The favorable total results It may appear to you that this would re achieved by such an approach far outweigh quire a great deal of talent. We firmly be any possible small percentage of injuries that lieve that-it will and that this is the objective go unreported. Moreover; this small percent towards which those in .the safety " field, age lends itself quite well to disciplinary ac should strive. As you can see from this, the tion for non-reporting- in the event they are specialist will have a broad understanding of uncovered later, as by infection. the physical sciences as well as the behav Another practical and productive ap proach is by personalizing safety--counsel ing those individuals who have greater than. their share of total injuries in any given pe ioral sciences. He will recognize the inter-re lationship that exists between human beings and the. environment in which they .find themselves. riod of time. For example, in comparing in Because this will require knowledge in dustrial truck operators operating the same more than one discipline, it is quite probable truck on the four shifts, it is astounding to that there will develop specializations within 1967 National Safety Congress this field that will make it possible to ap however, is that the fundamentals of this ap proach the problem horn 'a team point of proach would apply in whatever activity the view,, utilizing the many disciplines that are specialist finds himself. He might have to involved so that they will result in less acci learn the specific application of some of dents, injuries, and loss of material and. these techniques and methods, but having property; and thus, the safety professional been well trained in the fundamentals, he will become a reality. . would be able' to apply these fundamentals With the wide variety of industrial opera- ' to the particular problems which exist. tions carried on today, in some instances . The best qualified practitioners will be some of. die' functions which we have de truly safety professionals with broad educa scribed may not be applicable to the particu tional background, training, and talents for lar operations. The underlying principle. broad administration. SCOPE and FUNCTIONS of the PROFESSIONAL SAFETY POSITION Professional Development Project--Phase One (Adopted by the Board of Directors, American Society of Safety Engineers, October 22,1966) In 1963'the executive committee of the study and comment. As a result of that dis- American Society of Safety' Engineers ini- tribution, during the summer of 1966, more Hated a project which was designed to. than 700 members responded, of which al- identify the type of work safety personnel most' 200 .offered specific comments. This should be doing, and to establish a plan for document embodies many of the most their growth and development which would thoughtful suggestions, give them legitimate' claim' before manage- . This description, has been approved by the ment and the public as practitioners' of Board of Directors. It will serve as a guide professional standing. to those who have need for professional ' The project was recommended by. the Col- safety services to utilize those services more leges and- Societies Committee under the effectively, and furnish the .basis for the de chairmanship of Dr. W. E. Tarrants. An out- velopment of a field of study for the individ- line of the project was prepared by Dr. Tar- .. ual member of the Society while the devel- rants, submitted to the Society's Executive opment of a formal curriculum is under way. Committee, and subsequently published in . It' is contemplated that this will be a live the February, 1965, issue of the Journal of document subject to change or modification the American Society of Safety Engineers, as the' project progresses. . In the-outline, it was proposed that the proj- (NOTE: In safety work today a large vari ed be undertaken in three distinct phases. ety of position titles are used, including Phase One is 'to- describe the. scope and . .safety director,.safety manager; safety engi- funch'ons of the position; Phase Two is to neer, safety supervisor, safety officer, safety develop a curriculum or formal course of consultant, and safety specialist. In some study leading to a university degree which cases the title used is consistent with other will prepare the safety professional to per- .position titles.used in the organization. In form the functions that were described in other cases the title is one of' individual Phase One; and the third phase will be de- choice. Recognizing that there is. a wide signed to establish procedures leading to the . difference of opinion and, in many cases, acquisition of some form of certification or strong personal' preference for a pqjticular registration as a means of demonstrating safety title, the generic term "safety profes- competence in the field. ` sional" will be used throughout this docu- This is Phase One of the project. It de- ment.) scribes the scope and major functions of the __ ,, professional safety position. It was prepared e *uture f l',e Profession. by the Project Review Board, and approved During the past 50 years there has been by the Executive Committee for distribution an orderly development of a. substantial to the membership of the Society for their body of"knowledge .which, when applied 74  Industrial Safety Subject Sessions with sufficient skill and judgment, has pro ministrative level! The entrance level could duced significant reductions in many types be analogous to the intern in the medical of accidents and accidental injuries. How-. profession representing an individual who eveiv further advancement demands clear had completed'a course of study in the field concepts regarding the work that must be and was now gaining necessary experience. done in the future by those who wish to. It could also represent a careerist who might achieve professional status. specialize in one segment of the field. Accidental occurrences,, whether they are fires, motor Vehicle accidents, or occupa tional injuries, for example, are extremely complex and involve many contributing fac tors involving human beings and their physi The administrative level could represent the manager or administrator of a large unit in a governmental agency or substantial in dustrial ' organization. In many cases the professional safety position .could represent cal environment. the administrative level, as well. The scope The tremendous' increase in scientific and functions described are those of the knowledge and technological `advancement professional safety position. during the past 20 years has added to the complexities of safety work. Future applica tion of this knowledge in all aspects of our civilization, whether in industry, transporta tion, or recreation, makes it imperative that those in this field of endeavor be trained to utilize scientific principles and methods to The safety professional -brings together those elements of the-various disciplines nec essary to identify `and evaluate die magni tude of the safety problem. He collects and ' analyzes the information essential to the so lution of the problem. He is concerned with all facets of the problem, personal, and envi achieve adequate results. There are several important trends in the pattern of the safety professional's develop ment which have emerged and which appear to indicate the future of the profession. First is an increasing emphasis upon the need for greater effort towards analyzing the loss potential of the activity with which the. ronmental, transient and permanent, to de termine the causes of accidents or the exist ence of loss producing conditions, practices, or materials. Based upon the information, he has col lected and analyzed, -he proposes alternate solutions, together with recommendations based upon his specialized knowledge and safety professional is concerned. Such' analy sis will require greater ability to predict where and how loss and injury producing events will occur in the future and the. means of preventing such events.. Second is the need for increased develop experience, to those who have ultimate declr sion-making resppnsibilities. The functions of the position are'de scribed as they may be applied in principle to the safety professional in any activity. ment of factual, unbiased, and objective in Functions of the Professional Safety Position. formation about loss producing problems and accident causation so that those who have ultimate decision-making responsibili ties can make sound decisions concerning the appropriate action they must take. Third is the use of the safety professional in a more direct role in support of the devel opment of safe products. The application of the principles of accident causation and con trol to the product is becoming more impor. tant because of the increase in products lia bility cases,`the sudden emphasis in law of the entire field of negligent design' and the obvious impact a safer product would have on the overall safety of the environment. The Scope of the Professional Safety Position The major functions of the safety profes sional are contained within four basic areas. However, application of all or som'e of the functions listed below will depend upon the nature and scope of the existing accident problems, and the type of. activity with which he is concerned. The major areas are: 1. Identification and appraisal of accident and loss producing conditions.and practices, and evaluation of the severity of `the acci dent problem. 2. Development' of accident prevention and loss control methods, procedures, and programs. 3. Communication of accident and loss It is proposed that work in the field be control information to - those directly in separated' into three levels of service; the volved. " entrance level, professional level, and the ad . - 4. Measurement and evaluation of the ef- . 1967 National Safety Congress fectiveness of the accident and loss control .system and the modifications needed to achieve optimum results. Identification and Appraisal of Accident and Loss Producing Conditions and Practices and Evaluation of the Severity of the Acci dent Problem.' These functions involve:.. 1. The development of methods of identi fying hazards and evaluating the loss pro ducing,potential of a given system, operation or process by: , a. Advanced detailed studies of hazards of planned and proposed facilities, opera tions, and products. \ b. Hazard analysis of existing facilities, op erations and products. 2. The preparation and interpretation of analyses of the total economic loss resulting from the accident and losses under consider ation., . 3. The review of the entire.system in de tail to define likely modes of'fafiure, includ ing human error, and their- effects on the safety.of the system. a. fhe identification of errors involving in complete decision making, faulty judg ment, administrative miscalculation, and poor practices. b. The designation of potential weaknesses found in existing policies, directives, ob jectives, or practices. 4. The review, of reports of injuries, prop erty damage, occupational diseases; or public liability accidents and the compilation, anal ysis, and interpretation of relevant causative factor information. a. The establishment of a classification sys tem that will make it possible to identify significant. causative 1 factors and deter mine trends. b. The establishment of a system to'insure the completeness and validity of the re ported information. c. The conduct of thorough investigation of those accidents where specialized knowl edge and skill are required. 5. The provision of advice and counsel concerning compliance with applicable laws, codes, regulations, and standards. 6. The conduct of research studies of technical safety problems. . . .' 7. The determination of the need of sur veys and appraisals by related specialists "such as medical, health physicists, industrial hygienists, fire protection engineers, and psy chologists to identify conditions affecting the health and safety of individuals. 8. The systematic study of the various ele ments of the environment to assure that tasks and exposures of the' individual' are within his psychological and. physiological limitations and capacities. Development of Accident Prevention and Loss Control Methods, Procedures, and Pro grams. -In carrying out this function, thesafety professional: 1. Uses his specialized knowledge of acci dent causation and control to prescribe an integrated accident and loss control system designed to: a. Eliminate c'ausative factors . associated with the accident problem, preferably be fore an accident occurs. b. Where it is not-possible to eliminate the hazard, devise mechanisms to reduce the degree of hazard. c. Reduce the severity of the results of an accident by prescribing specialized equip ment designed to reduce die severity of an injury should an accident occur. 2. Establishes methods to demonstrate the relationship of safety performance to the pri mary function of the entire operation or any of its components. 3. Develops policies, codes, safety stand ards and. procedures that become part of the operational policies of the organization. 4. Incorporates essential safety and health requirements in all purchasing and contract ing specifications. 5. As a professional safety consultant for. personnel engaged in planning, design, de velopment, installation of various parts of the system, advises and consults on the nec essary modification to insure consideration of all potential hazards. 6. Coordinates the results of job analysis . to assist in proper selection and placement of. personnel whose capabilities and/or limita tions are suited to the operation involved. 7. Consults concerning product safety, in cluding the intended and potential uses of the product as well as its material and con struction, through the establishment of gen- . eral requirements for the application of 'safety principles throughout planning, de sign, development, fabrication, and test of various products' to achieve maximum prod uct safety. 8. Systematically reviews technological developments and equipment to keep up to 76 . Industrial Safety Subject Sessions date- on the devices and techniques designed to eliminate or minimize hazards, and deter mine whether these developments and tech niques haye any applications to. the activities with which he is concerned. Communication of Accident and Loss Control Information to those Directly In volved.' In carrying out this function the safety professional: the costs of the control system in Jterms of the effectiveness of each part of the system and its contribution to accident and loss re duction. 3.Provides feed, back information con cerning the effectiveness of- the control meas ures to those with ultimate responsibility, with the recommended adjustments or changes as indicated by the analyses. , 1. Compiles, analyzes and interprets acci dent statistical data and prepares reports de Conclusions. signed to communicate .this information to those personnel concerned. 2., Communicates recommended controls,' procedures, or . programs designed to elimi-. nate or minimize hazard potential, to the ap propriate person or persons. . 3, Through appropriate comiriimication media persuades those who have ultimate decision making responsibilities to adopt and utilize those controls which the preponder ance of evidence indicates are best suited to achieve the desired results.' - 4. Directs or assists in the development of specialized education and training materials and in the conduct of specialized training programs for those who have operational re sponsibility. 5: Provides advice and counsel on the type and channels of communications to in sure the timely and efficient transmission of The safety' professional,- in performing these functions, will draw upon specialized knowledge in both the physical and social sciences. He will apply the principles of measurement and analysis to evaluate safety performance. He will be required to have fundamental knowledge .of statistics, mathe matics, physics, chemistry, as well as' the fundamentals of the engineering disciplines. He will utilize knowledge in the fields of behavior, motivation, and .communications.. Knowledge of management principles as well as the theory of business and government or ganization will also be required. His special ized knowledge must include a thorough un derstanding of the causative factors contrib uting to accident occurrence- as well as methods and procedures designed to control such events. useable accident prevention information to1 The safety professional of the future will those concerned. Measurement and Evaluation of the Effec tiveness of the Accident and Loss Control need a unique and diversified type of educa tion'and training if he is to. meet the chal lenges. of the future. The population explo System and. the Needed Modifications, to sion, the problems of. urban areas,' future Achieve Optimum Results. transportation systems, as well as the in- 1. Establishes measurement techniques * creasing complexities of man's every day life, such os. cost statistics, .work sampling, or will create many problems and extend the other appropriate meaiis for obtaining per safety professional's, creativity to its maxi iodic and systematic evaluation of the effec mum if he is to successfully provide the tiveness of the control system. knowledge and leadership to conserve life, 2. Develops -methods that will evaluate health and property. THE SAFETY ENGINEER-WHAT I EXPECT F*OM HIM By PAUL A. STEWART Vice-President, Manufacturing,- The Maytag Company, Newton, la. I strongly suspect that far too many times the effectiveness of a safety engineer is ham pered by the fact that there is no clear un derstanding as to what is expected of him. The job of the safety engineer can be no more effective than the emphasis a company places on the importance of safety and this, in tum, can be no stronger than the attitude 77 1987 National Safety Congress the management of the company itself to wards the program. Therefore, it follows that what is to be ex pected from the safety engineer and his staff can. be no more than what plant mariage. ment expects from the program. Much has been said and written about the importance of safety. The pain, the anguish, and all the other negative aspects of unsafe practices and conditions and their resultant injuries are known to all of us. Statisticians have set forth data on costs, frequency, and severity. Information and printed materials of all lands are readily available, along with other aids for the promotion of the idea of safety. Safety devices, ingenious and effective, are available and are being constantly refined and improved. I submit, however,, that all the facts, all the devices, all the promotional material, and all the exhortations will be most ineffective without the proper environ ment, which , must be created by manage ment itself. What has been said is in no manner to be considered as an excuse for the safety engi neer or to provide him with rationalizations for his inability to solve the problems he faces. It is rather to say that,'as is true with all staff relationships to the line, the safety engineer must have the genuine endorsement and support of management because it is from management that an effective safety program must evolve. The engineer plays a most important role, but we, in management, cannot really delegate to the. engineer in part or in whole the responsibility for doing that which we, in management, 'must do our selves. The responsibility to improve safety performance does not rest solely with the safety engineer, it does not stop at the pro. duction worker level, it .doesn't include only operating supervision, it is the sober respon sibility of everyone, including management at all levels. In light of these comments then, what do I look for in a safety engineer? In the first place, I look for a man who possesses the desirable characteristics of any one who sets out to do a job. These charac teristics . embrace confidence, enthusiasm, dedication, perseverance, and professional stature. We could add others that you are as familiar with as I, which go.into the makeup of any person who does on effective and suc cessful job. However, if I were to list the above char acteristics in order of importance, I would select a person's ability to earn stature as the result of his performance to head the list This stature' must be genuine. Any organi zation can give over to the safety engineer all the formal authority it wishes to supply to him and can.spell out certain responsibili ties, but it isn't enough. It is here that I think the statement of a well-known student of management techniques, Mary Follett, is most appropriate: "While authority vests in the function, it is earned by ability and it is maintained by performance." In other 'words, an effective safety engi neer--the kind of man I want to see in the safety, engineering assignment--is the one who earns the authority of his office by virtue of his ability and maintains that au thority by virtue of his performance on the job; May I be permitted to criticize the safety engineering profession, and, at the same time, criticize, the management function in this area of safety? My criticism is well in tended and I knoW that it does not apply in all situations. In too many instances, how ever, management does not accept the safety engineer far. enough up the line and the safety engineer, in turn, does not perceive himself as being a responsible member of management, who must owork effectively with management at all levels; Certainly, the safety engineer is involved with the-plant superintendent,' the manager of manufacturing, or the vice-president when, a serious accident occurs. Sure, he is called into meetings when a legal problem arises relative to safety. Of course, the safety engi neer is at the table when a grievance with respect to safety goes all the way to the last grievance step, or arbitration. My criticism, rather, is directed to the day in, day out operation of the plant Does management consider the safety engineer, as it' should, as a specialist whose ability and other resources cannot be ignored, if the ob jectives of a genuinely safe operation are' to be attained? Does the safety engineer see' himself as a meaningful technician and man ager, who shares with major management the responsibility for an effective safety pro gram? Or does the safety engineer look at his job as one that is successfully discharged as long as he keeps reasonably well out of trouble? ' , 78 - Industrial Safety Subject Sessions Perhaps I have been a little harsh to this engineer, assuming that he is. given the point. If so, it has-been in order to drive proper environment and support, to exercise home my conviction that the function of the a high degree of initiative. He must be,' at safety engineer cannot properly be dis times, a policeman. He mint be an inspector. charged unless there is a two-way meeting He must be a disciplinarian. He rflust be a of the minds, and an effective working rela reporter. But he must never be these things tionship between 'top management and the in an exclusive sense. His activities embrace safety engineer. ' all of these functions but beyond that, much I do not believe that the safety engineer, more. He has to be the sparkplug, the initia under any circumstances, should consider his tor of new ideas, the needle. position to be of a conference-room role. It must be a very practical, on-tbe-scene land of responsibility. At the. same time, there must be more than a cordial relationship with top management. It must be an effec tive, conscientious, meaningful, and produc tive relationship, or else the job of safety en gineer can be nothing other than frustration on the one hand and an ineffective exercise on the other. He must be a human relations expert. He must be able to work effectively with all types of people and develop within , them an attitude of enthusiasm for safety.. As part of his ability to perform as a human relations expert, he must be able to cooperate with others and listen to their side of the prob lem. He must accept the fact that most problems have more than one solution and that his answer might not always be the best ,. . It seems to me that management must alto at any given time. look to the safety engineer as a resource. Re ports prepared by the safety department must be more than statistical summaries of what has happened. 'While such reports are. important, and while they can be helpful in some respects, I think that too often the safety engineer becomes enamored with sta tistics and passes on to management masses of statistics that leave the manager in a somewhat confused state. How much more effective it would be if such reports carried with them a cover sheet interpreting these statistics. "What do these facts mean? What do they indicate? What is to be done-to cor rect the problems?" In my company, I insist that reports of conditions, in the area of safety or elsewhere, carry with them recom mendations as to action which should be taken and justification for such action. Consider the importance of innovation. .Our manufacturing techniques constantly are changing. New equipment is coming , at us with ever greater acceleration. Is it, there fore, unreasonable, to . expect a safety engi neer to respond to these changes with inno vations of his own that are appropriate to the changing scenes? Isn't it- the responsibil ity of the safety engineer to keep abreast of change, not only in his own plant, but in other plants? Shouldn't he anticipate the fu' tore and bring it*into the present so that we can avoid unforeseen developments? This is what J mean by innovation coupled with There are many other qualities that a safety engineer should possess. He must be able to create and direct a program that will create a favorable image in the community towards his company's safety and plant pro tection policies. One might-say he is, in this assignment, an adjunct to die company's public relations department This favorable image is important for many reasons, not the least of which is die fact that it has an effect on the personnel department's ability to recruit help from the community. There is a growing importance in the abil ity of. the safety specialist to work closely with Federal, state, and local government representatives in order to' make certain that meaningful industrial safety laws and regula tions are passed, told that meaningless re strictions are not created through lack of un derstanding. The safety engineer cannot rest as long as there is any possibility that his activities in these many areas of responsibility fall short of providing adequate protection for all em ployes. I think one way to sum up my expecta tions toward a safety, engineer would be to say that I expect him to be the conscience, along with management, of the organization in fulfilling the responsibility of providing the opportunity for all employes to work safely and to avoid accident and injury. "creativity". No nctivity in industry has more justifica ' Management also should look to the safety tion for existence from the moral and ethical 79 1967 National Safety Congress standpoints. The safety engineer must, if he is to be the conscience of the organization, be a man of competence and stature, one who enjoys' the respect of all. This can come only if his function is genuinely important to management and can come only if he is qualified to fill such a role, once he is given the opportunity. WHAT LABOR MANAGEMENT EXPECTS \ OF THE SAFETY SPECIALIST , By J. GEORGE EICHHORN Grand Lodge Representative, International Assn, of Machinists & Aerospace Workers, AFL-CIO,- Daytona Beach, Fla. We of the union movement firmly believe ing way beyond ,the investigation of an acci that the professional safety engineer needs dent that has happened- and for a victim to practical help if he is to do the job we be blamed. We hope that he will take into would like to see him do. While we want consideration and have professional assist our safety engineers or specialists to be ance in' all matters dealing with the prob professionals, we - feel that in all too 'many lems of physiology and psychology. We feel cases they are failing to be as effective,as that he should be looking for everything that they could be because they are not allowed is destructive to the human-anatomy, and we to have, as a part of their- staff, trained feel strongly that the Safety Engineer should craftsmen who have worked for years on recognize die . need for complete knowledge machines and/or equipment and who have of the environmental effects of machines, an intimate understanding of the problems metals, gases, noises, lighting, and processes that arise that no professional can be ex that affect the worker mentally or physically. pected to have. From our experience, we be- The. safety engineer today should no lieve that management is being short-sighted longer, be- content vrith pre-employment when they don't provide'the money and per physical examinations; he should be an ad mission to use this type of devoted skilled' vocate of physical check-ups on a periodic tradesmen to supplement the staff and im basis for constructive repair and preventive plement the programs of the professional action. But such a program must not be used safety engineer. In solving concrete on-the- as a device to invalidate the worker's con- - ' job safety problems, titles and academic de tractual rights or protection. Constant checks grees are too often not an adequate substi on the workers', health, physical and mental, tute for real on-the-job experience. is called for in this day of exposures to such Organized labor would like to find that hazards as- the x-ray, gamma ray, beta ray, with every safety engineer^ there is a policy . beryllium, the exotics in rocketry fuels, thor- ; that guarantees this professionally trained in iated nickel, high frequency noise levels, and dividual complete independence of judge a whole host of- other working conditions ment and expert opinion, and along with which for the most part- were unheard of as such a policy we hope that the individual, so . industrial hazards . to the working force equipped, has the integrity and the guts to twenty olr fifty years ago. make his judgement , stick in the face of ad .We of organized labor firmly believe that verse opinions to the contrary and' pressures it is, management's obligation- to provide a to have him change.or modify his original safe and healthy place of work. We further position. believe that to effectively carry out any We, of the organized labor union move safety program, the union and the company ment, want to believe that today's profes should be jointly working together to bring sional safety engineer is no longer just look about the desired Tesults. Further, while we ing for donkeys to pin the tail on. We hope expect management to have and' comply that today's professional safety man is look with good, effective safety standards and 80 1967 National Safety Congress part of our staffs principally because for all. too long a .time, now we have been . con.tent with saying that management had the sole responsibility for workers' health and safety. While we still say that management has that responsibility we are adding full time spe cialists to our staffs,'not so much as police men but as individuals who will be con stantly on the alert for changes in.technol ogy and changes in materials that will .have an adverse effect on the workers'' health and safety. These individuals will be striving to develop adequate protection and timely, warnings against the constantly . developing threats created by new developments in the use of the earth's supply of energy, and materials. The safety goals of labor and management arej in reality, identical; saving lives, avoid ing crippling or maiming accidents, and re ducing production costs. Good safety spells economy--management making more profit per man. hour can more easily share their gains with the worker; The worker, free from lost time in accidents, has the additional bonus of no loss of wages. Eliminating worker fatalities pretty well assures the edu cational needs of. the workers' children--our next generation of workers. The safety specialist, whether he is em ployed by a .union or by management, must be dedicated and have stars in his vision, he truly has to be possessed of a driving- dedica tion to people. In conclusion, both labor and management should work together to develop the status of the professional safety engineer or special ist. By all means, let us upgrade the stand ards and eradicate the incompetents and, while we.are doing this, let's provide the' policy and the money to make such an ideol ogy a reality in fact and deed. MIDDLE MANAGEMENT By HARVEY E. JONAS Superintendent, International Harvester Co.; Chicago, HI. I have always believed that the success or failure of a plant's safety program rests not only on the efforts of the specialist but, to a large degree, on the cooperation of the mid dle management group. The specialist, therefore, must be sure that he knows what support this group .expects from him. .The importance.of knowing this should be'apparent to the specialist when he realizes that usually the remainder of the management group is under the immediate supervision and direction of the superintend ent. The more the specialist can do to assist the superintendent in organizing and admin istering.his-division's safety and good house keeping program, the more importance he will attach to. the program and the more ef fort he will apply to it. The superintendent's cooperative attitude and the importance he attaches to the pro gram is bound to reflect down to his subor dinates and ' employees, setting the guide lines necessary for the success of any pro gram. I don't mean to imply that the specialist4 should treat the superintendent like a tin god, or do all the work for him; not at'all. I am only pointing out that the specialist must have a good relationship' \yith the middle management group, or he is missing a key link in the successful administration of his company's safety program. To develop this relationship the specialist must understand that the superintendent is usually held responsible for large areas of a plant, and as such he is concerned with pro duction schedules, costs, budgets, manpower, breakdowns, unions, etc., as. well as safety. The specialist must realize then that safety is an element in-the superintendent's daily duties and must be scheduled in the same manner as are all the other duties he performs. Unless this can be done, Safety can' be, and possibly is, relegated to a.secondary, role. Let's get down to specifics of what the safety specialist must be and do in order to develop a good working relationship with me. Industrial Safety Subject Sessions The specialist must be .a person with whom I can intelligently and rationally dis cuss the operating problems of my division, as related to the safety and good housekeep ing program. By this, I mean-the specialist must be familiar with the area under my su-. pervision and especially knowledgeable as to the type of machines, being used, material movement,, work area, type of parts being .manufactured,, and the type of employees working in my division. I expect the specialist to make periodic scheduled visits to the departments of my di vision with the express purpose of talking with the employees about safety and good housekeeping. Usually, the safety supervisor commands a'lot of respect and the employ ees feel' honored to be able to express their 1 views on safety and good housekeeping' to him. By being a good listener and comment ing on their questions and recommendations truthfully and objectively, the value of the program and whether it is being applied properly and accepted can be quickly deter mined. t The specialist must be a person who not only brings my attention to a safety hazard or practice, but recommends the action needed to correct it and assists in seeing that it gets done. His efforts to help me will soon result in a spirit of cooperation that. will become as contagious as a case of measles, and result in. new ideas and practices that may otherwise remain hidden until an accident happens. I expect the specialist and his committee to have a dramatic, interesting, and reward ing safety and good housekeeping program.. Many of the techniques being used today have lost much . of their effectiveness and ' must be updated. Signs posted around the plant spelling out Work Safely--Safety Pays --Are You Working Safely?--etc., have come-to be expected by the employee. These signs do very little to' remind me of the heavy responsibility I have to make-my divi sion a good, safe place to work. More graphic examples of the injuries caused by carelessness or unsafe practices should be more widely exhibited. This can be done thru the use of pictures and manne quins which realistically depict accidents in their true, ugly form. I don't think I have ever seen a more sobering reaction to mi un safe practice than that of a picture of a finger tom off because a person was working with a ring on his finger. In a matter of min utes after that- picture was hung on the shop bulletin board employees were taking their rings off like they were going out of style. The use of mannequins showing the area of the- body on which an injury to an em ployee occurred and a sign telling why. it oc curred can be and is a sobering and lasting reminder to us all.. I am not saying that all safety signs except the type I have outlined should be eliminated. I am simply recom mending that the specialist make the safety displays in my division effective and controversial. The safety and good housekeeping pro- . gram must want to make the employees and management participate. This can be done by making the program competitive and re warding. Most people enjoy competition when they are rewarded for. their efforts and are envied by their fellow man. The rewards for the winning group do not have to be expensive, but every one of-jhe winning group must get a prize for thejr ef forts, and their winning effort must be publi- . cized. I have found that, probably the best awards are something the employee's wife can use--a bread board, a cookie jar, a knife set, a. flyswatter, or even a noodle strainer. Believe-me, that employee's wife will remind him of safety, because she wants another prize. I. would also like to see the names of the winners displayed on the bulletin boards, fjot only does this make him feel proud.of winning, but it also makes him feel he has a reputation to uphold. The specialist who maintains- the employ ee's interest in safety and good housekeeping is well on his- way in getting my division's full cooperation and support. I expect the specialist to designate a safety deputy in each of my departments. These deputies .would assist my departmental su pervision in administering the safety and good housekeeping program. The specialist, in periodic meetings with these deputies and departmental supervision, should discuss common problems and solutions. They should make every effort to standardize procedures in all of my departments. Too many times a good solution to a safety prob lem is not applied to other departments be cause of poor communications. I'would expect the specialist to have a strong orientation program for all new em ployees. These orientation sessions should 83 t 1967 National Safety Congress not only outline the-safety and good house keeping program, but'also stress the .penal ties for indifference or nonconformance to the program. Too many times this is over looked or not emphasized by the specialist. I would also expect the specialist to explain and emphasize the need and requirements for certain types of safety equipment such as safety shoes, glasses, gloves, aprons, etc. The new employee should be made to un derstand that if he feels his job is being per formed unsafely or that the equipment he has been issued seems unsafe, he should re port it to his foreman or deputy immedi ately. The importance of this initial safety con tact cannot be overemphasized. The special ist must impress hew employees with the value and seriousness the company places on the .safety and. good housekeeping program. The' job .the specialist does will either mini mize or make more difficult the efforts shop supervision will need to keep these employ ees safety minded. I would expect the specialist to schedule a monthly managerial meeting in which all su pervision would be appraised as to the prog- ress of the safety and .good housekeeping, program. At these meetings he should, have the Works Manager express his support for the program and re-emphasize the impor tance he and the company places on safety and housekeeping. The specialist should pin point the types of injuries being incurred and how they happened. He should also out line the type of safety violations being noted throughout the plant and what corrective ac tion should be taken to eliminate them. Win ning departments of the safety program should be announced and the supervision of the winning departments introduced. The. meeting should be informal and informative so that all supervision can go back to their departments knowing what they should be looking for and doing to improve their safety and good housekeeping position. I would expect the specialist to be avail able when I need him. If-he is unable to come at once, he should specify when he' can. The specialist that must be called re peatedly can very easily lose the respect of the management.group as well as destroy in terest in the program. The specialist should schedule a meeting with me at least once a month. In these meetings, we would discuss the safety and housekeeping problems in my division and determine ' the corrective action required. Prior to the meeting I would expect the spe cialist to have provided me with reports of department inspections, as well as results'of meeUngs. with departmental deputies and su pervision. The specialist should recommend that specific safety deputies or supervisors be invited to attend these meetings, especially when their help in determining what'correc tive action would be of value. What are some of the things the specialist may.require or do that I feel are not particu larly useful or conducive to a good relation ship? . Don't require my subordinates or myself to make reports or fill out forms that will not contribute much to the program. This is probably the fastest way to create a .loss of interest and encourage indifference. Don't try .to embarrass the management group in front of top management.or in front of employees during inspection tours or vis its. The specialist^who practices this ap proach not only loses the respect of the man agement group, but also causes the employ ees to lose respect for the program. Don't make a mockery of safety by dis playing symbols of good or bad practices that can be taken as a big joke or cause em barrassment (I have seen some pretty bad. examples of this. It accomplishes nothing but contempt for. the specialist and indifference for the program.) Unless it is an emergency, don't try to get: the shop supervision to talk safety while they are performing other duties. Your ef forts will be resented and more than likely .will fall, on deaf ears. Above all don't ramrod your opinions or ideas down supervision's throat. The special ist who uses the power of his-office or the. threat of top management to force action will soon be identified as having a weak pro gram or not being qualified for his. position. Safety and good housekeeping problems . are similar in practically all companies and can be greatly minimized if the specialist es tablishes a sound, interesting program which enables him to develop a good working rela tionship with the middle management group and, of course, maintains it.; 84 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions * Off-The-Job Safety Joint Session with Home Conference Opening Remarks By ROBERT F. BEESON ' Personnel Representative, . . Perfect Circle Div., Dana Corp., Hegerstown, Ind. Our .purpose is to try to give you some practical ideas and suggestions .about bow you can strengthen your Off-The-Job Safety Program, and some suggested programming methods and techniques. .. We intend to accomplish this by allowing you to participate in the development of a simulated program with a hypothetical safety director. He will take you through the steps of collecting infury reports, determin ing employe activity interest, investigating the help available in the .community, and de veloping a program. During the course of this session, you will also, be the employees of our non-existing company who will attend a safety meeting and observe a safety glass demonstration. The second phase of our "Be In" will be presentations concerning three important phases of the overall Off-The-Job Safety Program. DEVELOPING AN OFF-THE-JOB ACTIVITY By ROBERT B. REGAN Supvr., Safety i t Plant Protection, Celanese Chemical Co., Pampa, Texas Our company's safety program is not claims for the non-industrial insurance pro much different horn any other company. The gram and was surprised to see just how plant manager has let it be known by word many .employees had been injured in acci and deed that safety is the responsibility of. dents away from the job. every'level of line management. We have a I noticed that there had.been two disa management safety committee with the plant bling off-the-job injuries in one department. manager as chairman. Each departmental su- One case involved an employee walking ' pervisor holds monthly safety meetings with through a plate glass patio door, resulting in his employees and we have special cam five days lost time; the other was an automo paigns and activities to keep the people in bile accident resulting in 10 days lost time. I terested. checked with the departmental supervisor to While there are things that could be im- ' see if he could remember if these two cases proved and we do continue to have injuries, had affected the operation of his department. our disability frequency rate'is below the in The first case' involved a- machine operator, dustry average and the program is under and because there was not enough time to control. ' train a replacement the supervisor had to . A few weeks ago, one of our employees shift his operators, around each day to work was injured in an automobile accident, and on the orders which had priority. Just two it occurred'to me that several people had days after the operator came back, a material been injured in. off-the-job accidents since handler was injured in the second case. This the first of the year. , time, the supervisor borrowed a general la I checked the absentee records and the borer, from another department .as a replace- 85 V 1987 national Safety Congress ment, but he bad to spend time training the replacement. The replacement never did reach the .expected efficiency before the reg ular employee returned. When I talked about this problem of offthe-job injuries to the boss he agreed that we should look into it further,, and we de cided to keep records of our off-the-job inju ries. I discovered that finding out about the off-the-job injuries was not as difficult as I had anticipated'. It took a little more work, but actually most of the data was already available in our present records. The serious long-absence type of injury was picked up from die insurance daims. The short term cases,'one to five days, were picked up from the attendance records and the return to work medical exams. It was just a case of setting up a procedure , and making sure all the employees understood why we were trying to get this information. Once I had become involved , in keeping records of off-the-job injuries, I realized this, would not mean anything unless I developed a program of activities to try to reduce them. I did not particularly want.to wait the time required to build up a record from injury re ports, and' remembering seeing something about a "family safety", questionnaire in the off-the-job 'page of the National Safety News, I wrote for a sample copy. This seemed to be what I wanted; the questions covered the area of family interest. During the next month, part of . each de partmental safety meeting was spent in fill ing out the questionnaire. I was really sur prised to find out just how .little the employ ees thought about safety in their out of plant activities. As an example, one-third of the employees said that they or members of their families were hunters, yet only a handful .had taken a safe hunter course; a very large majority answered "no" to the question, "Have you disposed of all outdated prescrip tion drugs in your home?" The summary to the questionnaire gave me several leads as to areas I could give at tention, but time was a factor and I would need help to develop a program. The, place to start is the National Safety Council. Office and the local safety council. I did not realize the amount of material that is available. In addition to Family Safety mag azine, there axe employee booklets, fact sheets, slide series, and special kits for pro-' grams on subjects such as babysitter training and home fire safety, etc. I discovered that many of the subjects and activities I had been using for the. plant safety program could be applied to off-thejob safety. As an example, when we talk about lifting and material handling in the plant, , we could include activities'off-the-job. After all, you can get the same kind of bade injury lifting a chair incorrectly at home as you can lifting a tote box or a piece of pipe incorrectly at work. .Keeping the guards on home work shop tools is just as important as . keeping guards on the machines at work! As usually happens when, you become' aware of a fact, you then notice it everytime you turn around. Since one of the employees had been injured in a glass door accident, I discovered there were many such cases in the community. While they varied in de grees of seriousness, there was hardly a day when there was not a story in the newspaper, about such a case. I began to hear about some cases involving members of employee's families and "dose calls." Checking with the health department, I 'leamed that they had" participated in a study of such injuries and that the increased use of large pieces of glass in home and commercial buildings had re sulted in a' national problem. Through the cooperation of 'architects, contractors, and legislation, the use of safety glass in-public buildings is becoming general practice, but there is still a problem in pri vate construction. The health department has a demonstration, available' for showing. to groups, which dramatically shows.-the value of safety glass. This sounded like it might be a program I could use. I found there are presentations available in many communities on other subjects. As an example, a number of electric utility com panies have electrical safety demonstrations as part of their public relations program; some local fire departments and fire chiefs of industrial plants have developed home fire safety-demonstrations; and outlines for out door power equipment* and home poisons presentations are available from the National Safety Council. While I was aware that the National Rifle Association had instructors available on both hunter safety and home firearm'Safety, and the Coast Guard, conducted water safety in struction, I did not realize that it was so easy to take advantage of their services. A 86 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions call to the National Rifle Association gave was a form for a cost study of an individual ' me the names of the instructors in my area, injury. This would not show me the total in a matter of minutes. Another call gave me cost for the company, but it would give cost the complete information on when, where/' information for representative off-the-job in who, and how for safe boating classes. I also juries and give us an idea of the total cost found there were many other organizations While a company is really only concerned interested in. safety, particularly in their with the safety of the employee, it is very fields, such as die skiing club, camping club, difficult to separate him from his family". and medical association (for traffic), all of What happens to his" family affects his abil whom .proved to be very helpful in develop ity to work, and the family members can be ing ideas and activities. very helpful in getting the employee'to be - I did . not really expect to find a ready safe in his off-job activities. made program that I could adopt, although I I decided to see if the boss would buy the have to be honest and say that, ..like most idea of a family safety night so we could ex safety 'men, I was kind of hoping that there plain to both the wives and the husbands why might be one. With the material and help the company was concerned and what we ''' that was available, it was not difficult to wanted to. do. block out an outline of a program that could We would have a couple of homemade ex be worked into the company's present safety hibits on such subjects as poisons in the program. home and winter driving hazards;. some While the boss had indicated his support books, fact sheets, an'd other, take home for extending our safety program to include materials on tables. The plant manager and I the off-the-job aspect, I knew he would be could explain why the company is concerned . asking about cost before long--not only the' about the safety of the employee when he is cost to the company due to off-the-job inju- away from die job, and how we intended to ' ries, but die cost involved in extending die include off-tjie-job activities in the company program. safety program. Then, instead of the usual The cost for the extra effort would not be film, the. representative from the. Public too difficult to determine because'it was easy Health Service would present the safety to determine the price of booklets, film glass demonstration. The whole thing would rental, and any other materials I might want. take about an hour, and wind up with coffee This could be set'up ns part of the budget and cake. There could be one meeting for the the same as any other expense. . * . entire plant, or a series of meetings covering The cost to the company from off-the-job several departments at a time. injuries would be more difficult. One of the ' We have a pretty smart boss. He bought items I got from the National Safety Council the idea. SAFETY GLASS DEMONSTRATION By THOMAS C. KLAPPERICH Regional Program Chief,. Injury Control, Region V, i U.S. Public Health Service, Chicago, Rl. Technological advances since World War H have made the potential applications of glass and glass products in modem society almost unlimited. One of the results of this "glass revolu tion" has been a new trend toward what we might call "indoor-outdoor" living. By the extensive use of sliding glass doors, glass panels, patio doors, storm doors, etc., more and more Americans are. able to participate in a more "panoramic" way of life. This new pattern of living has brought with it, however, a serious new injury prob lem. , The visual quality of glass today is so good that it is, for ail practical purposes, in visible. Consequently, more and more people are walking, running, falling, or hurling 87 1967 National Safety Congress themselves through these large fixed glass ' panes. The result has been, as you might ex pect, an alarming increase in injuries, disfig urements, and deaths throughout the nation. The injuries that occur are of the' pierc ing-cutting variety--severe lacerations of the elbow, arm, wrist, and hand being most common. There are also many cases of dis figuring facial cuts. The fatal injuries which occur generally result from severed arteries and. uncontrollable hemorrhaging. The Division of Accident* Prevention, U. S. Public Health Service, has several reports of such cases where death occurred in less than 22'minutes after the initial cut. One such case involved a 27 year old mother of two small children iii Kentucky. She bled to death in 20 minutes after falling through a ;glass door at a restaurant. . ' An example of a non-fatal case involved the noted singer Kate Smith. During a visit to a private home. Miss Smith slipped- in the bathroom and fell into the glass tub enclo sure. She suffered severe lacerations which required over three hours of.. surgery to repair. Because non-fatal accidents are . not rou tinely reported to health departments, we do not .know the full extent of the problem. In 1.960, however, a west coat medical journal reported there were 40,000 insurance claims filed each year by.glass door accident vic tims. Although this figure has not been sub-: stantiated, it has become apparent that the problem is a serious one, and of considerable magnitude. A National Study Croup on Glass Injury, composed of representatives from the Divi sion of Accident Prevention of the U. S. Public Health Service, The National Safety Council, door, manufacturers, and glass man ufacturers, has attempted to define the prob lem and find a solution. A pilot survey was conducted in 16 com munities involving over 400 health depart ment personnel. By means of a special ques tionnaire, the details surrounding 110 glass door injuries were recorded. Here are some of the major findings: 1. Sixty-eight percent of the injuries oc curred to males. 2. Thirty per cent of all the injuries studied, happened to persons between five and 44 years of age. One-third of all these accidents happened within the age group 514. 3; Hurrying . was reported to be the prime factor more often than ' slipping, crowding, or "horse-play" combined. A typi cal case involved a mother running through' a patio door to rescue her child from the swimming pool. 4. Reflection, glare, or "dazzle" did not appear to contribute to failures in seeing the glass. 5. Going from,inside to outside a build ing accounted for over 74 per cent of the in juries. Persons simply thought the door was open and walked through. . 6. One out of seven of the 110 injuries studied required hospitalization. 7. Seventy-four per cent of the accidents were reported as occurring at home. 8. Twenty-one of these 110 injuries oc curred where there .were designs or decals on the glass or where there were divisions or separation bars visible. 9. Physical condition priqr to the acci dent did not appear in this study to be a contributing factor. And the last extremely important finding: 10. Had safety glass been used, all of the 110 injuries could have been prevented or. limited: ,. Safety-glass is available and is actually being installed where new building codes re quire it; but we're still faced with the mil lions of homes, shops, and offices that are- not so equipped. At the present time, we must' assume that virtually all -the large panes of glass now in our homes ore of regu lar gloss (annealed glass). ' The ideal would be for all of us to replace the regular glass' panels in our homes with safety glass. This, however, is not practical in every case, and we must resort to other precautionary steps. - We can make glass doors safer by decorat ing them with dividing bars, pressure tape, or decals. Remember that decals should be at two eye levels--one for adults and one for children. . Furniture or potted plants can be placed so as to direct traffic away from the glass. Door checks to keep storm doors from slam ming are also'good. In the bathroom, devices such as hand rails, rubber mats, and skid proof mats should be standard equipment. This is espe cially troe where ther^ are non-safety glass tub enclosures. One. must remember, how ever, that these are merely expedients--ways 88 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions and means of. lessening the risk, not elimi nating it. There is no real substitute for safety glass itself. (Displays a piece of 3/16 inch regular an nealed glass.) Non-safety glass, when it breaks, produces jagged edges--many cutting surfaces are ex posed. The larger the piece of glass, the larger these potential daggers can be. There is also a possibility of the glass hanging in the frame for a split second,, then falling like a guillotine onto the individual. ' For something less depressing, let's look at the three types of safety glass! (Displays %o inch tempered glass.)This is the kind of glass used'in your au tomobile side and back windows. It's safer, not only- for its thickness but, when it breaks, it crumbles into fine pieces resem bling rock salt. This is fully tempered glass. It is not what we call 'heat strength," which is stronger but can' still break into jagged pieces. When tempered glass breaks, it breaks immediately into small cubes. These pieces have relatively dull edges, thus min imizing the danger of serious personal injury. A second type of safety glass is referred to as laminated glass. It. is merely a sandwich of two or more regular glass plates bonded together by a resilient plastic interlayer. When this type is broken the glass is held together hy the plastic, preventing sharp pieces from dropping or separating when broken. Laminated glass is used in automo bile windshields. Finally, there , is the type of safety glass known as wired glass. This is simply regular annealed glass that contains a wire screen in corporated within the body of the glass. The wire serves a, similar retaining type of func tion as does the plastic interlayer in- lami nated glass, and is commonly seen in fire doors. -With this type, there is more actual break ing and more sharpened edges .that can cut. But the wires usually retain the broken glass and offer some resistance to the penetration of the colliding body. Of these three safety glasses, tempered glass has been found to exhibit the greatest resistance to impact. With the quality, of tempered glass that is available today,'both aesthetic and functional values of the glass can be retained at reasonable cost. For example, average retail cost for a typi cal size sliding. glass door with tempered safety glass is $124.50 compared to $94.05 for the sarriei door,with ordinary glass. The price difference between regular and' safety glass varies greatly across the country. Generally, however tampered glass runs about 1.6 times as expensive as regular glass --laminated and wired glass somewhat more'. Because tempered glass comes only in standard sizes and cannot be cut, custom sizes mean a 15 per cent addition to the reg ular price; , ' If you're planning on building a new home, be sure to' specify safety glass for the appropriate "high . risk" places--especially where there are. six square feet' of glass or more. A great many areas of the nation are . still allowing new homes to be built without it. There are, however, a number of forces at work to. remedy.' this situation. The U. S. . Public Health Service is working to this end, along with the National Safety Council and the Architectural Aluminum Manufacturers Association. The Glass Tempering Associa tion and many glass manufacturers and pro cessors are'i also involved in the total effort. Three large, building code organizations and several thousand communities are drafting safety glass provisions. All F.H.A. insured homes now require large areas of glass to be of safety glass. We're also happy to report that machinery is presently in. motion for the establishment of an' American Standard in the use' andplacement of safety glass.- The outbreak ot glass injuries and deaths that have occurred across the nation can be compared to a disease epidemic. Prevention and control comes not in the form of a vac cine, however, but in the form of modifica tions in our home environment Through the use of the proper glass we can still enjoy the beauties, of indoor-outdoor living, but in full safety and security. QUESTIONS Question: Is the Class Demonstration Kit available from all Public Health Service of fices' in the country? Answer: There is at least one kit available in each Regional Office for free loan to any group or organization that may wish.to bor-: row it. The only charge,would be the return postage. The list of Regional Offices and ad dresses arp available from both the Home 89 1967 National Safety'Congress and Industrial Departments of the National Safety Council. The kit is also available from our Central Office. Requests to this office should be di rected to: Richard E.. Marland, Fh.D. Chief, Injury Control Program : Public. Health Service, DHEW 222 East Central Parkway, Room 507 Cincinnati, Ohio 45202 Question; Are blueprints available to build the shatter box, and where can you get the glass? Answer: At present, blueprints are not available to build the shatter box, but could . very easily .be made for anyone who wished them. A person could also borrow a. shatter box and make his own from his measure ments of it.' : Equipment that a person or group would need to purchase, beside the material neces sary to build the shatter box, would be a pair of safety goggles, adequate gloves for handling broken- glass, a rubber hammer, and a steel hammer and punch to break the tempered glass, or a glass cutter. At present, we do not have a commitment from the Class Door Safety Committee re garding the source of the necessary glass for - the demonstration. I would suggest that any . inquiries conceming.the glass be made to: Mr. William Mathews Chairman, Class Door Safety Committee Architectural Aluminum Manufacturers Assn. through Mr. Frank Fitzgerald Executive- Director Architectural Aluminum Manufacturers Assn. . 35 East Wacker. Drive Chicago, 111. 60801 The recently released film "Accidentally Yours'' which gives a demonstration .of the break patterns is available from all our Re gional Offices, as well as our Central Office and the Public Health Service Audio-Visual Facility at Atlanta, Georgia. The Architectural Aluminum Manufactur ers Association also has a film strip with re corded narrative regarding the use of safety glass and large fixed panels and patio doors. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL POINT OF VIEW By HOWARD KLOPP Consultant, Evanston, HL In talking about the psychological aspects of industrial safety, it seems to me that the same problems exist in off-the-job safety as exist in o'n-the-job safety. I was -interested in the remarks made by Mr. -Klapperich as he presented the safety glass demonstration. He used the. term should--"people should install"--and* this word implies at* least the recognition by oth ers that there is a* necessary consent from people to do something about dangerous sit uations and, furthermore, that the response will be positive. I am afraid we have been using should without receiving the appropri ate response to our safety efforts, particularly in the off-the-job aspect . The first problem I see is taking knowl edge of onrthe-job safety and applying it to off-the-job safety. This problem is generated by the atmosphere of the individual com pany. Listening to Mr.- Regan dlscusjs his company's program, I would suggest he has a marvelous organization and a marvelous boss. I do not always get the same impres sion from the people I talk with, at Safety Council training programs, relative to the adaptability and willingness of top manage ment to involve themselves in anything other than a routine in-plant program; sometimes even then only on a lukewarm basis. It seems to me that what actually devel ops on too many occasions are negative, im personal, reluctant attitudes on the part of all individuals, including the safety director. It also seems to me, from Mr. Regan's de scription, that he involves all the employees, which is one of the most important princi ples I can develop--namely, that of "partici pation." Mr. Regan suggested that he first developed a procedure and then explained, 90 ' Industrial Safety Subject Sessions to the individual employee, why he was en involvement in and the ability to' give of gaged, in gathering that kind of data. In . ourselves above and beyond the x number of other words, he developed a one-to-one rela units per hour Which .determines our pay. - tionship, as I see it, between off-the-job and We want to give of our creative thinking, on-the-job safety. With tactics like these,' the and when we feel that we are a part of the atmosphere of the individual company will organization because wc have contributed develop a positive relationship and a positive our ideas, we will then be willing to cany response on the part of the individual em forward die ideas of tha1: organization. This ployee. Without this atmosphere, the em is what Mr.- Regan apparently has done. He ployee carries away the idea, "Why are they has ipade the people fee 1 they are an inter interfering in my business away from the gral and important part if the organization. job?" Or, "It is bad enough I have to think ' Another major probleip we face is finding about safety while I am here, because the the motivating forces to get people to praccompany insists upon it, but I don't have to ' tice, follow, and learn away from the job the do this off the jobl" This, I think, is a problem of the atmos phere of the individual company and, in a large, part, the'climate created by the indi vidual safety director. Participation, as a psychological motivating "force," is a power ful one because it "ego" involves the individ ual and secures the employee's acceptance of responsibility for effectiveness of the safety program. One of the problems in off-the-job safety is .to develop this same kind of ego in volvement and participation so that the em ployee develops a sense of) responsibility away from the job. for himself and others. safe procedures and attitudes which make them safe workers on the job. This is a mat ter of how much on-the-job training trans fers to the off-the-job activities. .1 tend* per haps, to overemphasize this factor of motiva tion, but how motivated is the individual to be concerned about the safety of himself and his family? How' great is his concern to take ideas which he learned on the job and apply them to new situations? The degree to which he sees a similarity between, or the. mean ingfulness. or applicability of,' the principles and methods used for safety on the job to. those of situations off the job will determine This is an interesting problem and one that the'degree to which he will utilize them. has to be resolved one way or the other. If the machine tool operator engages in an Another facet of the problem is that the activity off the job similar to his work (e.g., individual company ,management and the in puttering around in his home work shop), dividual supervisors, the ones on the ""firing then .he will probably quickly and easily re line" who have to develop these kinds of late his safety training to the outside activ programs, have to be people-oriented. It has ity. However, suppose instead he is a boat been my experience, while' working with . ing and water skiing enthusiast. This relates companies in the Chicago area (and they not at all to his job activity, and if he does are no different than companies in other not perceive the applicability of the safety parts of the country), that there is a rather . principles to his hobby, he may be very un-' marked unwillingness on the part of supervi ' safe on the water. While he may vaguely sors--who are part of management in the. realize he is not always following safe proce- eyes of the employee--to become involved . dures or taking advantage of the safety with and. concerned about the individual training available to him he will, no doubt, worker on the job. If the atmosphere is one find ready excuses. We all use the rationali of lukewarm appreciation for these programs zation, "This can't happen to' me," but it or direct hostility, then ^is. atmosphere will does happen to me, sometimes. Management carry over from the }obj$afety program to the off-the-job activities of the employees. The degree to which the supervisor has neg ative feelings is directly related to the em ployee's negative response. I am more interested in the safety director who uses motivation factors other than money. Money does not always satisfy our psychological needs. One major factor in our sense of security and self fulfillment is our people have to overcome these problems of meaningfulness and generalization in-new situations if the employee is going to transfer his on-the-job training to his off-the-job ac tivities. . . .' Another question is, "How do the-mff-the- job activities, meet the needs of the individ ual?" If companies are going to be con cerned about off-the-job safety, they are 91 1987 National Safety Congress going to have to approach it from the same viewpoint as they do for safety in the plant. They are going to have to emphasize for the individual how being safe is to his advantage and how he will benefit. Just as the everyday stress of living-affects our susceptibility to accidents on the job, it also leaves us open to accidents in our off-the-job activities. A person has to be able to "ventilate" his feelings to relieve this .pres sure. It is possible to educate or train people to recognize this condition in themselves and to take corrective action.. All people must find socially acceptable and safe ways to re lieve the tensions and anxieties and hopefully . this is part of each company's safety train ing. If the foreman is going to have a safety- minded work force, he has to be willing to take the time to fully participate in the pro gram with the employee. The employee who in off-the-job safety not only, preaches safety to his family, neighbors,- and community but practices it himself, will see results in direct proportion to the motivation and behavior shown by the leader--himself. I am more 'concerned about the psycho logical cost of accidents and injuries, be cause I believe- many people are lulled into a fake sense of security because of protective insurance. Perhaps we need to emphasize more the -personality disruptions- and changes, the interpersonal problems, the psy chological alterations which can result from accidents, whether they happen on or off the job. THE COMMUNITY VIEWPOINT By JANICE R. WESTABY Asst. Prof., School of Public Health, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N.C. We're in a new .ball game.. The name's the 1. Find out what the major problems are same--OTJ--but with a new meaning, from in off-the-job accidents. .- On-The-Job to Off-The-Job. It's a game-with 2. Combine community interests and additional, players, in a new ball park. This resources -into a concerted and effective is a safety program that's no longer confined effort to combat the problem or problems. to the industrial environment where we can exercise considerable control. Our ball park What can the community do to help us now is the community, where we're only meet these objectives? In order to talk about part of the complex demands on people's the community's role, we first have to look at. time , and attitudes. When a worker leaves the community itself to see what it is. The . his industrial environment; he enters a new community isn't just a conglomeration of - environment of highway, home, and recrea dirt, noise, and flower gardens--that nebu tion, all with accident potential. lous hon-embraceable mass of buildings and We now must compete for his attention, streets. Most essentially,. the community. is and we have to play with a new set of rules., warm, human, lovable ' people--individuak We can, in essence, control his working en who are taxpayers, consumers,- workers, vironment and his behavior in it by a variety neighbors, families. The community is fa- of means. But we can't follow him into his . there, mothers, children, individually and in automobile, his home, and his. boat and exer groups; Some are interested in safety, some cise the same control. We hope there'll be are not. Some have accidental injuries. Many transition from work attitudes and behavior do not. They all have beliefs, attitudes, hab to off-the-job attitudes and behavior, but its, which contribute to community action of . "t'nin't necessarily so." We're now competing any kind. for ways of reaching him and his family So how do we as safety educators mobilize 'through community channels,. not work the interests into meeting the objectives of channek. an off-the-job safety program? Unless we We have two objectives in OTJ: mobilize we.probably won't have a program, 92 ' Industrial Safety Subject .Sessions or at least not a very effective one because, we can persuade them to help us achieve our as I have said, this is a different baff game, goals. played in a new ball park. As I have stated, perhaps our first objec The worker'has two basic loyalties, both tive is to define our problem. How can the of which influence how he behaves and what organized community help lis with this? he believes. One of these is his work and the Aside from our. own absentee'and medical people and things that' make up that envi records, we als'o have groups which can give ronment; the other is his family. Surround us insight into the injury problem--physicians, ing .his family are many other individuals dentists, hospitals, police, firemen, insurance and groups which influence the development companies,- health department. 0y combin and strength of- his attitudes toward health ing your data with theirs you may be sur and safety. Influences from his work must be prised at what turns up as your major prob compatible with influences from his commu lem. nity. Since we represent his work contact, In off-the-job programs, we're adding the we should seek compatibility with family family to our. safety program. We can't add - and, more broadly, community influences. it unless we know its injury problems. Then Since we can't'discuss both family and com we can move toward our second objective munity resources here. I'll .discuss only with more confidence, because we know briefly the broad community viewpoint--the what, our problem is and planning, is not organized community. . being done qn an assumption. None of us . We're all very much aware of the part that organizations play in our lives'. We're also aware of the great variety of organiza can afford to waste effort in planning for safety; we don't have e.ither the time or manpower to waste. tions,"clubs, and groups that exist in our Once we know, our problem, we can de communities. I wonder, though, just as you cide who our target groups are, how we can must have wondered, if we're utilizing this reach them, and what we want to tell them. tremendous resource in our safety efforts as Involvement of community groups in both much as we should qr could be doing. Sure, planning and implementing our off-the-job we know that our-community is full of clubs safety program will give us ideas and pro of various sorts, but have we ever stopped to think that these clubs aren't just taking iip time and space; that they are made up of people, and many of these people are the ones, with whom we work every day? .Seek gram strength, and help us avoid-duplication and utilize programs already in action. Many groups already are active in safety, and we could encourage'our employees to be active in these programs, such as .first aid 'classes, - ing their help could be another way we defensive driving courses, swimming and could strengthen and re-emphasize our boating instruction, gun safety, and arts and" safety message: Are we really making the ef- crafts, etc. . fort to do so? . ____ We..can't do the job alone anymore, nor This country is the most organized coun try in the world. Very few people don't haveany contact with organized society. Every community has a common variety of re sources, and some have additional ones of an. should we have to,' with -the resources avail able in all of our communities; organizations which, if they put their membership into the fight against accidents, would .make a very impressive group to work with us. ethnic, religious, or educational nature, de In summary, then, here are 'some of' the pending upon the- community. Every organi > resources. Planning groups can help and ad zation has specific goals it wishes to achieve. vise us as we're developing- our OTJ pro- . Many even have safety committees with ac gram, both in defining the problems and de tive chairmen looking for programs. termining implementation: medical society, All of these organizations lead to the fam health department, hospitals, city govern ment, insurance companies, safety council. ily, which really is our target group in OTJ. There are groups with technical and authori Safety begins at home, is strengthened at tative information, such as insurance compa home, is implemented at home. The organ nies, electrical contractors, gas and electric ized community reaches into the home. Our companies, highway and roads department, job is to recognize community resources, to police and traffic control, fire department, understand their goals, and determine how building department, architects, medical so- 93 1967 National Safety Congress ciety, health department, visiting nurse asso Answer: Most of the organized community ciation, social agencies, extension service, action and attention is directed toward traffic and many others. These too, can. give us for two obvious reasons, I think. First, there many suggestions for programs. We have re are full-time people working in the traffic source groups for educational materials, such field--police, highway patrol, sheriffs, etc. as the public library. Red Cross chapter, col They are uniformed and obvious to every leges and universities, safety council, and one. Second, traffic accidents occur in ob- various utilities. Then we have audience viou? places where everyone, can see them groups as varied and as extensive as we wish and their results. Home accidents, on the to make die list, such as labor unions, other hand, are private events and, except churches, youth groups, patent-teacher asso for fires, occur out of sight of the general ciations, civic groups, dubs for the elderly, public. We just don't see the falls, bums, business organizations, fraternal organiza poisonings, lacerations that occur at home. tions, recreational groups, and so forth. And And we have no full-timed uniformed per we musn't forget our communication chan sonnel (except for firemen) to call attention nels for supplementing and emphasizing our to the tragedy. Many groups are interested safety message such as radio, TV, newspa in home injuries and are conducting pro pers, theaters, clinics, and schools. Most im grams in this area, but there is no one group portantly, we need to.gear our program to the groups with the greatest stake, in the problem.- .. As you can see, our biggest job is to real ize that we can't combat accidents alone, that our workers are members of the. com or individual responsible for bringing atten tion to this problem and coordinating efforts.' Perhaps we need to seek- ways of bringing more public attention to the private event of home accidents. munity, that our workers have families, .and Question: Do you feel it is easier to pro that . all of them belong to community mote an OTJ program in a large company or groups. By combining forces and resources, a small company? we can strengthen the. total effort in our offthe-job safety program. Question: All the publicity1 for non-Work'injuries is given to traffic safety, which is un derstandable, yet there are far more injuries Answer: I feel that the smaller the com pany, the easier the1 program ought to be. There are fewer workers and fewer channels of communication needed. The problems of in the home. In view of this, how can \ye get . the workers are easier to determine, and the public to give more attention to home with smaller groups educational programs safety?. are easier to arrange and canry out. INDUSTRY RESPONSE By WILLIAM J. KERNS < - Safety Advisor, Humble Oil &..Refining Company, Bayway Refinery, Linden, N.J.' Back in 1956, when we were having rea-. sonable success in our industrial safety pro gram, we made a study of our off the job disabling injuries. Then, ns now, our employ ees continue to receive full pay when they are disabled while away from work, be.it. sickness or accident. This benefit continues without any waiting period for a period,up to six months, and then even longer at half pay. The study revealed that for that full year employees were hurting themselves 20 times more often away from work than when1 at Bay\wv. Together, they lost nearly- 3,400 workdays at a direct cost of well over. $100,000. Just as important was the implication that our industrial safety program could be strengthened by attacking the off the1 job problem area. Employees do not suddenly become conscious of safety when they put on their safety hats and go to work--any 94 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions . more than they become reckless violators of ognitioh of his achievement (with suitable good safety practices at the end of the work ceremony). His family is invited to attend day. whenever possible. We embarked on a Safety Around the Periodically, these outstanding, employees Clock program, and a giant sign painted on are honored, along with their wives, at a one of our storage tanks was one of our first safety dinner. They receive their invitation efforts emphasizing our concern. through a personal letter from the manager. To get our program under way, our refi Naturally, every effort is made to publicize nery manager sent a letter home to all em their achievement of no on or off the job in ployees, outlining his concern, for their wel juries through our daily bulletin, our com fare and our off the job problem, and invit pany newspaper, and the local press. ing them to attend our . first Home Safety Since the middle of 1957 we have had, Carnival. This technique of involving the with variations, an individual employee family has been continued through the years, safety award plan. To qualify, an employee with appropriate safety pamphlets and other must have no industrial injury, including first educational material included at intervals, as aid cases,- and no off the job disabling injury well as safety awards earned by. the em during' the contest period. He receives at ployee. ' home a congratulatory letter from the refi Since 1961, we have offered all employees nery manager, along with his award. free subscriptions to Family Safety maga We believe individual' responsibility for zine, published by the National Safety . and individual recognition of safety perform- Council. Each year we send one issue to all . ance on and off the job is important People employees and ask them whether they wish' want to be recognized as individuals. In to to continue receiving it for the year. Interest day's structure of unions, seniority, and rate' in the magazine has held up well through of pay for' the job, and the insecurity devel- the years and the comments received each oping from new methods and automation, year, as well as the high percentage of^sub this is one way excellent performance can be scribers, justify to management the maga recognized. The employee, who at work is zine's Continued use for those asking for it. only a member of a craft, a department a We have, found letters from management section, is something else when he walks' in and educational material, sent to employees his front door. He is the husband and our in their home, to be an essential and effec tive tool in reducing off. the job accidents. dad and he yearns for individual recognition. We, as a company, gain in many ways Another effective tool.is to treat employees when we. involve the employee and his. fam as .individuals, recognizing their individual ily as individuals. We reduce accidents and safety accomplishments on and off the job we improve employee relations and our and counseling, .thos.e employees, having company's image in pur community. excessive accidents. A. historical study made in 1957 revealed that a very substantial majority of. our em ployees were working year after year, with no injuries at all, not.even first aid cases, and no off the job disabling injuries. At the same time, a small group of employees, year after, year, were having problems. An arrow sign' There are many other ways to involve the family, to offer them safety education and demonstrate your company's concern for ` their off the job safety. For example, for years we have had safety demonstrations at our . company outings. These outings can be a good time to put line was pasted bn all mirrors so the employee management and employees to work organiz saw himself above it; it also was sent to all ing committees for each show. employees. ` In addition to our own resources there is Our employees like to wear decals on their much outside expert help available. Reach safety hats. We adopted a program of indi out for help to the Power Squadron, the Bu vidual recognition for 5, 10, 15 and 20 years reau of Navigation, the' Red Cross. We have without any -injury on' or off the job.' When found local safety councils, other companies,' an employee reaches 20 years without an ac and sportsman clubs'cooperative. They will cidental injury on the job or an off the job be'glad to' help. So will the local fire and po disabling injury , he is given special recogni lice departments. Publicize the activities to tion and presented with a gold tie pin in rec- come and you gain added mileage for your 95 a . 1967 National. Safety Congress program by stories and pictures in your com long-term study of the effect of participation pany publications or the local press. in these contests, comparing the. nonpartici Another way to involve the family is pant's change in off the job accidents with through safety .contests. As part of our safety the participant.,This study is similar to one I carnivals, we have held home safety essay would now like to describe: and home safety poster contests for emr - In 1960, we held a successful off hours ployee children, by grade level, enlisting a defensive driving program for our employ- staff of grade teachers to act as judges. Win ees, their wives, and teen-age children. The ners received cash prizes. justification' for this program was based on We gained added benefit from the contest by making an annual calendar from the win ning posters. Again, a letter from the man ager accompanied the calendar, which was sent to all employees. 'We also held a home safety contest for our employees' wives. Approximately 45 per cent entered, describing how they keep their families safe. Some 60 employees, guided by staff of the New Jersey State Safety Council, acted as judges. We made calendar pads' an analysis of direct traffic accident costs off the job in 1959. We could have made the es timate even larger if needed for management justification .by including overtime, .extra board, production delays, etc., resulting from the employee's disability. The program we developed involved an in-depth exposure to' attitudes and their modification and defen sive driving techniques. More important for this discussion--what fend of long term re sults have been achieved? V with each day. of the month giving a safety First, and most important, we recovered' thought from a wife. These were mailed , the investment for the program through re monthly to all employees. duced traffic accident costs in 1960. We Finally, we have held a safety contest for. have analyzed our employees' performance, the whole family, with some 600. families en- over the past twelve years, comparing the ' tering. I believe this to be most effective. .1960 defensive driver participants with the This contest was in two parts; first, the fami wage employees not participating, which we lies finding the most unsafe situations in a call our control group. cartoon received prizes; second, each family. There was comparability of educational described the steps they were taking to keep . level attained, with the majority of employ their family safe. All members of the family ees achieving high school. Years of company signed their, list. Where 'the child was too . service also matched with identical exposure young, the employee signed for the child, to our safety philosophy and practices. The also. Again there were grand prize winners. percent married in each group matched. A What results can we expect from such ac. tivitiesP.We made our biggest improvement in home injury frequency in 1957 and 1958, the period we introduced individual recogni tion. Our best year of 1962 followed the family safety contest of September, 1961, distribution of the distances employees live from work shows 85 per cent, living, within 10 miles. It is interesting to note that of 86 disabling traffic accidents since 1957, only 13 could be identified as commuting acci dents, with nine of these heading home. but- we ' again plateaued in the following We were able to obtain from company years. The severity of home accidents meas credit card purchases the gasoline consump ured in days lost/million man-hours declined tion for the defensive driver and the control with the reduction of home injuries in these group. Again there was comparability. We same years. An outbreak in severity in 1964 even checked on the number of credit cards and 1965 was due to several very serious per family,, but there was no significant home injuries. difference. So' we felt in the areas explored The upswing so far this year in home in we had two matching groups. What hap jury frequency is causing us concern. even pened to each of-these employee groups be though the severity of these injuries is down. fore and following our defensive'driving pro We have reached the conclusion in retro gram? spect that safety contests such as I have de In the five year period preceding the pro scribed are very valuable in sustaining an off gram, the group who , later was to take the the job safety program but do not necessar course had averaged a somewhat lower traf ily result in long term improvement for the fic accident frequency than did the control total employee, group. We are now making a group. In the seven years following the pro- 96 ff Industrial Safety Subject Sessions ' gram; the control group achieved a 31 per cent reduction in their traffic accident fre quency. Why did the control group im prove?. Rub-off from the defensive driver? ' Exposure to other. Esso programs? Exposure to mass media?. More mature? Frankly, we don't know. However, the defensive driving group of employees reduced their traffic ac. cident frequency from 1.8 to 0.6 or 67 per cent--a significant long range'.improvement. The defensive driver participant not only markedly reduced the frequency of his traffic accidents but quite dramatically reduced the severity of them when measured by days lost per accident. Even- if the average severity of their- accidents had been the same as'the control group prior to the course, they, would have achieved over twice, the reduction that the control group did; Does this mean defen sive driving training reduces the severity of an accident if it cannot be avoided? We be. lieve so. When we examine the effects of the de fensive driving program on other types of off the job injuries we found little result. The employee taking the defensive driver course already, had a lower frequency for home and public accidents than the control,'and both groups showed about the same improvement immediately prior to 'the program.' We have concluded that a program such as this can impart lasting skills leading to. a reduction in traffic accidents and their severity -but will not necessarily-affect basic safety attitudes; it will, however, result in over-all reductionin off the job accidents. We have been working hard at Safety Around the Clock for a number of years. We have had some success, but also, disappoint ments, as we have felt our way. Problem areas received. special emphasis programs. Much of our extra efforts have sustained a. relatively low off the job accident frequency through the years after our initial break through, but we have not yet found the for mula for a further major reduction. We do know, from analysis, that participation in safety, contests and our defensive driving program has-helped employees with high ac cident rates on and off the job to achieve a marked-reduction. This is particularly signif icant when we compare their performance to the nonparticipant whigh accident Tate em ployee. However, with voluntary employee participation generally attracting the em> ployee with a demonstrated lower off the job accident frequency, we are planning more in-plant programs to better reach all of our employees. Let me close by offering some suggestions based on our 12 years bf experience in com bating off the job accidents. First, make use of statistics and costs to secure your manage ment's support. Remind management also that there are tangible employee benefits to be secured through' off the job safety activi ties as well as the image your company dis plays to your community. Second, most of us feel under staffed with the complexities of the present' day safety - job; so get real help by putting line manage ment actually to work on the problem. Form . committees to develop particular ideas. They will have the added benefit of this exposure. Third, we ore not expert, so reach out for help. We have always found that this expert help is waiting and ready. Establish communication channels into the employee's home and let him and his family know of management's concern for their safety. Provide them with educational mate rial. Recognize often the individual employ-, ee's accomplishment for his safety and in volve his family. Last, but also tying in with enlisting man agement support, continue to hit your worst problems, whether they are associated with the home, traffic, or public, and keep hitting them. .. . Question: Do you think. your employees resent the company effort in the off the job safety'field? ,, Answer: The question of possible em ployee resentment has never seemed to us to be a problem. When we send educational material to the employee's home, he.and his family can treat it as junk mail or respond to it. I. have already mentioned the excellent re sponse to Family Safety magazine. Through the years, approximately 40 per. cent'of the subscribers have taken the time to write en thusiastic and constructive comments about this magazine to us. When we have safety demonstrations at our outings, the employee and his family con walk over and watch, participate or not. Entry into contests and programs is on a vol untary basis; when we have discussions on work time, or the employees are watching a safety film, they are being paid just the same as if they were performing a .rigging job; . As for reporting of off the job injuries to 97 1967 National Safety Congress management, our employees are required to account for absences; we get a very good story when the employee, his wife, or child calls our medical department to report that dad broke his leg falling down the steps. Our medical department usually asks- a few questions to better clarify die incident. When the employee returns, the supervisor discusses the .accident with' the employee and usually the story is a confirmation of what was originally, told the medical. ' No employee has ever been penalized for having an off the lob accident regardless of its cause; although in reviewing an employ ee's over-all performance with him, his off the Job accidents would be discussed along with other performance. We have always made a point of not using costs of off the lob accidents as a point to our employees. No, I do not believe our employees resent the company effort in the off the' job safety field. Question: How do you overcome manage ment's feeling that they should not be con cerned about the employee's safety off the Job, especially in the area of home safety? Answer: We surround them with statistics and cost studies. An alert management will also recognize the employee relations benefit and public relations value of such interest. Also, managements are interested in a sta- ble, efficient, productive work force. Absen teeism means added costs through direct and indirect payroll costs, extra people, overtime, production delays, and so forth. These result from off the job accidents. Home accidents usually predominate in a' work force--certainly ours and also for na tional statistics. Home safety to us is the most logical area to ' attack because it is usually the area of highest cost It is also the area where you can discuss wife safety, chil dren safety, family safety, product and equipment safety, as .well as employee safety most comfortably. This is more difficult to accomplish when discussing employee driv ing habits or his recreation. HAZARDS OF USING URETHANE FOAM IN ENCLOSED SPACES By EDWIN M. MURPHY, Technical Research Engineer; EDWARD M. KAWENSKI, Supervising Mining Methods Research Engineer; and JOHN NAGY, Project Coordinator, Dust and Ventilation; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, Pa. The Bureau of Mines investigated the haz Physiological Hazards ards during use of rigid urethane` foam in confined spaces. Many of the tests simulated conditions in . an operating mine. Numerous urethane foam formulations were sprayed in the. laboratory, in thex Bureau's experimental coal mine, and in several operating coal, copper, potash, and uranium mines. As a di rect result of die research, procedures were developed, for the' application of urethane foam' in mines. Many of the findings apply also to surface applications in confined spaces. Liquid chemicals--Research and indus trial experience indicates that the raw liquid chemicals ore moderately irritating to the sldn and prolonged or repeated skin contact should T>e avoided. The chemicals are moderately irritating to the eyes, but if the eyes, are flushed immediately with copious quantities of water, permanent injury will not result. However, repeated inclusions of the chemicals may cause eye damage. The polyol resin is water soluble and can be washed from the eyes, sldn, and clothing. Rigid urethane foam is a solid cellular The isocyanate is insoluble and reacts with plastic made by mixing liquid diisocyanate water or even moisture in the sldn.-When it and polyol resin. The mixture, when contacts the sldn, black, unsightly stains sprayed, foams and expands up to 30 times form. These cannot be washed off but wear in volume, solidifies within seconds, and ad off within a week; the time can be shortened heres to most dean surfaces. The solid foam by' scrubbing with a scouring powder. Ace has a low thermal conductivity and is highly tone and similar solvents should never be., resistant to air-and water vapor transmission. used because, they cause-the isocyanate to It is a very stable product. Its protective enter the blood stream through the. skin. properties are unaffected by contact with At the experimental coal mine, more than common chemicals, weathering, or vermin. 10,000 pounds of urethane chemicals were handled without gloves, protective creams, Rigid urethane foam has almost unlimited or immediate removal of materials splashed potential use in industry because of its high onto the face,' hands, or arms. None of the insulating properties, adequate soundproof-, men experienced primary irritation of the ing, and sufficient compressive strength to skin. . form nonload-bearing walls. Also because of Vapor and mist--The resin vapors when its expansion qualities, rigid urethane foam . inhaled are neither irritating nor cause or " is an excellent filler and sealant. The' liquid ganic disorders of the body. The isocyanate chemicals contain volatile irritants, however, Vapor irritates the respiratory system, but and the cured foam may present a fire haz does not cause organic disorders of the body. ard. The vapor causes temporary'dehydration in Most of the Bureau's studies were made the respiratory tract and produces coughing with proprietary formulations using diphenyl that may last'for two or three days. diisocyanate (MDI). Initial studies showed The isocyanate hazard comes-mostly from that tolylene dlisocyanate (TDI), n-butyl is the mist liberated during spray applications. ocyanate (BI), and phenyl and cldorophenyl The mist concentration depends on type of 'isocyanates (CPI) were unsuitable for mine equipment and application techniques. In use because they are more toxic than MDI creasing the airflow through the spray head or polymethylene polyphenol isocyanate to increase rate of application or distance of ,(PI). spray projection raises the mist concentra- . 99 . 196? National Safety Congress tion. Aerosol photometer and cascade impac for wall and roof tests and on cardboard, tin' samples .indicated that mist contains un brattice cloth, metal -lath, and cinder block reacted isocyanate droplets - approximately for barrier tests. Air velocities through the four microns in diameter. The concentration test zone ranged from less than 100 to 1,300 was highest within 25 feet of the spray and' feet per minute (fpm); most tests were con decreased rapidly with distance. ducted at velocities of 200 to 300 fpm. Isocyanate also vaporizes from open con Ignition sources--The ignition sources tainers, spillages, contaminated clothing and used in the research had relatively high rates rags. Storage and locker areas should be well of heat liberation. Initial trials indicated that ventilated. The -isocyanate concentration-.is the rate of heat liberation had a more dependent on temperature and ventilation. marked effect on ignition of fpam than the Data from laboratory tests in an unventilated total heat developed. Nine fixes, which liber chamber show that above 95 F the vapor ated 9,000 to 840,000 British thermal units from low volatile isocyanates such as MDI (Btu) per minute and burned 2 to 25 min . and PI exceeds 0.01 parts per million utes, were started against the foam. . (ppm). These data indicate also that high volatile isocyanates such as TDI have vapor concentrations 10 to 20 times higher. - By comparison, a furnace in a six-room house gives off about 1,500 Btu per minute, and a mining-machine fire involving hydrau Solid foam--Excessive concentrations of lic oil,,coal dust, and rubber tires gives off isocyanate vapor are evolved from cured approximately 50,000 Btu per minute. foam subjected to temperatures above 210 F. Data was gathered for a foam heated in a closed chamber. Similar concentrations could develop where foam is exposed to heated air downwind of a fire. Fire endurance tests--The ability of foam to resist, flame penetration was studied. Four . foam types were evaluated. -Foam A was sat isfactory for mine use when applied to bar riers and on either the walls or the roof. Industrial experience-indicates that expo Foam B was unsatisfactory for mine use be sure to isocyanate vapor concentrations of cause it failed- to prevent flame and heat, 0.02 ppm dining an 8-hour shift does not re from penetrating to the substrate.- Foams jC ' sult in respiratory irritation or induce sensiti and D were inadequate for any-application. zation. However, because of confinement in underground mines, dependence on forced ventilation, and the possibility of higher con centrations in local areas, the. Bureau recom mends that -the maximum allowable vapor concentration in areas without respiratory protection be considered as 0.01 ppm. . Barrier tests--The barriers covered with foam A resisted penetration of flame, heat, and smoke in 38 of 38 tests. Other tests with . a foam similar to foam A, on brattice doth, metal lath, and fiberboard-backed harriers gave the same results. Barriers-covered with other materials failed. For example a plaster Fire Hazard Urethane foam will bum if subjected to a > sufficiently strong igniting source. Burning foam produces a black, acrid smoke. The foam presents a fire hazard if Some propa gates beyond the ignition source or if the fire bums through the foam. Some foams exhibit intumescence when exposed to flame; this in sulates the underneath portion from further - degradation. Some foam bums through rap idly or flame spreads rapidly along the ex posed surface. coating on concrete block barrier prevented penetration of flame, but not smoke and con taminated air. Brattice cloth disintegrated, nylon melted, and the reinforced plasticcoated fiberglass burst into flame within sec onds. Wall and roof tests--The flames did not penetrate foam-A or char the substrate. With foam' B, the flames charred only the sub strate in the ignition zone. Foams C and D were entirely consumed and the substrate set afire. Flame propagation--Some foams burned . Evaluation of these properties of the foam along their surface at rates ranging from 20 were made in the experimental coal mine, a to 100 fpm, depending on the speed of the 150-foot-long steel gallery, and in the labo- ventilating current This flame-spread hazard ratory. The .mine passageway is 10 feet wide was evaluated with' foam applied to walk, by 7 feet high; the gallery is 10 feet wide and- roofs, and in combination of walls and roof. 5 feet high. Foam was applied onto coal, gun- . Wall tests--Flame did not propagate be ite, concrete, and corrugated steel surfaces yond the ignition zone' in the 73 tests in 100 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions which either foam A or foam B was. on the walls and. on 6 or 12' inches of adjoining roof. With foam A on die walls in the metal gallery, heat and flame from fire source nine caused 60 feet of the uncoated steel roof to glow and deform. The walls.coated with foam were not damaged, presumably be cause the foam resisted flame penetration and insulated the steel from the intense heat. Flame propagated along foams C and D. Roof tests--Flame did m>s- propagate in tests with foams A or B applied to 200 feet of roof; overlapping 6 indies of the adjoin ing walls. Flame propagated along foam D. Wall and roof tests--Flame propagated along all foams covering the walls and across die roof.- With a continuous application of foam A on the walls and alternating 40-foot sections of foam-covered and bare roof, flame propagation stopped after reaching the bare roof. . Spontaneous. ignition--Three instances of spontaneous ignition of foam barriers in op erating mines were reported. Laboratory investigations' showed that spontaneous igni tion can only develop in a thick mass of' ur ethane foam made from inadequately mixed chemicals. Foams less than six indies thick or those made with adequately mixed chemi cals have not ignited spontaneously in indus trial use or in the research.' . Spontaneous ignition can be demonstrated by spraying foam into a container 1 foot by 1 foot by 2 feet. While spraying the chemi cal, hoses are alternately partially dosed for short periods. .After spraying, a 1-inch breather hole is put through the foam' mass and container. Smoking and flame usually occurs within two to three hours. Comparison Of Mine And Laboratory Tests Large-scale investigations in the mine pro vide a direct measure of the potential fire hazard of urethane foam. However, the time and expense involved limit the use of this re-, search- tool. To determine if laboratory stud ies could evaluate the fire hazard, foams 'A, B, C, and D were subjected to' ASTM tests E 84, E 162, and D 1692, the Forest Prod ucts Laboratory (FPL) 8-foot tunnel test, and the "Fire Endurance" test. - Comparison of data indicates that the combined results of the Bureau of Mines fine-endurance test and either the ASTM E 84 or E 162 tests can be used to predict foam flammability. Foams with a rating of .more than seven minutes in die laboratory pest have - consistently provided adequate protection against flame penetration in fullscale tests. Foams having ratings of less than three minutes in the laboratory test have consistently failed to protect the substrate in the large-scale tests. ASTM tests E 84 and E 162 measure the rate of flame spread across a foam specimen. The acceptable value of less than 75 for ASTM E 84 is that specified in most build ing codes for "Class B" construction. The ac ceptable value of less than 140 for ASTM E 162 is based on research previously reported. ASTM D 1692 and FPL tunnel tests were inadequate for evaluating foam flammability. The D 1692 ratings of "nonbuming" and "self-extinguishing" can be confusing; the data obtained from it and the FPL test were inconsistent with those from the mine tests. Conclusions And Recommendations The hazards of applying urethane foam can be minimized by using low-volatile iso cyanate chemicals, keeping the equipment .in factory-recommended condition, and protect ing the operator against' inhalation of the mist and vapors. The Bureau recommends use of air-line respirators supplied with adequate respirable air. Where this is not feasible, the operator and others in the vicinity should wear-com bination organic-vapor and dust and mist respirators. These are described as Type.BE devices in the Bureau's list of approved res pirators. | As a result of the Bureau's research, foam criteria and application techniques for mines were published. That mine operators have recognized the benefits of foam is shown by their successful use of more than 500 tons per year. Surface application of foams simi lar to those developed for mines is about 50,000 tons per year. REFERENCES 1 Mitchell, Donald W., John Nasy, and Edwin M. Murphy. Rigid Foam For Mine*. BuMinea Rapt, of Inv. 6SSS, 1964, ST pp. `Dralie. John H., O. Woodward, and H. O. Calvary. Methods for the Btudy of Irritation and Toxicity of Subatanea Applied Topically to the 8)tin and Mucous Membranes. J. Fharm. A Pharmacol., v. 82, 1944, pp. S72-S90. Chem. Aba., v. 39. p. 1966. Mobay Chemical Co., Toxicity and Safe Handling of Isocyanates, Plttsburah, Pa., 1961, 16 pp. `Williams. M. H. C. Toxicity of Epoxides and Dllsocyanatcs. Chem: Age, r. 81, May ZS, 1969, p. 863. * Zapp, John A. Toxicity of Plastics and Resins. Arch. Env. Health, v. 4, March 1962, p. 338. 101 1987 National Safety Congress 6 PPM indicates parti of vapor per million parts of air by volume at 25* C and 760 mnUmctcra of mercury pressure. , * Work cited in reference 4. 1 Work cited in reference 1. Mitchell. Donald W., Edwin H. Hdrpby, John Nagy, and Florence P. ChristofeL Practical Aspects of Controlling- an Underground Fire on a Mining Machine. BuMlnes/Rept. of Inv. 5846, 1961, p, 8. "Kawenski. Edward M., Donald W. Mltehril, George R Berclk, and Angelo Frances. Stoppings - for Ventilating Coal Mines. BnMines Bepi. of Inv. 6710, 1965, 20 pp. Also' work cited in reference 1. 10 Work cited in footnote.8 of reference 12. u Work dted in reference 1. xs8cbatt, B. H., B. I.. Fcrber, and SL J: KSooa. Respiratory Protective Devices Approved by the ^Bureau of Hines as of October 1, 1965. BtzMInes Inf. Cire. 8281, 1966, 22 pp, ** Mitchell, Donald Edwin M. Morphy, and John Nagy. Fire Hazard jof Urethane Foam in Mines. BuMines Rept. of Inv. 6887, 1966, 29 pp. HAZARDS AND CONTROLS IN THE INDUSTRIAL USE OF LASERS By. R. M. LuMLEx Senior Research Engineer, Engineering Research Center, Western Electric Co. Inc., Princeton, N. Y. Laser, an acronym for "Light Amplifica uids, glasses, single crystals; or semi-conduc tion by Stimulated Emission of Radiation," tors. The third major portion of die laser, the has become a household word not because Fabry-Perot cavity, normally consists of two many people know what a laser actually is mirrors parallel to each other and perpendi nor for direct benefits the laser has made cular to the axis of die lasing material, with possible but probably because of the many one-mirror at each .end of die lasing mate predicted uses of the laser. In i958 Dicke1, rial. Schawlow and Townes2 and others proposed ' In. the operation of a laser the pump' ways in which optical masers (lasers) might source supplies energy to the lasing medium be constructed. In 1960 Maiman2 was suc- and raises atoms or other particles in the me ' cessful'in constructing and operating a laser. dium to energy levels above the ground or Since the operation of the laser by Maiman, normal energy state..These atoms then lose the predicted uses and possibilities of lasers energy by thermal effects until a metastable ' have been numerous, with these possibilities energy level is reached (atoms in the me varying from the use of a laser for special il tastable energy states tend to remain in this lumination to its use as a military weapon. state for long time periods). If a photon Probably this' latter use, or predicted .use, is (light wave) of the proper wavelength one of the big factors in the public's aware passes the excited atom, the atom will give ness of. lasers.. Lasers which are available up its excess energy in die form of a photon today would not be called weapons; how having the same wavelength, phase, and di ever, the high voltages, and other factors as-, rection as the stimulating photon. As die ini-' sociated with some lasers can cause them to tial photon and any stimulated photons pass be hazardous if not properly designed and out of the cavity, they would be lost from used. the system if it were riot for the mirrors of. While the laser which Maiman was . suc the Febry-Perot cavity, and .the output cessful in operating was what is commonly would be a result of random generation of called a pulsed ruby laser, lasers available .photons in the losing material (plus what lit today are quite varied. All lasers consist of tle light might be stimulated in a single three basic sections: the pump (energy),: pass). This output would' be what is nor sources,. lasing, medium, and the Fabry-Perot* mally called fluorescence of the material. cavity or resonator. The pump or energy With the Fabry-Perot cavity present,' pho source may be a high intensity arc lamp, an tons leaving the lasing material are reflected arc discharge within the lasing medium, a and pass back through the lasing material, glow discharge, a chemical decomposition, thus stimulating more photons. Very quickly or any of several other energy sources. Laser the photon wavefront reaches an amplitude mediums available today may be gases, liq- where it is stimulating atoms to radiate their 102 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions energy at a rate at least' equal to the rate at lasing medium. With these lasers it is neces-. which tile puinp source is raising atoms from sary that the personnel associated with them the ground state to the .lasing level. With use the proper . chemical handling tech this situation the laser is said to be lasing. In niques. While these electrical and chemical order to use the laser, some of its energy hazards, etc., are usually the most dangerous must be removed from the system. This is hazards in lasers, they are similar to those accomplished by using one mirror in the Fa- present in. other industrial equipment and bry-Perot cavity which is not 100 per cent can be handled in the some manner. reflecting, but will instead allow port of the energy from the cavity to escape. Since the stimulated photons in the laser Hazards resulting from the coherent out put of the loser, .while usually much less dangerous than tire other hazards, are rela have both the some wavelength and the same phase os the stimulating photons, the output from the laser has two characteristics which make it unique. First, the output is essentially monochromatic, that is, all of the energy is at essentially one wavelength. Se condly, the light energy from the loser is coherent, that is, each photon- has a direct, phase relationship to each other photon. tively new to most safety people and thus need further-explanation..Injuries which re sult from the coherent radiation may usually be divided into two categories; thermal dam age resulting from, the heat rise.lcaused by absorption of radiation, and-photodynamic effects such as damage occurring as a result of shock waves generated when very large energies are absorbed over short time peri Because of the characteristics of coherence. - ods. and monochromaticy, lasers look promising . While it is expected that exposure to laser as tools, and these characteristics are also the radfation will normally result only, in bums, - reason that lasers can present some unusual if anything, the possibilities of photodynamic hazards. Those familiar with optics are - effects must be considered, for photodyn aware that to focus light energy to the mini amic effects may produce fatal injuries, mum spot size (and consequently to the McCartney and others have observed that maximum power density) the light should it is possible to fatally injure mice with 20-' be completely coherent. Since the. laser out- . 40 joules of focused energy or 100-200 joules put can approach this condition, it is possi of unfocused energy from a pulsed ruby, ble to focus the lasers energy to a spot size laser.-These fatal injuries manifested them near the .theoretical minimum (approxi selves as hemorrhages within' the brain and mately one wavelength of the light)-*, thus may have resulted-from mechanical shock making it possible to obtain very high power waves generated when the loser energy was densities over small areas. For instance, as absorbed. It is known that under the proper an example, assume that the radiation from a ; conditions extremely high powered laser small helium-neon laser, approximately 3 pulses can generate mechanical shod: milliwatts, is focused to a spot size equal to . waves6. While the mice used in the experi approximately twice the diffraction limited ments are apparently much more,sensitive case. Under these conditions the power den than man' would be expected to be .(ruby sity in the focused spot will be approxi- laser exposures of 800 joules to the heads of mately 300,000 watts per square centimeter. squirrel monkeys were not fatal), with ex Granted this power is' obtained only over a tremely high powered pulse lasers this type very small area, but this area may.be suffi of injury to humans must be considered and. ciently large to produce noticeable damage. protected against Lasers, which may have The electrical,, chemical, and similar haz ards which may be present with a laser aremuch more likely to cause injuries than the coherent loser radiation. For instance, most sufficient output to 'cause such injuries are being developed in some laboratories; how ever, such lasers are not being used in indus try. . lasers used in the industrial environment .The thermal effects of the absorption of have power supplies capable of delivering laser radiation, which can occur at much fatal shocks. If thesepower supplies ore' not -lower energy levels than the photodynamic properly shielded and interlocked, they may effects, can be important in any part of the become the most dangerous-part of the laser. human body; however, because of its con- . Also, there are lasers presently being used in ' struction and function, the eye is-normally laboratories which use toxic chemicals as the the most sensitive to permanent damage. Be- 103 1967 National Safety Congress cause of this, normal safety programs at associates have also found that the size of tempt to reduce or control the laser radiation spot and time' of exposure are related. They so that sufficient energy cannot , get to the found that for times below one- millisecond, eye to'cause damage. It is then assumed the the spot size was not important; however, _ level has been limited to a level too low to for times appreciably greater than one milli damage .other parts of the body. Several second, not only is power level important workers such as Zaret, et. aP; Ham, et al.8; but also the area which is being illuminated. Flocks, et al.8 have made studies of laser, They felt that one watt per centimeter energy required to cause permanent damage squared was probably a safe continuous to ocular tissue. Here it is necessary to di-. power level.10 In order to make absolutely vide the types of damage' which may occur sure permanent damage'does riot occur, and into three areas, for different wavelengths of also to anticipate the fact that repeated ex light affect the eye differently. For instance, posures over long periods of time may cause lasers operating in the visible portion of the damage, at'lower levels, the accepted safe spectrum normally damage the retina of the level for continuous radiation should proba eye long before power densities sufficient to bly be set one to two orders of-magnitude damage other portions of the eye are below the one watt per centimeter squared reached. Eye damage due to ultraviolet laser level or 10 to 100 milliwatts per square cen outputs will normally manifest itself as catar timeter; however, it is too early.to suggest a acts on the corneas of the eyes; while lasers safe exposure level with any degree of confi operating in the infrared portion of the spec dence.' trum, depending on the portion of the in frared spectrum "involved, may cause catar acts, damage the retina, or damage the aqueous or vitreous humors of the eye. While formation of cataracts on the cor nea of the eye is different from damage oc curring to the retina, the setting of exact levels not to be exceeded is, again, almost im Since most lasers in commercial use have outputs in the portion of the spectrum where the retina is most sensitive, we will consider retinal damage first. Ham, et. al.8 made studies of the. powers required to cause dam possible. As with the retina, the energy re quired to cause damage is a function of fac tors such as time of exposure, area of expo sure, and wavelength of- the laser light. Hirsch11 has documented a case where re age to the retinas of rabbits (in previous peated exposures over a long period to mi work they have found rabbits' eyes similar to crowave energy at an estimated power level humans'). As a result.`of their work, they . found that with an exposure time of 30 na noseconds (30 billionths of a second) 0.07 . joules per centimeter squared is sufficient to cause damage; with ah exposure time of 0.2 milliseconds (two ten-thousandths of a sec ond) the energy , required is 0.85 joules per centimeter squared; and with an exposure time of 20 milliseconds, approximately 3.9 joules per centimeter squared is required. of 100 milliwatts per square centimeter was sufficient to cause the formation of cataracts on the eyes of a worker. It appears reason able to expect that laser radiation-, at this level could also cause cataract formation if a large percentage of the energy were ab- ' sorbed in the cornea. Here,-as with retinal damage, it appears that the acceptable level to be considered safe should not exceed 10 to 100 milliwatts per centimeter squared. Ham also found that for the longer pulses, Damage to the aqueous and vitreous hu 200' microseconds and longer, there was mors of the eye is again unpredictable, as is good agreement between the results found the case with the cornea damage. With this for lasers and for. non-coherent light sources type of damage, the" amount and rate of such os xenon flash lamps. Extrapolating the damage .is a function of the temperature data given, in "Ocular Effects of falser Ra which the aqueous (vitreous) humor reaches diation" and considering the data which pre and the length of time at this temperature. sented at the I.E.E.E. Conference on Laser Thus; with the variation in absorption by the Engineering and Applications10, it is esti aqueous humor at different wavelengths ,and mated' that for an 800 micron spot diameter ' the variations of power density by the focus continuous energy of 10 watts per centimeter ing of the eye, it is almost impossible to set squared or 2.5 million watts per centimeter limits on what power levels would be low squared for 30 nanoseconds is sufficient to enough to avoid damage to the aqueous cause observable eye damage. Ham and his humor. Here again the safe power level 104 i Industrial Safety Subject Sessions should be assumed to' be no greater than 10 thereto equipment failure or improper.ac to 100 milliwatts per centimeter squared. tions of the operator. Under these conditions When the levels of laser radiation which it. is mandatory that the operator recognize might be considered safe are considered with, the potentially hazardous situation and. take respect to radiation levels which are presr appropriate action. Education can also be ently available from lasers, it is found that extremely important in the use of small Iasr almost all lasers can be considered unsafe ers, .such as the small continuous helium- under certain conditions. For instance, there neon lasers which deliver at the most a few are lasers available which can deliver over milliwatts of .power. Such lasers are being 100 joules of energy in 80 billionths of a sec used more and more in surveying and similar ond (peak power approximately three billion ' equipment, and it-is mandatory that the peo watts). For this type of laser it is impossible ple using the equipment and anyone work because of time considerations for natural ing around such equipment be aware of the eye protection mechanisms to be effective. danger as well as'what can be done to avoid Furthermore, using the technique outlined or reduce' the danger. With such lasers a by Burnett12 and assuming the following very short exposure of the eye to the direct conditions--laser beam divergence equal to beam should not create permanent damage; Vz degree, no'energy lost in atmosphere, a however, prolonged exposure may do. perma pupil diameter of three millimeters, .a fo nent damage. To someone familiar with las cused spot size of approximately 17.6 mic ers, it is quite apparent when he is looking rons, and ah energy density of 0.07 joules directly into the laser (that is,' the laser per square centimeter to cause damage--it is beam is striking the eye directly)' and by the found this laser is. capable of causing dam simple expedient of dosing the eyelid dr age at. a. range of approximately 8.6 miles. turning the head slightly he can probably Assuming that the assumption of no loss in prevent permanent damage. Laser light is the atmosphere was in error by an order of extremely brilliant and there is a human fas- magnitude, the dangerous range would still ' cination with it much os occurs with the arc be approximately a mile. At the' other ex of an electric welder and other very bright treme, we have small continuous lasers, such . . light sources. BecauseT)f this human fascina- as helium-neon, haying outputs of approxi tion and tendency- to store at brilliant light' mately one-half milliwatt. Again using the sources, those working around lasers must be 17.6 micron spot size and assuming all of the aware of the dangers and train themselves to laser's energy is focused in the spot, the look away os soon as they find. themselves power .density is found to be approximately looking directly into, the laser. 190 watts/cm2, which is probably sufficient Medical surveillance, like education, is to cause eye damage. quite important in laser safety programs and It is likely that under the proper condi $uch a program has been in effect in the tions most lasers can cause damage, espe Western Electric Co. since the laser was first cially to. the eyes. Therefore, it is felt that used in manufacturing13. The periodic med- . any laser must be treated as a potential haz ical examination of the eyes points up very ard and steps taken. accordingly. The steps well why medical surveillance is important. which should be taken with a particular While one small <bum of the retina may not laser system vary widely; however, theynor- - cause sufficient impairment of vision for the mally fall into four basic categories: educa person himself to be aware of it, multiple tion, medical surveillance, individual protec- burns could cause a serious loss in vision. By tion, and system isolation. . periodic examinations it . may be possible to While at first education may appear to be discover eye damage before any serious loss of secondary importance, often it is found of vision occurs. that.education is the most important factor With- the low power laser systems proper hi laser safety. As people who design systems education, coupled with the warning signals know, it is possible to build a system which' which the person receives from his own ' is completely interlocked such that it should senses, will probably be sufficient to reduce be impossible for a person to hurt himself injuries to a minimum. In the case of indus when using the system; however, it is also trial laser systems, however, this is usually known that almost invariably the interlocks not the case, for a large percentage of the and safety devices fail at some point, due ei- industrial systems produce power levels 105 1967 National Safety. Congress which are sufficient to cause-injuries in a few First, it must be light-tight to the laser's thousandths of a second. Under these condi wavelength when the laser is operating. Sec tions, even if the person should recognize ond, the operator must be- able to view the the danger his reaction time is so slow that workpiece while .it is in position. The first he would be unable to take any action be criterion is met by making the box light fore the injury occurred. In these cases edu tight and interlocking all doors or- access cation is-important to aid the person in not . ports so the laser cannot operate while the doing things which could be potentially haz doors or access porta are open. The second ardous, but additional safety measures are criterion can be met any number of ways; also necessaryto prevent the occurrence of however, the most popular techniques ap an injury even with an improper action of pear to be the use of a mechanically aper- the person. The safety equipment which tured, microscope system of a closed circuit may be used can range from .the use of gog television system. gles by the operator to the total enclosure of Normally, laser viewing microscopes are - the laser-beam with a light-tight, interlocked . incorporated with the laser so that the same box. ' lens which focuses the laser's energy on' the The use of'goggles by operating personnel workpiece is used-as the objective lens of the. is at best only a secondary means of protec microscope system. Between the objective tion for the person, and their use by people lens and the eyepiece of the microscope is a - who are not extremely familiar with lasers mechanical shutter,' movable' mirror, or and the characteristics of "laser safety gog prism arranged 'so that , in order to view the gles" might create mote of a hazard than workpiece with the microscope, the loser's / they prevent; by giving the people a false beam must be blocked. An electrical inter sense of security.' For instance, those aware lock may also be incorporated, so the laser of the capabilities of some lasers know that cannot operate while the work is being it is difficult to moke goggles which can be viewed. . seen through and still stop 100 percent of A dosed circuit television system the laser light incident on the goggles. In (CCTV), has'been used extensively in the fact, many lasers are so powerful that in. all Bell System for viewing work performed by likelihood, if the direct beam struck the - a laser.H It has been found that there are safety goggles, the goggles themselves would several advantages of the CCTV over the be shattered. Another '.'problem occurring microscope. For instance, it is possible to with goggles is that normally they are effec completely shield the. laser and its output tive wily at one' dr at best at a few laser, from its surroundings; second, because of the wavelengths. Again, the person may believe construction of the system, it. is possible to he is wearing goggles'which will protect him view the workpiece while the laser beam is where, in reality, his goggles may furnish no .impinging on it; and third, it is possible to ' protection. Within our company and within obtain a quicker and more consistent focus most -other companies - goggles and similar ing of the laser's energy on the workpiece. safety devices are used only for experimental As a result of our studies and work with systems by highly qualified individuals. lasers and laser safety, it is concluded that: While it is recognized there will be special situations where the laser's output cannot be totally enclosed and safety measures such as l. Any laser should be considered as a po tential source of injury. However, with rec ognition of hazards present and by engineer education and goggles must be relied upon, ing the system to cope with these hazards, laser installations which will-be used in man the laser can be safely used. ufacturing plants should be designed such . 2. So far as is known, the eye is most sen that all of the laser's output is contained sitive to permanent damage from loser radia I within a light-tight box. While this often tion and, normally,' systems which com presents some design problems, they are sel pletely protect the eye may be considered dom, if ever, insurmountable, and normally safe. " it is probably no more difficult to design-a. 3. Education to the potential dangers of safe work station for a laser than it is. to. de lasers is an essential part of any laser safety sign a safe work station for rotating machin program. ery. When designing a work station for a 4. The ideal method of protecting person laser, two major criteria are usually .used. - nel from the effects of loser radiation is the 100 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions complete shielding of the personnel from the radiation. 5. Normally, in industrial applications, it 'Zaret, M. M., Brelnln, G. M., Schmidt, H., Rlpps, H., and. Siegel, I. M.;- "Ocular Lesions Produced by An Optical Maser (Laser)," Science, 134, 1525, 1961. . impossible to design the system so that all of the laser radiation can be contained within the system. Ham, W. T.. Jr., Williams, ft. C., Mueller, H. A., Ruffin, R. S., Schmidt, F. H.. Clarke, A. M., Vos, J. J.; "Ocular Effects of Laser Radi ation," Acta Ophthamologica, 43, 1965. Reference* Flocks, M., and Sweng, H. C.; 'Laser Coagu lation of Ocular Tissues," Arch, Ophth, 72, ( 604, 1964. Dicker R. H., U. 8. Patent 2,851,652, Sep. tember 9,1958. Schawlow, A. L., and Townes, C. H.; "In frared and Optical Masers," Phytic* Review, 112, 1910.1958. Malman, T. H.; "Stimulated Optical Radi ation In Ruby," Nature, 187, 493, I960. io Ham, W. T., Jr., Williams, B. C., Mueller. H. A.; "Eye Hazards from. Laser Radiation," Paper TAM 1.6, Conference on Laser En gineering and Applications, Washington, D.C., June 1967. "Hlrsdu F. G.; "Microwave Cataracts," NSAE Conference on Industrial Health, Cincinnati, O., April 25, 1952. `Born. M., and Wolf. E.; Principles of Optic*, "Burnett, W. D.'; "Laser Eye Hazard Evalu- " 3rd Ed., Pergammon Press) New York, p. 397, atlons," Research Report SC-fUt-67-563, Sandia 1965. Laboratories, 1967. McCartney, A. J.; "A Consideration of the ' "Worden, F. X., Roberts, W. C., Dunn. J. P.: Biological Effects of Laser," Military Medicine, "Guide Lines for the Safe Use of Lasers," 130, No. 11,1965. National Safety News, 94, No. 4, 1966. Whiteman and Wilson, G. W.; "Laser-Induced "Epperson, J. P., Dyer,. R. W., Grzywa, J. C.; Damage in Natural White Diamonds," Nature, "The- Laser Now a Production Tool," The 208, 66,1965. . . Western Electric Engineer, 10, 9, 1966. MAXIMUM ACCEPTABLE WEIGHT OF LIFT* S. H. SNOOK and C. H. IRVINE Liberty Mutual Insurance Company, tiopkihton, Massachusetts Great concern about manual lifting is re Although presenting .the ILO recommen flected in the following excerpts from a re dations, the U. S. Department of Labor cent U. S. Department of Labor booklet en takes a position of caution with respect to titled "Teach Them To Lift."1 .. their application. The department apparently "The problem of injuries resulting from . the manual handling of materials continues to plague industry. The accident prevention1st still seeks to reduce the toll of this type injury by setting broad brush restrictions on how much a person should be permitted to . lift. . . . Everyone is searching for a. solu tion.. . ,. . Unfortunately, there is no easy 1 way out" There are no. Federal regulations concern- ing maximum permissible weight of lift, and feels that it cannot support the recommenda tions without further specifying and consid ering some of the many variables that affect maximum-weight of lift. This paper supports the Department of Labor's position of cau tion and attempts to (1) identify what the major, variables arp, (2) review several investigations which have -considered these variables, and (3) present new data recently collected at Liberty Mutual Research^ Center. From AIHA Journal. , only 20 of the states have laws governing manual lifting or carrying. Most state regula tions are directed at females and minors. Table I Maximum Permissible Weight to be Carried by One Worker Age Male Female The need nevertheless exists for guidelines that can be used in designing lifting tasks to Adult 16-18 years 88 lb 83-44 lb 33-44 lb 26-83 lb fit the individual. Presumably for this reason, Seven variables affecting the weight of lift the U. S. Department of Labor has included are listed below. These are not the only vari in its booklet the - maximum permissible ables, but they appear to be the. major ones. weights recommended by the International They can conveniently be classified into Labour Office (ILO)* (Table I). human variables and task variables. 107 1967 National Safety Congress Human Variables; lift (below the waist) is implied throughout 1. Sex of worker. 2.Age of worker. 3. Training of worker. 4. Physical fitness or conditioning of worker. Task Variables; the report. Frequency of lift is not specified but is to be varied according to "environ mental conditions, the worker's state of nu trition, his constitution, etc." The recommen dations were "deliberately chosen in the lower range of reasonable weights" to enable 1. Size of object to be lifted. handling by `less favored workers." 2. Height front which and to which the ob; ject is lifted.. 3. Frequency of lift. Body dimensions, such as height of. the worker, are other human variables. Varia tions ' in worker height, however, can .be compensated for if the height of lift is classi fied in terms of the : worker's own body. For example, one type of classification is . based tablb n Returnable Weight Limit* for Occasional Lilting* . .. .. Age (yean). Male Female* . 14-16 16-18 18-20 20-85 85-60 Over 50 88 lb 42 lb 51 lb 55 lb 46 lb 35 lb 22& 26lb 31lb 88lb , 28 lb - 22 lb From the Swiss Accident Insurance Institute.4 on muscles that actually perform the lift.* 2. Swiss Accident Insurance Institute. Most of the recommendations or regula tions' about maximum permissible weight have been based on opinion and have con sidered only two of the above variables: age and sex of the worker. Six investigations of maximum weight (including that of the ILO) were found which are more-, objec tively based, and which consider three or ' more of the seven variables listed above. These investigations are summarized below in terms of the above variables, the criteria used, and the segment of the population which was considered. An excellent investigatipn of lifting and carrying was completed by this organization, in 1981. The report was subsequently trans lated; by the International Occupational Safety and'Health Information Centre (CIS) and disseminated in 1962 as CIS Informa tion Sheet No. 3/ The weight limits recom mended by this report are based oh a biome chanical criterion:' the amounts of stress im posed upon the spinal disks.' Recommended values are given in Table H. Consideration of age and sex variables is . obvious-in Table II (llfting.ability of women 1,'International Labour Office (ILO).* is assumed to be 60 per cent that of-men). . The values apply only .to "smooth" lifting In March 1964, under the auspices of the. .' and lifting close to the body (indicating ILO, an international committee of experts training), but represent the worst possible convened in Geneva for the purpose of set conditions of a bent back and a 90 angle of ting a maximum permissible weight to be inclination of the trunk (indicating.no train carried by one worker.'This committee, con ing). Values are doubled for individuals of sisted of four government experts, three ex 20 to 35 years of age if lifting is accom perts designated by the. employers' group; plished with a straight back. Fitness is three experts designated by the' workers' briefly .discussed but is not reflected in the group, and two physicians appointed by the' recommendations..' A compact load is. as director-general. Their criteria were the phy sumed. Height of lift is not discussed; but ' siological capacities of the individual. again the implication is a lower lift (below . Recommendations' . of the committee the waist). Recommendations apply specifi (Table I) are given in terms of age and sex. cally to occasional lifting and must be re For. the adult male, the recommendations duced by 25 per cent in instances of fire- . apply to "workers normally employed in op- quent lifting. "Workers lifting heavier loads' eratlons requiring lifting and carrying of than those indicated in the table should be weights" (indicating some degree of fitness specially selected and correctly trained." and trailing), and to workers of "normal constitution" (the average man). Size of the lifted object is considered in the discussion 3. Danish National Association for Infan tile Paralysis. but is not reflected in the recommendations. In 1965, Asmussen et al? reported on a Height of lift is not mentioned, but a lower quantitative evaluation of back muscles in 108 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions lifting. A..relationship, between integrated again." The variables of training and fitness EMG's .(electromyograms) and isometric are not discussed. backward polls was established, and: a value of 40 to 55 per cent of isometric back 5. U. S. Air Force (Emanuel et ed*). strength was recommended for specifying al In 1950, the U. S. Air Force reported a lowable weight of lift for'repeated lifting. lifting, study that used a subjective criterion. Tabus in. AUowatU Weight lor RepeaUd.ZAfting* (lOtfo Itomctrtc Back Strength) Nineteen young male subjects (18 of them college students) were instructed to `lift the greatest weight possible without a feeling of Aoe (rears) 15 20 25i 55 45 50 56 65 Hill* 55 lb 54 lb 58 lb 71 lb 71 lb -- 68lb . 60 lb . Female* 40 lb 42 lb 42 lb 44 lb 42 lb 40 lb 55 lb -- possible injury." Subjects varied the weight of the object, lifted by adding or subtracting 10-lb bags of lead shot Results of this study, shown in Table V, are given for different segments of the population sample. Ages of subjects ranged from .17 to 28 years. They were required. to lift with a From the Danlib National. Association tor In fsntlls Pamirs!*.*"* ,, Based on a 65-Inch body belsht (representing approximately the 10th percentile for men under sge 65). .Based on a 59-ineh body height (representing approximately the 5th percentile for women, tinder age 65)." straight, although not necessarily vertical back. With this exception, subjects were classified as untrained, and presumably un conditioned to the lifting task.. The object lifted was an F-86H ammuniton ease: 10% inched high, 25% inches wide, and 6% This recommendation was based on Molbech's* performance criterion of "steady state" maximuiri isometric force at ten to.30 contractions per minute. On the basis of this criterion, and with the isometric muscle inches deep. There were two handles at the top of the ammunition case. No mention is. made of whether the subjects considered fre quency of lift when judging maximum weight. strength measurements gathered by Asmussen and Heebon-Nielseri* from 360 men and 250 women, the values in Table III were calculated. Values in Table III are for straight back lifting, inclined 45* forward (indicating some degree .of training). No mention is made of the conditioning variable, except to say that' Isometric . muscle strength measurements were obtained from a representative urban population. The lifted object used by Asmus-. sen et ah. was a "box with two handles, about 40 cm (15.7 inches) apart" No lifting height is specified, but a lower lift is iim plied. The recommended values are intended to apply to frequent lifting. Notice that' values in Table III were derived from men arid women of shorter body.height (the tenth and fifth percentiles, respectively). 6. V. S. Air Force (Switzer).410 * * * * * A second Air Force lifting study based on a subjective criterion was reported in 1962. Seventy-five male college students (average age: . 19.5 years) were instructed to find rea sonable weights that men can be expected to lift without excessive strain or discomfort Subjects varied the weight lifted by adding or subtracting 5, 10, and 20-lb bags of lead shot. Results, shown in Table VI, are given for different .heights of lift and for different, segments of the population. These results ore not based on the entire sample of 75, but. only on the 33 shorter men who represented the first to 15th percentile stature range.. Also, Switzer calculated only what'99.87 per cent of this shorter population could lift; the 99 per cent, 95 per cent, and 90 per cent values were calculated by the' authors from 4. Human Engineering Guide for Equip Switzer's data. ment Designers*. Subjects were trained in. correctly per Woodson and Conover recommend weight forming the three lifts, but as college stu limits for objects of varied sizes and lifts of dents they were probably not conditioned to varied heights. However, no criterion is re the task. The object lifted was a sheet-metal ported, and no specific investigation is refer box, 6x12x12'inches, with 4%-lnoh handles. enced. Recommendations are given in Table There was no mention in the instructions as IV, which represents "weights which could 'to frequency of lift, except that the work be lifted by the average man over and over "might be carried on for some time." 109 ' 1887 National Safety Congress TabLa XV Recommended Weight Limitt for Motet* (Povndt) . Helaht of 8lza of Object (inches)* Lift, 12x12x12 12x12x18 6x8x86 S ft i ft 6 ft. 75 55 40 95 75 . 50 110 . 95 50 From Woodson and Conover.* bNo bsndles. Tails V . Weight-Lifting Capacity, for Matte (Poundt)` Helaht - Per cent of Semple of Lift SD 95 76 50 . 25 .. 5 1 ft 47 142 199 281 266 801 2 ft 40 189 165 190 .217 259 8 ft 81 77 97 114 187 172 4 ft 19 55 67 81 ` 96 112 5 ft . 16 86 46 57 71 88 `From Emanuel el alfi Tabu; VI Weight-Lifting Capability for Motet* (Pounds)b Helaht of Lift SD Per cent of Population 99.87 ' 99.0 96.0 90.0 18 in 20.8 ' 62 76 90 97' 42 in 11.6 88 46 64 58 62% in 8.6 27 88 89 42 `Representingr 1st to lEtb percentile ranze. bFrom Switxer.1* It can be observed that not one of these six studies investigated or held constant all seven of. the variables identified above. It was for this reason that an additional lifting . experiment was designed and conducted at Liberty Mutual Research Center. This exper iment followed the Air Force approach by using, a subjective criterion to determine' the maximum acceptable weight which 90 per cent of the male industrial population should lift, All variables except height of lift were held constant. The technique of letting the. subject adjust the weight lifted according to his.own feelings is actually a variation of the. psychophysical method of' magnitude production.11 In magnitude production, the ' experimenter states or indicates a series of sensory magnitudes, and the subject adjusts a stimulus to produce them.. This experiment deals, not with a series of magnitudes,, but with only one magnitude--the maximum, ac ceptable weight of. lift. To reduce potential errors often found in psychophysical experi ments, the subject was given a greater num- .' her of trials, he was allowed to approach the critical weight from both the heavy side and the light' side, and several of his visual cues were eliminated. The median instead of the mean was also used to obtain the point .of central tendency for each subject (Stevens11 recommends the use of either the median or geometric mean instead of the arithmetic mean because they are not as greatly af fected by extreme values. ) For greater appli cation to industry, older subjects were used. These subjects were industrial\ workers, trained and' thoroughly conditioned to the lifting task. . Apparatus, and Procedure.' The object lifted was similar to an indus trial tote box 13%xl9x5% inches, with two 7xl%-inch handles. The subject varied the weight of the box by adding or subtracting loose lead shot with a small scoop. Partitions. in the box prevented a shifting load. The. box weighed 10 lb and contained a false bottom which could hold a maximum of 40 . lb of lead shot Weight of the "empty" box was varied. systematically between 10, 20 and 30 lb.' The loose shot and varying weight of die "empty" box wepe intended, to minimize visual cues which. could possibly influence judgments of weight Nine, male subjects, between 25 .and .37 years of age (average: 30.1 years), were given the fol lowing-instructions: . . "Imagine that you are working on a'production line which requires , you to fin this box every 15 minutes. When the box is full, you must lift it onto a rack or conveyor belt "Adjust the weight of this box until you feel that it is the maximum amount that you can lift comfortably; the maximum amount that you can lift without straining yourself; and the maximum amount that you can lift, once every 15 minutes. "Adjust the weight of the box by putting in or taking out scoop-fulls of lead shot "Do not hurry your lift. Test the weight carefully. Re-adjust the weight as many times os-you feel necessary. Do not strain. "Remember that we are not interested in how. much you are .capable of lifting, but rather in the maximum amount that- you would like to handle in your regular job." Subjects were second-shift industrial workers from local industry. They were`all in good health, as determined by a pre-ex periment medical examination. Subjects per formed push-up, pull-up, and deep-knee bend exercises for one week prior to their scheduled participation in the experiment. During the first four days of the experiment, subjects were instructed in the correct lifting, procedures, given 18 practice trials at adjust ing the weight of the lifted, object, and grad- . ually conditioned to the task by performing repeated-lifting for varying periods of time. 110 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions Eighteen five-minute sessions* thirteen 12- minute sessions, three. 15-minute sessions, and three 30-minute sessions of repeated lift ing were performed by each subject before any measurements were recorded for analy sis. Each subject made a total of 18 judg ments; six for' the floor level to knuckle - height lift, six for. the. knuckle height to shoulder height lift, ,and six for the shoulder height to arm reach lift. For one-half of the judgments, the initial total weight of the box (including varying amounts of 'shot in the false bottom) was 30 lb; for the other half, 100 lb was the initial weight This procedure was intended to cancel out a constant error that might result from approaching the judged weight from only one direction,. Ini tial total weight of the box, and the three lifting heights, were varied systematically. The test schedule is summarized in -Table VII. Tablb VII Teat Schedule Order of Lilt g| H If iifkeiiiialJilllll*il1a||i, Training sessions 1 2 48 6 6 Test ` station* 7 8 9 10 11 12 80 100 100' 80 . 80 100 . 80 1s0o0 100 80 100 . 10 80 20 20 80 10 10 20 20 80 * 80 10 2 1 1 1 28 88 *2 8a l 2 1 2 1 28 2 1 18 28 3 8 2 1 2 18 2* 21 18 Including lead shot In false bottom. 4 Subjects made only one judgment per lift ing height in a single day. Another experi ment, running simultaneously, required the subjects to perform three 60-minute sessions of repeated lifting, after making judgments of maximum weight. Although part bf another experiment, these long sessions of repeated, lifting served to maintain conditioning of the' subjects. Results and Discussion. . The median weight' for the six trials per lifting height was obtained for each subject. The means and standard deviations for these median weights are given in Table VIII, to gether with values for 90, 75, 25; and 10 per cent of population. The size of our sample is admittedly small, and values in .Table VIII may change as more subjects are tested. Nevertheless, certain trends appear to be developing, and the following observational can' be made: 1. With only one exception, standard de viations are considerably smaller than in. the . two Air Force studies, particularly with the lower lift This can possibly be attributed to a reduction in errors achieved by additional experimental controls ( for example, elimina tion of visual cues, approaching the judged weight from two directions, and a greater number of training and record trials). 2. There is a surprisingly small difference between the three lifting heights when com pared with previous studies. . 3. Results for the floor to knuckle height lift, are somewhat less than for equivalent lifts in other studies. This could be a func tion of different instructions, (for example, with the inclusion of a designated frequency of lift) or of the older, more experienced, and better conditioned subjects-who have a better idea of the effects of long-term re peated lifting. 4. Results for the knuckle height to shoul der height lift are in general agreement with equivalent lifts of other studies. 5. Results for the shoulder height to- arm reach lift ore . somewhat greater than for equivalent lifts in other studies. This could possibly result from beginning the lift ' at shoulder height, and not at the floor level used in the two Air Force studies. Tabls vni Maximum Acceptable Weight of Lift for Melee (Po*ttde)` Height of Lift Per cent of Population SD 90 76 50 25 10 Floor level to knuckle height 11.0 52 59 88 78 80 Knuckle height to shoulder height 8.5 61 56 82 68 78 Shoulder height to arm reach . 9.7 48 68 . 80 67 72 From Liberty Mutual Imurance Company. TabLB IX Correlation Between Maximum Permissible Weight.of Lift (Males) and Body Height, Body Weight, andAge HcUrht of Lift Coeffi- _ Coefflclent of slant of Multiple Correlation (r) . Correla- Height' Weight Age tlon <H> Floor level to knuckle helgl Knuckle height to shoulder helgt Shoulder height 0.24 0.28 0.11 0.67* 0.64* 0.71* 0.14 0.10 -0.09 .0.70 0.68 0.72 Correlation coefflclent (f} significantly different from zero at the 0.025 level. 1967 National Safety Congress All men should be trained ini the correct procedures for lifting, and all new men. should be allowed to condition to their new job gradually. Within these considerations, it can be concluded from the results of this ex' periment that 50 lb. is the maximum weight of a compact object that should be lifted by unselected, adult male workers. (This is es sentially die recommendation of the Swiss Accident Insurance Institute). With greater degrees of personnel selection (see Table VJLU) die maximum weight of lift, may ap-. proach 75 to 80 lb. for lids from floor level to knndde height, and 65 to 70 lb. for lifts above knuckle height. . Ibis paper was presented as part of the Ergonomics Session of the 1966 American Industrial Hygiene Conference. The discus sant was Professor H. S. Belding,-of the Uni versity of Pittsburgh. . During his remarks. Professor Belding expressed the desirability of 'comparing results of the weight-lifting ex periment with the physical characteristics of subjects who performed in the experiment. Consequently, correlation coefficients (Pear son r and multiple R) were calculated be tween individual results and available sub ject characteristics--body weight, body height, and age. Table IX shows that, of the three subject characteristics considered, body weight is die only significant correlate of maximum acceptable weight of lift for the particular lifting tads ' studied. It should be noted, however, that the low correlation with body height might partially be a function of clas sifying lifting height in terms of the subject's own anthropometric measurements. As the sample becomes larger, it will be possible to develop regression equations with greater confidence than the current small sample now permits. References 1. U.S. Department of Labor: Teach Them to . Lift. Bulletin 110, Mechanical arid Physical Hazards Series, Bureau of Labor Standards, Washington, D. C. (Bevised 1965). Z. International Labour Office: Meeting of Ex perts on the Maximum Permissible Weight to . be Carried by Quo Worker M.P.W./1964/14. Geneva.(1964). 3. Snook, S. H,, and C, H. Isvnm:. The Evalua tion of Physical Tasks in Industry. Am. 2nd. Hyg. Assoc. J. t7: 2Z8 (1966). 4. International Occupational Safety and Health Information Centre: Manual Lifting and Car rying.. CIS Information Sheet No. 3, Geneva - (1962). 6. Abkussen, E., E. Poulsen, and B. Rasmus sen; Quantitative Evaluation of the Activity of the Back Mueelet in IAfting. Communica tion No. 21, Danish National. Association for Infantile Paralysis, HeBernp, Denmark (1965). 6. Molsech, Sv.: Average Percentage Force at . Repeated Maximal Isometric Muscle Contrac tion! at Different Frequencies. Communications No. 16; Danish National Association for In fantile Paralysis, HeUerup, Denmark (1963); 7. Abkussen, E., and K. Heeboll-Nielsbn: Iso metric Muscle Strength of Adult Men and Women. Communications No. 11, Danish Na tional Association for Infantile Paralysis, Den mark (1961). 8. Woodson,- W. E., and D. W. Conoveb: Human Engineering Guide for Equipment Designers, 2nd Ed., pp. 2/246, University of California Press, Berkeley, California (1964). 9. Emanuel, L. J. W. Chajtkh, and J. Wmo: A Study of Human Weight Lifting Capabilities for .Loading Ammunition into the F-SSH Air craft. Wright Air Development Center, WADC-. TR-68-867, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio (1966). 10. Switzeb, S. A.: Weight Lifting Capabilities of a Selected Sample of Human Males. Aerospace - Medical Research Laboratories, MRL-TDE-62- 67, Wright-Patterson Air Force' Base, Ohio (1962). . 11. Stevens, S. S.: Problems and Methods of Psy chophysics. Psychol. Bull. SS: 177. (1968). 12. Damon,-A. H,, W. Stoudt, and B. A. McFabLand: Anthropometry. In Human Engineering Guide to Equipment Design (C. T. Morgan et al, Eds.), Chapter 11, McGraw-Hill, New York (1963). 112 > Training-Communications in Safety ARE YOU HARD OF LISTENING? By KENNETH J. LILLE Director, Educational & Training Serv ices, Carson Pirie Scott & Co., Chicago Most of us are hard of listening when we gain a state of balance by changing the situ interrupt the speaker to make our. point, ation to one they control and can feel com when We let our mind' wander, when we fortable in. offer solutions and make decisions rather This "cutting off" action is quite common. than allow the speaker to reach his own- al Just. think of your last conversation with ternatives, when we permit emotionally your wife, with your boss, with your subor loaded words to blind our senses, and when . dinates, or with a friend. Even more dra we are more concerned-with status'than with matic illustrations come from conversations the individual or his feelings. . about particular subjects. Recall the last con "Listening is the most overused- word in versation with your subordinates about a human relations. Everyone talks about it; change you want to make. If you think you few know what it really means.- It is the es survive these conversations without being sential step in helping, for to listen is to give. "cut off", then next time you have coffee understanding."1 Spoken words don't always with a 'friend, secretly keep tabs on how convey the full meaning to all who hear many times he interrupts you before you them. Listening involves a wordless under finish your idea. standing, what the French call, rapport, which has greater depth than the mere ex change of words can- express. Many of us haven't taken a look at the communications Changing this behavior will improve our-skill in listening, but we must remember that it takes an awareness of ourselves and ah at' titude that we want to be open with others process and the basic factors which make lis and understand them. tening effective. Listening is active! It is the part of the in teraction between people which integrates the spoken and the unspoken and results in an understanding of the other person. To give understanding requires people to be open with each other, to have an awareness of the situation and to be . spontaneous. These are difficult skills to master, so many of us go through life "hard of listening." 1 Levinson, Dr. Htrrjr: Emotional Health: In the Work World. When we let our mind wander and "tune out" a speaker we have created another common barrier to listening. Research by Dr. Ralph Nichols at the University- of Minne sota revealed that we think about four times faster than the average speaker talks. The natural urge for listeners is to use this time for private thoughts, until these become mdre important than the conversation. The result is a wandering mind. Experienced.and skilled listeners have as' Let's examine a few barriers to listening as drey often occur, and discover what'can be done to improve our skills in each area. When we feel an urge to "cut the speaker short" so we can make our point, the result is often quite, different from our intent. What this action reveals is that the speaker's ideas aren't as important as ours. It also re veals a lack of maturity because Mr, Listener isn't able to allow himself the uncertainty of their primary goal the task- of understanding the other person. Even the silent communi cation of nervous body movements, the twitching, the fidgeting, and the foot swing ing help this listener to understand. Commu nication comes on many channels, and when a listener is tuned into all the ways he can integrate a speaker's message, he'll not only capitalize on his faster thought speed, he'll become a better listener. letting the other fellow fully develop or When we hear only what we want to hear finish his ideas. He demonstrates that he is and project our wishes into what the speaker uncomfortable when others are free to ex says, we' are frustrating all hopes for effec press ideas. Psychologists tell us that often tive communication. In both cases the result when people feel threatened they try to re is distortion of the message and misunder- 113 1987 National Safety Congress standing. Behavioral scientists call, this lim words in the language.' If he was a pleasant ited listening "selective perception." chap you overlooked his coarse Words and Research from Dr. Berelson and Dr. Stei crude manners in an attempt to understand ner reports that most people listen to points what he was saying (and generally these which are in agreement with their point of men are understood). This is basically the view, in agreement with the group they be same position a listener should take with all long to, and which reflect their values. Our speakers if he is to become effective with pre-disposition can become a barometer on others. - how well we . are going to listen or attempt When you as a listener break in to offer a to understand the speaker. The-urge to put solution to the speaker you defeat any at our unique point of view first is always pre tempt toward mutual - trust find openess. sent because we all see the world from our Listening in an adult work situation is diffi own' experiences. So realistically speaking, cult at best; it is impossible if you refuse to selective perception and projection will be a sounding board so. the speaker can ex usually be present every time two people amine his own thinking. Your role as- a lis communicate. Effective listening and .a re tener is to let the speaker talk about ideas duction to this selective perception barrier which are difficult to express and often not can only come when we have an awareness fully thought out by the speaker. If you offer of our feelings toward a speaker or his sub cliches, start talking about yourself, and ject; when we are aware of our biases-and offer advice, you are only succeeding in es can adjust for them. caping from the task of listening. The final One executive who completed a listening result is that the speaker will soon feel that course scored very high in the post-test. you really don't care about him or what he When advised that he did well on every sec tion except those portions of the tape where a woman talked, he quipped, "X tuned out my wife years ago." Think of the areas you have strong feelings about and take them into account next time you hear. someone speak about them. When we allow emotionally loaded words to blind our senses we create (mother com mon barrier to effective listening. Emotion ally loaded words distort our feelings be cause they threaten us; and we react auto matically by trying to defend ourselves. So, is saying. You only succeed in creating re sentment as you fail in your, main task--to understand. When we are more concerned with status than with the speaker, we fail in communi cations. Status can become a barrier when . we judge someone as ^less worthy" or pre judge the- effect of his messageby his place in the "pecking order". Status is real, and because it is we as listeners have to become aware-of the effect it can have on us.-Think of the recommendations which failed be cause the boss "just didn't-have time to lis- . when a doctor is railed a "quack", an Italian ten" or because "Jones is a good boy down a "wop" or a Southerner' "redneck", the inr the shop,-but . . reaction is predictable. The blood pressure Both sides of communications, speaking rises, the pulse increases,, the face' becomes and listening, are vital to the interchange be flushed, and the listener is ready to defend tween people. A listener who hides behind himself. Speakers are often cautioned about status really demonstrates his need to domi using loaded words when they are told to nate others and hold to his own place in the know the audience or direct the message to pecking order: When we avoid showing an the needs -of the group. But little is ever interest'in others, we avoid the remotest of mentioned about how a listener, the other possibilities for'an honest open interchange person in the communication interchange, and effective communication. reacts to loaded words. We have all seen instances when^fatus is A workable solution is for the listener to,' dropped and understanding is immediately first, understand that words alone can't really improved. A man' on the line is stopped -by threaten him and,' second, - to identify the the boss and, in place of the usual polite specific terms which create this reaction in- "time of day" exchange, the boss asks the him. This awareness will help keep the emo- man for his ideas on an operation. He listens tions in control. Think of a conversation you and thanks the man. As the boss walks away have had with a rough-tough person with the man remarks, "Who ' said' he was a little vocabulary other than all the four letter stuffed shirt?". A genuine interest in others 114 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions and respect for their feelings goes a long his job as a listener is to integrate the corn- way in removing the barriers created by sta- munications which are coining in at.several tus.' levels, both verbal and non-verbal, and to Can we leam to listen? For .the mature understand the meaning which speaker in- person the answer is, yes; for he has demon- tends. strated that he is aware, spontaneous and Dr. Carl Rodgers suggests an exercise that willing to participate in an open exchange may help all of us become aware of our.lis- with others.. For the average person the tening skills. When a group is talking and answer lies in his potential to master these there is disagreement,.have one person in skills, for many of the basic sldlls heeded in volved in the'differing views accurately state effective listening are his to a greater , or the position of the other person or group be- lesser degree. However, it is a myth to be- fore he proceeds with his own case. If the lieve that everyone can leam to listen. Not other person or group feels that he is not un- everyone is capable of mastering' the com- derstanding their position correctly they stop plex set of listening sldlls any more than, ev-. him, and . he restates their position again, eryone can leam to run the four minute The ground rules state that one can only mile. proceed if he can state the other's .position It takes a mature person to show empathy, accurately and the other person agrees that establish rapport, understand feelings, and he understands. .This calls, for skill in com- recognize how the speaker's views may differ, munications. It also relies heavily upon the from, yours. S.I. Hayakawa, expert semanti- relationships of the people and their open- cist, has said, "most, of us most of the time ness and honesty in their interchange, are chiefly concerned with, getting our views For those of you who care to ' probe across, and we tend to find other people's deeper, the best seller by Dr. Eric Beme, speeches a tedious interruption o'f the flow of Games People Play is perhaps one of the our own ideas." We often go through life most penetrating studies into the very core proving Hayakawa's observation correct and of what happens when people communicate don't really reach for maturity in our rela- with one another. tionships. A large part of our problem is that ' I started by asking if you are hard of lis- we all have a filter called selective percep- tening. In closing, I state that before any Us- tion. It is ours alone and it is' based on our tening program can be effective there has to unique experiences and emotional attitudes be a lot of meaningful thinking given to our which can distort xyhatever we hear. . relationships with others. For the sum and The hope for the normal person learning substance .in the art of effective listening to listen lies in his gaining an awareness of rests on our genuine interest in doing every- how he listens, what his biases are, and that thing we can to understand others. Safety Pays at Mobil Oil MOBIL'S SAFETY PHILOSOPHY By H. J. PECKHEISER Executive Vice President, North American Division, Mobil Oil Corporation, , New York, N. Y. Our principal product is highly volatile and flammable, and it's manufactured under cohditions involving high temperatures and pressures. Yet the oil refining' business com pares favorably with industry generally in terms of frequency of disabling injuries and has almost as good a record as industry gen erally in terms of severity. Our industry delivers, this product at the rate''of 200,000,000 gallons a day to. retail outlets located in virtually every community and crossroads in the nation. Yet the equip ment we have developed is so safe and our training of employees has been so effective that accidents in the delivery of gasoline are rare. You would have to go back more than 40 years to find a case of an explosion of a storage tank at a service station.-Tank trucks have an accident rate well below the aver age. for all trucks and, incidentally, below the rate for milk and ice cream trucks. Serv ice-stations axe so safe that ho Other retail business receives a lower fire insurance rate. Our primary concern at Mobil is for the health and welfare of our employees and any other people our operations affect. People first, then plants and other property. more than 100 countries; and each of our in stallations has its own problems and specific areas of concentration. The diversity of jobs, working environments, and people in a large international oil company means that our safety people have an enormous and difficult job. . _ Regardless of the function and location of the installation, we stress two primary points: prevention and communication. Most accidents and many injuries are preventable. We. cannot foresee every even tuality, but we-'must try to do so. We can demonstrate that our philosophy of acci dent-prevention works. As proof, we find a far better safety record in those aspects of the oil business where a company such as Mobil has full responsibility--for equipment, for training,, for .control--compared with the safety experience in those parts of-the busi ness carried on by small, independent' con tractors. . At least one-third of all1 industrial acci dents could be prevented by common sense, adequate precautionary measures; and clear communication. Like many other industrial organizations, That brings us to the subject of communi we emphasize that safety is an essential part cation. All of the newest techniques of acci of every manager's responsibility. The chair dent prevention, fire-fighting, storage prac man of the board, the division manager, and - tices, safety equipment--all of these things the foreman In any facility share this respon are useless unless those who come in contact sibility--and so do all the other managers with them know how to use them. Most of who' form the long line of our corporate all they must believe that this knowledge is "structure. Safety, then, is a management re not only useful but necessary. sponsibility. Working with professional safety people and communicating, clearly and directly, with all other employees, each manager is directly responsible and ac countable for the safety of the men and op erations he Supervises. Persuading people to do something is, of course, the most difficult part of manage ment. Persuasion takes many forms. One small example comes to my mind from my own experience. Every time I visit one of our refineries, they hand me a safety helmet Safety is never a simple matter; in a com to wear as long as I'm inside the plant gates. pany of the size and diversity of ours, it is I can't help feeling a little odd and self-con tremendously complex. We cannot simply scious, wearing a business suit and a safety devise a mastpr plan and then adhere to it. . helmet. But I always remind myself that this We have.more than 80,000 employees in. is one way we in management can demon- 118 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions strate that we're serious 'about safety. If I ties crucial to our effectiveness and creativity didn't wear the helmet, there's very little' as a society; but that isn't enough. If the chance I would g^t hurt. But there's a very man in the street says, "Those fellows at the good chance the men who saw me without it top have to be good, but I'm just a slob and would take this, consciously of not, as one can act like one'--then our days of greatness more excuse not. to wear their own helmets are behind us. We must foster a conception and not to observe all the other safety rules of excellence which may be applied to every they've been taught degree of ability and to every socially ac- A few years ago John W. Gardner wrote a ceptable activity. A missile may blow up on book that had quite an impact on people's its launching pad because the designer was ideas. The title of the book was "Excel- incompetent or because the mechanic who lence." . . adjusted the last valve was incompetent. The "Our society," Mr. Gardner wrote, "cannot sarii'e is true of everything else in our society, achieve greatness unless individuals at many We need excellent physicists and excellent levels 'of ability accept the need for bigh mechanics. We need excellent cabinet mem- standards of performance and. strive to bers and excellent first-grade teachers. The achieve those standards within the limits tone and fiber of our society , depend upon a possible for them. We want the highest con- pervasive and almost universal striving for ceivable excellence, of course, in the activi- good performance." PROFILE OF MOBIL OIL CORPORATION By F. J. DOOLAN . Manager, International Public Relations, Public Affairs Department, Mobil Oil Corporation, New York,N. Y. Keeping people and equipment safeat .. sense of the word: a group photograph of Mobil is a large and complex task. It in- Mobil people would look like the Family of volves protecting the health and welfare of Man. Mobil companies operate in more than . some 81,000 people around the world. It. 100 countries, and territories in the free also involves the safe operation of well over ' world, and we hire and train local people for- $3 billion worth of capital equipment. as many jobs as they can fill. Equally impor- The large numbers may surprise those of tant, we are'trying more 'nnd more to fill ytfirwho know Mobil only through its serv- high-level posts with the best-qualified exec- ice stations. I don't mean to minimize the utives, whatever their birthplace. So, a importance of. our worldwide network of re- Frenchman is our ranking man in Europe; tail outlets; they house more than 47,000 the vice president heading our Exploration cash registers. But you will need to know and Producing division on the U.S. West more about the company before you can Coast is a British subject; Canadians run our fully appreciate the importance of safety important Libyan and Venezuelan Opera- planning in its operations. . tions; and an Englishman is president of Since its founding 101 years ago, Mobil Mobil Oil Hellas, in Greece, has grown to be the world's eighth largest Mobil people work in offices', refineries, industrial company in terms of sales, and chemical plants, truck terminals, warehouses fifth largest in terms pf assets. Assets and an- and laboratories. They operate tank ships, nual revenues each exceed $5%. billion. drilling'rigs, earth movers, automobiles and One of the company's most valuable as- airplnnes, computers, typewriters, electron sets, but one that can't readily be translated accelerators, and radiotelephones, into dollars and cents, is the quality of its They are a-youngish , group and, by and people. large, they are dissatisfied with the way This is an international company in every things were - done yesterday. Management 117 1967 National Safety Congress believes this is a good thing, because yester While these rather exotic sources of oil may day's methods are probably not up to tomor be vital to us in a decade or. two, conven row's tasks. tional wells will meet most of our crude oil How do we know? The growth in demand needs in the immediate future. for oil tells part of the tale. Since 1950,` free world consumption has. been increasing at an average annual rate of 6.7 per cent This, year's expected demand (30.6 million barrels daily) is more than three times the 1950 figure. Between now and 1987, free world demand for oil is ex pected to reach more than 75 million barrels daily. To meet the growing demand, the oil industry must find some 385 billion barrels of oil in the next 20 years--more than'twice the amount produced in the free world area in the last 100 years. Of course, simply finding vast amounts of crude oil does not put a single drop of gaso line in your tank or fuel in your burner. Be fore oil in the ground is of use to anyone, it must be produced, that is, taken out of the ground; transported, usually by tanker or pipeline; refined into valuable products; and marketed. These are enormous tasks. No commodity, in die world is moved in such tremendous volumes as oil. Companies that perform .all these functions--finding,' mov ing, refining, and marketing--are known as . integrated companies. Mobil is such a com pany. - . . As we have said, the first task of an inte grated oil company- is to find and produce the oil. Mobil produces oil from 17 countries Once this oil ha? been taken out of the ground, it must be transported to refineries to- be made into useful products. Mobil's transport operations are in themselves a huge enterprise. The Mobil fleet is among the largest commercial fleets in the world. The company owns 38 deep-sea tankers and holds long-term charters on 43 others for a total of 86 vessels with a capacity of well over 3 million deadweight tons. Four 200,000-deadweight-ton tankers are presently on order, and three of these mammoth ships are expected to join the fleet in 1969. Pipelines also move tremendous volumes of oil and oil products with`great efficiency. Mobil owns more than 15,500 miles of pipe line in the United States. The company owns crude pipelines in Venezuela and has part interest in other pipelines in the United States,. Canada, Europe, South America, the Middle East, and Africa. We transport crude to 41 refineries throughout the world, which we own completely or in .partnership. At these refineries, the crude' oil is made into 3,000 separate products. These 41 refineries last year processed a record 1,540,000 bar rels of crude oil a day. Last year marked the start of a significant expansion of our refining capacity. In West-, throughout the free world. Almost half of this production--some 628,000 barrels a day during the first six months of 1967--comes from the Middle East. About 30. per cent comes from North America. Among oiir newest sources of oil, and po tentially our largest outside the Middle East, are those in Libya and Rainbow Lake, in Canada.-Another major exploration area is in the North Sea basin, which is in the midst of one of the world's largest industrial markets. Cook Inlet in Alaska is another pew and ', em Europe, construction began on'a new 80,000-barrel-a-day refinery near Amster dam, in the Netherlands. The refinery is scheduled for completion next year. Plans have recently been announced for the con struction of a 70,000-barrel-a-day refinery in southwestern Germany. Work will begin early next year and is scheduled for comple tion in 1970. In the next few years we plan also to expand existing plants or build new refineries in Austria, the United Kingdom, and Japan. promising source of crude oil, as is offshore Last year, marked the startup of Mobil's Nigeria. Mobil is'active in all three areas. first wholly-owned refinery, in Southeast Today, Mobil is looking at other sources of petroleum that have hot been economic in the past. In Rifie, Colo., the corporation is working with the Colorado School of Mines and other oil companies on the extraction of oil from oil shale. The research will show if Asia. The . new plant, located in the Jurong area of Singapore, can process 22,500 barrels of crude oil a day. Also in the Far East, a company in which Mobil.has a half interest began construction of a 60,000 barrel-a-day. . refinery near Tokyo. oil can be recovered from this oil shale at a Products from our refineries are shipped in cost comparable to that of natural crude oil. a number of ways--tankers, pipelines, tank 118 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions truck,, and rail--to more than 400 terminals and from these to -over 47,000 retail outlets, in more than 100 countries and territories. I have suggested that Mobil' is perhaps best known through its service stations. We have 26,000 retail outlets in this country, and about' 22,000 overseas. However, the Mobil brand name also, is known through well-established promotional efforts such as the Mobil . Economy Run and the Mobil Travel Guide. In all its regional editions, the ' Mobil Travel Guide sold nearly a million' copies in the U.S.' last year, second only to the Bible. Our "We Want You to Live" advertising campaign has also, received much attention. The campaign has won. praise across the country from newspaper editors, clergymen, state governors, and from thousands of mo torists who have written to the company in appreciation of our efforts to make our high ways safer. . Mobil also has'substantial chemical opera. tions. In terms of sales, Mobil Chemical is the. second-largest. U.S. chemical operation affiliated with an integrated oil company. On the same basis, it ranks among the first 15 U.S. chemical companies of. all kinds. The . company, which employs more than 11,000 people, operates or has interests in some 70 manufacturing plants on five continents. Chief products include petrochemicals, plas tics, paints and chemical coatings, and agri cultural and industrial chemicals. It fe a truism by now that no large com- mercial enterprise can achieve' sustained growth and development without a vigorous research program. Research has been a cor nerstone of Mobil's growth since the day it was. born. The company was, in fact, estab lished to test a scientific hypothesis: that crude oil distilled under a vacuum would yield'a greater proportion of kerosene: Kero sene was the most-valuable oil product in 1866. The goals of Mobil's research program in clude the discovery of new or improved ways of finding-and recovering oil .and of making new or improved fuels, lubricants, and chemicals. More than 2,000. Mobil peo ple are. engaged in research activities--about one out of every ten- of them in fundamental research--in a program costing more than $40 million a year. Some of our researchers' more recent con tributions include the development of a pre mium-grade synthetic lubricant for- advanced jet aircraft.engines; a new fuel for jet air craft that fly.at three times the speed of' sound; the Borehole Televiewer, an instru ment that can photograph' the wall of a well even when the well is'filled with oil or drill ing mud; a unique purification process for terephthalic acid, a key ingredient for mak ing fibers, used in permanent press clothing and a host of other products; and the devel opment of tiie Durabead family of zeolite cracking catalysts that increase' yields of high-octane gasoline by as much as 25 per cent.. MOBIL'S SAFETY PROGRAM WORLDWIDE . By J. J. McKENNA Manager of Safety and Security, Mobil Oil'Corporation, New York, N.' Y., Although we are big in terms of both per- ' A year or so ago, we decided that acci- sonnel and assets, and operate in more than dent and fire prevention and the corporate 100 countries of the world/ our safety goal security function had similar approaches and is the same as that of other smaller com ,a similar purpose--protection of plants and panies--to protect people and property. people. We therefore combined' them in one B.ut, even though our goal is the.same as department. Previously, the accident and fire that of smaller companies, our approaches prevention function had been in our Corpo must be. more diverse; they must satisfy rate Employee Relations' portfolio. The plant widely differing customs, habits, climates,' protection responsibility was in the Security and attitudes. It is our job in New York to Department. With the marriage of the func devise plans which take all these factors into tions, we became the Security and Safety consideration. Department, and the Manager of Accident 119 1967 National Safety Congress and Fire Prevention came oyer to work with workers .employed by an outside construction us.Functionally. working with him are four firm had the idea "that drinking milk would safety-and plant protection advisors: one for make them immune to poisoning of any our North American; Division, one for Mobil kind. They were totally convinced that by .Chemical Company, one for the Interna drinking a quart a day they could walk into tional Division,.and'one for the worldwide a tank containing tetraethyl lead and no Marine Transportation ` operations. These harm Would come to them. four advisors are located in New York arid We had quite a time persuading them this coordinate the activities of. the. various safety was a fallacy. The company doctor talked people in our field operations. Organization with them; the installation manager and the ally, we have a very uncomplicated system. safety man were not able to convince them In safety,- as in security, 'the most impor tant preventive tool is good management techniques backed up by determined action. As you know, it is frequently hard to isolate a safety measure as such; a well-run refinery,' minimizing hazards, is in itself a safety measure. Good management techniques are ' at the heart of Mobil's safety program; that is why each manager is held responsible for . the safety of the men and materials he su that, although milk was healthful, it was no substitute for protective.clothing and respira tory equipment. But local superstition was too strong, and the outside contractor per mitted them to work under the conditions they wanted. It was only after 18 or 19 men came down with lead poisoning that the other workers decided that, in addition to milk, they needed the proper clothing and equipment. pervises. This means that each safety pro In other parts of Europe, we.are responsi gram--aside from the general theories and ble for a man's safety from the time he overall procedures emanating from head leaves his house in the morning until - the quarters--is designed to' meet local needs.1 time he gets back from work at night We We believe in custom tailoring--an exact fit have portal-to-portal responsibility. If he to meet exact and specific local conditions. rides a bike to work, and hits a rut in the A safety regulation that is "right and proper for the relatively sophisticated work ers in the United States just isn't going to work in all other parts of the world. For example, we have some operations in the Sudan.. Over the years, we, have recog nized that the Sudanese are a strong-willed people. There are things they will do and things they , will not do. One of the things many of them object to is the wearing of shoes. In our warehouses there, as in similar .operations here in the States, the men han dle heavy metal .containers--drums of kero sene and lubricating oils. Here in the States, the wearing of safety shoes is obligatory but the Sudanese- refuse to wear shoes of any kind. Does this create a safety problem? No, ifdoesn't.The Sudanese, are so careful and soj?roud of their workihg habits that we road-and tumbles down, we are I considered responsible for the accident. That's one rea son we frequently have to go beyond on- the-job safety and teach our employees such things, as correct driving habits--of automo biles, bicycles; or even horses and mule? when these are the most-used modes of transportation. , One of the driving .instructions We give to our people in the Libya' desert is a simple' one- "Never leave your car." Driver training in. Libya contains many such instructions, in cluding "Don't get off the main roads" and `Try not to travel during the daylight hours" and "Always bring along plenty of water." Even though we give such instructions; we know some of our people will become lost. Because of this, we have to teach the basic principles of survival and rescue: have no problem at all with foot accidents. I 1. Stop the vehicle, in a spot where it can' might add that I'm sure we have fewer best be seen from long distances. Avoid aim-'- drums "damaged at Khartoum in the Sudan less attempts to find your own way. Such ef than we do in Cicero, Illinois. forts can result in your unknowingly going So, in the Sudan, as in other parts of the farther from your route and cari greatly pro world, we must reckon with local customs to long and enlarge the search effort. . get the job done safely. On the other hand, 2; Remain with the vehicle. Searchers can we cannot afford to be too flexible. We can't find it much more easily than they can spot always give in to local customs. a person on foot. Also, by remaining with At one of our installations in Greece, the vehicle you can keep all emergency sup- 120 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions - plies at band and the vehicle , itself .will pro vide shelter and many items useful for suiv vival and signaling. 3. Preparations for signaling should be completed at once; but don't begin signaling attempts, such as' burning tires and fuel,'too soon. It may be many hours before prelimi nary searches and checks are completed and a widespread search is started. 4. Protect and conserve food and water in order to sustain life and health. Avoid un necessary physical exertion and remain alert and watch for rescue attempts. You can readily see that our driver-train ing in the Libyan 'desert' is different from what we stress in Houston, Chicago, or New York. You can also see why we cannot insist that a hard, unbending safety program-- 4 with a detailed list of inflexible do's and don'ts-rbe followed in all our installations throughout the world. So instead of pontifi cating with policies, manuals, and proce dures, we at headquarters devote much of our time to analyzing trends and problems and trying'to. improve our overall safety rec ord as much as possible! This is the way we try to stay on top of our safety situation. We use statistics, not as an .end in themselves, but as a guide to our determining how and where we can improve management empha sis on, and employee* consciousness of, safe procedures. SAFETY IN MOBIL CHEMICAL By C. S. DEDON Manager, Employee Relations, Agricultural Chemicals Division, Mobil Chemical Co., Richmond, Va. Mobil Chemical has grown large in just gram. They heard about fire'fighting tech seven years. In 1960, Mobil's chemical inter- niques and fire extinguishing systems. They . ests consisted of a still unfinished petrochem heard about emergency planning, the haz icals complex and three paint plants.- To- ards of static electricity, and the safe han ' day, the company operates, or has interests dling of light ends. They probably heard in 70 plants on four continents. It has added more than they cared to, and perhaps fee plastics and agricultural and industrial than they needed to about the crucial role of ' chemicals to its product list, arid has created safety planning in chemical operations. a large research division almost from scratch. But when they left the conference, they , The rapid growth has, been satisfying in knew several things-for sure: they knew that many respects, but it's caused some prob - top management was keenly interested in lems; too. As you' can imagine, our safety safety. And they knew that safety was an people have had their share. element of their operations.that demanded As far as safety programs went, each of constant attention.' the company's, five divisions had worked in Three pressing problems remained. We dependently. Some had' safety supervisors; had to find, the career safety people who some did not. A few had solid programs; could do the job. we needed done in the Others had let their programs lag. field. They, in turn, had to help us find out The obvious fact' about safety at Mobil' where we stood. Unless all the divisions Chemical was that it needed emphasis. So, measured safety performance with the same early in the game we brought key manage yardstick, we'would bo in the dark about the ment people together for a' two-day safety effectiveness of our programs. Finally, we conference. At the meeting, key line and needed to standardize equipment. This, we. staff people heard top management and out knew, Wojjld cut our maintenance costs and - side safety experts discuss the elements of a ease the problem of training safety people. good safety-program. Since manufacturing operations are differ To start, each person in the' audience re ent in each division, the safety problems ceived a manual outlining the company's they face are different, too; but at least two safety policy and the objectives of our pro elements apply throughout the company.' 121 . 1967 National Safety Congress ' fj Open communications is one, and we rate it tians. Each of these men has been through a high on the list of achievements. Our .com, 'concentrated safety and fire training course. pony safety advisor in New Yoilc is in con Hard hats, safety eye protection, and stant communication with safety people in other personal protective equipment are the field. In fact, he moves pins on his wall widely used. map to keep trade of their whereabouts. The Industrial Chemicals Division has re In case of emergencies, communication in cently begun a pilot fob safety analysis pro the field is quick and direct. Our Wood Fin gram. This means a qualified safety man will ishes Department, part of the Chemical study each job in the plant to look for all the Coatings Division, recently had a truck car- possible ways a man can get hurt Then the . rying solvent go off the. road in Tennessee hazards are removed. Those we ' can't and wind up in a lake. When the safety man remove, we will protect against In the proc at Wood Finishes headquarters, in High ess, we write operating instructions which Point, N.C., heard about the accident, he are used in the training of new employees.' immediately called the division: safety ad In our phosphate-mining operations in visor ;in Plainfield, N.J.--woke him ' up at Florida we have some unique safety prob home, in fact. The division 'safety man was lems, and we have instituted some interest on the scene the next' day supervising sal- ing safety practices. Phosphate mining arid vage operations. By directing the cargo to be processing 'is not a particularly hazardous pumped out before the trade was-moyed, he -undertaking; nevertheless, a typical Worker probably prevented a spill that might have, in the phosphate field is likely to have in his created a serious .contamination and possible possession, or have access to, as many as 40 fire hazard on the lake. different pieces of safety equipment These .The second element of our program that include such ordinary, items as hard hats, pertains .throughout the company is a little - safety glasses and leather gloves, as well as a harder to put your finger on. If is increased host of extraordinary items such as snake management support for the program. This bite kits, skin creams, and air-cooId hoods. is hard to define except to'say that our safety Our sandblasters wear the air-cooled hood peopje feel it! They are getting the kind of which, in effect is a private air conditioner. support they heed to do their jobs. ' This device, which is operated'by the same Our Agricultural and Industrial Chemicals compressor the man uses to blast the sand, Division, headquartered in Richmond, Va., enables the worker to lower the temperature produces and markets fertilizers throughout of the air mound him by as much as 20 de the major farm sections of the country. A- grees. Ninety-five and 100-degree days are plant in. Atlanta, Ga,, manufactures multi-. common in Florida in the summer timei' and wall bags for agricultural and industrial ' without the air-cooled hood, workers could materials, The division mines some four mil suffer from heat' prostration. Furthermore, lion ^ tons of phosphate'rock a year from re when a worker is comfortable, he works serves in Florida. Phosphate is one of the safer and more effectively.- three major ingredients in mixed fertilizers, The machine shop operator not only has and it's also the' source of many of our in the hard hat and safety goggles, but he also dustrial chemicals. . . wears dork glasses to protect his eyes &om The Industrial Chemicals Division con ultra violet rays and a pair of. ear defenders verts phosphate rock into elemeptal phos to safeguard against high-frequency shrill phorous. This, in turn, is converted into in that may affect his hearing. termediates, which are used by manufactur We have what we think is.about the safest ers of pharmaceuticals, soft drinks, cleaning ladder in the world, because it's virtually im and polishing products, arid witter treating possible for a'man to fall from it--providing materials. Other derivatives ora used in the he's wearing his safety belt . manufacture of powdered and liquid deter A rail is welded to the center of the rungs gents. Our Industrial Chemicals Division has on the ladder; at every eight-inch interval all also developed a product that imparts flame the way to the top there is a notch which retardant properties to urethane foam insula- catches and automatically locks the safety . tion. N belt if he should slip. Some of our men think The Iqdustrial Chemicals Division and our they're safer at the top of' the water tower Agricultural Chemicals Division have safety than they ore on the ground. coordinators at major manufacturing loca- A vital part of our operation is moving Industrial Safety Subject Sessions product from our washer and flotation plants to storage some 20 miles away. Traffic can get congested on the nine railroad trades that lead into the flotation plant, for exam ple, and. you never know when a man is going to get hint in the hustle and bustle of moving cars around. To reduce the possibili ties of injury, we have mechanized this oper ation to flie point where one man function ing in a control tower can move all die cars by merely' pushing a- button. This way, no body is on the tracks running the risk of being caught,between cars. In the event it is necessary for a man to go. down on die tracks, he uses crossovers which make it pos sible for a inan to reach the ground level next to every car on every trade without having to'dlmb through or between the cars. The Chemical Coatings Division has 14 plants in the United States and wholly or partially owned plants in six other nations making products for almost, every type of paint-using industry. These range from, pri mers, for the auto industry to marine coatings to wood finishes for the furniture industry. Mobil Chemical is the largest supplier of wood finishes in the U.S. ' Afl of the-chemical coatings plants handle large volumes of highly flammable solvents such as toluol and-.xyloL Flash points of these materials may be as low as 15 F. The products cannot be handled in closed sys tems the way they are in refineries. There fore, the plants use explosion-proof electrical equipment almost exclusively, as well as thorough grounding and bonding techniques. In the Chemical Coatings Division, as well as the other divisions, safety is heavily em phasized to employees from their first day with the company. Each new employee at tends a safety orientation program before he assumes'any duties at the plant These are intended almost solely to develop his safety, consciousness. He teams that his safety rec ord is equally as important as his production record: He is instructed that all accidents are preventable. He is told that safety at his par ticular station is his responsibility, and he is told that safety rules must be observed to the letter. Once he reports to the plant, his supervi sor instructs him in specific safety regula tions involved in his work, the use of eye protection and breathing apparatus where necessary, and the safe handling of. flamm able liquids. In addition, each supervisor has a safety ' manual designed to guide`him in holding safety meetings each month. Each meeting is devoted to a single safety topic, but the agenda also includes a review of any acci dents that may have occurred in the preced ing month, a discussion of any new hazards uncovered since the last meeting, and a .dis cussion of the work coming up, with an eye toward possible hazards. Such'meetings are also held in the other divisions. A system of semi-annual safety inspections of all facilities, has also been installed in the Chemical Coatings Division. The inspecting team covers, all aspects of loss prevention throughout each location. The Petrochemicals Division is the one most closely related in its operations to the oil business. The division's largest plant, at Beaurnontj- Tex., manufactures high-purity ethylene, propylene, and butadiene. These chemicals are used in the manufacture of plastics, anti-freeze, tires, detergents, and paints. An aromatics unit, part of the same complex,.produces high-purity benzene and toluene used in the manufacture of dyes, fibers, plastics, solvents, synthetic rubber and other products. A smaller plant, also in Beaumont, pro duces fiber-grade terephthalic acid, com monly called TPA, for use in polyester fibers. A nearby nitrogen plant produces feedstocks for the company's Agricultural Chemicals Division; The TPA plant; only recently completed, presented on especially difficult safety prob lem. The plant uses a new Mobil-developed. manufacturing process. But even before all the bugs were worked out, management de cided to enlarge the plant NaturaQy; this re quired close cooperation between Mobil peo ple and-the construction crews to assure safe operation.: Both Mobil and the contractor had safety men on each shift, and management was ad-' vised of safety' problems as they came up. All plant guards had been trained in fire protection and were given refresher courses every 60 days. One of their jobs that' re- ' quired constant attention was to see that ' construction equipment did not block the ac cess of safety vehicles. The safety people , needed to keep tabs on plant operation as well as on construction. They had.to know, which lines were in use and they had to know what areas were safe for open flame. 123 1987 National Safety Congress Cooperation between plant and construc The division also runs family safety con- tion personnel was dose and constant As a tests with the object of encouragingjjsafety result there was not a single lost time acci off tiie job. ` The-winning employees are dent at either the nitrogen or, TPA plants . taken -to dinner with their families by the during the 2% years they were, under con company. The division also promotes off- struction. .. the-job safety by making home fire extin Safety is stressed at the division's other guishers and seat belts available to employ plants, too. A safety rnamial has been pre ees at company cost. . pared for each plant Each plant in the pe The division has established a safety pos trochemical complex has a safety advisor. ter contest, with the winning' posters pub And safety indoctrination is part of the train lished in plant newsletters. Employees not ing of each new employee. In fact, all new only develop the ideas, they also produce operators are hired as part of the plant pro the posters.. tection force. Safety training and - operator Next, and last, I want to discuss our Re-. training go on simultaneously for a year be-' - search Division. Research people, as you fore the new employee becomes a full- probably know, tend to become deeply-ab fledged operator. sorbed in their work. Our experience has. . The division also has an active. safety taught us that a Ph.D. working, say, on some suggestion system. Each employee sugges new development in plasma physics, does tion is reviewed by at least three supervisors not get terribly concerned about safety who cull the promising ones and turn them equipment We realized that only a chemist over to a management group* that picks the could interest another chemist in safety; we .winners. A good idea proposed recently was .therefore appointed a man with degrees in to have signs at plant exit gates to remind ' chemistry and industrial engineering .as the employees to fasten their, seat belts. While research safety advisor. it's not a startling .innovation, I think it does Interest in safety has picked up considera show how a suggestion program stimulates bly. The division s safety eyeglass program is people to think about the' total safety pic now 100 per cent effective. Emergency ture. squads have . been. formed at the research The Plastics Division, with headquarters lab, staffed by technicians, all of whom have in.Macedon, N.Y., operates-eight plants volunteered for the job, and all of whom which produce a variety of plastic films and have had special training at the Ansul school plastic foam, chiefly for packaging. The divi in Marinette, Wis. sion tried to operate for two years without-a~ The labs themselves have been built with, full-time safety advisor. As you might sus safety in mind, especially our lab at Metu- pect, their record was not outstanding. They, chen, N.J., which does a great ideal of work have one now, and things are much better. with materials under pressure.. New employees. get up to four hours of Mobil Chemical reports its monthly acci- safety training before they start their jobs. ' dent record to the Manufacturing Chemists Supervisors all have been given first aid Association, and we participate in .their an training and the same training is available to nual award program. In addition, we main anyone else who wants it Fire brigades have tain a dialogue with many important groups been formed at each location and they re and associations in the safety field. These in ceive continuous training. Safety committees clude the National Safety Council, the meet monthly to review operations. Each American Society of Safety Engineers, the committee has four, or five permanent mem Safety Executives of New York, and the Fire bers: the plant manager, safety advisor,- Committee of the Society of Plastics Indus- plant engineer, the top production, man, and 1 tries. often a nurse. Plant supervisory people serve We also participate in the Wise Owl pro as rotating members. gram of the National Society for the; Preven- Inter-phtnt safety competitions are run re tion of Blindness. As youknow, this opens gularly throughout the division. All injuries membership in the group to any employee requiring medical attention are considered in who has saved his sight , through the use of the judging. Plaques are awarded each quar safety eye protection. ter and at the end of the year. An award One thing we all have learned is that no also goes to the plant that showed most im long-term program can succeed unless its provement. course is carefully charted. To say simply Industrial Safety Subject Sessions that our goal is to make Mobil Chemical a safer place to work would be, in practical terms to say that we have no goal at all. It would lend no direction to efforts, and offer no scale with which to measure them. - For this reason each of our divisions is re* quired each year to translate that fond desire into practical, reachable, meaningful objec tives; in other words, into numbers. How many films shown, how many safety meet ings held, how many training sessions, how often to review equipment, how many jobs to be analyzed, how many contests. If, at the beginning of the year, a division reports that it intends to have every employee see at' least ten safety films, it is not hard to see at the end of the year if the goal was.met We are pleased with progress, but we have a long \yay to go. But that will always be true.. One of the frustrations of a career in. the safety business is that you'measure success - in terms of what doesn't happen. One of therewards is the constant challenge to find better ways to do the job. That is the challenge we have picked up at Mobil Chemical. FIRE PREVENTION AT MOBIL By LEONARD O. FRANKLIN Regional Operations Advisor, Exploration and Producing Division,. Mobil 03 Corporation, Houston, Tex. In the oil business, we deal every, day practices, and communication in.existing re- with substances that are highly flammable, fineries. They also help us to provide new : highly volatile and, if not properly handled, and better designs for refineries being con- extfemfely dangerous. 03 and. its principal .strticted or modernized, by-products are- tough materials to handle Refineries handle and store vast quantities properly. of flammable materials. Because of this, they You may be interested to know , that in are particularly susceptible to fires. As some America there are fewer fires, in service sta- of you may know, a series of refinery fires dons than.there are in churfches and schools, occurred in' August, 1967. In the largest of Mobil's contribution to this exceptional rec- these, a fire and explosion at Lake Charles, ord, I believe, reflects our feinphasis on' fire La.; seven people were killed and 13 injured, prevention and- our strong employee educa- We still don't know exactly how much dam- . tion program and-our rigid enforcement, of age was caused. regulations. " . We at Mobil haven't had a serious refinery In all of our operations--refineries, explo- fire for about .ten years, but we. see no reason ration and producing areas bn and offshore, to rest on our record. In addition to provid- tankers and pipelines, service stations--fire is ing the. necessary equipment and instructions an ever-present hazard. Our philosophy is to our employees, we try to provide an at- simple. Get the best equipment possible. In- mosphere which cuts down the possibility of spect it, maintain it, and operate it properly, human error. Of course,It's impossible to get . Educate all workers about the importance of rid of the human-error factor entirely, but fire safety and the proper safety procedures, we feel a'strong responsibility to do a num- (I might add that we frequently use outside ber of things: to select and train qualified fire departments whenever we can, and train safety personnel; to upgrade existing skill their men along with our own whenever spe- ' levels; sometimes to use automation of other dal situations moke this kind of training nec- - electronic controls to preclude the possibility essary.) of. human error and, perhaps most impor- ' We also conduct continuing safety-pre- tant, to arrange procedural checks and regu- paredness planning surveys. These are some- lar supervisory reviews, times directed by our own safety people, Specifically, what do we do to emphasize sometimes by outside experts. These very do- . fire safety in our refineries? Here are a few tailed surveys enable, us to determine meth- examples, ods of developing better safety designs, We allow no smoking whatsoever in any ! 125 ' "*r. t 1987 National Safety Congress areas where gasoline, liquid-petroleum gas, evacuation procedure remains the same. or other flammable materials ore stored. Of course, wherever gasoline is stored, We make available the very latest in fire- there is some danger'of ignition as a result protection' equipment and teach all our peo of static electricity. An approved method of. ple how, when, and where to use this equip bonding and grounding must be used wher ment. Our basic components in fire control ever flammable liquids ore loaded or un and extinguishing , are dry powder and me loaded. . . chanical foam. Water-fog and hose streams In-service stations, too, we are always on are used for secondary cooling and certain guard against the possibility of a fire, We do kinds of fire control; we might use a water- not allow smoking near the pump island, for fog screen to protect men'while operating obvious reasons. We provide ohd maintain valves in a fire or danger area. Each , of-our fire extinguishers for each company-owned refineries has at. least' one combination station. foam-dry chemical truck. Both hoses can be There is probably no fire as terrifying' as a . used simultaneously. fire at sea. And there's no fire at sea as fear In addition, each operating and storage ful as a tanker fire, especially when ` the unit is equipped with a built-in-water spray cargo is a light, highly combustible product system, centrally controlled. Refinery work such as gasoline or Jet fuel. Mariners cannot ers can activate valves which almost immedi run from die scene. There's no way to get ately, spray an entire operating unit, helping outside assistance. Their own skill and cour-' 'to prevent an explosion and hampering the . age and the firefighting equipment on board spread of fire. Of course, spray hoses can are'all they have. also be directed by hand. In case of a tank fire, one complete foam tower unit is carried on the fire truck; an other is located in the fire shed. Additional dry foam, powder in 50-pound buckets is . stored in a central warehouse. Of course, proper maintenance .is neces sary. Periodic testing and inspection is made! of all hoses, spray systems, fire-truck equip For this reason, every man on board every Mobil tanker, from the cook to the captain, is a skilled firefighter. His life may depend on his knowledge. Every tanker.is a kind of floating fire house. You can barely walk ten feet on a modem tanker without seeing some piece'of equipment, or a sign commanding, the-observance of a fire regulation. ment, and other fire-fighting devices. One obvious hazard aboard a tanker is the Before storage tanks are entered for clean careless smoker. There are none of these- ing, or before any welding is done on them, among, sailors who have been around for a ' they are tested for the presence of combusti while. New,men quickly Iearii the do's and . ble gas. Protective aluminum suits enable don'ts under the patient guidance of. the-old men to withstand extreme temperatures. Pe- salts. - But reminders abound. A sign at a mand air containers are also available. ' door to the after house is there to make sure Offshore drilling is becoming more and that no one ventures out on the cargo or more important in oil exploration in this country and overseas. On offshore drilling rigs and producing platforms, fire can be weather deck with a lit cigarette. Other no smoking' signs are posted conspicuously around the deck. While a tanker is at sea, it very dangerous at all timis, particularly be is safe-to smoke outside on the poop deck cause evacuatiop can be very difficult.. but a sailor has no trouble telling when he is On this kind of operation, we hold fire out of bounds with his cigarette. drills at least once a month. No prior warn Outside areas must sometimes be illumi ing is given. Some oil-soaked rags are burnt, nated. Vapor-proof protectors and metal and the alarm is sounded. The extinguishers cages are around the light bulbs. These are use dry chemicals, foam, or sea water. Life used throughout the ship. boats are in place at all times. In evacuation We want to keep cigarettes away from the drills, the men swing on ropes from the plat cargo, and we also, want to keep' the cargo form to a tug. This in itself can be hazard away from the cigarettes, or from anything ous, but it's the best way to get the men off else that might ignite it. This means control the rig quickly in case of emergency. I might . ling the vapors. .This is done by means of a add that an emergency might mean high pressure operated venting system. The ullage winds or high water, as well as fire. The hole, a small opening in the tank top, pro 126 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions vides access to the. tank for gauging, volume and for taking samples. The brass ullage screen acts as a flame barrier and is kept in place during loading and: unloading proce dures. Should the worst happen, a battery of ex tinguishing equipment can be brought into play almost immediately. Hand extinguishers for smaller fires are located throughout the ship. The typical modem tanker carries some 45 foam and dry chemical hand extinguish ers. A . tanker also has several automatic sys tems for handling larger fires. At the flick of a switch, the bosun can smother critical areas of the ship in a blast of carbon diox ide. The. CO. is stored in 100-pound bottles in the after part of the ship. They're in spected regularly. Cargo tanks can also be smothered in steam at the'tum of a valve. Good equipment is worthless .unless there's an alert and well trained crew around to use it. The general alarm button signals a fire drill at least once a week on Mobil tank ers; more often if the crew is. new. At the signal, the crew musters on the double at the . boats and at fire stations. To keep drills from becoming routine, the location of the simu lated fire .is-changed from drill to drill, and also the nature of the fire. This gets all the equipment in use and keeps the officers and crew on their toes. As anadjunct to fire and boat drills, there are exercises in the use of a line-throwing gun, fresh air masks, resuscitators, and other safety equipment procedures. Loading and discharging cargo is perhaps the most critical period in the operation of a tanker.' Tanks are open, product is flowing and crew members and shore personnel are constantly coming and going. `Dangerhandling petroleum--no .fires--no smoking" is the first greeting anyone gets when com ing aboard. A red sigiial flag is hoisted to show the ship is carrying flammable cargo. Doors to the living areas are closed and kept closed. Fife extinguishers are placed-at the cargo manifolds and shore lines are bled into drain pons while flanges are-removed. Foam extinguishers are placed ' at recirculating lines, and scupper plugs are inserted to con tain any spills on board/ Mobil. conducts training and refresher courses in firefighting at several ports around the world for both its U.S. and international crews. Officers and crew on standby or awaiting assignment to a 'ship attend the schools whenever possible. The training is supplemented with training films shown at sea and with regular publications which dis cuss safety matters and call attention to any new hazards. Ona Mobil tanker, seamanship and safety mean pretty much the same thing. MOBIL FLEET SAFETY PROGRAMS By DONALD E. JOHNSON Safety Supervisor, Southwest Marketing Division, Mobil Oil Corp., Dallas, Tex. We at Mobil emphasize driving safety.. divisions. It's his job to. train new men and And, of course, since we have established to re-train the' veteran:?--even experienced ourselves as preachers to the vast-motoring drivers need a booster shot of instruction' public, we certainly have to.practice, in our once in a while, to keep' up with new find own operations, what we preach'. ings arid techniq^s. Every Mobil driver at We have quite a few motor vehicles in tends at least one formal training session Mobil's fleet, ranging from passenger cars to every year, as well os informal sessions scat huge tank Wagons. Because of the huge vol tered throughout the .year whenever we feel umes we move and the large numbers of ve they might be necessary or useful. . hicles we move them in, safe driving is a vi- Our bible is the Motor Fleet Manual. It . tally important consideration. contains just about everything a driver has There is at least one full-time driving in .' to know, from federal Highway laws to Mob structor in each of our eight U.S. marketing il's own regulations on such matters as pre 127 1987 national Safety Congress ventive maintenance, driver-performance can begin loading his vehicle, he must attach standards, even painting and lettering speci the grounding cable. When he does so, the fications. light over the pumps goes on. Not until then I'm not going to bore - you by going through the contents of this manual, chapter by chapter and page by page. I want to em phasize, though, that we continually change it, and we have a permanent coordinating committee responsible for making sure that it's clear, accurate, and up to date. Each new. Mobil driver, regardless of his previous' experience, goes' through a formal two-week training program. At least five full days are spent going' along with a veteran company, driver as he makes his usual rounds. At the same time, the mechanics of driving and details of all equipment are ex plained thoroughly. In ourclassroom ses. sions, we make extensive use of the Harold Smith driver-training system. Instructors, veteran drivers themselves, explain the con sole of the cab, local driving regulations, and Safe methods of loading and unloading the products the vehicle will convey. can he proceed with the'loading. In California we use on unusual safety de vice to prevent the escape of vapors into the air. The driver attaches a metal hose, which collects all gasoline vapors. This accom plishes two things: First,, it reduces the' danger of fire or explosion.on the spot; sec? ond, it does not allow vapors to contribute to' the state's air-pollution problem. The cap tured vapors are' brought through a series of pipes to a' condenser, then ,reformulated into premium gasoline and sent back to storage tanks. In delivering gasoline, to a service station, .pipes are constructed so that, once.the at tachment is made, there is an automatic grounding contact ' As I mentioned.. previously,- our drivers make the rounds at first with an experienced man. Later, they are graded on their per formance by everybody involved in the training process. That means an evaluation - Motor fleet safety entails more than just by the terminal superintendent, the fleet in safe driving. Safety in loading and unload-' structor, the employee relations advisor, and ing, and in maintaining maximum' visibility, the field operating supervisor. so that our vehicles can' be seen easily by Accidents, of course, do happen, in spite other vehicles on the road, are just as'impor of every precaution; When they , do, we try tant. Keeping the truck clean--in most cases, to make sure a similar accident will not hap washing it at least once a day--is empha pen again. We hold informal discussions oh sized. Loading at bulk terminals requires safe the nature of the accident, its causes, and its' handling of Oall produ*cts. Before the driver effects.- WE WANT YOU TO LIVE By NICHOLAS L. BRISTOW Community Relations Representative, Mobil Oil Corporation, New York, N. Y. Driving safety has received a lot of em phasis during the past few months and you have only, to take a glance at the grim statis tics to know that the emphasis is well de served. . Last year more than 50,000 of us crashed to death on the roads. More than 1,700,000 were injured--more than the total number of students attending all public and paro chial schools in New York City. More .than the entire population of Manhattan or the Bronx. I'm sure you'll agree that these are staggering figures. 128 . We at Mobil want to do something about it We don't know how much we can help --but we kpow we have to try. We want to tell you some obvious and some not so ob vious things we can all do to stay in one piece. We want to be professional nuisances, to nag you and plead with you to treat your car as if it were loaded. If one person is helped, it's good enough for us. . A closer examination of the accident sta tistics shows that young people 15 to 25 years old were involved in 31 per cent of all accidents, although they moke up only 20 / Medical Views of 3 A's in Industry ATTITUDES By VLADMIR G. URSE, M.D. Supt., Mental Health Clinic, Cook County Hospital, Chicago, HI. Generally speaking, attitude refers to the . and, in some instances, from the same family manner with which one faces and reacts to or family group. Interaction was much more his environment'. It has its roots in early life, ' intimate and communication direct and com and if the individual grows up in an atmos plete because of this intimacy. phere of love and understanding he develops a feeling of security and trust. If turmoil and dissension are the early influences and there are no strong figures to nourish love and un derstanding, then insecurity and lack of trust are the end products. Such a person is fre quently hostile, suspicious, and pessimistic . even when others attempt to relate to him. Today, we live in a world of mechanized large farms, giant industrial combines, su per-merchandising chains and cities. Less than one-half of the population of this coun try is rural, and in a short time practically 80 to ,90 per cent of the population Will be urban. As a result, personal interaction has become less intimate, less personal and some We are becoming more and. more inter of the personal identity has been lost in the ested in the interaction of people in an effort . shuffle. to create an atmosphere of wholesomeness and understanding. This is especially impor tant since the structure of society .has changed -remarkably in the last 50 to 100 years. I believe this is particularly true in this country; which is after all in its infancy as far as an, identity in the world structure of mankind is concerned. The leap! and bounds by which it has progressed is almost impossi ble to believe. One hundred years ago--a short time in the history of the world--wag ons and'wagon trains were crossing the land on which this city now stands. Rivers were an important artery of travel--now they are merely polluted streams, carrying away the At this point you are prompted to ask what has this to-do with attitude? Obviously, the forces pf the environment play a role in influencing one's attitude. T believe we are seeing more and more situational factors in volved in the attitude, behavior, and emo tional being of people. These factors may stem, from the -home,' the 'community or work. The influence of environmental factors 'is demonstrated' in the treatment of emo tional disorders, in that in the therapeutic unit we attempt to. establish on environment which is conducive to helping the sick or disorganized personality reintegrate. dirt arid debris of a civilized society.- The average person spends about one- The last SO years have shown, an even third of his time in employment following more remarkable and dramatic change. Prior his early developmental and educational to this, and even os recently as 30 years ago, -years. In his employment community he ours was essentially an agricultural economy and societyi The farms of that time were es must establish relationships with those about him who are an intimate part of. his life. In sentially a family enterprise, each farm or . this environment certain demands are made cluster of farms worked by family -and/or upon him, and he may not have the freedom relatives, or friends. Interaction .was intimate of choice which exist in his home or commu- and'the successes and'failure's were shored by nity. Many of his attitudes must be in all. Communication between them was com fluenced by the impact those about him have plete since they essentially had only each other to depend on. on'him, and it is control of some of his atti tudes which leads tq a more wholesome, rea Paralleling this, industry was of a similar sonable relationship with those about him. structure. Businesses and industrial plants . Employment should not only mean a pay- were -small, employing' a relatively small check. Unfortunately, this seems to be a number of employees, most of \yhom came commonly accepted role in too large a seg from the same neighborhood or community ment of our society. Work should, fulfill the 145 v' 1987 National Safety Congress feeling of being needed and give the indi of voice, the absence of a- smile with the vidual a personal identity. daily greeting, or the .simple, ordinary cor . The individual assumes .an adult identity rection of an error can be the basis for a \yhen he has been able to transfer some of severe threat to such a person and result in his childhood dependencies to'his work. In a flood of tears, irritability, or anger. When the eariy-'years of life the child is dependent - one secs this response in an individual who on those about him--parents,, teacher, fccout usually does not respond this way, one may. ' leaders, etc. As he achieves an adult identity suspect that the person is depressed--a. con his dependency must be transferred in part dition which is almost always accompanied, to his work. He depends upon his employer, by lowered self-esteem. his superiors, antjjcoworkers and they, in . Management or supervising personnel can turn, depend on him to be productive. With a not hope to cope with such an individual by realistic evaluation of these responsibilities being critical, demanding, or beating him the adult individual is able to maintain a further down the ladder of esteem, since the healthy balance and thereby avoid many person himself feels that he cannot go much emotional symptoms. He has a healthy atti lower. Cool hostility, sarcasm, and arguing tude. are not the solution to the problem. Rather, How do attitudes affect the interaction of , an understanding of the attitude, and ac people? They have a profound influence on ' ceptance and approval, are the better tactics interaction and. can frequently spell the to employ. difference between failure and success. Un The anxious attitude is another that we fre fortunately, in this highly complex and in quently observe in those about us. Here, too, dustrialized society pressures are great and a there are certain reactions that frequently in place for failure seems to be lost. Should dicate the basic problem. The. extremely there not be a place for, freedom or privilege moist hand, the anxious expression. on the to fail? After all, it is possible that the per face, tremors of the-hands, frequent com son who never fails is conceivably a person plaints to the medical department, increase- who never does anything more than is ever in accidents may all be manifestations of expected of him or does exactly as he is told, anxiety. Anxiety may stem from the occupa never using his creative or imaginive powers tional environment and be carried into the to improve himself or the job he is doing. home, or it may arise in the home and be How many failures were there before success carried to work. Diplomatic seeking-out must finally was.achieved in the many things we be the approach to such a problem, and a take for granted? If the person who failed diplomatic referral for treatment made. had not had the privilege of failing there . would have been no success, because he would have become a "do-nothing." It be- . hooves us to recognize that people'about us can fail, and that we cannot forever hold this against them. ' The paranoid attitude is more subtle. There are people who tend to remain'distant and aloof from those about' them, never es tablishing close relationships unless it be with persons of their own makeup. .There arte constant complainers, fault finders, who feel Esteem'relates itself to value, and self.es-, they are always being taken advantage of teem is essentially the value or opinion one and are being put upon. Because of their at- has of one's self. When one has a normal titude they are often trouble makers, and if amount of self-esteem, one is generally they should be in a supervisory capacity cheerful, happy, outgoing, and able to relate they may influence a whole group with their well and tolerantly to those about him. His feelings and ideas. Such persons are most ..values concerning himself are good, and he difficult to reach and manage. They fre possesses' an air of ' self confidence with quently leave .of their own. accord (thus which he. is able to relate to those about solving the problem for those who have to him.' He can take risks and afford an occa- - deal with them), only to carry their hostility sional failure without his whole personality and anger to another 'job. They are essentially being threatened. unhappy people going on in their own un The person who has low' self-esteem fre happy .way,' never quite realizing that they quently shows this by an extreme hypersen themselves are at fault, but always tending sitivity, and over-reactions to what are very' to blame someone else. ordinary interactions between people. A tone Each of us possesses an individuality of 146 Industrial Safety Subject Sessions his own by which others know us and which This type of communication will really reach can broadly be defined as the "self." In this only a small percentage of the persons it is individuality are certain components which intended for. With the "paper barrage", as I relate to certain needs all of us have. Per like to refer, to it, a certain percentage will haps one of the most important components immediately dispose of it without reading it. is the need for respect. In dealing with peo A certain percentage,will read it and under ple, be they clients, patients; customers, or stand it. A certain percentage will not un employees, one must always bear this in derstand it and, as a result, pay little atten mind. One cannot constantly belittle another tion to it. Yet the communication was in and expect a harmonious relationship to tended for all. I belive that, except for the exist. All of us have the need to be respected simplest type of communication, anything of and cannot tolerate, a constant barrage of be- importance which is intended for all to grasp Iittlement without reacting in some way. Too should be verbal communication of the type often, this reaction may be anger or hostility I have referred to before. Let it be truly or occasionally a loss of self-esteem. It be meaningful communication. hooves us, then, to treat the other person with the respect that is due him as an indi vidual, even though he may have shortcom ings. There is no place for the remark, "You.can be replaced by a machine" unless one is 'sure that the proper interpersonal relation ship exists and it will be accepted as a Joke. Man will never be replaced by a machine; there will always be people. Perhaps in this hustle bustle hurry-up world we are apt to overlook the dignity of man. Somp of the most important elements, in creating healthy attitudes in industry of in any employment situation, or for that matter, in social or familiar situations are' interest, communication, and respect. We are all fa miliar with the disinterest too many of us show, especially when we are. confronted with someone elseVtroubles. Are others real Obviously, there are many persons in in dustry who present some of the syndromes mentioned. The question arises as to what is to be done with' them or for them. This may require the greatest diplomacy, since the rec ommendation that the person see a psychatrist may not be readily accepted. In spite of the -fact that thfere has .been much publicity concerning emotional illness, .there remains resistance on the part of individuals to ac cept treatment for emotional illness. Interested and judicious inquiry into the. factors surrounding the patient's condition is necessary, and then the diplomatic sugges tion that the patient seek professional help for his condition follows. In a serious discus sion the use of such terms as ."head shrinker", "loony bin",, "nut house", etc. have no place. ly interested in listening to' troubles? I Industry must respect the relationship of believe not. Perhaps this is why psychiatrist's the psychiatrist and his patient, even though offices are. so crowded--the patient has a paid the referral may be from the patient's place listener. In this relationship he can ventilate, of employment. The psychiatrist must main and I can assure you that ventilation of his tain a neutral role in his relationship as re problems and troubles, can frequently bring gards the patient and his' employer. The relief. . question of whether psychiatric services, on a Communication is an overworked term. Too frequently we believe that the use of words is communication, but I believe that to have meaningful communicaton, it must be interested communication. It is the inter. est that gives a deeper meaning to the words and conveys sincerity and respect. Without . full time basis in corporate structure will ever materialize is a question which cannot be answered at this time. Too often a com pany psychiatrist could be viewed by the patient as company or organization man. Consultant services by outside practitioners seems to be more acceptable and effective as this .there is no meaningful communication. of this time. It must also be understandable communica- What. about employability and employ tion, and if it is interested communication it ment of the person who has had an emo will be understandable communication. tional problem or illness? Patients who have All about us are printed posters, mimeo had serious illnesses can go into a remission graphed sheets, memos, and paper of -all and reintegrate well erfbugh-to. return, to the sorts with communications printed on them. community and employment. One of the 147  1967 National Safety Congress great problems Is finding a suitable place for. them so that they may become self support ing and contribute something to society, in stead of remaining dependent upon society. This requires' on enlightened industrial so ciety which, recognizes the fact that such persons can'contribute something to the total organization. Industry must enter into the program of educating its community to the 'acceptance' of such persons, much as com munity psychiatry is attempting, to establish the acceptance of such persons into, the com-. . munity. Management may be willing to create op-, portunity for work, but all .too often the per sons involved with such patients lack under- . standing.or do not possess the ability to in teract with them, for a healthy relationship. Much productive work can be done by these persons in an atmosphere of understanding, tolerance, and support. It is to be hoped.that in the future enlightenment and increased knowledge will lead to an understanding re sulting in healthier relationships for all con cerned. 1, In conclusion, there are a few - points which might prove of some help in creating healthier attitudes in this highly industrial ized, compact society of ours: 1. Recognition of some of the more promi nent manifestations of emotional problems, such as lowered self esteem, anxiety, and feelings of inadequacy, with an attempt to work out programs which may help in rees tablishing equilibrum, and referral of such problems' for professional help when it is in dicated. 2. Enlightenment of management'and cm- ployes with respect to the acceptance of emotional illness as an illness and recogni tion, of the fact that such illness does not necessarily mean `lack of consideration for a place in.the working community. . 3. Improved communications which will be interested, meaningful communications leading to greater trust and faith, rather than to less trust Finally, if we do unto others as'we would have them do unto us, much grief,' misun- derstanding, and conflict will be avoided. ALCOHOLISM By ROBERT R. J. HJDLKER, M.D. Medical Director, Illinois Bell Telephone Co., Chicago, 111. Alcoholism is a very prevalent and misun. derstood disease. You are all familiar with the symbols of other important public .health problems: the sword of the Cancer Society, the cross of the Tuberculosis Association, and the heart and torch of the Heart Association. Unfortu nately, the symbol of alcoholism is, to most of us, the skid row drunk.. Our concepts of alcoholism ore all too often influenced by this erroneous view and our actions in pre vention, treatment, and rehabilitation are geared to this completely false concept. It is true that the exact number of alcohol ics cannot be determined. It. is equally true that excessive drinking is known to be fairly prevalent in the United States, and that a relatively large percentage of heavy drinkers are alcoholics, or are on the road to .becom ing alcoholics. Most authorities agree there are probably 6% million true alcoholics in our population, an estimate which is up 1% million in the last decade. If problem drink ers are included, this number may well be in excess of 11 million people. In Illinois alone, there are an estimated 303,100 alcoholics, of whom 292,000 are in Chicago. The effect of alcohol does not stop with the alcoholic but spreads to adversely effect the life of possi bly 30 million close relatives. The toll taken by alcoholism is difficult to measure. A recent statistical bulletin of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company shows that alcoholism is a rapidly growing medi cal-social problem. Nearly 11,000 deaths were directly attributed to alcoholism in 1964. The reported death rate from alcoholic disorders has risen 60 per cent between 1950 and 1964. It is probable that these statistics do not really present an accurate picture of the problem. Several studies show that seri ous understatement exists in reporting deaths 148 ' Industrial Safety Subject Sessions ; due to alcoholism. This is presumably due to has recently been established within the Na the social stigma involved and other causes tional Institute of Mental Health. The Voca of death are at times certified, where this is tional Rehabilitation Administration has ex at all possible; in spite of this, it is quite panded its work in this field. clear that alcoholics are subject to a higher In spite of- these stated programs there is ' death rate by 2% to three times the average. still an essential' factor missing--moneyl In The excess death rates are mainly due to ' 1966 the total expenditure for identifiable al diseases of the digestive system, suicide, coholism projects in the Federal government motor vehicle accidents, other accidents, and was only $7 million. Yet this country is homicides. But long before health is de- known-to have the most severe alcoholism . stroyed, the alcoholic may become unable to problem iri the world, and it seems to be hold a regular job. Drunkeness and loss of growing at a rapid rate. Existing agencies income lead to breaking up of the family, have done a splendid job in spite of minute dependency, and child neglect. Losses to in budgets. Real progress will be made only.if dustry from .absenteeism, accidents and -there is a substantial effort by industry, as other problems associated; with heavy'drink well as an increase in local and Federal ing are how estimated at $2 billion per year. spending to combat the problem. In addition, $1 billion or more is spent, There are specific areas in industry in yearly for the care and treatment of alcohol which alcoholic employees cause serious ics and for financial support to their families. problems. Because alcoholism is often a hid This multi-billion dollar economic cost den disease, it is doubtful that even the best stands out in sharp contrast to the very small informed industry knows the real magnitude sums, estimated at $12 million yearly, spent of the problem of alcoholism in its ranks. by state and- federal agencies seeking answ We do know that the alcoholic employee, is ers to this problem. Proponents of expanded an . absence problem. Studies have shown government, activity in this field point out that he will average from 22-30 days ab - that the $3.8 million spent by the Federal sence per year for.alcoholism-alone, and that government in 1964 was. only a little more he will hiive a greater number of absences than one-thousandth of the $3.5 billion re for other illnesses. In one industrywide study. ceived by the Federal treasury in that year the alcoholic employee has 2% times the ab from taxes on alcoholic beverages. In-con sence that non-drinkers do. Accident rates trast, it is interesting to note that the Cana are higher--this includes both on the job dian province of Ontario recently obtained and off the job accidents. Studies indicate authorization to spend $20 million per year. that alcoholic employees have more than . This neglect of alcoholism .as a public health problem appears to be nearing an . end. True, there is no large voluntary organ ization similar to the Cancer Society primar. ily interested in this disease. There is a twice as many on die job accidents, and up to ten times the off the job accidents of non-drinkers. This is costly to each industry and has been estimated to reduce our na tional gross product by 2% per cent growing public awareness of the problem. At Traffic accidents'deserve special attention.. the Federal government level there is. much They have now reached epidemic propor more interest. Contrasted to the 87th and tions and, as such, are,of grave concern to 88th -Congress, in which only one member industry. Much has been said about making showed any interest in specific alcohol legis- ' .the vehicle safe. No one denies the impor lation, there were 46 members in thp 89th tance of this. Yet'the shocking facts are that Congress who sponsored such legislation. alcohol is a great contributor to traffic acci Many more members have given their sup dents. Recendy published figures indicate port to this legislation. The Highway Safety that well over half of the. fatally injured . Act of 1966 includes a section studying the drivers have been drinking; among drivers relationship of alcohol to traffic accidents responsible for fntal accidents, two-thirds and a study of existing programs. At the di have been drinking; and in one-car fatal ac rection of the President, an 18 member Ad cidents, seven of ten had been drinking. visory Committee on Alcoholism will work . The alcoholic employee is not an effective with the Secretary of Health, Education and employee. The age range of employees with Welfare. Additionally, the National Center drinking problems is between 30 and 55; for the Prevention and Control of Alcoholism during these years they would- normally 149 . 1967 National Safety Congress ; achieve their maximum value os productive . mit an offender in lieu of a criminal sen workers.. During these years potential man tence. The voluntarily committed alcoholic is agement employees are lost for promotion generally viewed as a more favorable pros- because of alcoholism. If the employee must pect for recovery than one who is forced to- be replaced, retraining will cost bom $2,000 undergo treatment, but there is some opinion to $10,000 per employee. to the effect that compulsory treatment may Morale of other employees, as well as su pervisors, and management, is seriously af fected by the presence of alcoholics. Public - relations, and customer relations are seri have a special benefit for certain alcoholics, particularly those who refuse to admit they have a drinking problem and find it a relief to have treatment forced upon them. ously damaged.- 5. There is a lack of consensus as to the These problems aren't new, and various cause of the disease. The medical profession approaches have been tried through the now recognizes there are different types of years by different societies to check the alcoholism--some drink because of emo tendency to drink alcohol beverages to ex tional maladjustments, some drink to avoid cess'. The drunkard has been reviled, pun "everyday personal problems. Others appear ished, excommunicated, ostracized, ridiculed, to drink because-they have a physical addic and often just plain tolerated .depending on tion to alcohol. Some physicians maintain the laws, mores, and social class of : the that excessive drinking is entirely an emo drinker of the circumstances of his drinking. tional problem, but others maintain that it is ' Exertion of social controls over the consump either a physiologic disorder or even a defi tion of. alcoholic beverages to reduce the ills ciency disease. With the causes of alcoholism resulting from' excessive drinking has'been so obscure and apparently varied,.treatment confined largely to nations of the West. A has developed in an empiric and haphazard review of these attempts- classifies them as way. ' . follows: 1) Prohibition--making it illegal to 8. Another reason for. failure is profes manufacture, distribute, or consume alcoh sional antipathy to treating alcoholics. Few olic beverages; 1) indoctrinating people in doctors, nurses,' social workers, etc., choose the evil consequences of excessive drinking; to. work with alcoholics, nor,,do their training 3) control--regulating the manufacture, dis institutions generally provide preparation in tribution and sale of alcoholic beverages; this field of work. This resistance arises in and 4) substituting "counter-attractions," large .part- from the difficulties presented by such as recreational facilities in isolated com the alcoholic himself. It is characteristic of munities, where drinking seemed to be the this' disorder that the sufferer, will-not admit only release from boredom. Laudible as are he has a drinking problem, and they are the. aims of these efforts, they have not been known for lying and "playing games" with . successful. those who try to'help them. Many physi Failure is caused not only by the wrong cians, including psychiatrists, avoid taking approach, but also because there are some alcoholics as patients. serious Obstacles to treatment: 7. Lack of hospital facilities. The hospitals 1. Many alcoholics are hidden and -pro who specialize in the treatment of alcohol tected. The wife is powerless to control the ism are often suboptima]. Of 37 general hos problem and reluctant to disclose it lest she pitals surveyed in a large midwestem city, suffer-a complete loss of income. only four would take alcoholic patients with 2. Most first line supervisors tend to pro no other admitting illness. The explanation tect the alcoholic employee until the prob given was that it would put too large a bur lem becomes obvious and acute. den on the nursing staff, whereas it is really 3. The alcoholic himself denies his disease . a failure to view alcoholism as a disease. ' and has insufficient motivation to seek help. 8. Punitive treatment of alcoholism by 4. It is difficult, to force the affected per- law enforcement agencies. There is now a son .to accept treatment. This ` is gradually rising sentiment against throwing an alcoh ' being overcome, and 36 states now have olic into a jail cell. Although experts in the some, provision for involuntary commitment field of alcoholism may disagree on causes, for the very serious alcoholic. definitions, treatment, and many other as Little is done about the person who is still pects of the disease, hardly a single authority "functioning". In 10 states, courts may com- in any discipline .concerned with the ques- 150 ' Industrial Safety Subject Sessions tion believes that jailing an alcoholic is the proper way. to handle the problem. In two recent test cases it was ruled that jailing ah alcoholic is. not proper and is, indeed, a vio lation of his civil rights. The alcoholic is considered a public health problem and not a criminal. In spite of the obstacles to treatment, much of great value has been done and is being done. Alcoholic treatment centers are rapidly being established by governmental, agencies as well as by private funds. Of spe cial note is the contribution Alcoholics Anon ymous has made to the treatment of this dis ease. Founded in 1935 by two alcoholics--a physician and a stock broker--it has "grown to an estimated 400,000 members. There is little doubt that more contemporary alcoholics have found sobriety through the fellow. ship of Alcoholics Anonymous than through all other agencies combined. Although the secret of their success is difficult to analyze, it certainly combines religious' zeal with the advantage. of group psychotherapy and. group support. By their conspicuous success, they have. also contributed - greatly to a change in public attitude toward the com pulsive drinker. : Up to'now, this may have sounded like a pessimistic view of the problem. However, industry can and must play a key role in the '. .control of this disease. Early recognition of the problem drinker is essential, just as early diagnosis is important in any other- disease. First line supervisors can be trained easily to become our best case finders. It is well known that families, clergy, physicians, and even courts and law enforcement agencies find it difficult, if not impossible, to force the alco holic .to .accept treatment It is also well known that the alcoholic will go to almost any end to save his job. Therefore, industry, with the threat of the loss of the paycheck,' can do more than anyone to make the alcoholic ac cept rehabilitation by applying constructive coercion. Industry is in the key position to keep the alcoholic employee -working, and working effectively. It may sound as if such a program in in dustry must be expensive and extensive. Nei ther is the case. What are .the basic ingre dients of an effective program? 1. Recognition of alcoholism os a disease. The notion that alcoholics are really sick people is not new, but it is only in recent years that it has generally been taken as a starting point in programs to control alcohol ism. An Edinburgh physician. Dr. Thomas Trotter, wrote in 1804 that "I consider drunkeness, strictly speaking, to be a disease produced by a remote cause, giving birth to. actions in a living body that disorder the functions of health". He also said that heavy drinkers suffer "bodily infirmity" and that "the habit of drunkeness is a disease of the mind". He deplored the "injudicious and. illtimed chastisements of officious friends that ruin unfortunate inebriates who might have been saved by a different method". Dr. J. Edward Turner, in Bath, Maine,' proposed the rehabilitation of alcoholics in 1846. The Washingtonian movement pro posed.the same thing in 1870. Full profes sional acceptance of the medical nature of alcoholism was .signified in 1956 when the American Medical Association approved a statement placing "alcoholic symptomology". within the scope of medical practice. They also said general hospitals should have ade quate facilities for treating alcoholics. The following year the American Hospital Asso ciation adopted the same position. 2. The second, essential of a program is a written statement of policy. This may be a single sheet .with- a forthright statement, or may. take the form of a more formalized' booklet explaining alcoholism in detail. 3. The whole hearted understanding and suppgrt of management is basic to the suc cess of any program. 4. Union officials should be consulted, about the program, and their .support ob- . tained. . 5. Education of management--especially first line supervision--in the early recogni tion of the problem and the technique of conr fronting the employee and referring him for help is the real cornerstone of an industrial program. 6. The program should be brought to the attention of all employees and, hopefully, to their families. The type of program one wishes to have will be dictated largely by the size of the company and the facilities available; Any or-, ganized program in industry is called an "inplant" program--this simply means that the essentials just outlined have been met and the industry is ready to deal with alcoholism in a . realistic manner. Most large industries have a medical department and the alcohol- 1967 National Safety Congress ics program is part of their responsibility.- tials of a good program as well as the zeal This is the type of program we. have at Illi . and enthusiasm'of the person responsible for nois Bell Telephone Company. directing the program. The alcoholics counselor may be a physi We have succeeded in rehabilitating 65 cian, social worker, psychologist, or AA per cent of alcoholics who have been ex member working as part of the medical de posed to our program. We have had a sharp partment team. This counselor works directly, reduction in both off and oh the job acci with the individual alcoholic. employee. In dents in our rehabilitated employees. Their other industries, the responsibility is assigned sickness disability record has been markedly to another department such as personnel or improved. Efficiency on the job has been im labor relations, but the duties remain- the proved and in several instances has been so same. Allis Chalmers is one of the pioneers consistent that the employee has been pro- in the use of this type' of program and has moted. been very successful. . Our program at Illinois Bell Telephone A third type is -an.inplant program of de Company has been in operation for about 11 tection and referral utilizing either outside years. It has gradually grown until now it is individuals, groups, treatment centers, or really more than a full time job for one community services for directing therapy. counselor We feel that the degree of success Regardless of the type of program selected,, has been\uch^hat we can enthusiastically, it need not be unusually expensive. Its suc recommend it to management and to. other cess will really depend on meeting the essen industries. ABSENTEEISM By GERALD W. GRAWEY, M.D. Staff Medical Director, Western Electric Company, Chicago, Illinois ' There is no secret to the reason why it is have a man who wants to. be there- and who so. hard to get a handle on the problem of ..is physically able to be there. "absenteeism" in industry. In considering the factors which moke a The word itself denotes a negative person man want to be there, and the factors which --a statistical omission. Thus, every effort make it physically possible, we will be able we make to measure the impact of "the little to isolate some factors over which industry man who wasn't there" leads us to the nag and. medicine can exercise some controls. ging- suspicion that we don't yet- know how These variable factors may not respond with to measure a void. the kind of certainty that we expect -in a One figure we do have to prove that an scientific age, but they do indicate that a employee is conspicuous by his absence is the great deal can and must be' done for both bill for his direct costs--sickness benefits the health of our workers and the health of- paid out by industry last year came to $2.5 our economy. billion. Lost production and delayed work I want to emphasize at the start that these bring this bill to more than $10 billion per variable factors cannot be controlled by year. medical consultants alone. Indeed, by far the And yet, of course, we're trying'to meas greatest burden rests on line management ure what a man might have done had he Not only is a man's boss in the best position been there. We never do know exactly what; to evaluate and act on absenteeism,- but the cost really is. more importantly he is the prime motivator. Similarly, we've never been able to meas He does much to establish the atmosphere ure with precision the factors which control which makes a man want to come to work, ' absenteeism. We do know in a broad sense1 he communicates the attitude of the com that, to have a man on the job, you must pany toward absences, and sets a level of 152 )  Industrial Safety Subject Sessions "absentee expectation" among the group he counseling, convalescent, progress at home supervises. . and on the job, and day-to-day assistance on Make no mistake about it, the control of absenteeism is a social as well as a medical problem. We can see this by simply looking at many of the well known patterns of ab senteeism. Age, sex and type of job are three con stant factors which indicate this social as pect. All organizations must be familiar with them--the age curve, with its characteristic high incidence of absences among young workers during their first few years of em ployment, the sharp decline during the mid dle years, and a' gradual increase in absences as the employe* reaches long service. These frequent absences in the early years (when employees are by and large at their healthi est) is matched by the' high absence fre quency of women (who are also assumed to be healthier than their statistical counterpart, men). And, of course, both of these patterns' of age and sex are characterized by short, term absences; The other obvious social fac tor is type of job--again die well known pat tern of shop workers being absent more often than office workers (despite no' recog nizable inherent physical Reason). AH of which is to say that the environ ment of "absentee expectations" which the supervisor maintains is the prime factor in controlling absenteeism. But it is not to say that medical consultants do hot play an im-. portant cooperative role. In fact, die indus trial medical 'department is frequently and properly the catalytic agent behind manage ment's efforts to create this environment such twentieth century illnesses as (1) the presumed psychological pressures of automa tion, (2) the two per cent to four per cent of die total industrial work force suffering from alcoholism, and (3) the vastly increas ing respiratory diseases .of urban areas. General Medical Director of Western Electric,, Dr.. Edward J, Schowalter, states that "our; responsibility is not only to con serve the. life and health of workers, but to have a positive impact on their families and on the community." If this sounds like industrial doctors are taking on the medical role of the family phy sician, it is incorrect. Fifty years ago a fam ily doctor could know the patient's total background--working and living . environ ment. Now, family doctors find it harder to become familiar with the increasingly com plex conditions of the. work environment. There are, therefore, more environments today, and they're sharply separated. To gether, the family and the occupational phy sician can truly practice environmental health, while separately they cannot do as much. I' have tried to set the stage for a discus- sion of the factors which control absenteeism by sketching a range of responsibilities which management, medical consultants and family physicians must share. Cooperatively they can, I believe, have a profound influ ence on absenteeism. They can, for example, drastically alter the frequency and length of "illness" ab sences. Management has demonstrated this The medical consultants should do more time and again by swapping , supervisors be than belp identify the norms for ability to tween two similar departments. The absence work--healthful physical environment, record of the department tends to follow the proper clinical on-the-job treatment, and supervisor. '' safety practices. They must become con The same is true for frequency of ,on-the- cerned with the environmental health of the job accidents. We are all familiar with this "total man." This, involves the mental as well phenomenon--management lets the empha as physical hygiene of the worker at home as sis on safety practices slip, and the accident well as on the job. rate goes up. Management then puts great The need for this is dramatically borne emphasis on safety, and the rate goes down. .out by the well known axiom that qff-the-job Another achievable goal is the shortening accidents happen 10 times as often as on- of convalescent periods by dose private and the-job accidents. Actually, at Western Elec company physician cooperation. We find tric we find the ratio relating to absences that the patient's rehabilitation is enhanced caused by accidents at 11% to 1. by working, even if he must limit his activi- But the need for total environmental con ties at first. We strive.to be aware of a man's cern, goes beyond accident prevention to per abilities during convalescence, rather than iodic head-to-toe health examinations and ' over-reacting to his disabilities. At Western 1967 National Safety Congress Electric we find the following three steps --37 full-time and 99 part-time physicians; particularly fruitful: health and safety programs at *57 company 1. Acquaint private physicians with nature locations; programs ranging from biome of work, requirements' of Benefit Plain, and chanics . to computerized epidemiological function of company medical staff. This has studies, and fundamental research in such, been accomplished by. various means, rang varied fields as heart'disease and laser haz ing from simple phone calls to plant visits to ards. open houses for community doctors. We find I appreciate that smaller companies can a direct correlation between the amount of not spread these costs across a large em familiarity a patient's doctor has with the ployee bodyi Many companies have found company- and the length of illness absences. that private clinics can take on this vital 2. Visitation of sick, employees to discuss medical-management partnership. Othersde- convalescent progress. This visitation may be pend on insurance benefit plans--a sure way done by supervision or nurses. In the past to prolong absences. Many reports have indi we have utilized visiting nurses, but we are cated there is a tendency for length of ab having our nurses. primarily visit by tele sences to increase as benefits increase. phone now. It is still company policy to have Sound management plan is essential to supervision visit the employee to show con control absenteeism. It creates the psycho tinued interest in the employee while he is logical and physical environment conducive disabled. to good attendance. The cooperation of fam 3. Once a patient is ambulatory, he is . ily and occupational physicians can do much asked to visit the company dispensary. The to improve this attendance. This cooperation ability .of the employee to return to his regu can restore the ill and injured to work as lar job or to "Tight duty" can then be dis soon as possible arid practice on a broad cussed between company and private physi scale all that we mean by "preventive medi cians. cine." Management and medicine, can make ' Obviously, this kind of close .'attention to . a contribution to the operatirig. efficiency of employee's health, and to the work and the. organization. But most important of all, home environments that contribute to it, can a vigorous medical-management plan is a best be accomplished by an on-premise med foundation upon which to build a healthy ical force. A company as large as Western society on and off the job. As the pressures Electric finds the effort not only a humani of our technological age increase, as our tarian necessity, but one which pays off in urban environment becomes more complex, on-the-job performance. it is imperative that we bring business and The scale of Western's commitment to medicine together to seek mutual solutions employee health can be seen in these figures. to health and safety, hazards. \ 154 OFFICERS OF THE INDUSTRIAL CONFERENCE NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 1967-68 Vice President for Industry--H. S. McFarland, Director, Personnel Services, General .. Motors Corporation, Detroit, Mich. Chairman of the Industrial Conference-C. A. Allen, Vice President-Engineering, American Mutual Liability Insurance Co., Wakefield, Mass. Chairman of Sections--R. M. Hartman, Assistant Manager,' Compensation and Safety, Bethlehem Steel Corporation, Bethlehem, Pa. Vice Chairmen of Sections--]. C. Radcufite, Supervisor, Industrial Safety, Ford Motor Co., Dearborn, Mich.; K. S. Hedges, Safety Director, General Motors Corporation, Detroit, Mich.; H. M. Huntington, General Supervisor of Safety, International Harvester Co., Chicago! 111.; H. C, Daulton, Director of Safety, Louisville & Nashville Railroad Co.', Louisville, Ky. Chairman of Committees--M. E. Biancahdi, Manager of Safety & Workmen's Compensation Services, Allis-Chalmers, Milwaukee, Wis. Vice Chairmen of Committees--F. J. Dodson, Assistant Vice President, Liberty . Mutual Insurance Co., Boston, Mass.--J. VanNamee, Administrator of Accident Prevention, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa.; Paul Windsor, Secretary, Bureau of Safety, Chicago, 111. Secretary--Roy G. Benson, Manager, Industrial Department, National Safety Council, Chicago,- III. Committee Chairmen- Q Associations Committee--Dan Adair, Safety Coordinator, Pacific Coast Association of Pulp - & Paper Manufacturers, Portland, Ore. Audio-Visual Aids Committee--T. H. Wilkinson; Director of Safety, Department of the Army, Washington, D. C; Contest and Awards Committee--j. H. Snyder, Manager, Safety & Plant Protection, Hiram Walker & Sons, Peoria, 111. Executive Committee--:C, A. Allen . Nominating Committee--S. F. Spence, Director of Safety & Loss Prevention, American Cyanamid Co., Wayne, New Jersey Occupational Health Hazards Committee--T. E. Barber, M. D;, Medical Director, Geo. A. Hormel & Co., Austin, Minn. 155 Occupational Health Nursing--Muriel Stewart, R. N., Illinois Bell Telephone Co.,. Chicago, HI. Off~the-Job Safety Committee--R. Beeson, Safety Coordinator, Dana Corporation, Hagers town, Ind. Physical Hazards Committee--D. D. Mateer, Safety Coordinator, Jones & I jnghlin Steel Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15230 Research Projects Committee--D. F. Hayes, Assistant Director of Safety, Industrial and Publications, NASA, Washington, D. C. Standards Committee--N. A. Trombley, Manager of Industrial Health Services, Chrysler Corporation, Detroit, Mich. Technical Publications Committee--W. L. Clifton, Director of Accident Prevention, Ontario Hydro Electric Commission, Toronto, Ontario, Can. Training Committee--H., Rebholz, Safety Director, The Rath Packing Company, Waterloo, Iowa MEMBERS OF THE ASSOCIATIONS COMMITTEE NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 1967-68 Chairman--Dan Adair, Coord; of Saf. Activities, Pacific Coast Assn, of Pulp & Paper Mfrs., Portland, Oregon W. M. Allison, Manager, Accident Control' Division, Council of Forest Industries, Vancouver, B.C.; J. Anpreae, General Manager, Marine Div., Humble Oil & Refining Co.., Houston, Tex.; W. G. Bryson, Safety Director, Tidewater Construction Corp., Norfolk, Va.; Cart. G. H. E. Button, Director, Safety Bureau, NeW York Shipping Assn., New York, N. Y.; V. Cordell, Director, Public Health & Safety, National Restaurant Assn., Chicago, 111.; J. R. Grady, Manager Safety, Western Wood Products Association, Portland, Ore.; Ivan F. LeGore, Safety Director, Portland Cement Assn., Chicago, 111.; R. E. Scott, Manager, The Ontario Pulp'& Paper Maker's Safety Assn., Toronto, Ontario, Can. ASSOCIATION CONSULTANTS- WASHINGTON AREA--Santo J. Barca, Staff Asst.- to the Pres.,- Can Mfgrs. Institute, Washington,-D. C.; Edward W. Baumann, Consulting Director, National Slag Assn., Washington, D. C.; George Burke, Manager, Tech. Services,-Water Pollution Control Fed., Washington, D. C.; Joseph H. Colquitt, Secretary, National Assn, of Refrigerated Warehouses, Washington, D. C.; H. Louis Custer, Dir. Retirement, Saf. & Ins., -Natl. Rural Elec. Cooperative Assni, Washington, D. C.j Kenneth A. Gutschick, Mana-. . ger. Technical Service, National Lime Assn., Washington, D. C,; Paul Heffern, Asst. Dir. of Engineering, American Concrete Pipe Assn., Arlington, Va.; Wm. E. Huches, Managing Director, National Fibre Can and Tube Assn., Washington, D. C,; Harry E. Korab, Technical Director, Natl. Soft Drink Assn., Washington, D. C.; E. J. Koschella, Dir. of Technical Services,'Natl.-Machine Tool Builders Assn., Wash ington, D. C.-; Hugh McCahey, Manager Association Dept., Chamber of Commerce of the U.S., Washington, D. C,; John Mohay, Assistant Executive. Secretary, National" Independent Meat Packers Assn., Washington, D. C.; Eugene L. Newman, Chief Con tracts, Saf. Division, Bureau of Labor Standards, U. S; Dept, of Labor, Washington, D. C.; William S.' Ritnouh, Secretary-Treasurer, National Plant Food Institute, Washington, D. C.; John Spangler,-Asst Executive Director, Natl. Asphalt Pavement ' Assn., Riverdale, Maryland NEW YORK AREA--Harry Becker, Safety Manager, American Gas Assn., New York, N. Y.; Ray C. Ellis, Jr., Secretary, Hotel Safety Trade Group, New York, N. Y.; L. H. Gillette, Assistant Executive Vice-President, American -Institute of Steel Con struction, New York, N. Y.; J. C. McGhee, Labor & Saf. Specialist, Copper Development , Assn., New York, N. Y.; David B. Preston, Asst. Exec. Secretary, American Water Works Assn., New York, N. Y.; W. W. Pritsky,' Code Eng., Bldg. Products, The Alu minum Assn., New York, N, Y.; Kenneth S. Ropston, Administrative Asst., American Pulpwood Assn., New York, N. Y.; William J. Stevens, Executive Vice-President, National Assn, of Photo-Lithographers, New York, N. Y. 157 MIDWEST AREA--W. G. Bowman, Admin. Asst, Assoc. Equip. Distributors, Oak Brook,. 111.; Earl A. Bratton, Executive Director, Steel Plate Fabricators Assn.; . Chicago, 111.; Robert E. Collins, Exec. Vice President, Southern Cotton Ginners Assn., W. Memphis, Ark.; Leonard Freed, Mgr. Field Saf. &' Member Services, Ohio Con tractors. Assn.; Columbus, Ohio;. Jefferson Keith, Managing Dir., American Metal Stamping Assn., Cleveland, Ohio; Geobce Keller, Dir., Assn. Saf. Services, Employers . Ins. of Wausau, Wausau, .Wisconsin; A. J. Kuhn, Asst Dir. for Chapter & Public Affairs, Amer. Public Works Assn., Chicago, 111.; H. McRae, Bldg. Const. Emp. Assn, of Chicago, Chicago, 111.; E. C. Mehkle, Managing Director, Natl. Flexible Packaging Assn., Cleve land, Ohio; Harold -JIecan. Safety Coordinator, Amer. Paper Inst Inc., Chicago, 111.; Fred Rogers, Manager, Admin. Services, Gypsum Assn., Chicago, HI. WEST COAST AREA--Sidney Bierly, . General Manager, California Fertilizer Assn., Sacramento Calif.; L. S. Chafpeleab, Jr., Manager, Tech. Services Dept., Western Oil & Gas Assn., Los Angeles, Calif.; Richard Fenton, Executive Vice President, Southern Calif. Plywood Assn.,- Los Angeles, Calif.; Jack Jones, Director, Accident Prevention Dept, Pacific Maritime Assn., San Francisco, Calif.; J. M. Kaplan, Executive Vice President, Greater Los. Angeles Chapter, National Safety Council;- Los Angeles, Calif.; T. F. Knight, Jr., Executive Vice President, California Manufacturers Assn., Los Angeles, Calif. / OFFICERS OF THE MEAT PACKING/ TANNING AND LEATHER PRODUCTS SESSIONS National Safety Council 1967-68 General Chairman--Walter E. Gorg, Jr., Safety Dir., E. D. English. & Co., St Louis, Mo. First Vice Chairman--Deemar J. Proctor, Operations Mgr., Peter Eckrich & Sons, Lie., Fort Wayne, tnd.. Second Vice Chairman--Burton La. Roe, - Dir. of Labor ReL, Marhoefer Packing Co., . Muncie, Lid. ' Newsletter.Editor--Howahd Reb'holz, Safety Dir., The Rath Packing Co., Waterloo, Iowa Secretary--Wilxjam G. Ktkfer, Dir. of Industrial Relations, Klarer of Kentucky, Inc., Louisville, Ky. . Assistant Secretary and Treasurer--"Gheg Pxetraszee,: Technical Editor, the National Prooisioner, Chicago, HI. - ` Program Chairman--Deessar J. Proctor, Operations Mgr., Peter .Eckrich & Sons, Ino, Fort Wayne, Ini .' MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE- For Meat Packing: "Norman Knur, Mgr., Welfare 6c Safety, Canada Packers, Ltd., ' Toronto, Ont, Canada; Richarq Sokoldc, Safety Dir., Royal Packing Co., National Stock Yards, ELL For Tanning ir Leather Products: William C. Martin, Jr., Safety Dir., Weinbrenner, Div. of Textron, Inc., Marshfield, Wis.; Maurice Wertenberger, Mgr., Employee Services & Safetyj Wolverine World Wide','Inc., Rockford, Mich. .' Contests, Awards and Incentives--Delmar J. Proctor, Operations Mgr., Peter Eckrich & Sons, Inc., Fort Wayne, Lid. Public Relations Committee--Blaine Lcljenquist, Pres. 6c Gen. Mgr., Western States Meat Packing Assn., Washington, D. C.; "Donald S. Mackenzie, Dir., Packinghouse Practices 6c Research, American Meat Institute, Chicago, HI.; "John Mohay, Asst Executive Secy., National Independent Meat Packers Assn., Washington, D., C. Engineering Committee--Donaud S. Mackenzie (Chairman), Dir., Packinghouse Prac rices 6c Research, American' Meat Institute, Chicago, HI.; For Meat Packing: Maurice L. Leahy, Chief, Plant Protection, Oscar Mayer 6c Co., Madison, Wis.; Harry M. Jones, . Vice Res. 6c Plant Supt., Southern Foods, Inc., Columbus, Ga.; Charles W,, Fultz, Project 8c Safety Eng., Swift 8t Co., Chicago, HL; * 51.' . For Tanning ir Leather Products: Clare Broman (Asst `Chinn.). Safely .Dir., Engle* Ottawa Leather Co., Grand Haven, Mich.; William C. Martin, Jr., Safety. Dir., Wein- bienner, Div. ofTextrortlnc, Marshfield, Wis.; JamesOliveb, Safely & Loss Control, Genesco, Inc., Nashville,-Tehm ' Off-the-Job 'Safety Committee--!"Howard Rebholz (Chairmah), Safety Dir., The Rath . Packing Co., Waterloo, Iowa; Michael Cavalier, Personnel Dir., Tobin Packing Co., Rochester, N. Y.. Legislative and Insurance Committee--George Petersen (Chairman), Casualty, Armour & , Co,. So. St Paul, Minn.; Burton La. Rue, Dir. of Labor ReL, Marhoefer Packing Co., Muncie, Ind.; Richard W. Turner, District Engineer, American Mutual Liability In surance Co., Boston, Mass. ' Advisory Committee--R. W. Unwin, Sr., Consultant, Palos Park, HI.; "Charles H. Elsby, Safety & Health Services, Employers Mutuals of Wausau, Wausau, Wis.; C. G. Gtjtekanst, Gubnann & Co., Chicago, IIL; "A. J. Dittmer, Des- Plaines, HI. Health and Research Committee--Dr. Tracy Barber, (Chairman),-Medical Dir., Geo. A. Hormel & Co:, Austin, Minn.; Lorraine Wai.key, R.N., Chicago Rawhide Mfg. Co., Chicago, HL; "Howard Rebholz, Safety Dir.-, The Rath Packing Co., Waterloo, Iowa. . Small Meat Packer Committee--R. W. Unwin, Richard Sokouk, Carl Iantjer, Peter. Eckrich Co., Ft Wayne Ind.; Walter Gorg; Herbert Ki.epper; Richard Turner. Cameron Award Coordinator--Herbert Klepper, Safety Dir., John Krauss, Inc., Jamaica, N. Y. Staff Representative--Ra'y ,F. Smith, National Safety. Council, 425 N. Michigan Ave., Chi cago, BL 60811. . ' Past General Chairman OFFICERS OF THE TRADES & SERVICES SECTION National Safely Council 1967-68 General Chairman--Vernon E. Cordell, Dir., Pub. Health & Saf,, National Restaurant Assn,, Chicago, I1L ,, . '. Vice Chairman--Elliott Tanz Asst. Vice-President, Consolidated Mutual Insurance Co., Brooldyn,N/Y; : . Program Chairman--Murry Paull, M.D., Medical Dir., Carson, Pirie Scott and Co.,. Chi- ` cago, 111. : Offrthe-Job' Safety Chairman^George Matwes, Safety Dir., Bamberger's-New Jersey, .Newark, Ni J. Membership Chairman--Robert H. Blundred, Exec. Secy., International Association of Amusement Parks, Chicago, HL 'Newsletter Editor--Raymond C. Eixis, Jr., Dir., Saf. Services, Hotel Safety Trade Group, New York, N. Y. Recreation Division--Robert H. Blundred, Executive Secy., International Association of Amusement Parks, Chicago, . ID.; Stanley L. Stern, Senior, Vice-President, Woinerco Enterprises, .Inc., Miami, Fla. . Textile Maintenance Industries Division--Jobs Redjecke, Mgr. of Administration, Linen . Supply'Association of America, Miami Beach, Fla.; Bernard H. Ehrlich, Assn. Mgr., Institute of. Industrial Laundereis, Washington, D. C. Midwest Regional Committee--Vernon E..Cordell (Chairman),. Dir. Public Health & . , Safety, National Restaurant Assn., Chicago, 111.; James Stone, Asst. Mgr., Engr. Dept., Continental Casualty Co., Chicago, HI.; Jack' E. Uhler, Assoc. Diri, Housing, Food Service, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. Food Retailers Division--Chab. I. Miller (Chairman), Safety Coordinator, The. Kroger Co., Cincinnati, Ohio; James A Devine, Personnel Dir., National Food Stores, Inc., Mil- waukee, Wis. Hotel and Motel Division-Ahnold F. Kaiuc (Chairman), Secretary, Greater Chicago Hotel/Motel Assn., Chicago, ID.; Marvin Lovin, Spec, Serv. Dept, Holiday Inns of Am. Inc., Memphis, .Tenn. Mercantile and Warehouse Division--Chas. P. Engler (Chairman), Loss Prevention Supvr., Montgomery Ward &'Co., Chicago, HL; Robert H. Neal, Labor Relations Mgr. & Saf. Dir., Joseph Horne Co., Pittsburgh; Pa.; Chester W. Schermer, President Schlrmer Engineering Corp., Niles, HI; Allen D. Walters, Secy., American Warehousemen's Assn., Chicago, 111. ' S3 Eastern Regional Committee--Edwahd L. Kennedy (Co-Chairman), Chief Dining Service .Supvr., American Telephone'and'Telegraph Co., New York, N, Y.; Thomas P. McKeon (Co-Chairman), Dir., Training, Loss-Prevention Div., Consolidated Mutual Insurance Co., Brooklyn, N. Y. Buddings and Offices .Division--Wm..Connell (Chairman), Safety Engineer Supvr., Port of New York Authority, New York,- N. Y.; John P; Murphy, Asst. Mgr., Engr. Dept, Firenaen's Fund American, New York, N. Y. . Food Retailers Division--Charles Thaler (Chairman), Asst. Safety Dir., Supermarkets General Corp., Cranford, N. J. '* . Hospital Division--Donald C. Whytock (Chairman), Dir. of Saf., Federation of Jewish Philanthropies of N. Y., New York, N. Y.; John M. Collins, Dir. of Safety, Division of Fire and Accident Control, Department of Hospitals, City of. New York, New York, N. Y. Hotel and Motel Division--Charles L. O'Connor (Chairman), Gen. Mgr., The Westbury, New York, N. Y.; Lesi.tr J.'Tnch, Dir., Accident Prevention' Dept., Hotel Association of New York. City, Inc., New York, N. Y.; Mel Sandler, Dir., Employee Relations, Amer- , ican HoteLand Motel Assn., New York, N. Y. Mercantile and Warehouse Division--Habvey S. Siegel (Chairman), Safety Dfc> R. H. Macy Co., New. York, N.Y.; Charles A. Binder, Mgr., Store Management Group, National Retail Merchants Assn., New York) N. Y.; Michael F. Clifford, National Safe ty Dir., Allied Stares Corp., New York, N. Y.; Harry J. Oberle, Jr., Asst Insurance . Mgr., J. C. Penney Co., Inc., New York, N. Y. Food Services Division--Leonard Glover (Chairman), Insurance Mgr., Restaurant & Waldorf Associates, Inc., New York, N. Y.; Charles V. Culbertson, Dir., Insurance and Benefits, Marriott Corp., Washington, D. C.; John D. Lineberger, Jr., Vice-Presi dent, iS & W Cafeterias, Inc., Charlotte, N. C.; Andrew J..O'Leary, Saf. Rep., Frank G. Shattuck Co., New York, N. Y.; Fred G. Sampson, Executive Vice-President, New York State Restaurant Assn., New York, N. Y. Nominating Committee-*Charles P. Engler, Loss Prev. Supv., Montgomery, Ward & Co., Chicago, HI.; James Whitener, Training Manager, Pope's Cafeterias, St. Louis, Mo. Staff Representative--A. M. Baltzer, National Safety Council, 425 N.- Michigan Ave:, Chicago, HI. 60611 - -- 54 8 ~/$N K OFFICERS OF THE METALS SECTION NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 1967-68 t, t General Chairman-3. D. Kent, Safety & Security Supvr., Aluminum .Company of America, Davenport, Iowa. , First Vice Chairman-C. P. Vorhes, Mgr. of Safety, Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., Pitts burgh, Pa. Second Vice Chairman--J. Patlyek, Mgr., Industrial Rel., East Chicago Works, Blaw-Knox Co., East Chicago, Ind. Third Vice Chairman--S. Collins, GeneraltSupvr. Safety, Midwest Steel Dhr., National Steel Corp., Portage, Lad. Secretary--J. C. Dakes, Management Representative, .Bethlehem Steel Corp., Chicago, III. Newsletter Editor--F. H. Illig, Manager of Safety and Security, Aluminum Co. of. America, Pittsburgh, Pa. ' Co-Editor and Speakers Bureau--3. L. Seimetz. Senior Safety Supvr., Republic Steel Corp., Central Alloy District Canton, Ohio. Congress Program Committee--J. E.Sprowls (Chairman), Safety Mgr., Caterpillar Tractor Co., Peoria, I1L; Alex Guzowsky, Safety Eng., Colorado Fuel & Iron Steel Corp., Pueblo, Colo.; j. S. Chapman, Mgr; of Safety, Annco Steel Corp., Middletown, Ohio; G. F.' Grace, Sales Mgr., Columbus McKinnon Chain Corporation, Tonnawanda, N. Y.; R. M. Cowdhick, Supvr. of Safety, Bethlehem Steel Corp., Bethlehem, Pal Publicity Committee--Edward Mandhy (Chairman), Supt., Industrial Rel., Republic Steel ' Corp., Cleveland District, Cleveland, Ohio. Technical Publications Committee--J. B. Anderson (Chairman), Safety Eng., Republic Steel Corp., Cleveland, Ohio; J. E. Nichols, Dir. of Safety, Reynolds Metals Co.,- Reyn- olds Metals Bldg., Richmond, Va.; E. N. O'Grady, Safety Dir., New Departure Hyatt Bearings, General Motors Corp., Harrison, N. J.; W. R. Robun, Manager of . Safety, Allegheny Ludlum' Steel Corp., Oliver Bldg., Pittsburgh, Pa.; R. D. Tranter, Coporate Safely Eng., Annco Steel Corp., Middletown, Ohio; W. J. Schwageh, Supervisor of . Safety, The Youngstown Sheet & Tube Company, Youngstown, Ohio; Frank E. Bird, Jr., - Corporate Safety Director, Ltikens Steel Company, Coatesville, Pa. Membership Committee--D. L. Johnson (Chairman), Manager, Pennsylvania Manufacturers Assn. Insurance Co., Philadelphia, Pa.; E. E. McWhertoh, Supvr., Per. Serv. & Safety, Sharon Steel Corporation, Farrell, Pa. Off-the-Job Committee--H. W. Gilberg (Chairman), Works Safety'Administrator, Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation, Aliquippa Works, Aliquippa, Pa.; J. D. Holtzapple (Past Gen. Chr.); D. D. Mather (Past Gen. Chr.); J, C. Cullen (Past Gen. Chr.); J. W. Tysse (Past Gen. Chr.). Training and Education Committee--G. H. Reilly (Chairman), Safety Eng., Admin., United States Steel Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa.; B. Brown, Supvr. of Safety, Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co., East Chicago, Lad.; A. T. Pochiber, Safety Dir., Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corp., Leechburg.Pa.; L. C. Parker, Safety'Dir., Granite City Steel Co., Granite City, HL; H. L. Srosetz, Senior Safety Supvr., Republic Steel Corporation, Central Alloy Dis trict Canton, Ohio. 36 Contest and Awards Committee--]. F.1 Dwyer (Chairman), Safety Supvr., Republic Steel Corp., Chicago District, Chicago, 111.} B. Brown, Supvr. of Safe(y, .Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co., East Chicago, Ind." Foundry Industry Committee--W. H. Decker (Chairman), Safety Dir., Central Foundry Division, Danville Bit., General Motors Corp., Danville, 111.; Richard G. Kellogg, Safety Dir., Cooper Bessmer Company, Mount Vernon, Ohio; G. W. Davis, Asst. Personnel Mgr., National Castings Div., Midland-Ross Corp., Sharon Works, Sharon, Fa-,; T.' L. Hewitt, . Dir. of Industrial Rel., Vulcan Mold & Iron Co., Latrobe, Pa.; J. F. .Toole, Sb., Mgr. of Industrial Rel., Union Steel Works, Foundry & Mill Mach. Div., Blaw-Knox Co., Pitts burgh, Pa.; R. L. Duncan, Personnel Supvr., American Steel Foundries; Indiana Harbor Works, East Chicago, Ind. Steel Service Center Committee--P. Walter (Chairman), Asst, to the Pres., Korhumel .Steel and Aluminum, Evanston, 111.; R. Underwood, Mgr. of Labor Rel., United States Supply Div., Chicago, 111. Industrial Hygiene Committee--W. E. Sebesta (Chairman), Chief Industrial Hygienist, Republic. Steel Corp., Research Center, Independence,- Ohio; J. A. Janous, Sen. Industrial Hygiene Eng., Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp.', Pittsburgh, Pa.; W. M. Smith, Mgr., In dustrial Hygiene, Weirton Steel Co., Weirton, W. Va.; D. L. Webster, Industrial Health Eng., Bethlehem Steel Corp., Bethlehem, Pa. Steel Industry Committee--M. E. Ruby (Chairman), Mgr. Safety! Laclede Steel Co;, Alton, RL; A. R. Sauer, Corporate Safety Dir., Phoenix Steel Corp., Claymont, Del.; L. Wozny, Jr., Pit Safety Engr., Bethlehem Steel Corp., Sparrows Point, Md.;`R. G. Dettmar, . Corporate Safety Mgr., Interlake Steel Corp., Chicago, 111.; R. D. Minnick, American Maganese Steel Div., American' Brake Shoe Cb., Chicago, Heights, HI.; F. T. Fiedler, Supvr., Industrial Safety Section, Steel Div., Ford Motor Co., Dearborn, Mich.; W. E. Nichols, Asst. to. Vice Pres; Industrial Rel., Northwestern Steel and Wire Co., Sterling, . HI.; W. P. Saunders, Safety Dir., Universal Cyclops Steel Corp., Bridgeville, Pa.; R. M. . CowmucK, Supvr.', Safety, Bethlehem Steel'Corp., Bethlehem, Pa. ' 'Non-Ferrous Industry Committee--T. T. Binder (Chairman), Safety Dir., Kennecott Copper Corp., Utah Copper Div., Salt Lake City, Utah; J. A. Turk,- Dir. of Safety & Industrial Health, U. S.'Metal Refining Co., Carteret, N. J.; Gary P. Fisher, Division Mgr.,. Kaiser. Aluminum & Chemical Corp., Oakland, Calif.; J. E. Nichols, Dir. of Safety,. Reynolds Metals Co./ Richmond, Va.; J. Mahana, Loss Prevention Supvr., Ormet Corp., Hannibal, Ohio; R. R. Aker, Safety Supvr., Phelps Dodge Corp., Morenci, Ariz.; F. H. Illic, Man ager of Safety & Security, Aluminum Co. of America,' Pittsburgh, Pa. Fabricating Industry Committee--E. J. Collins (Chairman), Safety Supvr., Bethlehem Steel ' Corp.', Leetsdale, Pa.; R. Cuzort, Frontier Steei, Muskogee, Olda.; F. P. Cava, Personnel Dir., Pittsburgh.Bridge & Iron Works, Rochester, Pa.; E. A. Bratton, Secy., Steel Plate. Fabricators Assn., Chicago, III.; M. H. Zilleh, Supvr. Safety & Per., American Bridge Div., Gary, Ind.; G. F; Jonas, Mgr., Industrial Relations, Aetna-Standard Div,, Blaw-Knox Co,, Elwood City, Pa.; J.; deforest, Industrial Relations Dir., International Steel Co., Evansville, Ind.; Dean A. Dexter, Safety Supvr., Chicago Bridge & Iron Co., Oak Brook, HL West Coast Committee--R. C. Beckstead (Coordinator), Dir., Safety & Tech. Empl., American Smelting & Refining Co., Salt Lake City, Utah. i Members at Large--Homer K. Lambie (Chairman), Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical Corp., Oakland, Caiif.; Harry Schwartz, Pres., Washington Pipe & Steel Co., Seattle, Wadi. 37 San Francisco Area--Roy E. Mattoon (Chairman),' Federated Metals Div.,' American -Smeiting&-Refining Co., San Francisco, Calif.; P. P.Pelton, Jn., Safety Eng./Bethlehem Steel Corp., Pinole. Point Works, Richmond; Calif. Northwest Area--James Armstrong (Chairman), Safety & Prot Supvr., Hydro-Aluminum & Chemical Corp., Trentwood Works, Spokane, Wash.; R. S. Jamar, Safety. Engr., Beth- . lehem Steel Corp., Pacific Coast Diy., S.eattle, Wash,. Los Angeles; Area--Edwin S. Wynkoop (Chairman)/ Bethlehem Steel Corp., Pacific Coast Div./ Terminal Annex; Los Angeles, Calif.; R. K. Creason, Safety Engineer, Harvey .Aluminum Co., Western Ave., Torrence, Calif. Salt Lake City Area--Theron T. Pinder (Chairman)', Safety Dir., Kennecott Copper Corp., . Utah Copper Div.,.Salt Lake City, Utah. Research and Advisory Committee--#W. T* McLean (Chairman), Gen Supvr., Safety and. Sanitation; United States Steel Corp., Gary, Ind.; G. Lundie, Asst. Dir., Safety & Plant Protection Dept., Inland Steel Co.,.East Chicago, Ind.;' Charles E. Wilson, Safety Eng., Bethlehem Steel Corp,, Bethlehem, Pa.; J. W. Tysse, Mgr. of Safety/Republic Steel Corp.,- Republic. Building, Cleveland, Ohio; James G. Cuixen, Div. Safety Eng., Engine & Foundry Div.,.Ford Motor.Co., Dearborn, Mich.; D. D. Mateer, Safety Coordinator, Safety Diy., Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa.; #R. I. Pisle, Supit. of Indus trial Rel., Republic Steel Corp., Chicago, ID,; J. D. Holtzapfle, Mgr. of Safety, BlawKnox Co.',; Pittsburgh, Pa.;. G. E. Eigenbrod, Safety Dir., McLouth Steel Corp., Trenton, Mich.; G. 6. Griffin, Mgr., -Hazard. Control, Dravo Corp./ Neville Island, Pittsburgh, Pa.; H. S. Simpson, Mgr. Safety, Caterpillar Tractor Co., Peoria, DI.; J. L. Ridincer, Dir., Safety and.Plant Protection, Inland Steel Co., East Chicago, Ind.; P. E. Grundman, Safety Eng., Armco Steel Corp., Rustless Div.,v Baltimore, Md. Staff Representative--E. E. Kogh, National Safety Council, 425 N: Michigan Ave., Chi cago, Illinois 60811. *. Past General Chairman. . i 38 'i sarnow 12:17:33 Alchemy Search VOLUME 28 1967 National Safety Congress TRANSACTIONS HOME SAFETY NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 425 North Michigan Avenue Chicago, Illinois 60611 I. 55th NATIONAL SAFETY CONGRESS. Papers Delivered in the HOME SESSIONS % , . t* Five Years of Future Dates for the National Safety Congress................^ The Consumer's Legal Protection From Hazardous Products........................*............................. ...........Thomas F.-Lambert Jr. 5 Safety in the Home................... ................................... Marguerite Robinson 10 JOINT CIVIC LEADERSHIP SESSION Outdoor Power Equipment Safety......... ........................... Harold K. Howe 15 Outdoor Power Equipment Safety .............................. Frank Burgmeler 16 Home Firearm Safety Depends on You ........... ....... : .Warren L. Cheek 18 OFF-THE-JOB SAFETY . JOINT SESSION WITH INDUSTRIAL CONFERENCE Opening Remarks ................................................... ..Robert F. Beeson 20 . Developing an Off-the-Job Activity ..................... i..............Robe'rt\B. Regan 20 Safety Glass Demonstration........................................Thomas C. Klapperich 22 The Psychological Point of View........... .Howard Klopp 25 The Community Viewpoint..................... ...... ............. .Janice R. Westaby 27 Industry Response ....................................... ............. '.. William J. Kerns 29. Members of the Home Conference. 1967-68 ................. . ................-..............35 Other Volumes in 1967 National Safety Congress Transactions ;... .Back Cover 3 MEMBERS OF THE HOME CONFERENCE NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 1967-68 Miss Rosemary Archibald, Home Service Director, Harper-Wyman Company, Hinsdale, III. ' Nicholas V. Artamonoff," Maintenance Engineer, Department of Housing ir \jrban De velopment, Public Housing Administration, Washingtonij D. C. SibNEY F. Ascher, Regional Program Chief, Injury Control Region II, U. S. Public Health . Service, New York, N.Y. Guenther Baumgart, President, Assn, of -Home Appliance Manufacturers, Chicago, III. Mrs. Marcella S. Beatty,' Executive Director, AFL-CIO National Auxiliaries, Wash-' ington, D. C.. Harry W. Becker, Safety Engineer, American Gas Assn., Inc., New York, N. Y. James Bicket, American Pharmaceutical Assn., Zion, III. . Caesar Branchini, Manager, Technical Services, Equitable Life Assurance Society, New York, N.Y. ' ' -- Mrs. Lucile Bush, Consumer Education Director, Johnson's Wax Co., Racine, Wis. Charles M. Cameron, Jr., M.D.,'Professor, Public Health Administration, School of Public Health, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. ' JerrY Cassuto,. M.D., Staff Medical Director, Personnel ir Labor Relations' Division, Western Electric Co., New York, N.Y. ' Warren L. Cheek, Assistant Director, Training ix Range Facilities Division, National Rifle Assn, of America, Washington, D. C. . Austin C. Chidester, Jr., Field Representative, Delaware^ Safety Council, Inc., Wilming- . ton, Del. Bernard Daitz, Ph.D.', Consultant, Restorative Services, Division of.. Chronic Diseases, U. S. Public Health Service,. Washington, D. C. Miss Nettie Day, Chief, Accident Prevention Section,'North Carolina State Board of Health, Raleigh, N. C. . Miss Helene Deminc,. Director, Accident Prevention Section, Iowa State Department of . Health, Des Moines, Iowa James L. Diekroeger, Associate Chief for Injury Control, Illinois State Department', of Public Health, Springfield, III. Miss Verna Due,- Regional Representative, Region V, Administration on Aging, DHEW, Chicago, III. ': .' Donald A. Dukelow, M.D., Assistant Director of Health Education of the Public, Amer- icon Medical Assn., Chicago, III-. ' . . ' Alfred S, Ercolano, Executive Director, American Nursing Home Assn., Washington, . D. C. ' William Fitch,' Executive Director, American Assn, of Retired Persons, Washington, D; C. Mrs. Helen B. Francis, American Home Economics Assn., Oak Knoll Farm, Wilmington, III. Richard E. Gallagher, Deputy Chief, Field Services and Program Operations, Injury Control Program, U. S. Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio '. ' .35 Mrs. Sally Gendrew, Director, Home Division, Louisville Safety Council, Louisville, Ky. . Vicron C. Gilbertson,. American Institute of Architects, Minneapolis, Minn. * Dan D. Gowings,- Assistant Professor; Department of Health and Safety; School of Health, . * Physical Education, and Recreation; Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Ind. Ceorce W. Harper, Professor of Industrial Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, III. Vihcinia' G. Harris, M.D., Director, Bureau of Child Health, Syracuse Department of Health, Syracuse, N.Y.-, Stanley L. Harrison, M.D., Secretary for Committees, American Academy of Pediatrics, Evanston, IU. ' Austin Hayes, Coordinator; Division of Accident Prevention, Alabama State' Department of Public Health, Montgomery, Ala. Miss Lilly D. Hoekstra, Administrator, St. Louis Children's Hospital, St. Louis, Mo. .Harold K. Howe,- Executive Secretary, Outdoor Power Equipment .Institute, Inc.,Wash. ington, D. C. ' Mrs. Berne Jacobsen, Seattle,' Wash: , Wallace F. Janssen, Special Assistant to the' Assistant Commissioner for Education and Information, .Food and Drug Administration, DHEW, Washington, D. C. Rudard A. Jones, Director, Small Homes Councilr-Building-Research Council, University '..of Illinois, Urbana, III. William J. Kerns, Refinery Safety Director, Bayway Refinery, Humble Oil ir Refining Company, Linden, N. J. , Thomas C. Klapperich, .Regional Program Chief, Injury Control Region V, U. S. Public Health Service; Chicago, III.. Eugene L. Lehr, Deputy Chief, Injury Control Program, U. S. Public Health Service, Chevy Chase, Md. 4 Merritt B. Low, M.D., Chairman, Committee on Accident Prevention, American'Academy of Pediatrics, Greenfield, Mass. ' Carmen- F. Mandia, Division of Special Health Services, New York State' Department .of 'Health, Albany, N. Y. Mrs. Marjorie B. May, Director, Education and Home Division, Greater New York Safety ' ' Council, New York, N^Y. . Levitte- Mendel, Associate Director, National Health Council, New York, N. Y. Rocer J. Meyer, M.D., Associate Professor of Pediatrics and Preventive Medicine, Depart ment of Pediatrics, Univ. of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Va: Salvatore Miano, Chief, Accident Control Section, .Philadelphia Department of Public . Health, Philadelphia, Pa. Miss Stella -Mitchell, Home Management Specialist, Division of Home Economics, Federal Extension Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Mrs. Charlotte Montgomery, Contributing Editor, Good Housekeeping Magqzine,. Westfield, N. J. *. WAiuien R: Nellis, Assistant Director, Technical Services, National Association of Home Builders, Washington, D. C. . James E. O'Neil, Director of Industrial Service, National .Society for the Prevention of Blindness, Inc., New York, N. Y. Robert M. Oswald, Deputy. Director of Safety Services, The American National Red Cross, National Headquarters, Washington, D. C.. Donald V. Patton, A.I.A., Allen, Patton 6- Associates, Rockford, III. , 36 . Miss'Kathryn Philson, Professor, Department of Management, Housing it Family De velopment, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va. Miss Glenda Piker, Extension Specialist in Housing and Equipment, College of Agricul ture. University of Illinois, Urbana, III. George H. Pope, Managing Engineer, Cdsualty it Chemical Hazards Department, Under. writers' Laboratories, Inc., Northbrook, III. Deuel Richardson, Manager, Public Relations Department, National Fire Protection Association, Boston, Mass.' A. B. Rosenfield, M.D., Director, Division of Special Services, Minnesota .State Depart ment of Health, Minneapolis, Minn.- Richard L. Sandehson, Executive Director, Building Officials Conference of America, Inc., Chicago, III.- Gus L. Scheffler, Safety Engineer, University Health Service, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. Miss Marie Scorn, American Society 'of Safety Engineers; Manager, Communication Serv ice, Maxwell House', Hoboken, N. J. . Miss Marion Seitz, Supervisor, Special Programs, Con Edison--New York, New York; N. Y. Albin Sella, Supervisory Engineer, American Insurance Association, Chicago, III. Hilla Sheriff, M.D., Director, Division of Maternal 6- Child Health, South Carolina State Board of Health, Columbia, S. C. ' Miss Jayne Shover, Associate Director, National Society of Crippled Children and Adults, Chicago, III. Percy H. Shue, Assistant Secretary for Program Development, Kiwanis International, . Chicago, III. James R. Slawny, Director, Division of Public Relations and Economics, Illinois Medical Society, Chicago, III. . Irving .Sunshine, Ph.D., Technical Director, Poison Information' Center, Academy of Medicine of Cleveland, Cleveland, Ohio Robert F. Swiecicki, Program Coordinator, St. Louis City-County Accident Prevention Program, Clayton, Mo-. Mrs. Alice Tice, Executive Secretary, Roanoke Valley Safety Council, Roanoke, Va. Miss Ruth Tuckey, National League 'for Nursing; Executive Director, Community Nursing Service of Oak. Park and River Forest, Oak Park,- III. James T. Wadkins, Managing Director, Richmond .Area Safety Council, Richmond, Va. Miss Mary Weeks, Program-Specialist, Health b Safety Education, Girl -Scouts of- the U.S.A., New York, N.Y. . ' Miss Janice. R. Westaby, Chairman, Home Conference; Asst. Professor, School of Public Health, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N.' C. William White, Chief, Liaison Services, Injury Control Program, U. S. Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio Stan L. Williams, Vice Chairman, Home Conference; Safety b Fire Protection Engineer, E. I. du Pont de Nemours b Company, Inc., Wilmington, Del. Mose W. Yates, Accident Prevention Coordinator, Memphis b Shelby County Health Department, Memphis, Tenn. NSC Vice President for Homes--J. H. Tyler McConnell, President, Delaware Trust Company, Wilmington, Del. '' . . 37 VOLUME 19 1967 National Safety Congress TRANSACTIONS PETROLEUM INDUSTRIES NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 425 North Michigan Avenue Chicago, Illinois 60611 55th NATIONAL SAFETY CONGRESS Papers Delivered in the PETROLEUM SESSIONS CONTENTS Responsibility^--Safety's Most Effective Standard............... Frank N. Ikard 5 DuPont Chambers Worka-rOff-the-Job Safety Programs.......... D.T. Smith 8 A Device to Neutralize Static Charges in . Loading of Petroleum Fuels................. ,/?. B. Jacobs, W. L Bulkfey 9 Subsurface Foam Application... 1.......... ............. -.----- ...... S. Mahley 11Portable -Combustible Gas Indicators............... ................ .J. E. Zatek 15 JOINT SESSION WITH CHEMICAL SECTION Static Problems in Chemical Operations...........---- E. L Litchfield 19 United States of America Standards Institute Safety Standards.......... ........................................ Henry G. Lamb 22 Systems Analysis--A Powerful Tool for .. Accident Prevention ......... v........................ .......... Ernest Levons . 25 . Safety Motivation ....................................... ...Robert P. Herlng . 33 Resolved: That Injury Frequency Is ah Accurate Measure of Safety Performance--A Debaie............ ...........Harry D. Britt 36 Q. H. Perry Van Zendt 37 B. Qi Blanchard 38 Officers of the Petroleum Section 1967-68...............'............................- 43 Five Years of Future Dates for the National Safety Congress........ .......... 45 Other Volumes in 1967 National Safety Congress Transactions........Back Cover RESPONSIBILITY-SAFETY'S MOST EFFECTIVE STANDARD By FRANK N. EKABD - President American Petroleum Institute It'has been said that safety is at a cross-, row's safety people may be asked to tell road* and that decisions taken now by indus- what toiff happen, not what eftd happen. tryand government will determine its whole Expanding concepts of safety are far from coarse for the next few decades. This may the only dement of change that wiD affect well be the case. I am also certain that over your activities. Equally impressive is the ex- . die next tan or fifteen years your responsibil ponding role of government in safety mat ities will be considerably broadened. More ters. of your .activities may fall into the areas of The safety movement has grown in a fa- public and government relations. Some may - miliar framework of private and.government involve economic and social research. Future cooperation. So far as the petroleum industry years should offer ample ' challenge* for is concerned* most , of the safety standards safety is an integral part of the swift eco^ have been devised by people closest to die nomlc* social, and political change sweeping subject--the people in the industry Itself.. oin: country. . The evolution of these standards has long Recent proposals*.by people.both in and out of government seem to suggest that a manufacturer--aside * from making a-safe product--has an obligation to protect die consumer from himself. If these concepts are extended further in the future, a manufac turer will he held responsible for a product's performance long after it has passed from his control. been marked by extraordinary cooperation among interested associations and' profes sional groups. In -the American Petroleum Institute, for example* a central committee ' on Safety'and Fire protection was organized as early as 1920. The committee operates on on interdivisional basis, cutting.across all in dustry activities. It works closely with such organizations os the U.SJL Standards Insti tute, the . National Fire Protection Associa The petroleum industry certainly has its tion* and, of course, the National Safety own case histories of how a complex, high Council. " speed, highly industrialized society has brought about the expansion of safety con cepts. For example* most people think of air pollution In terms of discomfort, crop dam age* defacement of buildings, and possible effects on health. But at a recent air pollu tion, abatement conference in New York City, automotive exhaust was tied to aircraft .safety. The system of cooperation; among assbda- ' tions to develop rigorous safety codes, and procedures has-worked well. Further support for it was found in the feeling that no gov ernment agency alone could hope to acquire the intimate knowledge and expertise re quired to-develop die safety procedures for a ^ . particular industry. Government has been a participant in the process through its review Furthermore, the new regulations .covering of standards and its monitoring of results. automotive exhaust emissions, part of the Clean . Air Act, are also spelled out in the National Traffic Safety Act Our problems are becoming more interrelated with each passing'year. Yet even though this system has worked, there is a growing feeling on the part' of some in government that no industry can really be counted on to protect its customers . and.the public without government pressure. There, is no question, of course, hut that Underlying this feeling is a deep suspicion we live in a safety-conscious age. We are that consumer protection is a concept dia shocked when we turn back die pages of pe-' metrically opposed to the profit motive. troleum's history. Our present safety con sciousness* however* has caused us to sketch concepts of safety to include the unknown and the improved. The critics say* in effect; that if a com pany is wholehearted about profit, it is necessarily half-hearted about -safety. But of course this view is fallacious, particularly Our record is excellent but a record, of when it applies to on industry dealing with course, simply deals with the post. Tomor hazardous materials. A company producing a S A 1967 National Safety Congress .... potentially, dangerous product simply must., supply .companies, 75 par cent of sales 'can plaoe safety at the center of its philosophy or': be attributed to products introduced in the ttwould shortlybeoutof business. The.most past three years. profitable companies are nearly always the Our industry, is not only changing tools, manufacturers of the most dependable prod- procedures, and techniques very rapidly, but ucts. v ...... . we are among the leaders hi utilizing auto- As for woddng conditions within the plant mation. We were pioneers .in die use of flu- gates of a company making such a product, tornado .controls, and today we are die sec- if.is obvious that an.unsafe plant is not cco- ond largest user of computers. Petroleum in- nomicaL Sooner or later anunsafe plant will dustry safety directors are already dealing breed accidents, and accidents cost money, with the advantages and problems.,of an au- Every law of reason,- logic, and humanity toimated age. t will help a For one thing, this will mean more ,re- sponsibility for safety- people; certainly not ' Yet the-push for further government par- less.-Moire and better instrumentation will be tfptpqrtnn and control of safety is insistent required for closer supervision of all opera- Currently a bill to control natural gas pipe- tions* Computers and. better instrumentation lines has been taken up by the Senate Com- certainly help in projecting safety mar- rrierce rjnmmiHgw One feature of the bill Sins, and in monitoring and Evaluating data, may be of particular interest here. As pro- but *b human factor will be more important posed; federal safety regulations would dimr ever. All the .instruments, computers apply to not only die natural gas interstate TM machines will mean more reliance upon pipeline system, but also the gas gathering . trained intelligence and perception of die lines. There are some 62,000 miles of gather- me" at *b controls. ing iMes, and of this total only 1.6 per cent A picture of the typical company organi sms located within subdivided or urban radon chart for several decades from now areas. For the most part; die lines are in oil probably show less people at the bottom and gas fields, far fii residential areas. of to pyramid. A huge percentage of per- While there were several accidents during sonnel will consist of managers ana policy- die five year period farm 1962 to. 1986, not a maIcers> The chief objective of a safety direcsingle one occurred on lines located within dw be to eliminate his job as it is struc- the subdivided or- urban areas. Yet federal 'dued now. He would be needed, it seems to control, under die proposed pipeline safety me> " a.poliCy-maker and full participant in bill, would extend to an area with a remark- ` ^ company planning, able safety record. The next few decades ought to hold out a Still another element pf change that may - bill- measure df- challenge and opportunity to radically alter your responsibilities in future those concerned with safety. To deal with years is that of size. Nearly everything we diese many changes successfully, we will deal with is growing bigger. The nation's have to rely on die timeless element of ie- metropolitan areas are growing larger, and. sponsibility. For in die long run, responsibil- concentratlons of .people invariably mean a by is the real key to safety, as it has always complication of problems. .Our facilities and been. . equipment are growing larger. Our own in- -iere again, safety people have an obliga- dusfary sees die almost continuous develop- tion to take on $ broader role. They should - ment of larger tankers^ bigger refineries, more than just infuse an organization df longer refinery runs, more massive offshore people with a sense of responsibility in rigs, bigger everything. So far. as bur proc- safety matters; they should work toward ad- . esses are concerned, the trend to larger size is vancing responsibility itself, accompanied by greater reliance on automatic This would represent a new apprbach, for controls. And, of course,- this is happening at most of- our safety - practices have grown an accelerated pace. from first hand -experience. Pioneer oilmen An executive of a leading petroleum developed safe 'techniques on a - learn-as- equipment supply firm recently estimated you-go basis, because they were dealing with that half the tools and techniques now in use the unknown and the untried., in, the petroleum industry will be changed Even some of their- tools and operations within a decade. He also noted that in some were developed on a hit or miss basis. For  ` Petroleum Industries example, the petroleum history books tellus special substance. In 1966, petroleum's in- about a compound thatwas developedbya dustry frequency rate dropped five per cent; chemist about 100 yeorsago. ;' giving .die industry, a rate lower than many No one was really sure what the com* others. But it is important to remember that pound could be used for. Many people .'such figures are for the industry as a*whole . burned it in lamps, because if Ioolced like --production, transportation, manufacturing lard oil. Some people drank it, because it and marketing. It is significant that injury tasted a bit^like whiskey* For a while the frequency rates are much lower than the new compound was put up In jars and total industry average where company man widely sold as a remedy for headaches. Evi agement is concerned with die safety pro dently it had its followers; it was adminis gram. This is proof, I believe, that die petro tered to Secretary of State James Blaine on leum industry operations are safest whoa top his deathbed. management insists on a Ugh grade safety This sort of thing went, on for a full program to the degree that the concept of twenty years--people using the product in , safety infuses the organization from top to various ways, and manufacturers selling it bottom. for variety of purposes. Then, one day, a When, it comes to the question of govern consignment of the compound was jolted ment interest in safety matters, here again frdm die back of a cart and a sizeable explo the key question comes down to the element sion followed. So, after picking up the of responsibility. pieces, people `finally discovered one of the Government; of course, has a large and more useful properties of this compound-- necessary role in safety in our society. It is a hitro-glycerine. role' .we readily acknowledge. Bat govern For generations, first-hand experience has ment should recognize die'limits cl what been our great teacher in developing safety rules and regulations can really accomplish. practices. But in the future, safety people It should recognize die dangers of over-regu will have-to reach out much more for oppor lation, which can defeat safety aims and re tunities to extend safety concepts.-Of course, tard responsibility. Certainty, government this is already happening. should acknowledge what self-regulation has In contrast to other days, when most, of accomplished in the past, and what it can do our thinking was directed toward the safety - in the future. of die employees who worked in the plant, Ini the long run, responsibility can be de we are now extending this to .die use of our veloped only when it is allowed to be prac products under any conceivable conditions. ticed. The man behind die steering wheel of If we can continue to do this kind of a job a cor may be personally safer with a seat --anticipating die' needs and .then taking belt, but this safety device does not automat prompt. action to correct them--we need ically make a safer driver. have litde fear that die responsibility for' So it is with our industry, our individual safety will be taken out of the hands of those companies and die people in diem. The wis who understand it best. est government policy is one that encourages A sense of. responsibility, of course, must the growth of responsibility, not stifles it extend from top to bottom of an organiza In sum, safety people, have a real stake in tion if it -is to be. effective. The best safety policies of both industry and government program oh paper is headed for failure un that would advance or retard responsibility. less it is understood and supported by the By taking an. active interest in affairs that whole organization. ... , can foster responsibility, in the plant in the I am sure this must be a familiar thought community, or in government I think you to' you.' safety, experts. But-1 believe the will be serving well both the public and the safety record in' our industry gives the idea - petroleum.industry. .% * 7 2967 National Safety Congress DUPONT CHAMBERS WORKSOFF-THE-JOB-SAFETY PROGRAMS By D. T. SMITH Supt^ Protection Div., E. L da Pont do Nemonn & Co., Bio, Deepwater, N. J. Hie attitude of the doPont .Company to payroll deduction was carried out A ward the safety of the Individual off-the-job "CLAR.E." Program, standing for Courtesy, is die same as when he. is at work; namely, Attitude, Reaction, Equipment, featuring a that all'injuries can be prevented. We feel C.A.R.E. package of driver hints plus first that it is the responsibility of each employee aid equipment, was well received. A display to prevent injury to himself or to others.. Ef of wrecked cars, showing mannequins with forts to achieve this goal in off-the-job safety and without seat belts, was effective. are made by line organization while at work, 6. Boating Safety. Employee members of as well as by fostering a great deal of em the U. S. Coast Guard Auxiliary and N. J. ployee participation in various off-the-job Marine Patrol staged a display of safe ban-, safety programs which also take place on the' dling and demonstrations of safe equipment plant This active participation in the 'con oq foe plant. ception, planning; and conduct of various off-the-job safety programs develops a feel ing of commitment in the employee. This in turn favorably influences his .attitude, and that of those around him, toward acceptance of the common safety goal. * The series of SO slides Illustrate some spe cific off-the-job activities. | 1. Organization. A safety task force is ap pointed each year, made up equally of su . 7. "Tots `N Teens" Safety Poster Contest. Children of employees, or those sponsored by employees, were encouraged to submit safety posters on plant furnished material. The local newspapers played tills up big. Judging was by school groups, prizes were awarded by the. works manager at a big shindig with refreshments at a local country dub. The response was `terrific. pervisory and non-supervisory personnel. '. 8. "TelO-Qubf. A home safety slogan for One of the committees is-devoted to off- die week,, together with a brief safety mes the-job safety. Their job is to create activi sage on tiie subject,-was sent to all employ ties to educate and encourage employee and ee's homes. Names were drawn at .random their famfltng to live safely. Their efforts and. employee's homes were, called. A right reach employees through line organization in answer'won a small radio. This contest ran safety, meetings, or by direct contact with . for eight weeks. employees and their families. . 9. "Cedar Post" Sign Boards. Employees 2. "Faffs" Program. Employees posed`pic tures at home illustrating die various types of falls which can and have hurt Chambers Works people. These pictures were then published in die plant newspaper coincident with plant safety meetings held on die sub \yere invited to submit safety slogans, catchy phrases, and picture ideas for large sign boards posted.at each of the plant exits. Recognition was given on the boards to the author. This program has been going strong for two years now. ject 10. Mobile Safety Control Center. "Safety 3. "Hunting" and. "Spring Home Hazards" Control" was the theme one year for the were developed.and presented in the same . -Chambers Works. Accordingly, an available way. 10 ft. x SO ft office-type trader was fitted ' 4. "Employee Demonstrations.' Selected, out with safety displays built by the employ demonstration type, off-the-job- safety pnn ees. Many were animated; many were do-it- grams were developed and presented by em yourself, all were interesting. Hie trader was ployees throughout the works. moved to a new-spot on the plant every 5. Automobile Safety. This is the number week. Display$t were changed quarterly one off-the-job safety problem. Driver edu throughout the year. cation was done through a flannelboard pres 11. "Safety Sand? For. Slippery Surfaces. entation of the "Smith Driving System". Seat This was one of the most popular items for belt promotion and sale of seat belts through off-the-job safety. Dried sand was packaged 8 Petroleum Industries in colorful,'familiar/ {preen and white "Safety Sand" halfgallon.iniOc'cartons. About15,000 cartons were given away this winter. ' 12.. Holiday Weekend Live Displays. In an effort to caution people to drive safely over-holiday, week-ends, the committee came up-with special live displays featuring plant people, with safety messages and hand-outs for the- kids. This special program was sta tioned at. each plant exit on the; day before, each holiday weekend. It may have been a coincidence, but only one person'.of . the 7,200 people on the plant had a time-losing automobile injury in i 1965 and-1960/ This completes tin program. If you have gotten just one idea, that might help the cause of your Off-lhe-Job Safety program, it has been time well spent.: A DEVICE TO NEUTRALIZE STATIC CHARGES IN THE LOADING OF PETROLEUM FUELS By B.B. JACOBS and W. L.BULKLEY BesCarch and Development Department, American Oil Company, Whftfng, Indiana 'Most transports and aircraft are loaded usually developed when a petroleum liquid without hazard or incident These loadings flows rapidly through a pipe. Charges oppo are safe because the vapor space in die tank site to those carried by die oil flow to of die vehicle is. usually oyer-rich with gaso ground. When positively charged oil flows line-type fuels, dr it is too lean to burn with, into a closed container, such as a tank truck, distillate-type fuels. Opportunities for acci both the oil and the vehicle become posi dents occur only when low RVF fuels such tively charged. If die vehicle is grounded, as JP-4 are loaded, or when distillate fuels the charges that have made their way to die become' dangerously contaminated , during exterior of the vehicle will flow to ground. their loading into compartments'which pre But the important point to note is that' viously'contained gasouiie (switch loading). . charges still exist throughout die oil inside Accidents do- hot occur every time a die grounded vehicle; Le., grounding has not flammable. mixture is present, because a made the vehicle safe. Ignition can occur source of ignition is also required. Static when a spade of sufficient energy jumps horn charges generated in die fuel during the the highly charged oil surface to some -loading sometimes provide this source. . nearby grounded metallic object such as a The problem is complex. Loadings have fill pipe. been made safer by inerting, ejlucting, using Our measurements have shown that a anti-static additives, pumping slowly, locat charged oil surface no larger than one foot ing the Alter and meter a considerable dis hi diameter can furnish sufficient pnergy for tance upstream of the loading nozzle, and an incendiary discharge, and that as much as others. While all"of these stratagems promote 20,000 volts are developed on the surface of safety, some are'time-consuming and others an oil carrying 30 miciocouloihbs of charge, are expensive .or inconvenient As a result per cubic meter. Yet; this is not -a high they are not always practiced, and accidents charge density; (barge densities as high as do sometimes occur. 300 microcoulombs per cubic meter are fre To alleviate such hazards,-a new device quently encountered in flowing oil. Voltages has. .been developed for reducing the electric necessary for -sparking in some typical con charge carried by die oil. Even though a figurations range upward from 12,000 volts. flammable mixture is present and the oil up-' . On a stiffener of the type frequently used. stream of the device is heavily, charged, the in aluminum transport trucks, sparldng can chances .for a static ignition accident can be occur from two points--at 14 and 27 kilo substantially minimized. volts, respectively. Ample charge and voltage Description.and Operation for sparking are therefore common within. fuel' compartments. even' with moderately Electric, charges, (either -f- or --) are charged , oils. However, our tests indicate if 9 OFFICERS OF: TUB 9 PETROLEUM SECTION NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 1967-68. General Chairman--O. C. Hater, The. Standard Oil Co., (an Ohio Corp.), Cleveland, Ohio Vice General Chairman and Newsletter Editor--E. W. Miles, The Marathon Oil Co., Findlay, Ohio Assistant Newsletter- Editor--"Glenn F. Stedntiz, UOF Chemical Division, McCook, HI. . Program Chairman--J, G. Lowrance, Service Pipe Line Co., Tulsa, Okla. A* . Secretary and Cameron Award Chairman--C, W: Listen, Phillips Petroleum Co., Bartles ville, Okla.- Chairman, Dio. of Manufacturing--J. Howard Stark, Suntide Refining . Co., Corpus Cbristi, Tex. . Chairman, Dio. of Marketing--W. A. Malloy, Texaco Inc., New Yoilc, N. Y. Chairman, Dio. of Pipelines--L. W. Kinison, Shell Pipe Line Corp., Houston, Tex. , Chairman, Dio. of Production, Drilling, 6- Exploration--Kenneth V. Brooks, Cities Service Oil Co., Tulsa, Okla. Chairman, Off-the-Job Safety--Harry- Bnrrr, Atlantic Richfield "Co., Port Arthur, Texas Chairman, Education 6- Training--C. N. Smoljan, Mobil Oil Corp., East Chicago, Ind. Chairman, Health Committee--Dr. Harold W. Spies, American Oil Co., Chicago, HI.' Chairman, Publicity and Public Relations--R. J. Larson, The Ansul Co., Marinette, Wis. * * * Chairmen, Actioities and Membership: Atlantic Region--A. D. Johnson, Paragon Oil Co., Long Island City, N. Y.; Gulf Coast Region--Stanley Atherton, Getty Oil Co., Hous ton, Tex.; Great Lakes Region--A. A; Fiudrych, Universal Oil Products Co., Des Plaines, 111.; Mid-Continent Region--Frank K. Lightpoot, Skelly Oil Co., Tulsa, Okla'.; Pacific Coast Region--Murray Hamilton, Mobil Oil Co., Torrance, Calif. Menibers-At-Large--W. L. Avhett, Mobil Oil Corp., New York, N. Y.; D. F. Cheaney, Sinclair Refining Co., Harvey, 111.; W. A. Denges, Jr., Mobil Oil Corp., Paulsboro Re finery, Paulsboro, N. J.; Alexis. de Tarnowsky, Pure Oil Company, a Division of Union Ofl Company of California, Palatine, III.; Rorert Dillsaver, Cities Service Co,, New York, N. Y.; W. K. Dotson, Great Northern Oil Company, St. Paul, Minn.; Paul D. Halley, American Oil Co.,-Chicago, 111.; J. U. Parker, Humble bil & Refining Co., Houston, Tex.; Dale Rickabavgh, Cities Service Oil Co., Bartlesville, Okla.;'John M. . RoLufcs, Ethyl Corp., Houston, Tex. , 43 Liaison Representatives From Assodations-luasAa. Deutubb,AssodatibnoifOHwell Sezvlclag Contractors, Dallas, Tex.; E. H. Falltn, National Petroleum Refiners Assn* Wash*, ington, D. C.; L J. Fisher, Jr.; American Assn, of Oftwdl Drilling; Contractors, Dallas, Texas; J, F. McKenna, American Petroleum Institute, .'New York, N. Y.; Paul Witt, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Dallas, Tex. Chairman, Advisory and Study Committee--*Roland Pryor, Phillips Petroleum Co., Bartles ville, Olda. Members, Advisory i? Study Committee--0Carl Adams, Continental Oil Co., Houston, . Texas; "S, Ross Carr, Gulf Oil Corp., Houston, Texas; Fred Claiborne, Pan Amer ican Petroleum Corp., Houston, Texas; "ParkerC. Folse, Mobil Oil .Corporation,, New York, N, Y.; *C. H. Lindbehg, Sinclair Oil & Gas Company, Tulsa, Olda.; *H. T. Mabeee, Phillips Petroleum Co., Bartlesville, Olda.; "Glenn F. Stednitz, UOP Chemical. Division, McCook, 111.; "Quincy V. Toma, Texaco Inc., Houston, Tex. Past General Chairmeh-C. D. Attaway, Thiokol Chemical Corp., Marshall, Tex.;' G. B. Black, Sun Oil Co., Philadelphia, Pa.; H. W. Bogcess, (Ret.); Walter Boon,. (Ret.); A. W. Bbeeland, (Ret.); J. H. Brown, (Ret.); William F. BoBmsi, (Ret.); R. D. Eberly, (Ret.); D. M. Farrell, (Ret.); D. A. Klemme, (Ret.); J. H. McKenzie, Mobil Oil Corp., ISO E..42nd St, New York, N. Y. 10017; F. R. McLean, Consultant; J. Howard Myers, (Ret.); Georce F. Prussing, Consultant; R. B.Roaper, (Ret.) Staff Representative--G. Sinnley. National Safety Council, 425 N, Michigan Ave., Chicago,. m. soon.. "Past General Chairman / . 44 VOLUME 20 1967 > 1 I National Safety Congress TRANSACTIONS j8 * ( public I UTILITIES I r i]' ; *. jgj 'St***-' . [sS I , * ^ NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL HRm 425 North Michigan Avenue Chicago, Illinois 60611 / V* ' , 55th NATIONAL SAFETY CONGRESS . Papers Delivered in the | PUBLIC UTILITIES SESSIONS CONTENTS Calculated Safety.................................................... . .Linda L Wright 4 Insulating Hardware -- A Challenging Opportunity.............. Arthur L Lewis 7 Safety-- Management Right or Management Privilege....... Wade IV. Larkin 10 - f; Common Accidents and Methods of Prevention ..........Donald L Stevens 15 Safe Handling of Pipe and Fittings..........................:. .Kenneth R. Boyd 16 ` Safe Trenching Practices.......................................... William A. Herrscher 20 . - - The Qas Industry's Off-the-Job Safety Activities . .. ..............Alex Pierson 25 Five Years of Future Dates for the National. Safety Congress ........ . 29 Officers of the Public Utilities Section 1967-68 ....................... 30 Other Volumes in 1967 National Safety Congress Transactions ... .Back Cover 3 CALCULATED SAFETY By LINDA L. WEIGHT information Representative, United Fad Gas Co, Charleston, W. Va. Someone once said that die ideal ages "She was in a field half a mile away. But must be four and twenty. At four you have when it saw her, die engine left the rails, all die questions, attwenty you have all the jumped the fence, and chased her across the answers. We at the gas;company don't have field and up a tree. There ft strangled her to all the questions'or all die answers. But we- deajh." do have a pretty good reply for a new em Either the farmer or die engineer might ployee who asks: Why does the gas com- have prevented that accident The fanner parry have a safety, program? . ' could have made sure die gate was closed. The answer'to thisquestion is very sim The engineer could have slowed the train, ple: First, the company has a sincere interest presuming of course, that he had time. Both in die well-being and welfare of its employ- men were probably taking chances. - ees; an injury to one is an injury to the . Now there's the heart of die matter: Why other. Second, we fed we can contribute to do people take chances? Why do they have public safety by training our drivers to be accidents? A lot of scientists are trying to safe. If you were to ask any other businesses find answers to these questions, but I'll bet' why they have safety programs. I'm sure I can give you five reasons that will pretty you'd get the same answers. well explain why accidents happen. When it comes to promoting safety, most In my book, the first cause of accidents is companies go all out They use billboards, that people do not read directions. There's letters, magazines, and any other way they an old saying that goes, "When aD else fails, can think,of to drill safety into die minds of follow directions." That may be OK when their employees. You may think that a pro you're talking about putting a toy together. gram like this is a waste of time because no But when your safety and personal health body is going to have an accident or cause are involved, you'd bbtter read die directions one on purpose. You'D find, though, that or-, first. .' ganized safety programs are effective and do . (Visual--hair spray). Ibis can of hair hdp reduce accidents by making people spray is a good example of what I'm talking safety conscious. about On the bade 4 says: "Caution: Of course, it's'easier to convince a person Flammable. Keep away from fire or flame. to be safe on the job because to be unsafe Do not spray in eyes. Do not puncture or may cost bim a'promotion or oven bis.job. bum this container. Keep in cool place." But off the job it's a.different story. We are Now that's a pretty stem warning, but evi- aD guilty of taking chances at home that we dently some people don't read it or if they do wouldn't think of taking at work simply be drey don't seem to follow the directions. One cause the boss isn't looking over our shoul woman found out the hard way. She -was der or evaluating our performance. But we using hair spray in a bathroom. When she lit should know that the stakes are just as high a cigarette, the spray ignited and burned her and maybe even higher. so severely that die died two days later. All sorts of accidents happen In homes Many other products in aerosol cans are and bn farms. Many, of them are caused be flammable, so please read the directions cause somebody forgot to be safe. For exam- carefully and use accordingly. Incidental]y, pie, a train had ran over a cow, and the no matter what the product is, don't punc fanner was suing die. railroad for damages. ture an aerosol can or throw it into a fire.. During die court proceedings, the lawyer for The can is under pressure and heat will the railroad had the train engineer on the moke it explode. The can, or pieces of it, stand and.was asldng:hima lot of meaning packs a mighty wallop when it's unleashed less and long questions. The engineer was by an explosion.. getting pretty fed up with the whole thing (Visual--bleach bottle). Beading directions when the lawyer asked: "Was. the cow on on this bottle of bleach can save you some the tracks?" Well/ that did it The engineer real heartaches too. The directions say not to had had it "No of courste not" he shouted. ` mix the contents with other household dean- 4" A ers such as ammonia. Bleach combined with np toys. (Puts roller skate card in com acid .cleaners creates a cloud of deadly chlo puter). rine-gas. One woman either didn't -believe "I didn't have time" is a lame excuse for that-or she didn't reddthedirectioiis. She sure, but I guess we're all guilty of it to mixed bleach and ammonia and got a big some degree, either at home or on the job, whiff of the fames..She was lucky and only but more often, in an automobile. had to spend a few weeks in a hospital."But For example, one fellow I know almost in a similar case, another woman wasn't so got killed because, as he put it, "I didn't lucky. have time to replace the. tire." He .knew Don't take a chance by mixing bleach there were some defects in one of his tires . with other cleaners. It - should never be' and he even had a new one in his trunk to mixed with lye, rust remover, oven cleaner, replace it But he kept putting off- the task or even vinegar.. It's better to be safe than until one day on an expressway die tire blew sorry if there's any' doubt in your mind out He ended up in a hospital looking like a about miking cleaners. giant roll of adhesive tape and his car went I guess by now you've all been wondering to that Great Junk Yard in the Sky. All be what this blinking gadget is. Well, this is a cause he didn't take 15 minutes to get the safety computer, and it is used to compute tire changed. ' answers to safety problems. . (Visual--glass jar). Here's another exam After some rugged training,! learned, how ple of an "I didn't have time" acddent'Let's to use the computer, and in a few minutes pretend that this is gasoline and that it was I'll show you how it works. I think most of - put in this glass jar.by a fellow who was in . you know that a computer can't diink for it too big a hurry to put it in the proper con self. You have to put information into it be tainer--an approved metal can. . Just think fore it can'calculate anything. Most comput how' easy this glass jar would be to break ers have to.be fed information punched on a -and catch on fee? It has happened several small' card. This computer uses cords, but of . dines--please - don't let it happen in 'your a special variety. The printing is magnetized home. Take those few extra minutes to put a and the machine's brain -reads the -magnetic combustible liquid in the proper container,. code and then does the computations. Inci - and store it away from heat. Believe me, dentally, here's what the computer's brain you'll be glad you did. (Puts gasoline card looks like (visual-transistor) . . . it's called into computer); a cathodic electxoservimetrical binary induo- Reason three for accidents: people don't togenic magnegrid diode. Here are die cords know a product is dangerous because there's . illustrating my first two examples of "didn't nothing about it that indicates danger. I read directions'' accidents. I'll put these in have two good examples and both die adver the computer and later add cards for other tised in shop-by-mail sections of newspapers - causes of accidents. When they're all in, and magazines. Here's one: an aerosol fire wpH ask. the computer to tell us how to pre extinguisher. It makes a good paper weight vent accidents'.- Just so you don't forget the but that's about all. It wouldn't even put out various causes of accidents we're analyzing. a small fire because there isn't enough extin I'll list diem here (puJh card out) as we go guishing agent in it Some of these extin-, along. "Didn't read directions" was the first guishers contain toxic chemicals that are cause. Now let's go on. ; dangerous to breathe, some have even ex ' The second reason people have accidents ploded in-the user's face. To my knowledge, is because they think they're rushed for time. none of the aerosol extinguishers are ap The classic example here.is the man who proved by Underwriter's Laboratories;'!! you ' f%. rushes out the door, steps on a roller skate, want a good fire extinguisher .(Visual--fire (visual--roller skate) and goes sprawling'to extinguisher) invest a few.dollars in an ap- die ground. In all probability, somebody roved two-and-a-half pound dry chemical - didn't take time' to pick up the skate and put type, like this. (Puts fire extinguisher card it where if belonged! Falls account for-more into computer). home injuries each year than any other haz Here's an interesting little novelty (Visual ard. I haven't seen any breakdown -of the --flashlight). Would you ever expect that statistics, but I'll bet most of these falls are ' this flashlight could bum down, your house? caused because somebody thinks he didn't It can. This particular flashlight is imported . have time to remedy a situation like picking and has no. brand name or testing laboratory .S' 1967Natianal. Safety Congress To recharge the battery the instruc flavored aspirin far children. Aspirin bottles tions soy ping die unit Into an electrical out warn' you to keep die aspirin out of chil let and leave it overnight. Same people in dren's reach. Despite the warnings, aspirin Washington state followed those directions poisoning is die number one drug killer of and they found that the unit oroheats and children. And don't underestimate young catches on fire. To leave it plugged In over ster's efforts to get to it;'espedally if itTs fla night could be disastrous. If yon have a re vored aspirin. If Idds think there are some chargeable flashlight; died; to see if it has a orange-flavored candy pfQs around they're brand name and testing labeL If it hasn't; going to go after them. That's why you get rid of it (Putt flothligjacard into com should never tell a child that he is eathig puter). v candy when he's taking flavored pills. By all The fourth cause of accidents is usually means, keep aspirin and other drugs safely described after the accident, when somebody out of children's reach or under lock and says, *1 didn't think sound-so." And you can key. (Puts aspbin card in computer). add your own ending to flat-4 didn't drink The filth reason for accidents I just can't die gun was loaded, I didn't drink.it was explain. That's when somebody has read the ready dangerous, I didn't drink it wouldexp directions, has plenty of time, knows die lode, etg. People who usually end up saying product; tiririks about it and stffl takes a "I .didn't think;" realize that something\ is chance. Maybe 'it's a gambling instinct that dangerous if die danger is painted out to makes a person do foaUsh tilings; maybe it's them in advance. But for some season, they a desire to show others that he's daring; don't hfalr in advance for themselves and maybe he's Just trying to get injured. I sure consequently get injured. Here's a prime ex wish I knew die answers. ample of this (Visual--carbon tet). Imagine The only thing I know that I can show that dris is carbon tetrachloride.Jriost people yon to flhrstrate dris reason is dris dunce's know carbon tet is aa.wrttrmdy hazardous hat Anybody who knows die safety rules ; liquid, yet they go on using it to dean up and then disregards diem should wear, one of holstery, ranges, and any other thing that is these. (Puts dunaft hat in computer). greasy or oily around the house. The fames Now all die information is in die com attack the vital organs; especially die Idd- puted On dris card is a question: "What can . neys. In New York City, a mother used half we do to prevent accidents?" TU put die a cup to dean a chair. That afternoon her question fa and let die computer give us an seven-year-old daughter came borne from answer. (Turns oil computer, loob bewil school with a slight odd and sat fa the diair dered-reaches in and gets tUt card). to watch television. Later the child became Good heavens; it looks like the computer so violently ill that she was taken to a hospi had more than it could handle. What 'it tal wham doctors .found her kidneys had should have said was:, read directions, take stopped functioning and dm was near death. time-to do a Job properly, know the product' It took ten doctors; an artificial kidney, and ...you're buying, think a Utile bit' about what six weds in the hospital to keep die child you're going to do, -and by all means, don't dive. But a young man in New-Jersey wasn't take reckless diances. That's wise advice so incky. He died as a result of using carbon bam a machine--but you're probably won tet to dean bis shoes in a doset. dering how you cart be safe. Ton may drink that opening a eonple of . There are a lot of things you can do to be windows wfH eliminate the hazardous fames, safe at home. (Visual). Take this apron for . hut accident reports show that won't do the example. If yon are going to be working trick. Outside die house, some authorities with combustible liquids, you should wear . don't consider carbon tet to be a great haz . one of these so your clothing won't absorb ard as brig as die wind blows die vapors any of the liquid and make you a potential away. -But there are a lot' of "ifV'-in using torch. (Visual). Rubber gloves like these can carbon tet; so why take any diances at all protect your hands against caustic chemicals when there are less toxic deaners ion the and any rough material you may bo working market? (Putt carbon tet card Mo COfrt* with, (Visum). If you are going to be. pater) around any loud noises you will need a set. (Visual--Aspirin). This item usually of silencers like these. Many people underes brings cries of, *T didn't drink die baby timate the danger of loud and continuous could get to it or could get ft open." This is noise. (Visual). Goggles are also Important - 0 : j - Public VtUUies safety items. With.them.on, you might-feel 'like a monster nom outer space, but one tiling you won't feel is the pain of something hitting you in the eye. (Visual). For head protection you can use a safety helmet like this. Most industries require employees .to . wear one of these if they are going to ]be any place when something could drop on them. (Visual). Last but not least are these boots. Getting something dropped, on'your foot is sure no picnic^ Hard-toe boots like these inay look pretty clumsy, but they will pro tect your feet from most things you will be dropping. . I guess I look pretty silly with all.this on. But my point is this. You don't.have to go to extremes, as I have done, to be safe. Simple rules of patience, courtesy, and common sense are your best guides to a safe secure life. . INSULATING HARDWARE-A CHALLENGING OPPORTUNITY By ARTHUR L. LEWIS Safety EngineerjEIectric Department, Public Service Electric and Gas Co, ' Newark, N. J. A Lineman-Grade 1, age 25, with approxi feet, even the creosoted pine pole is a fairly - mately five years of service, was fatally in good conductor of electricity. Most of the jured by electric shock resulting from a pri ' accidents we erperience. are not just due to mary wire making contact with a pole pin' contact with, a conductor, but due to a si bracket. The investigative report read hi part multaneous contact with a ground path for as follows. . the current It has been our aim, therefore, "Conclusion: Victim's upper arm came in for the past few years to reduce the hazard- contact with an energized through-bolt of by replacing metal'items with nonmetalllo tiie bracket Circuit completed through foot items. with the secondary rack. The story of the increasing role, of nonine- Recommendations: 1. That all Line De tallic materials in the distribution plant of. partment'personnel be reminded to be oh Public Service Electric`and Gas Company, guard at all times for' possible' hardware starts with a. snow, storm in March, 1958. electric-shock hazards created by insulator The damage in' some of our areas was so factors 'or accidental contact . between con - devastating and lengths of outages were so ) ductors and metal pole-top parts. long* that our company decided a Change in 2. That all linemen be reminded always to - construction design to improve the strength assume a .working position where their spurs and storm resistance of our distribution plant are-in wood and their feet and legs cleared was necessary. The resultant change was the of uncovered metal' equipment and conduc adoption of spacer-cable and lashed-cable as tors. When this is impracticable, a lineman's the standard for three-phase distribution, platform shall be used. and the adoption of a high-strength conduc 3. That the Transmission and Distribution tor, on a ridge pin for single-phase distribu Engineer's Office investigate metbods of re tion. After a sample area installation, man ducing these hazards." agement approved the high-strength con The. function of the electric utility is the struction-not onlyliecause of reliability but .generation and distribution of electric power. also because of the improved appearance,. To distribute this power, metallic conductors Experience in storms since 1958 has verified qre required. If these were the only metal on' the improved reliability of the new construc our distribution lines,, our' linemen*would be tion. ' _ very fortunate. The work of a lineman, With the decision in 1962 to establish though, may be hazardous since much of the 7.6/19-2 kv distribution os a standard volt-, other equipment on our poles is metal. In age, similar primary construction consisting 7  1087 National Safety Congress of high-strength insulated wire for single*, nonmetallic hardware, tools, etc.? We now phase and spacer-cable for three-phase was have ridge pins,, comer brackets, and ad adopted. With such an. insulated plant and, justable, bradketa for single-phase construc realizing sendee interruption or duplicate fa tion. We have two-phase brackets,'`and by cilities for maintenance of lines was imprac combining these with foe single-phase tical, it was apparent the new construction bracket; we can handle three-phase open would have to be worked on with rubber wire. We have light-duty and heavy-duty, gloves,rather than hot-line tools. After many tangent brackets, comer brackets' and a laboratory and field, experiments' involving pole-top extension for spacer cable. Nonmo- both management and union, it was proven taDic preformed tics used to hold wires in to everyone's satisfaction that the construc place were initially developed for both foe tion could be safely worked from either an spacers and regular insulators. Thirteen dif insulating lineman's work platform,or an in- ferent ties were required, so we have been sulating aerial lift truck. Detailed work prac developing with another manufacturer a sin tices and minimum construction standards gle universal tie to replace foe thirteen were developed for foe Company. styles. . ' NonmetaUio Hardware. The gay wire has always been a dangerous piece of hardware, providing a current In examining foe pole fop for changes, it path in many accidents. We have been using seemed necessary to have greater clearances a 78 inch fiberglas strain insulator at foe between foe working position of foe lineman pole end in qll guying of 18 kv construction. and ground, and greater clearances between' We have also been experimenting with fiber- conductors at points where foe man would glas rod as a guy and have quite a'few trial have to work. Up to'fob tone; foe tangent installations. So far, after over two years in brackets and ridge pins bad been made of service, they show no deterioration and have steeL .We decided to look into foe possibility been well received by foe linemen. of using some' other basic construction mate One of foe smallest pieces of nonmetallic rial. Glass .fiber reinforced plastic materials hardware is our underarm bracket or "L" were being used for car and track bodies, hanger. This item is one of our most recently boat bulls, fishing poles, golf dabs, radio' an adopted-and is how in full production. It tennas and many other products. This mate will be leas expensive than its present plastic rial has high strength, light weight,,and high dipped metal' counterpart and will also be . dielectric strength among many characteris used in underground work to take foe place tics. One large supplier of line tools and of foe small metal hanger and porcelain sad equipment had bear using "Eporiglas" for dle used for Secondary cables. ,,. ' several years to replace wood in hot-line Abput foe largest piece of grounded metal maintenance tods. In collaboration with on a pole -is a transformer tank. We have these people, we developed foe initial line of several nonmetallic tanks in trial use, and nonmetallio hardware using tubular compo foe designs so far show great promise. We nents similar to hot line fcxjls. also have portions of several 28 kv lines built Since that first attempt; there have been with nonmetallic hardware. Using this hard many rapid changes' in design. There hove . ware has allowed us tobuild open-wire lines . been no fixed guide lines, and there has had through residential areas without unfavora- - to be a great deal of trial and.error work. ble reaction and also along narrow rights- Other reputable manufacturers have Joined of-way. in producing, similar line hardware for us; Each of foe manufacturers has attacked in and slowly we have developed certain crite different ways foe problems in attaining nec ria to evaluate foe. new. products. Our first essary strengths. They also have different thought was to use a nonmetaHic material to ideas about what coating will, provide foe ' substitute for foe steel in order to remove longest life and best tracking resistance. foe metal ground from foe vicinity of foe . Our original manufacturer of line hard lineman. While it does do this, foe increased ware uses for. structural members a tube of electrical impulse levels also obtained have filament 'wound gloss fiber in an epoxy resin been of great value, especially with items around a foam cote. A second supplier uses such as comer brackets, which were a weak a solid fiberglas core surrounded with fila spot electrically in our spacer-cable plant. ment wound glass fiber in on epoxy resin. A ,Now, what'do we have in foe way of third supplier uses thatched metal dies, to 8 Public Utilities compress and cure chopped glass fiber in po with approximately. 15 per cent of Our facili lyester resin around a selected wood core. ties'in 13 lev construction and a great deal of Each manufacturer uses a different finish our work in these areas. We have not had a coat; and the insulator threads are .made of disabling injury or contact accident on this Beveral different materials. new construction through the first half of The specifications x$a have given for many 1967.. In the same period, we have experi of our items are listed in the attached table. enced on 4 kv construction 18 flash injuries,. Time will help teQ how adequate these' spec and six contacts--of these two were fatal ifications are and how the various finishes while the other 22 were, lost-time accidents. will 'stand up in actual practice. Initial tests In July of this year, we had a disabling of the first nonmetallic hardware were made flash accident--our first, on 13 kv and it oc on a 18 kv {test line in .one of our switching curred under very unusual' circumstances. station yards. A 28 kv test line was also built Two-phase wires of a 13 kv spacer cable had and is still in use as'an accelerated life, test burned down during a lightning storm and for equipment Recently, our testing labora - were hanging dear of the ground. Due to a tory completed an excellent fog chamber, nearby automobile accident, a lineman, was' where we have been making accelerated life stationed near the wires to keep spectators tests of die ties, ridge pin brackets, spacers, dear of the area. The two wires came to and other associated equipment gether causing a flash that set the lineman's While one manufacturer has excellent test trousers on fire: ing facilities, most of the other manufactur 'The new construction standards, along ers have had to go to independent laborator with new work -practices, safety tales, and ies, or we have made their tests. As the other tools have been responsible for pur record. firms have .been getting into -more utility We cannot say which has been .the most im work, they have been- adding to their own portant factor. To go back, though, to the. testing equipment. ` . - accident described at the beginning--if the A Plastics.Products Task Force of the Edi new. construction in use' today had been on son Electric Institute was formed in early that pole, that man would probably be alive 1965 and has held several meetings. I hope today. this group will, assist in the standardization . of specifications as they would be doing an Conclusion. excellent service to the industry and the . We have boon encouraging other utilities manufacturers. to use nonmetallip hardware and tools. We -. Safety Record. , know that some items at the present time will be moire expensive than their metal or At the time of our decision to -go to 13 kv wood counterparts. The question, though, is distribution as a company-wide standard, we npt just initial expense, but what will be the had only a small amount of 13 kv open-wire mass produced cost; what will be its life, is operating in one development This was bare the appearance better and, most important, wire and was handled at that time with hot is it safer? line tools. The installation of the new 13 kv . The value of-a life saved is a hard thing construction has been such' as to avoid, ex on which to put a price.' Wo feel we are pansion of the existing 4 kv'substation facili preventing many injuries and posslbly saving ties. This has'meant that 13 kv construction lives--the added expense, at this tjme, of the has'been installed in the most'rapidly grow nonmetallic hardware and insulated tools is ing areas and that a major' portion of-our worthwhile. Our goal, which is still high in work is now in' 13 kv areas. the sky, is to devdop a pole top on which At die end of I960, we had 386 miles of the only metal is the cPnductor.' The plastics equivalent three-phase 13 kv open wire con industry' has the knowledge and experience struction while the equivalent 4 kv construc to aid the electric industry in working to tion has dropped to 3,902 miles. Almost all ward this goal. We need to develop stronger of the 13 kv open wire is in single-phase materials and more track-resistant finishes. construction so actual miles of pole-line ex We heed items from bolts to. poles as good posure are quite high. The 13 kv aerial cable - or better than their metal and wood counter-, (spacer)' is now up to 645 miles while the 4 parts. It has been and is "A challenging op . kv cable has now dropped to 2,186 miles. - portunity" for Public Service, and I hope it The safety.record has been excellent even will be for some, of you. 9 1887 National Safety Congress SAFETY - MANAGEMENT RIGHT OR MANAGEMENT PRIVILEGE By WADE W. LABKIN Ytce Pres, Northern States Power Cn, Minneapolis, Mim. . Since the beginning jof the Industrial Rev shake too easily, you can be sure that others olution, and even before in the small craft are shaken even more so, and the vacuum units performing such manufacturing tasks we have created by not lhdngup to our obli as there were then, the right to establish safe gation begins to M with "protective balms" working conditions and develop a safe work from labor and governmental sources. ing climate has been vested in the manage There are those who fed that maybe a ment of. the enterprise. The burden of pro- . two-party or a three-party responsibility for ceeding toward safety logically gravitated to safety might be a good thing. They feel that ward, the leadership of foe organization, and a certain abdication of management rights foe right to do something safety-wise be here might be .worthwhile.' Management came managements. This right existed vir could, get off foe safety hook, where they tually without challenge for almost 200 now are all done/If all of foe parties to this . years. trilogy. of safety responsibility could be For every right; or privilege one has, there wholly altruistic and non-adversary in foeir is an accompanying obligation. In this in approach to safety, it might be all right; but stance, of course, it was management's obli believe me they cannot be. gation to maintain .working'conditions and ' Whenever government; particularly the foe winking climate ini such' a state that Department of Labor, is brought into a dis safety was an obvious result Evidently man pute between management and labor, we all agement didn't maintain its obligation prop know whose side foe government is going to erly, because it is fast losing its right, or take. Labor is using foe safety route to gain even privilege, to direct its own safety .pro- many of foeir objectives that they could not gram. get at foe bargaining table. Some of the You know, and I know, that this loss of. softest featherbedding in foe. railroad indus management rights did not occur overnight try has been accomplished under foe guise We are also both quite aware that.foe sociol of safety, and this practice' is rapidly spread ogy of- our times is changing, and this ing to many other industries. Please do not change in social responsibility is having its fed that I ami castigating foe union leader effect on foe dilution of management rights. ship for doing.this--foe very nature of union If we are wholly objective with ourselves, ism virtually requires foe union to seize, on however, we know that in foe Labor-Man- every available opportunity to further foeir agenient-Govemment triangle, action -flows objectives. If I were a union leader, I would in areas where foe greatest vacuum exists. do foe some thing. ' The pnion leader who . Evidently .we,, as management had left a does not recognize this is soon out of office. pretty large vacuum in foe safety area, be I do not criticize'.this practice per se; all I cause labor and government action.is study am saying is that 'management must be flowing foto foe safety arena at foe present aware-that it is a fact of life. time, and at an amazing rate. If manage As an e.xample unions', object to foeir ment hasn't already lost foe ball game it, in members having to wear insulated hard hats, my opinion, is in foe last of foe ninth witha^even though this- is a matter of statebw, but. two out C' conversely, fight for code-regulations-that re I am not going to burden you with a lot quire two men on a pole, under certain work of documentation as to how we got ourselves ing conditions. No one can deny foe need into this Jackpot, because I am sure we can ' for insulated headgear when worldng near or all recall instances in our own companies on energized equipment, but there are many - where a little awareness, a little foresight; or cases' where two men on a pole actually a little empathy would have avoided ah in doubles foe hazard as far as an accidental . dustrial accident that shook, foe company electrical contact is concerned. Yet because from top to bottom. When management is this presumably provides more work for foe shaken, and let's face it, management doesn't . membership, under foe guise of safety, foe 10 PvbHo Utilities union actively pursues the establishment of Griffith Act it is necessary that everything he codes and regulations requiring two men oh handled In a democratic manner. The note a pale, knowing full Well that all attempts as finally delivered said, "Local Union 828 to obtain this at the bargaining table have wishes you a speedy recovery by a vote of failed. lStoir*. Another example is where the unions at Alan Burch,. Safety Director of the Inter tempt to prevent any work being done on national Union of Operating Engineers, at electrical systems where the exposure voltage the last National Safety Congress said that is over 5,000 volts except with hot sticks. the National Labor Relations Board, - has The union knows'fall -well that there are answered the question, "Should safety be ne many instances where .work with' Class III gotiated in union contracts?" He's right. The rubber gloves is fully safe up to 8,650 volts NLRB has ruled that safety is a mandatory maximum exposure voltage, and they know subject for collective bargaining. This deci that their sister locals all over the country sion was cradled right in my own industry. have agreed by contract to glove 8,650 volts; The Gulf Power Company of Pensacola, but because hot sticks provide more work for Florida alleged that-a. Florida statute re the membership, they try every means to ob quired ad electric utility companies, as a tain a 5,000 volt hot stick clause. matter of regulation, to exercise a high de As soon as they are successful here (and gree of care in their public utility operations. in some states, in some utilities, they have They alleged that if they were to comply been), they immediately attempt to obtain a with this regulation, they must have a uni pay increase for a hot stick lineman on the lateral right to establish safety rules and reg pretext that he has more skills than one who ulations. The NLRB not only said, "No", uses rubber gloves--and so it goes. I am not they said, "Hell, NoP No regulatory com criticizing thisprocedure, I am merely stat mission, they said, could pre-empt the field ing a fact of life., of'regulation to a point where they excluded 'When management loses its unilateral die concept of collective bargaining. right to be responsible for the safety pro Canada, of course, historically has been gram, all sorts of things can and do happen fax ahead of us in what they prefer to call -'to management because of it social reform. John -Dowling, Safety , and Labor, and government together are mar- , Health Division, United Steelworkers of. dialling their forces to consolidate'' their Amgrtw working in Canada, says that their gains as fast as they can. Nationally, they safety programs in Canada have some real are promoting a varietyof techniques to do teeth in than. Under circumstances where this. The IBEW, the International Brother- ' an employer foils to comply wtih some pro hood of Electrical Workers, are preaching vision of die Industrial Safety Act, the em joint labor-management safety committees. ; ployer, upon conviction, 'can he fined up to The IBEW has been instrumental in establ ILOOO'for each day the infraction exists, or ishing over 800 safety committees. I do hot' nm be imprisoned for not more than 12 want to intimate that this is all bad. We at months for each day of infraction. Mr. NSP have them,' and they are basically Dowling also recommends that all safety good. There are 'many labor-management codes be in such language that all working safety relationships dint are truly non-adver people can felly understand them. Surely we, sary. Many responsible locals have told their can't argue over the value of clear language, membership that the union has agreed to a but we all recognize that many safety provi certain safety program, and you, Mr. Union sions cannot be all black or all white. It may Member, are going to follow it. be presumed that Canadian management has A story making the rounds in our shop has . to give their employees very precise working to do with the labor-management relation conditions, or they could well end up fined ship in the safety area. Presumably, it was to or in jail. Is the U.S. only a few. steps behind represent die unanimity of purpose in this in this type of safety regulation? . area. A first-line supervisor had met with an My purpose in discussing these tilings, of unfortunate industrial accident and the poor course, is to prove my point that manage guy was in die hospital recovering.`'The ment rights are fast being diluted, and that - union representing die men working for him management rights- in the safety area today thought it would he a nice gesture to send 'are greatly reduced over even a decade ago. . him a "get-well" wish. Under the Lahdrum- If management is to continue even to have 11 1867 National Safety Congrest the privilege of participating in the safety safety instructions, the planned safety con program, it is going to have to wrest back, tacts, and the correctional safety contacts axis from labor and from government; die leader* all training routines that must be . followed ship required to direct the safety program in on a continuing basis if safety training is to the direction it should go. hwtntflin its effectiveness. Did management - When management the ball all to it fell its safety training courseP No; I don't self, why did it drop it? Was it because it think average management failed here, but ft didn't recognize die nature, the causes, and surely could have gotten a better course results of accidents? No; I don't think we .grade,. can say management's failure was in recog I've talked a lot about where management nition. Surely when we look at die manage made the grade, and at the same time I have ment-developed accident classifications and continually alluded to die feet that manage-. accident statistics, we can't say that lack of ment failed. Where did management fell? In recognition of the nature, the causes, and die my opinion, in two areas: first, in felling to results was management's failure. motivate employees to work safely and, sec . Was it because management didn't under ond, in handling the safety , problem em stand die principles of accident, prevention? ployee. Some managements understand accident pre An immediate reaction to these two 'pat' vention better than others, but all manage statements would be, "Well, if.management's ments know that they have to establish and failure lies here, so will anybody else's." I'm eliminate both potential and actual accident not-quite ready to say everyone else would causes. They learned very quickly that they fell here. Motivation is essentially synony had to detect unsafe conditions promptiy mous with selling. Failure to motivate is through inspection. They also learned that ready failure to sell. The welfare of most en oil - supervision had to. detect unsafe-work terprise controlled by die same management practices promptly. They saw.' intuitively, we have been talking about this' evening lies that they had to Identify the sources.of the in die ability of die organization to. sell its unsafe condition or practice, and further saw - merchandise. If die safety function-had the that they had to lode for die personal factor same impact on the business 'os the selling causes of accidents. Some managements did function, I think we would see some marked better than others, but felluro to understand - improvement in our ability to motivate! em the principles of accident prevention did not ployees to work safely. . bring management's downfall-in the safety If this were die case, management would arena. immediately begin to recognize what die 'Was managements failure due to Tack of motivation problem is. Management would program'* in die safety area? No, I don't ! quickly face upjto the fact feat: (1) men think that management lacked -program. are not always willing to do what they know Some programs are probably better than oth they should for die sake of their own safety; ers, but programs we've, got Whether-its a (2) almost ad-workmen wid.now and then job safety analysis, the tailboard conference, risk ail unsafe'practice; and (3) men wid die regular safety contact die safety training sometimes deliberately elect to work un for-new inen, die discussion method, the safely because other' motivations often con planned safety inspection, or the Investiga flict with, and win out over die motivation to tion of accidents--all are programs which wodc safely, and some men just like to work are based on die premise of fewer future ac unsafely for the "hed of it". cidents, and lade of program cannot be as In a selling situation, if a marketing or sessed as a management failure. ganization sees that other merchandise is How about Job safety training? Here I boujdit even diough ft is of inferior quaUty, think we can give some managements a poor and if it sees that other merchandise is grade; not many failures perhaps, but stirely bought just because the .buyer wants some very mediocre performance by some man thing different; or if ft sees other merchan agements. As the individual worker, or the; dise bought because someone or something whole crew becomes more, experienced in else does a better selling or motivating job, their job, there is a natural tendency to skip corrective action is immediately token! Per the oft-repeated safety training steps. The sonal contacts are made, the best sales peo initial safety orientation for the hew situa ple ore brought into the act, special presenta tion, -the initial job - instruction, the pre-job tions are prepared and made, and much ef- 12 Pttblio Utilities fort is expended to correct the defecting sit time'and less individual exertion is uation. Not so when safety motivation lags; quite persuasive.. if no immediate accident'occurs, it is usually (5) Always explain the "why" of a dismissed with a shrug of the .shoulder--no safety practice. Telling them "why" significant impact, no significant action. is like reasoning, and cooperation Throughout this discussion I've been quite usually fofiows the reasoning process. critical of management in the safety area.-It (6) Make safety something that all .men would be wholly unfair if there weren't some will participate in. Ask their opin positive actions recommended for manage ions, solicit discussions and ideas. ments consideration. - Identifications will occur With the One. of management's principal failures in. safety effort, and men.- will follow . safety programs - was' to motivate men to what they consider a product of work safely. Management should develop, their .own thinking. and use, a strategy for motivating men to (7) Have management commend men work safely. Of course, there is. no pat deserving of special recognition for answer to safety motivation, but there are . some significant safety effort When five-principles worthy of consideration by all management Identifies with the safety managements. If there were a word."ddes" program by thoughts, words and it would be a pat. memory formula for re deeds, we know that there will be a membering these five motivating principles. strong incentive going for it. The "C" would stand for cooperation, the - The next principle in our memory word is <`1'* for incentives, "D" for deterrents, "E" deterrents. A deterrent of course, is some for example, and "S" for sMl. thing thpt prevents some action for fear of The first of these, cooperation, means de the consequences. There are two ways to use veloping a sound basis for cooperation in fol-. deterrents. We can remove any deterrents lowing the established safety practices. Most that might keep its from working ,safely; or employees really want to cooperate with the. we can highlight and' reinforce those, things, supervisor. If die working climate is such '' that keep us on .the right path and deterred that the men are basically antagonistic to from working unsafely. In many instances, ward their supervisor, this supervisor will men fail to'realize the potential injury sever have great difficulty in bbtalningicompllance ity. Don't cry "wolf", but do.point out how with anything he is trying'to promote and, severe certain types of accidents can .be. Al of course, safety is included. Developing ways correct observed unsafe work practices. cooperation is . a must in motivating men to Deterrents are a large subject, but I'm sure work safely, but you must have adequate su we all agree that fear of the consequences pervision to produce a cooperative climate. can be a very forceful motivating tod. The second principle is incentive. Man-, The next principle word is example. If we agement must provide incentives to work set the right example, we develop the right safely. Some people say. safety is its own re kind of attitudes. Let's define attitude for ward. Wb counter this argument by saying, our safety purposes. An attitude, as we de *Vou can't argue with success". Incentives fine it here, is a readiness to react favorably . do work. What are some? or unfavorably, or not at all, toward some (1) Compliment safe work. safety criteria. We must recognize that these (2) Publicly cite the company's appre attitudes exist in the safety area, and that es ciation for a workman's individual tablished attitudes are extremely difficult to safe work performance: This word change; : gets around--Joe is thought well of Our.attitudes are directly determined by- by die . boss--and the safety climate personal experience. If a man is antagonistic is reinforced by more willing co toward his supervisor, he probably will have operation. a similar attitiide toward working safely. All (3) . Emphasize the personal gains of people tend to share the frustrations and working safely. These are obvious gratifications of the people with whom we gains and should be reiterated fre- work and necessarily identify with very quendy. closely; If a friend is dealt with severely; as (4) Talk about how the Job gains when we see it, we tend to develop the some using safe methods; reminding the strong antagonistic feelings toward the su crew that the safe way takes less pervisor as if the. action had taken place to- 13 1967 National Safety Congrea ward ourselves.The example set toward one lution of these problems usually is not too person may well affect , the attitude of the difficult if it is recognized and faced-up to. entire group. Normally, consultation with higher, supervi There is a third attitude, and this is the. sion will, result in. having the man work borrowed attitude. The newcomer to the - under closer supervision, or having the man group wants, and needs, acceptance. To do re-assigned to more compatible work. It this, die newcomer must necessarily share might .be appropriate to arrange for a the group's attitude toward safety, because promipt medical checkup, or.the man might without this he will never become part of be persuaded to leave die plant, and not re die team.. turn until his condition has moderated. Continuing our thoughts on example, if These solutions become quite evident . we have a supervisor working around with a. The accident-prone employee who appar doth cap, or a felt hat, when everyone else ently has no physical or mental impairment is required to wear hard hats, we have a bad requires a different'kind of treatment;' and is example. A bad-example has more impact usually die one ignored by the supervisor. than, the good example. We must be fully This situation requires a high degree of skill, aware of the demoralizing effect that occurs and really needs program help from higher when setting the wrong example in matters supervision. Poor supervisory performance of safety. . here stems from three sources: (1) supervi We are now at the last letter of our mem sors have not been adequately trained to ' ory word, the "S" that stands for skiff. We handle these situations in a manner that will are referring,'of course, to the skills of the not get their authority overruled, or so. there firstrline supervisor. No matter how sincerely will be no arbitration case, or so there will we work, at our first four principles of moti be no other form of collective retaliation; vation, there are always one or two workers (2) there is no standardized procedure to who won't be persuaded. This is something handle these irresponsible employees; and that cannot be ignored. The chronic safety (3) violations and poor safety procedures offender must be given special attention by practiced by our-problem employee are not the supervisor. The skillful supervisor recog made a matter of record. nizes this, and he knows he must employ his best-supervisory skills at all times with his problem child, because without his special handling, other motivation principles be come fruitless. Cooperation, incentives, deterrents, exam ples, and skills; if these are all practiced with reasonable diligence, experience shows us drat people can and will be successfully motivated to work safely. One parting shot at management. 1 have said that - management failed to' motivate properly, and that management failed to face up to die safety problem employee. Basically, there are two kinds of safety ' problem employees. There are.those that.are chronically or organically impaired because of some mental or physical condition over which they have little or no control; and there are those that are accident-prone be- All of- these training inadequacies, when corrected, of course, lead to discipline; but the discipline we are talking about is correc tive discipline. -We correct by leinstructioh. We correct by reminding. ' We correct by persuading, and we correct by warning. If these have .not been sufficient; we hold a correction interview, and if all else fails, we correct by penalty. All of these steps are fol lowed in accordance with appropriate com munication between man and supervisor, and-the documentation is available, so if we must go to the last step,' the' penalty will' stick. ' Safety is more complex-today that it ever was, but the principles that govern the moti vation of people to work safely are still basic, and really have existed through the yeprs without much; If any change. . cause they have no sense of responsibility or Management may be losing its right to di sense of self-discipline to work safely. rect its safety program in a unilateral Way, " The organically impaired employee can but if it will only recognize that if-it can usually be easily spotted by the aware super again seize the leadership needed to provide visor. These fall into six basic slots--extreme safe working conditions, it can restore itself, fatigue, alcoholic effect, acute illness, mental to its former position. With leadership re - depressions, emotional agitations, and inca stored in the safety area, it will find that di pacitation because of recent injury. The so lution of its rights in other areas can be slg- 14 PubUo VtCiUes nificantly slowed. Management should look Into its management system. Management on safety as an added tool which. If effec should look on this as a privilege, not a tively used, can build success and stability right. COMMON ACCIDENTS AND METHODS OF PREVENTION By DONALD L. STEVENS Supvr., Health & Safety, Metropolitan Utilities District, Omaha, Neb Before yre start I feel it is necessary to de compiled one of the most disgusting accident fine a couple of these Words so we will know records in die history of publfo utilities. just what we are talking about. First of all, Each and-every one of us who has anything the word "common'*; well sajyhat this re to do with the operation of a waterutility fers to something shared alike by all of our has fallen down on the job. We have faded water utilities. Next, well define "accident!*. and will continue to foil until we accept die To. me, an accident is an unplanned event; foil responsibility of being leaders in our in not only is it unplanned but it is undesirable; dustry. so well say that an accident is any undesira We accept the importance of proper treat ble unplanned event Don't confuse this ment of water. We folly realize die dangers word "accident!* with the word "injury'*, be of impure water supplies; We know-that cause an injury may or may not result frOnS some of die most destructive events recorded an undesirable implanned event. in the.histoxy of mankind have resulted from "Methods" means wags. That .leaves us water bom disease. We know and accept with "prevention**. Well say drat prevention tills but we have not, as of now, accepted as means eliminate, do away with, or, if you our responsibility the safety of our fellow wish, stop. workers, die safety of our friends, the safety One of die most common accidents asso of our employees. ciated with water utilities is die one you sel How many times have you permitted an dom hear about These are .the near misses, the close calls, die ones that usually are not reported. They are not newsworthy so they' do .not make die paper, radio or "TV". unsafe act, an unsafe procedure or an unsafe condition to exist without calling it to the at tention of die individual, the foreman, or the supervisor? These are die ones that your employees try to hide. They are afraid to report them be cause they are usually the result of their own negligence. Another common accident is the one re sulting from the calculated risk. A chance is taken and an. accident results, sometimes an .How many times have you, by your si- lenqe, by your indifference, by your looking die other way accepted, condoned, even en couraged an unsafe act; procedure, or condi tion? Silence is not golden where safety is concerned. injury tod, but this is accepted as "just one Just where is safety concerned? Sometimes of those tilings/* Is it really, or have we you wonder; and this is a shameful thing to failed to rally evaluate the consequences of this particular calculated risk? . f\ There just ain't nothin' common about us Water People or our accidents or our injuries or our dying. If there is anything common ' have to say. Safety must be accepted as "a part of* and not as "an addition to." Safety is not a tiling of or.by Itself. Safety is an in tegral part of life. Without safety, life would cease. about us Water People it is an apparent' Toil and I have partially accepted safety' disregard for the safety, well being, and fu or we would not be here. Most people par ture of ourselves, our .employees, and our tially accept safety. families. We in the water industry have ' The question, therefore, is not one of ao- .15 1987 National Safety Congress cepting or not accepting safety`os a part of dental injury or death results. our existence, but rather is one of how much This:then is our challenge: safety we are willing to .accept As free men 1. Loolc closer at near misses. ' we have this choice. 2. Fully evaluate calculated risks. Most people want -just enough.of this - 3. Speak lip for safety. safety thing to assure themselves of a plea 4. Set a good example. surable existence. Sometimes the amount You are a leader--accept this responsibil deemed necessary is miscalculated and acd-. ity fully. SAFE HANDLING OF PIPE AND FITTINGS By KENNETH R. BOYD Administrative Assistant General Manager, San Francisco Water Department Your water utility can eliminate accidents methods, and equipment, are the supervisor's when handling pipe and fittings. Many water sphere. In a well .organized company, liaison utilities in various parts of the country have on safety education flows tip and down the. established and mafntain frequency rates chain of command and all employees are ed which range from 0 in systems udthlO or 15 ucated in the steps necessary to prevent ac employees .to frequency rates well below 10 cidents in all phases of the work, induding where'employments etceed 1,000. One com pipe and fitting handling.-.'' pany with more than 150 employees has had Education leading to safe handling of pipe no lost time accidents for over 10 years. and fittings requires a knowledge of many These records include exposure to injury in materials and wink methods. One of the'dif- vehicles, shops; offices, laboratories, ware ficulties encountered in preparing manuals is . houses, water treatment and pumping sta the desire to cover every detail encountered tions, system operations, maintenance and in many current' methods by which various repair^ and new'construction. They indude materials are installed. Obsolescence begins the dog that'bites the meter reader, and the as soon, as new products, improved' cquip- bee that stings tbe pipe patrolman. Pipe and ment, or different techniques come into fittihgs must be handled safely or their, fre being. Classroom or jobsite training is quency rates would suffer. usually limited to materials, methods, and Other utilities desiring to equal or surpass equipment currently in use. Here, too, costly these rates ask, "How do you handle pipe and time . consuming retraining may be. and fittings safely?" Several answers are needed to meet advances.ih the industry. available. Upon examination, the answers are basically the same-education. Manuals, on- the-job 'training, dass zooms, or .any combi nation of 'these methods' Is effective in edu cating foe workman. They help in educating the supervisory employee. Management, however, requires education of a different nature. It must learn its role. Alertness to need, investigation of problems, determination to acquireproducts, vehides, tools, and equipment designed to function adequately is management's task. Proper use. and maintenance of these items, is' die- duty of the employee. Suggestions to the employ ees in die use of materials and methods of installation, coupled with suggestions to the By using a functional approach to educa- . tion in safe handling of pipe and fittings, we can remain timely without continual updat ing. it is easy to understand, and Is readily applicable to wide varieties of products, tools and equipment Suchan approach may seem to change the subject from "Safe Handling of Pipe And Fittings" to "General Safety Practice in the Field and in the Shop". To a large degree this is true. Safety in the handling of pipe and fittings is attained by the same general practices by which safety, is obtained in every field in which a human, being uses tools and equipment. management for improvement in products, Several generalizations are just as ap 10 Public Utilities propriate for pipe handling as they are to taining devices to prevent undue motion, many other projects: special concrete forms for support or for - JL Knew what you're doing at all times; vaults and many cither specialized treatments guard against carelessness in repetitions for individual problems. jobs. Generally, a water distribution system is 2. Use the proper materials,. tools and considered to be divided into two major cat egories: services and mains. Pumping and ' S. Maine safe and ample wedc zoom. treatment plants, togetherwife reservoirs and 4. TiyV and thtnV abend, - tanks, are necessary, to fee system but axe 5. Work with the speed which gives good . daSsed more properly under fee category of results. Do not mistake "haste'* for "Water.Supply". In any event, applying a "speed.* functional approach, the safety practices ap a re-ratnfrm partial results from time to plied to handling service or main pipes will time; test, if necessary, to assure good apply to pumps, tanks, etc. Water services are fee, combination of 7. Avoid shortcuts that axe not faDy valves, fittings and piping required to convey thought, out water from fee main pipe to fee Individual', a . Clean up the tools, equipment; and consumer. While services may be as large as work areas before; during; and after . 10. laches in size, fee great majority are % fee-job.' inch or 1 inch when used for residences and 9. Upon completion, consider whether the usually 2 inches or less for commercial pur r nest similar fob can be done In a safer poses. or more skillful way. - Prom fee early 1800's until about 1920, Applying these rales to speciSc fobs in lead piping wife brass or bronze fittings was banHijng pipe and fittings will result in fine xisaal for % inch, % inch, and 1 inch serv workmanship, long lasting installations, and ice work. After being cat wife a hacksaw, in the-redaction or absence of industrial sect- earlier years, fee lead pipe was "wiped" to fee fittings or other pipe by handworldng In order to understand why certain func molten solder. As time went by, the lead was . tions are common to wide areas of pipe and fomted.wife a bafi-peen'hammer to form a fitting wide; let ns eramthe the distribution flat end which could he drawn into place by system of a water utility. It may fnefode . a threaded retaining nut which heldthe joint pipe and fittings ranging from .% Inch In firmly against a threaded fitting. Leather . sfoe to 60 inches in diameter. Hie material gaskets prevented leakage. Hie tools re rind .fer. pipe; and sometimes fittings, in quired were a hacksaw, fife, hammer, pot for cludes: copper, brass, wrought iron, steel, as melting solder, penning ladle, 'cento punch bestos cement, plastic, lead, concrete, and, for maintaining full diameter at the working on sine occasions, wood. Tha.pfpe and &- ends of fee lead pipe, and pipe- or monkey- tings may be joined together by brazing, sok wrenches for tightening fittings. Openings . rierfng and-diver soldering, pipe threads, into fee water mate required drilling'and welding, rubber gasket compression sleeves. tapping tools. Sained joints and following mots, adhesives, During this time 1% inch or 2. inch pipes gAn-twi or'metal to metal flanges retained were made of wrought iron.or steel, and by nuts and bolts, oir bell and spigot joints, were connected to fee water main by multi filled wife molten lead, sulphur compound, ple small lead connections. Galvanized steel or dampened cement hammered to compac pipe gradually came into use for % inch, % tion. inch, or 1 inch services as it was improved in . - The piping will usually be installed in. soil resistance, .and fee trade discovered that- trendies and excavations. Ground cover will steel pipe could be driven underground, feus vary`from a few inches to several feet, espe eliminating costly excavation, backfill, and cially In cases, where protection against paving. From about 1929.until World War freezing or interference of other utilities is II, fee usual material for % inch or 1 inch . indicated. Some aboveground Installations service pipes; as well, as 1% inch or 2 inch. may be encountered adjacent to treatment or pipes, was galvanized steel, connected to fee pumping plants, or wbererough terrain re water main by a short piece of lead to over quires bridging. Installation may require come settlement problems, or ground move special hot or cold coatings or wrappings, re ments, and using threaded wrought Iron pipe 17 1867 National Safety Congress fittings where needed. The tools required in attention' should be directed to hydraulic cluded hacksaws, wheeled pipe cutters, pipe jacking devices which may be used to ram threading devices, pipe vises, and pipe sted tubing underground to avoid trendring. wrenches. This work .is accomplished by use of water In the late 1930's and more strongly after jetting, or by drilling, or by force derived- - 1945, flexible tubing made of copper became from impact or leverage. The pipe is forced the most commonly used material for % forward in sand, day, and similar soils. Oc inch and 1 inch services. Methods for instal- casionally the driven pipe is removed and ' lation are quite similar to lead; but .the flare copper or plastic is fed through tire tunnel. is 'made in a cone.shape held firmly against In some cases; installation is through the ori- the cone shaped valve or 'fitting end by are- ginally'driven pipe. taining nut Leakage is .prevented by die Let us now direct our attention to water smooth metal-to-metal seating.'Hie tools re mains which, more by reason of their size quired indude .`hacksaws, wheeled tubing than of their composition, require different cutters, flaring tools similar to . large center tods and equipment and therefore raise punches, hammers; and pipe wrenches. Some other facets of protection against injury. installations are made byjointtng fittings or Materials encountered in normal; water, lengths of tubing by using common solder or main work are: cast iron or ductile iron silver solder; This method requires a heating (which is similar to cast iron in longevity but device, usually'a propane torch. Blowtorches - approaches sted in tensile strength), asbes and butane torches are occasionally used. tos transit^ sted tubing, or fabricated pipe ` Sandpaper and soldering flux are required. made from sted plate or strips, concrete, and The latest material to attain'widespread a combination of concrete with a steel liner. . use in % inch and 1 inch sizes is a plastic Wood stave piping is sometimes used where tubing, usually polyethylene. It.appears to frost is deep. have reasonable ' longevity, it maintains The.method of joining may be by com long-term carrying capacity, and is1 less pacting damp cement or molten lead, or by. ' costly than other piping materials. This, serv- pouring hot sulphur compounds, into a bell' ice pipe may be joined by heating the aids and spigot joint. It may be joined by thread somewhat above thebofling point of water ing or welding in steel pipe, or by compres-. and then uring conventional copper service, sion joints in which a rubber ring is held for fittings and flaring methods, or it may be cibly in place by a jacket or coupling. Sev joined by plastic fittings and special plastic eral varieties of flanges and bolting using adhesive, or by using plastic or bronze fit gaskets, rubber rings, or metal-to-metal seat tings to which the plastic tubing is retained ing are all In use. Bdl and spigot jointing in by small ,stainless steel bands; much as one which a rubber gasket is retained in grooves would install a. radiator hose in his automo and a compression ring sleeve covering two bile. Tools required indude .hacksaws, plain pipe ends is sometimes used. Brazing wheded tubing cutters, propane or butane of cast iron or sted may.be doneon rare oc torches, heating units and containers, for a casions, usually in repair jobs. Cotton may glycol bath to heat the tubing,'flaring tools, be used with woodpipo joints and seams to pipe, and monkey wrenches. ensure water-tightness by swelling.. The . connection of a service pipe to the Large services ranging from over 2 inches water main may'require drilling through cast to 16 indies .and larger are identical to water iron, ductile iron, asbestos cement pipe, con mains in materials and methods. On the crete pipe with or without a steel insert, or . other hand, water mains 2 .inches and through steel or even wood. Most materials smaller are identical to water services. may be pierced by .a steel drill and'can be The fittings encountered on distribution successfully threaded with a steel tap. For mains are much more usually made of cast steel mains/wdding may be required to at iron than any other material, since these fit tach the first fitting to the main. Where main tings work well on cast iron, ductile iron, or pipe diameters do not permit direct drilling asbestos cement piping. and tapping, a "saddle'' held to the main by The tools usually used for. installation and use of a "U" bolt is generally used. The repair of water mains indude: hand-oper water main is pierced through the . saddle ated whed cutters, hydraulically powered opening or through the valve it holds. whed cutters, portable drag saws, and more Before leaving tire area of service piping. recently, abrasive whed cutters gfmtinr in 18 s . .' -Public Utilities nature- to portable chain saws, mechanical pipe and fittings, becomes, in reality, the ex and hydraulic "jacking*! devices, chain tongs, tension.of universally accepted safety proce peaveys, threading machines, pipe tongs {or dures. . Many 'existing governmental "Safety lifting, hand- or lever-operated chain hills, Rules'* or "Orders", trade manuals, manufac rope - slings, chisels, hammers . of various turers' guides,, and general safety manuals weights and shapes, manual or power driven are available. The preparation of manuals compacting tools, and a wide variety of hand for classes, or on-the-job training in specific wrenches, files, axes, and saws. Pots for melt- ' or . general methods of pipe handling would ing lead, . sulphur or coating compounds appear to be unnecessary. - heated by' acetylene or butane, pouring la Application of well established principles dles and "runners*' to contain die molten connected with band tods will lead to the materials until cool axe in general use. Bu general safety of the workman, supervisor, or tane, acetylene, and oxy-acetylene burners even the management employee at home as and torches* as well as hell-arc and conven well as in all activities on the job. Inspec tional arc welding devices may be required. tion, deanliness, and good repair are impera- The weights encountered in cast or ductile - tive. Proper use and leverage forestall iron fittings, valves, and most types of water strains,, cuts, abrasions, and contusions. The main.piping require mechanical lifting aids. same safe practices apply wherever steel, Medium sized (6 inch or 8 inch) fittings and chisels and similar tools are to be used. They valves will weigh up to 800 pounds. Eight- must be well sharpened and dressed to. elim een-foot lengths of similar size pipe may inate "mushrooming" at the upper end. Care weigh 1,000 pounds. The odd shapes as well in the use of 'hammers 'avoids injury. Eye as die unbalanced weights encountered in protection and, if necessary* other body pro narrow work areas require a wide variety of - tection must be provided and used. While hand-operated, vehicle powered, or. inoto- one or more devices may seem to be special xized lifting and pulling devices. Winches, ized'for use in distribution system work, ex cable hoists, cranes, sideboom tractors, hy- amination will disclose that the basic fea draulic hoists, backhoe bucket attachments, tures, parts, and operations are common to hooks attached to tractor loaders, drag lines the general 'field of band tools and may be and combinations of these devices may be operated as other -band tools are safely used. used in various situations. Chain, wire, cable, Mechanical or powered equipment for rope, canvas or rubberized slings, metal pipe pipe and fitting handling during installation tongs, and similar equipment and devices and repair is used in die same manner as.it may be required- in addition to the band is used in the other work applications for tools previously mentioned, j which it is designed. Pipe and fittings are'no . Now that we have some knowledge of die' different from other materials that must be materials and tools which may be used on loaded, unloaded^ and placed in' confined the distribution system pipe and fittings, let' spaces. Knowledge of hoisting signals, rig- us put this knowledge to work on a: func ging, care -and inspection of ropes, cables, tional basis. It should be apparent that first mechanical parts or other features of the installation and later repairs or alterations equipment must be a part of the education' will require similar or compatible materials possessed by the employee. .. and thereby similar tools and work methods. Safety in operating heating devices as well Reference to vehicular activities other :than as the maintenance of these tools is not pe loading and unloading, or to . excavation and culiar to pipe handling. Here* again, we. backfill will be avoided. These subjects, must be sure that the employees operating while closely allied to the safe handling of such devices have a complete understanding pipe and fittings, are separate subjects. of the proper uses, have attained skill in - The functions- to consider in obtaining such uses, and realize the dangers involved . safety axe not connected with specific or in improper use of the appliances. They may even general methods of installing or repair then be confidently expected to use them in ing water mains but rather with:' a safe manner. 1. Hand tools. Competent workmanship requires both 2. Mechanical .equipment formal education and comprehensive training 3. Heating devices. in trade skills to the degree necessary to per 4. Competent workmanship. form the most difficult or' unusual task in a Developing safe practices in the handling of given field. It calls for flexibility as well as : 19 1967 Notional Safety Congress ingenuity to achieve a safe and adequate re In conclusion, it should now be evident sult with available materials and equipment that safe handling of pipe and fittings is ob Competent workmanship must be demanded tainable. To achieve this result management, from die employee. There is no room for die supervision, and workmen must apply their man who is ignorant of, or overlooks safe knowledge and abilities to foe task while re practices. Such a man injures himself, his cognizing that it is but a segment of foe family and his fellow workers. Management total utility field. They must, therefore, ac-. Has the duty to enlist competent workman - quire and properly use foe products, tods, ship. Whether it is. obtained from the pre and equipment necessary for an adequate re trained ranks of labor unions, or by appren sult All must be constantly alert to a better " ticeship within the organization becomes die tool or method. All must review foe existing management's choice. conditions with a view to- improvement Once acquired, the trained employeemust Each must keep abreast of changing times so be furnished with adequate safety 'devices, that they may acquire or give additional materials and equipment He . must'be en training connected with new. products, couraged and guided by'experienced super- equipment and methods. If men or organi .vision. The skilled workman and his supervi zations can reduce of eliminate accidents in . sor should feel that they have the privilege any one part of foe work they can do foe and the duty to suggest to 'management a same in handling pipe and fittings. No spe better product or method. This feeling'.is de cial mires are needed. All that is required is veloped when the management listens and a skilled workman, a competent supervisor, adopts or modifies the request of, in reject-' and an alert management who mutually ing the suggestion adds the reason for rejec agree to use good tools, equipment mate tion. . rials, and a fair amount of thinking. SAFE TRENCHING PRACTICES By Wil.T.TAM1 A. ekKliSt-Hi'lR Supti, Water Distribution System Maintenance, Dept of Water Supply* Detroit Midi. A figure has been used that during foe minimize them. In general, foe dangers con fiscal year 1964-1965, fourteen times as sist of foe following: many workers died from caving ditches, 1. Failure of trench walls. . trenches, and excavations, as died from any 2. Falling objects. other typo of construction work. 3.. Men working too close together. Out of every one-hundred disabling inju 4. Men falling or tripping. ries from cave-ins, eight workmen died; or to 5. Other structures. put it another way, put* of every thirteen By far, foe most prevalent danger is that workers who received a disabling injury of failure of foe side walls of foe excavation. from cave-ins, one died. Although everyone even remotely connected AH experienced construction men know that proper trench shoring cannot be re duced to. a standard formula. What is ade quate protection in one location, inay'be com with .trench work is aware of foe dangers en. countered with sliding or caving of the walls, this is still foe commonest and poten tially foe most serious. pletely inadequate' protection , only a short Why. do these accidents happen? distance away. Nevertheless, experience has The usual reason is that foe workmen or indicated/ that observance of a few funda- - foe supervisor decided to. take a chance. He mentals will go a long way toward prevent thought: ing most accidents. `Yve worked in this type of ground before Before we present these 'fundamentals, without bracing.** perhaps we . should consider what some, of ' TH spend more time bracing this than the dangers are, and what can be done to doing foe work.** 1 20 Public Utilities 1 don't have enough bench fades or tim question that there were enough men on the bers here." job to install.trench jacks after the trench "Bracing this trench would moke the cost had been roughed out But it happened. of this fob too high, the boss will lose One approach to preventing accidents to money." workmen from trench failures.is to insist that Or any one of hundreds of other excuses every trench that men are going to work in may have been' used. must either be braced or die sides sloped to Recently in my division, a crew of men the natural angle of repose of the material was installing on eight inch water main being excavated. ' alongside an unpaved street The earth was At first this sounds like a rigorous rule; . a fairly uniform sand loam with a trace of but let's examine for a bit The first question brown day. No other excavations of record usually asked is, "Why should we brace a had been made anywhere in the area. The shallow trench that's only three or four feet pipe that was being installed was 18-foot deep?" lengths of cast-iron water main with rubber The amount of bracing installed is directly joints. The operation was to use a small, ex proportional to the depth of the trench. The cavating machine of the back-hoe type that amount of bracing in a shallow trench is had a 30-inch wide bucket The trench was minimal and conceivably can be only a cou to be approximately six feet deep to give the ple.of boards put in it with a spreader be-` pipe about five feet of cover. The excavation tween them. Making the rule apply to all was made approximately .20 feet ahead .of tranches eliminates the need for any in the bell end of the last pipe laid. The trench . terpretation. ' bottom was rough shaped by the digging Another question asked is, "How do you machine so that all a man had to do was. determine the angle of repose?" finish shaping the bed for the pipe. Since the Make a pile of the spoil out of die trench earth was a sandy loam,, no additional bed --die slope of die pile is the angle of repose. ding was used. When the next pipe was low Another question is, "Some trenches are ered into the trench the workman had to in too small to brace, like.those for some small sert the spigot end of the pipe into the bell building footings." . end of the pipe previously laid, after he had If a trench is too small or narrow to brace, cleaned the bell recess of the' pipe by hand... it's too small or narrow for a man to work in. The whole operation for the man in-the Still another question is, "Some trenches trench didn't require more than two or three are too wide to brace, like those for large' -minutes. ... pipe." Eleven hundred feet of a thirteen hundred Trenches that are too wide to span with ' foot job bid been laid when the accident braces have to be treated like-excavations happened. - - and braced similarly: In a trench for large A rotted tree stump that had been buried pipe--6, 7, 8-foot diameter--the pipe itself by some other operation lay concealed in the 'can.be used as support for- the walls and, at wall of the trench, and just as the workman the en'd of the pipe, considered as protection bent over to wipe out the pipe bell, the tree for the workmen. stump fell out bringing the entire wall with Another reason for the walls of a trench it . caving or failing is because- the excavated The-result was a fatality arising from com material was placed too dose to the edge of. plications developed from, four fractured the. trench.' Most sources indicate that fill ribs. and all loose material must be kept back at All the usual excuses could be used here: least two-feet from the edge'of the-cut. The "After 1,100 feet, who would think the State of Michigan Safety Rules and Regula trench would foil now?" - tions for the Construction Industry indicate "Why spend five to ten minutes to brace a that nothing should be stored or placed . trench that's only open five minutes to do nearer than four feet from the edge of the the work? A man is only in the trench about trench. However, if the two foot minimum is three minutes." observed, in most cases in a braced trench There was bracing' available to at least the angle of repose of the excavated material support the'area where the man had to bend will- cause the surcharge load to be. placed over, but since it wasn't being used, it was outside the area of possible failure by slid .left several hundred feet away. There is no ing. 21 1967 National Safety Congress A third reason for failure of trench walls (I) The tool is too heavy to catch, (2) he is inadequate bracing because of a lack of loses sight of it. and catches it on his hand, knowledge, or failure to apply knowledge of (3) the aim is had and^meone else catches bracing principles. it on his hand, (4) timitool is deflected part Usually, we find that a large project has way down, (5) when looking'up to watch had much consideration given to the nature the tool, the workman has sand fall in his . of the soil, and the method of construction eye, etc. can and should be planned before starting - The only safe way to control this is to work. Hie workmen then have .a chance to never allow anything to.be dropped to some determine how to install the bracing. Most one else. accidents happen where a job is considered 'When the man is through with the tool, . two small- of too routine for any advance rather than leave it in the hole- where he planning. A crew of men are sent out to do a ` might trip over it or lose it, the workman job and they run into tilings they are not will decide to throw it back up. Again any equipped to handle, by either ability or tools number of things can happen; or both. (1) the man above misses it and it falls This falls into the management area--be back, (2) the man above tries to reach for' it sure-the people assigned to work on a job and loses his balance, (3) the man above are equipped to handle it. Advance plan catches a sharp object--point first ning, training programs and/or experienced These can happen and have allhappened people will in most cases take care of this before. . problem. The way to prevent these things from - A fourth reason for failure of a trench has happening is to insist that whenever tools been found to be attempting to use defective are to be raised or lowered, they should be materials. Again, this is a problem that can raised or lowered with a rope, or pail or box be overcome by having experienced person . bn the end of a rope. How often have you nel who can and' will recognize defective seen someone try to lower something in a material and who know enough to say, *Tm pail that's too large to fit .into' the poll? not going to use that" When it gets part way down, the pail tips A big problem to be Watched for is where and'drops everything out! conditions change during the course- of an How often have you seen someone walk operation. Heavy rainfall, alternate freezing ing along the edge" of a -trench scuff sand- and thawing, seepage, overflow of sewers, into it? melting of snow, etc, all produce hazards How often have you seen tools left on which, must be considered. Heavy, rainfall the edge of a trench.to be kicked in? may wash excavated material back into the How- often have you-seen someone work- - trench, greatly increase the rate of seepage, ing in a trench without a safety helmet? and cause damage to the trench wads. A job : How often have you seen someone try to .started.in frozen ground may, when started, cross a trench by walking across a brace? be' safe; but thawing may cause the entire All these things only serve to keep the job bank to fail. ' interesting for the man below.. He never A job may have been planned to be done knows who orwhat is going to. drop in next with little or no equipment; but after once Accidents from these things can be kept at' started, a large heaivy piece of equipment a minimum by strict observance of a rule to working on the edge of a trench that was keep everyone away from the edge 'of the safe with smaller equipment may be enough trench except those men needed there; also a to cause the failure. rule that whenever an object cannot be The. second hazard mentioned, that of ob handed to a man in such a way that he can . jects falling on people working in the trench handle it that it must be lowered by means is another that requires constant attention. of,a rope. The most common source of trouble from This subject also covers working under ov this area arises from tools or material being erhanging materials. Be. sure that whenever dropped into or thrown from the trench. A anyone is working' under any overhanging hammer, saw,' wrench, or other tool is material it is firmly and solidly in place. needed by one of the workmen and someone The only other trench fatality beside the attempts to drop it to him. Any number of one already mentioned in my division come things can happen; several yean ago, when a man went under ^ 22 Public UtOitiet large, piece of overhanging pavement The reminding is necessary: "Check before you men that worked around him and tried to dig." .. | get him out will never forget it ' Too many workmen think they can tell if Another danger connected with trench a trench had been dug in foe area before, safety is that of men working too dose to and even who dug it; They acquire foe abil gether. Bade in the days before excavating ity to identify a trench by foe faint raise or equipment was so widely used, forty or fifty depression, foe patch in foe street; or foe men with picks and shovels were lined up discoloration in foe earth. This kind of abil and told to dig a-trench. Here, the spacing ity indicates an experienced workman, but between them for obvious reasons, was im foe use to which he puts his experience is portant However, fewer men now work in foe key..' a trench, and this point is not thought of as Just because you're three feet away from a often. Therefore it becomes more important gas main trench doesn't mean there isn't one . as workmen are more apt to forget to leave right where you're digging. their `fellow workman adequate 'Work room. If electric wires are overhead, it doesn't Another hazard is men falling, or tripping. mean there isn't,one underneath. The normal bracing in a trench appears , to The continually increasing development of be so good for climbing in and out that lad different types of digging machines has done ders are often omitted. Here again the dan much to speed up excavating work and earth gers are obvious. handling. However, whenever a digging ma A man can slip off a cross, brace. A man chine is used, he it a back hoe, a trencher, a can try to climb on a loose brace or one that pull shovel, a dam' bucket, a scoop or any won't support him. Material can be knocked into the trench. A ladder should always be used to enter and leave an excavation, and foe ladder should be used properly. Care should be taken to be sure that it is firmly other type, it is often difficult for foie opera tor to see dearly at foe point of actual dig ging. Many serious accidents have been . caused by signals being given to ah operator by anyone who is standing around. Maybe positioned at foe bottom and top. The top three rungs should be used only for support' and should always extend .above foe top . edge of foe trench. Keep foe rungs free of tools, oil, grease, etc. that might cause a man to trip. In most urban areas, it is virtually impos sible' to make any excavation without en- ' countering another structure. In my division, we have a standard procedure. Whenever we are going to do any digging whatsoever, we consult every other utility to determine if there are any. ducts, wires, or pipes that may be involved. This has done .much to cut down on damaging'other , installations and also to protect workmen from .accidents. Every underground worker has no end of stories about foe damages he has seen or heard of being done to or by underground installations. These range from pushing a .bar or probe into a high, voltage electric wire, being blown out of. a hole by water force, in stalling a water tap on a gas main, or seeing two or three will all team up and all give signals. On every fob one competent man should be selected to give whatever, signals are needed to foe operator.-This man should watch foe boom to see that overhead wires are safely avoided. Also, he should watch foe. actual point of digging. Perhaps foe op erator can see, but foe signalman's viewpoint is different He may be able to see what foe - operator cannot The signal man and foe machine operator should be used- to working together' so that their signals can be easily understood. No one should be allowed in foe trench while a machine is working or when material, is being raised or lowered. If someone is're quired to guide foe material he should stand clear and use a pole and/or rope to do foe guiding. >. Remember, foe machine operator has his hands full. He 'cannot watch what, he is doing and also watch and listen .to.others who may be wandering around his machine. foe many colored maze of wires when a Another factor that must be remembered multi-paired telephone wire is cut- Only too is .foe new. man. We must remember foe ' - often, even experienced workmen will> go major responsibility for foe training and ahead with an excavation without first inves safety of foe new-mon rests with foe super tigating to see if there are any other utilities visor; but .his fellow employees also shore nearby. This is another area .where constant this responsibility. In order for a crew to ' 23. ` J.867 National Safety Congress avoid injuries, they must learn to work, to going to be used, they should be inspected . gether. . beforehand to be ' sure' they are in. good Hie supervisor can teach the care- and working condition and the workmen cau handling of the tools, and can show how the tioned, continually, to properly center them department operates. We must remember so they will not kick out when a load is ap that each crew may have somewhat different plied. When jacks are used, blocks should be procedures, and that a new or- transferred installed under each end to minimize -the employee may not fit in immediately. It is hazard due to failure or slipping of the. jades. eyeryone's.job to help the new man become While the excavating is being done, the part of the team. bracing should be kept as dose to the lower To summarize, a safe trenching procedure. end of the digging boom as possible. This is would be the following: important, hot only from the standpoint of Have a competent person inspect the area safety to the men but also to the protection before any work is done.' If there are any ov of the trench. If the bank should fail several erhead wires they should be noted and due feet behind the machine, it will be necessary consideration given when selecting digging to back the machine either over the 'trench or hoisting equipment Records of all utilities or around the trench to dean the material should be checked and the locations of their out, or to dean it out by hand methods. installations determined. If any structures One common error made, especially in are noted to be in or immediately adjacent wet areas, is to fail to toe the sheeting into to the proposed trench, advance provisions the bottom pf the trench to avoid'upheaval should be mode for removing, relocating, or or flow of the bottom, caused by die sur protecting them. If there ore any buildings charge load of the spoil or in extreme cases . nearby, they should be inspected far struc ' the banks themselves. In these cases, the hy tural defects or conditions that may affect drostatic pressure on the sheeting must be. the work. A crack in a wall or a- footing considered when designing for the lateral should be noted and plans made accord loads, to be carried. It must be remembered , ingly. If the work is to be done in a street or that, with a soil' possessing sufficient cohe public walkway, means should be devised to sion to act' as a solid, the side, pressures protect from pedestrian and/or vehicular reach a mnTfanmri aba-point slightly about traffic. the center of the cub With non-cohesive Before any excavation is started, a deter soils and saturated soils, the side*pressures mination must be made of whether it will increase in proportion to the depth of the have sloped sides, braced sides, or a combi cub nation of both. If the' sides are to be braced, the. method of bracing must be decided on and all.the material required must be on the site or accounted for before any'excavation is'done. * - If the excavation'is to have sloped, sides,' an estimate of the distance the spoil pile win reach must be made as -early 'as possible to be sure there will be adequate room for it and that the digging equipment will be able to place.it there. A competent person should .be selected on Recently, with the increasing costs of- tim ber and labor and the awareness of safety of workmen, trench shields or. boxes are being more widely used. The size and the type of. the shield is usually governed by the trench width and depth. It should be wide enough to allow men and material and equipment to be moved in and out easily, They are usually constructed of steel plates welded to-a heavy structural steel or pipe framework. It must be remembered that with bracing, every excavating job who will be responsible of timber or trench jacks, single cross-mem for frequent inspections of the shoring, and . bers can be removal occasionally to allow he should be informed he has this responsi- . bility. Also, - each workman should be in structed to report any sign of weakness to material' or equipment to be raised, or low ered. In a prefabricated box with welded cross members,this is impossible. ' this man immediately. When / job is completed, it is usually - . Where diagonal bracing is installed, it is considered' desirable to salvage the shoring extremely important that adequate bearing is or bracing for re-use. The removal of sheet provided at die lower end to resist the thrust ing may leave a void that.is difficult to fllh It of the'bank above. is often necessary, where earth movement to If trench jacks or prefabricated shores are fill voids left by the sheeting removal may 24 Public Utilities cause damage' to another structure, to leave the sheeting in place. However, where it is possible to remove sheeting, shoring, or cross bracing, it should be removed cautiously, keeping the backfill as dose as possible. Systematic dismantling from the bottom upward, either by having die braces pulled out from above with lifting equipment or by introducing screw Jades that will take up the strain of wedged tim ber cross braces so they can be removed eas ily; then the strain on the screw jacks may . be released slowly with die condition of the side walls taken into account Safety in trenching;, as with safety in any other operation, is accomplished by the con stant repetition of a few basic points: 1. Brace or dope all trendies. 2. Maintain good housekeeping. Keep the work area free of idle tools, material or equipment 3. Only allow the people around the work area that are needed there. 4. Make sure the workmen understand tiieirjob. THE GAS INDUSTRY'S OFF-THE-JOB SAFETY ACTIVITIES By ALEX PIERSON Safety Engineer, Philadelphia Gas Works, Division of UGL , > Philadelphia, Pa. The accident prevention committee of the for every disabling injury, on the job. The American Gas-Association represents produc- average of several companies was a six-to- . tion, transmission, and distribution compa one ratio; nies from the Atlantic to die Pacific and This, tells us that when an employee from Canada to' Mexico. The committee ac checks- out at the end of his shift, he leaves complishes its work through 14. active kib- behind his carefully constructed and con- committees. One subcommittee is charged stantiy maintained network of safety. He be-, with off-the-job safety. The'scope of this conies a member of die general public along subcommittee is to promote off-the-job safety die highways and at home .during hours of activities among companies in die gas indus ' recreation. It was imperative that we should try, and to gather, prepare and disseminate concern ourselves with this problem. This material oh off-the-job safety from other in off-the-job environment should be a primary dustries, organizations, and conferences. The concern for all safety and management peo entire accident prevention committee meets ple. twicer-a year to approve and further the Our immediate aim was not to cause work of the subcommittees. undue anxiety, but rather to suggest means What is off-the-job safety all about? Basi of removing causes for alarm. Caution 'is not cally, it should be on extension of a com enough because many of the dangers in pany's on-the-job safety program. It is not a aw&y-hom-yvoik environments are not com separate program--we refer to them as ac- monly known. Few know, for example, that tiyitiesjather than as a program. Off-the-job all four legs of a step ladder should be level safety involves employees, and this term is. before using it used by employers to.designate that part of We wanted , to emphasize the seriousness their safety program directed to the em of certain fids to life and property fre- ployee when he is not at work. quendy occurring in or about the home. We For'years, a few of the gas. companies . also wanted to give, simple methods of care were concerned about the large number of - and caution against such hazards. away-from-work accidents resulting in em To leam more about the industry experi- ployee disabling injuries. One company ex ence, we began our study by surveying 168 ' perienced 24 off-the-job, lost-time injuries selec*ted compa nies. The committee .,wat nted ,! 25 1967 Vational Safety Congress to know,the injury experience .and off-the-job . Unfortunately, all these committee efforts safety activities in -which these companies were oidy'able to motivate a few companies. were involved. Thirty per cent of die compa Other firms were beginning to show interest, nies replied to' our survey questionnaire. but little was being done by the industry as Only 14 reported available statistics an in a whole. jury experience. Incidentally, a number of Consequently; the committee intensified company representatives asked for informa its promotional endeavors and disseminated tion and assistance since they were seriously information on ideas, activities, and mate considering formal off-the-job safety activi rials to encourage more companies to ac ties. Others reported that although they tively support off-the-job safety. didn't keep score on disabling injuries, they The 'booklet; Off-the-job Safety Program were promoting off-the-job safety. For the Gas Industry, was revised. Two The data-supplied to the American Gas major and significant changes were made. Association, along with many requests for - Our revisions focused on management's at additional, information, disturbed the com tention. The record achieved in the indus mittee members..' It was apparent' there was try's reduction of on-duty injury proved we need, to assist member companies, and that had this "know-how" and this should be ap an additional. subcommittee on off-the-job plied to off-the-job safety, as well.-The title safety .would be'a step in the right direction; of the booklet was.changed to Join the Gas Of particular concern was the large num-. Industry War Against Off-Duty Infury. her of disabling injuries reported. The-14 Since the committee was determined in .its companies previously referred to .employed efforts to wake up the industry to this waste approximately 30,000 people, or 14 per.cent of manpower and money, it was decided of the industry's employees. A total of 1,794- that bur approach- should be the same one disabling injuries (including three fatalities) that proved successful in curbing on-the-job resulted in more than 17,000 man-days'away injuries.' We needed to know not only the from productivity during 1964. number of disabling injuries from many With cooperation from.the National Safety more companies, but. also the specific-area in Council, a booklet, Off-the-job Safety Pro-- which accidents occurred. Guided by the gram For the Gas Industry was developed. National Safety Council's suggested method The story .of employee accidents occurring for reporting off-the-job injuries, we decided away freon the plant was made available to to' use the same. format for two reasons: the industry. The booklet featured a success-., First, to 'determine in which of three envi ful company program and many strong mo ronments' gas people are mostly involved;, tives for promoting off-the-job safety. It out that is, home, transportation, or public. This lined a program to assist in- starting off-the- would make available a comparison with job safety activities, including an injury re other industries as reported to the National port form, and also listed several-sou/ces of Safety Council. Secondly, to concentrate on useful handout material on a variety of that environment which would give us the safety subjects. greatest reduction of accidents. To make this initial impact on the .indus In addition, a form was developed to re try more effective, and to create' an atmos port company experience to the Statistical phere of .acceptance, an off-the-job safety, Bureau of the American Gas Association. program folder was also developed. This Our objective here, of course, was to encour 'folder used'the theme of "Safety everywhere age companies to record experience and re all'the time", and a copy was mailed to each port it to-.the association. company. This, mailing was followed by communica Evaluation of this particular subcommittee tions to safety correspondents in the indus project revealed: try, informing them of surVey composites. 1. More and-more companies were consid We passed along additional information ering formal.off-the-job safety programs; based on the industry's experience to supple ' 2. That not much promotional material ment knowledge among gas companies now was being purchased; having off-the-job safety activities. Last,- but - 3. That an increasing number-.of compa far from least, information was intended to nies were talking about off-the-job safety help other companies-plan and institute such and that our project was a real start toward activities. getting them involved. Statistics collected from'member compa- 26 ' Public Utilities nies on offfoo-job injuries were published in was-published iria September, 1967* issue of the American Gas. Association monthly mag the National Safety News. I suggest you azine. Articles were written on die subject - read this data sheet prepared by the Na and also were published in the monthly. We tional Safety Council staff. Besides reporting wanted top management to know that our the cost of accidents, it deals with off-the-job industry was no different in off-foe-job acci programs, specific ideas, record-keeping, and dents than othet industries. statistical formulas. From these statistics we now believe what We asked our safety correspondents again other industries have known for years: that and again to indicate to -us ways in which our greatest loss, of manpower from accidents foe accident prevention committee could as results from experience away from the job! sist them in off-foe-job safety. We learned From last year's findings, we know drat of that we couldhelp by developing educa die total number of aU. accidents experienced tional material, training aids, program activi by 21 per cent of die industry's employees, ties, providing animal experience reports and - 84 per cent of these accidents occurred away guides for selling an aggressive off-the-job from the pland safety program to management. Help is also Although we are not overly enthused with needed in pressing major executives so that die .response received by this promotional they will wear down foe layers of manage drive, we were nevertheless pleased to learn ment insulation Between foe chief executive that our efforts were not completely in vain. and foe workers. .. We did receive inquiries for-additional as On this last point we encountered a little sistance! The number of companies reporting problem: that last suggestion, "Hitting the off-the-job accident experience now numbers top executive", is a tough assignment--I 88. Certainly this is an improvement from haven't found any committee member that is the seven companies who submitted their ex willing to tackle this one. However, we did perience in 1962, and the 14 companies re- . develop something that we feel is a good porting for 1964. answer to most of foe requests made by foe .The information obtained from these 38 industry. companies for 1966 off-the-job injury experi We have prepared a booklet- with facts,. ence justified our concern and intensified the ideas, materials, and- a planning schedule for emphasis in getting the industry involved. off-the-job safety activities. We believe this Bared on this data, the 1966 experience information wifi assist a company regardless . shows that: .of foe number of employees it hires. Re You can expect one disabling injury result member, too, we believe your efforts in edu ing bom off-duty accidents for every 30 em cating employees--including your manage ployees on your, payroll. ment-should follow foe basics previously, You can expect each of these injured em mentioned. Specifically, there off-tWjob ac ployees to lose approximately 10 working tivities should be an extension of your on- days. foe-job safety program. You can expect, on the average, 5.4 disa During foe past 18 months foe committee, bling injuries off-the-job for every one on- keeping within its scope the thought of the-job. "gathering, preparing, and- disseminating You can expect at the higher extreme 19 material on off-foe-job safety from other in disabling off-the-job injuries- for every one dustries, organizations, and conferences," ac on-the-job. and, on1' die lower extreme, 1.3 cumulated, reviewed, and selected material, disabling injuries off-the-job for every one at on off-foe-job safety. We borrowed, .so to work. speak, materials; ideas, and successful gas You can further expect that for every. 10 company off-the-job safety activities and put off-duty accidents six of them will occur in them between covers for your use. the home. The other four will be split be- . The intent is to assist foe industry with in tween public and traffic exposures. formation to management and to develop You can expect it will cost your company and schedule activities on off-foe-job safety. manpower and money. The cost per accident In detail, we tell you about* foe seriousness depends on your company's .employee ab of foe problem, foe many benefits to be de sence policy.. For a simplified plan in esti rived from company' activities, along with mating such,cost, I refer you to'foe National data showing what off-the-job accidents cost Safety Council Data Sheet 601. This sheet - There ore examples of how some companies 27- 1967 National Safety Congress record and report off-the-job injuries, includ perience, your . company experience. You ing exhibits of reporting forms. must maintain records of your employee In addition, there is an "off-tho-job safety off-duty accidents! calendar^* to assist you in planning your This leads to the third need: Planning ac yearly activities. This calendar also gives an tivities for off-the-Job safety must .be ap idea of how to tie in company promotional proached with the same thought and care material with national themes, such as fire that the gas industry uses in *nrifting work prevention week; poison prevention week; accidents. etc. In the opinion of the Accident Prevention We can tell you of die many avenues ' Committee there is no question of the need available to get your message across to em for off-the-Job safety activities. As I have al ployees. There are bulletin boards, company ready mentioned; the average ratio of 88 publications, payroll inserts,1 films, meetings, companies for off-duty injury; versus on-duty safety publications, handouts--just to name injury' was 5.4 to 1. How about your own a few.'Examples of these activities in use company's experience? Is it 19 to 1, or 1.3 to today by gas companies are shown and sup 1? plemented with material sources in our In addition to injury reduction, your com booklet. pany can also benefit in these three ways: Let's assume, for example, you are inter 1. Reducing lost-time and operating costs. ested in traffic safety and wish to distribute 2. Helping with company efforts to im a pamphlet to your employees. If so, you prove your on-the-job safety program. need only refer to the traffic safety section of 8. Contributing to better public relations. the booklet. .listed there are 81 subjects We are- continuingly urging this industry from accident statistics to winter driving, to provide us with data about its off-the^ob with names and addresses of 58 agencies injury experience. We must have statistics where.this material is available. for future analysis to plan additional activi This, then, in part; is die committee's re ties. Our committee project, "Facts, ideas, sponse to assist the gas industry in program-, materials and planning schedule for your ming off-the-Job safety. A lot more needs to off-the-job safety activities," was possible be done. The committee is presently working only through the experience and cooperation on next year's plans to assist, promote, and of. a mere handful of gas companies. We collect offrdie-job injury experience for the need to get many more companies involved. industry.. We ask that you .give this some serious Ton must become part of these plans if we thought. are to achieve'a reduction in die number of The final need is effort Few achievements employee accidents. resulting from away- come ..without working for them. Analysis from-worlc mishaps. Telling your employees and planning are wasted if they do not lead .. the fell story on off-the-Job injury experience to action. Nor can our effort to improve the in your company can help your accident pre off-duty injury picture be of a "quickie" na vention program. ture. The problem is too challenging for that Using this as one of many approaches in simple a solution. Off-the-job safety will my own company of 2,900 employees, we need.action for a long time to come. The. have reduced off-duty accident frequency by sooner we set about the job in earnest the. 20 per cent in the last two years.. sooner we will begin to see improvement There is every indication that improve Off-tire-job safety must.be an integral part ' ment is passible in die industry and that we of every company's accident prevention pro can make progress in the reduction of off- gram. Accidents occurring to our employees the-job accidents if we put ourselves to the on the highway, at play, and at home are so task. The job Will not be an easy one. It re serious that each company must commit all quires, first of all, leadership--your leader its resources toward obtaining this objective. ship! This is vital in every project The record is alarming. I hope that this Second, it requires analysis of the prob one fact will spur each of us to real leader lem. We must have accurate information ship, effective action, and* fulfillment of our concerning the problem. This requires ex ultimate goal! 28 . OFFICERS OF THE PUBLIC UTILITIES SECTION National Safety Council 1967-68 .General Chairman--Kenneth G. Cregab, System Safety Director, Metropolitan Edison Co., Reading, Pa. First Vice-Chairman--B. J. Lorenz, Manager of Safety, Northern Indiana Public Service Co., Hammond, Ind. Second Vice-Chairman--Marvin B. Thavis, Corporate Safety Director, Northern Natural Gas Co., Omaha, Nebr. Secretary--John R. Yeaman, Jr., Division Safety Engineer, Virginia Electric & Power Co., Alexandria, Va. Program Committee--William J. Bryan (Chairman), Safety Engineer, Michigan-Wisconsin Pipeline Co., Detroit, Mich.; Thomas V. Keane (Vice Chairman--Electric), Safety Repre sentative, Philadelphia Electric Co., Philadelphia. Pa.; Alee Pierson (vice Chairman-- Gas),'Safety Engineer; Philadelphia Gas Works, Philadelphia, Pa.; Robert F. Mills (Vice Chairman--Communications), General Safety Supvr., Mountain States Telephone Co., Denver, Goto.: John Ti Cappio (Vice Chairman--Water), City of Philadelphia Water . Dept, Philadelphia, Pa. Technical Publications Committee--Herman C. Potthast (Chairman), Safety Officer, U. S. Dept of-Agriculture, Rural Electrification Admn., Washington, D. C.; J. E. Appel (Vice Chairman-Electric), Safety Engineer, Commonwealth Edison Co., Chicago, HL; Donald E. Ryan (Vice Chairman--Gash Safety Engineer, Washington Gas Light Co.: Washing ton, D. C.j John E. Erandsen (Vice Chairman--Commimications), General Plant Super visor-Personnel, Northwestern Bell Telephone Co,, Omaha, Nebr.; Harry D. Harman .Vice Chairman--Water), Vice President & Asst General Manager, Gary-Hobart Water Corp., Gary, Ind.; Raymond T. Lord, Safety Supervisor, Detroit Edison Co., Detroit, Mich.; William E. Carlson, Loss Prevention Administrator,. General Telephone & Elec- tronics Corp., New York, N. Y. Training Committee--Richard . Vi Molen (Chairman), Supervisor-Safety Services, .Con-' solidated Edison Co. of New York, Inc., New York, N. Y.: R. Paul Bolehjack (Vice Chairman), Safety Director, Illinois Power Co., Decatur, 111.; Ernest G. 'Shearer, Di rector, Safety & Training, Indiana Statewide Rural Electric Cooperative, Inc., Indianapolis, Ind.; Francis E. Payne, Safety Manager, Northeast Utilities Service Co., Hartford, Conn.; . Bruce G. Gallagher, Accident Prevention Coordinator, Hydro-Electric Power Com mission of Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Charles H. McLarty, Assistant Manager of Safety, Texas Power & Light Co., Dallas, Texas; Ashby B. Randolph; Manager of Safety, Consolidated Gas Supply. Corp., Clarksburg, West Va.; Gerald R. Thomas, Safety Director, Columbus & Southem Ohio Electric Co., Columbus, Ohio... Audio-Visual Aids Committee--Vern A. Seelert (Chairman), Safety Manager,. General Telephone Co. of California, Santa Monica,-Calif.; John Rithmiller (Vice Chairman), Staff Safety Engineer, Lumbermens Mutual Casualty Co., Chicago, 111.; Hazen E. Spaulding, Safety Director, Central Vermont Public Service Corp.; Rutland, Vt; K. C. Goodwin, General Safety Advisor, .Consumers Power Co., Jackson, Mich.; Frank Sustello, Jr., Employee Relations, Safety & Claims Superintendent, Reading Gas Division, United Gas Improvement Co., Reading, Pa.; Robert J. Owens, Safety Engineer, Pacific Gas & Electric Co., San Francisco, Calif. SO Membership Committee--hi. H. Maxwell (Chairman), Safety Supervisor, The L. E. Myers Co., Vma Fade, HL; Maynard H. Pki-iit (Vice Chairman), General Plant Training ' Supervisor, Southwestern' Bell Telephone Co., St Louis, Mo.; Paul Windsor, Secretary, . Bureau of Safety, Chicago, HL Newsletter Committee--Robert H. Ward (Editor), Safety Director, Omaha Public Power District, Omaha, Nebr.- Colon F. Stanley (Vice Chairman); Safety Manager, General Telephone Co. of Florida, Tampa, Fla.; Thomas C. McKelly, Dir. of Training & Safety, Ladede Gas Co., St Louis, Mo. Off-the-Job Safety Committee--Ehnest W. Teaut (Chairman), Safety Director, General' Telephone Co. of Pennsylvania, Erie, Pa.; Eugene H. Wesseixs, Jr., Safety Supervisor, - Western Massachusetts Electric Co., West Springfield, Mass.; Donald N. Moore; Safety Engineer Assistant; Los Angeles Dept of Water & Power, Los Angeles, Calif. Publicity Committee--Bob Cooper (Chairman), Manager of Personnd & Safety, Industrial Generating Co., Rockdale, Texas; Harold B. Lewis (Vice Chairman), Safety Program Superyisor, Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Co., San Francisco, Calif. Research Committee--'Thomas H. Edwards (Chairman), Safety Practices Supervisor, Southern Bell Telephone & Telegraph Co., Atlanta, Ga.; W.William Williford (Vice Chairman),' Plant Supervisor - Safety, The Chesapeake & Potomac Telephone Co., Wash ington, D. C.; Thomas A. Brown, Jr., Supervisor-Safety, The Bell Telephone Co. of . Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; James D. Hoag, Safety Director; Union Electric Co., St Louis, Mo. Traffic Safety Committee--T. L. Powers (Chairman), Safety Engineer, Gas Department Public Service Electric & Gas Co., Newark, N. J.; O. Ray Bowers (Vice Chairman),' Safety Engineer, Central Illinois Light Co., Peoria, HI.; C. Richard Chapin, Accident Prevention Administrator Long Island Lighting Co.,' Hicksville, N. Y.; Robert N. Hurt, Director, Training, Employment & Safety, American Electric Power Service Corp., New York, N. Y.; Harry W. Becker, Safety Manager, American Gas Association, New York, n.y; Nominating Committee--Charles W. Schweickart (Chairman), Executive Vice President Hoosier Engineering Co., Columbus, Ohio; Warren L. Chiton, Director of Accident Prevention, Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Paul Windsor, Secretary, Bureau of Safety, Chicago, HI. Cameron Award Coordinator--Marvin B. Travis. SPECIAL REPRESENTATIVES: American Gas Association--Cunt L. Pendleton, Asst. Safety Manager, New England Power Service Co., Boston, Mass. American Public Power Assn.--Hiram G. Tripp, Safety Director, Chattanooga. Electric Power. Board, Chattanooga, Tenn. American Water Works Association--Jobn T. Caffio, Safety Officer, Philadelphia Water Dept.'Philadelphia, Pa. Canadian Electrical Association--Warren L. Clifton, Director of Accident Prevention, Ontario Hydro-Electric Power Commission, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. .. National Job Training 6- Safety Association--Ernest G. Shearer, Safety Director, Indiana . Statewide Rural Electric Cooperative Assn., Indianapolis, Ind. Past General Chairmen--1957-58?, J. E. Appel; 1958-59, E. M. Chase (Ret); 1959-60, . R. S: Lowe (Ret); 1960-6E R. E. McEldowney, Jr.; 1961-62, V. L. Womeldorff; 1962-63, Erholl Dunbar (Ret); T963-64, Paul Windsor; .19844)5, T. F. Wickord (Deceased); 1965-66, W. L. Clifton; 1986-67, C. Schweickart. Staff Representative--Ralph M. Coe, National Safety Council, 425. N. Michigan Ave., Chi cago, Illinois 60611. .31 1967 National Safety Congress ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION By HABBIS K. WILLIAMS Coordinator of Safety, Southern Kraft ffir. International Paper Co, Mobile, Ala. International Paper. Company has recog "near-miss;" instances in which there was no nized the necessity of having an effective injury. safety program for many years. I don't know The routine investigation is (haired by the exactly when or where the first safety pro department head in same instances, but most gram was established in our company; I of the time it is chaired by die assistant have, however, found injury records that manager or one of the top three people in date back to 1917 and 1918. Evidently, acci the miff. In these investigations the injured is dent investigations were part of the program present, if possible, along with witnesses to hack in those days because these reports tell die occurrence, die foreman, and the safety of the high number of injuries classified as director. The investigation starts at the loca Inrisafe acts" and the improvements that had tion of the accident; after- everyone- under been made in the area of mechanical guard stands what happened, the entire group goes ing: "Now that we have our machinery into a meeting. At the meeting, all witnesses guarded satisfactorily, we are compelled to are heard and die department head, as well exert the same energy and enthusiasm to . as the foreman, give their opinions on what ward eliminating the unsafe acts of our em happened, even, though they may not have ployees." witnessed the incident. After everyone is One item outstanding in all these reports heard, corrective-measures are discussed-- of fifty years ago is the plaguing question of exaedy what-should be done to prevent a re how to eliminate unsafe acts. Like most ev currence is decided. eryone, they had something to blame the um safe acts on; at that time it was World War I..Needless to say, we still have the problem, and I venture to say we will have die prob lem fifty years from now, simply because we are dealing with human beings, none of . whom act or think alike on any given .prob lem or subject. . About the same format is used in the seri ous and fatal injury investigations, except that a representative from Division Safety is present for the investigation, and the meet ing is chaired by the mill manager. AH state ments made by witnesses arc .written, and pictures are taken of the injury site. Needless to say,'there are many more details to attend . Accident investigation in each instance of to in the event of a fatal injury than any an injury serious enough to warrant the at other type. Many people have to be notified tention of a doctor has bepn regular proce immediately; e.g., the insurance carrier, the dure for many years in the Southern Kraft state compensation commission, coroner, and Division. Some changes in the' procedure many top officials of our division. have been made over the years which have Investigation of near-miss accidents and paid dividends. incidents is usually made by the safety direc In our division we have eleven mills and tor with the department head, foreman, and two wholly owned contractors doing'work in the person involved. These investigations these mills. Many injuries have been prev range from a loose nut hilling and nearly hit-. ented by the exchange of information gained ting someone, to a lift truck that runs off a through accident investigations> ramp. But in all cases, this' type of investiga Basically, we have- three accident investi tion is. made only where no injury was sus gation procedures; all are written proce tained. dures. One procedure is used in investigating We circulate all investigation reports bn a .relatively minor injury or an injury that fatalities; and circulate quite a few of the warrants die attention of a doctor.. This is routine' investigations as well as the near- what we call' our "routine investigation'*. miss investigations. In a multi-plant opera The second procedure is what we call'a "for tion, we have benefited substantially by all mal investigation," conducted in instances mills reporting the'accident causes as well os' of serious or fatal injuries. The third proce corrective actions taken. dure is .followed when there has been a Accident investigations shoiddindude: Ptdp and Paper Section LA study of the work {dace or area where die injury occurred, for the purpose of finding and eliminating the cause of the accident. 2. Investigation and study of job proce-- dures and methods. 3. Investigation of die necessity for for- ther safety education, instruction, training-in die area of safe work procedure! 4. Develop a cause analysis of the injury for die purpose of studying the underlying or contributing circumstances. The first three items are of instant value in any injury investigation. The last item, cause analysis, is of lasting value to any progressive safety program, because an analy sis identifies die key factors, such as nature of injury, part of body, injury source, acci dent type, agency, unsafe act All three factors lead to another very im portant tool in any safety program--cost The cost tool, if needed, sometimes works when the hnmnne appeal fails. We use such tools as department injury cost and injury cost in a crew or shift This being to bring to , attention the high cost of injuries in certain departments or under certain supervisors. When we are.talking to management we use such tools- as injuries and their related insnr-. ance cost pnd rate, and injury cost per ton of paper. We follow the National Safety Council's procedure for investigating accidents Very closely. We highly recommend Section .4 of the National Safety Council Accident Pre vention Manual. In dosing, I would like to leave these thoughts with reference to accident investi gations.' 1. An accident not properly investigated and corrective action not taken is a gold let tered invitation to a repeat performance. 2. The difference between a near-miss, a minor injury, and a major injury is often only a fraction of a second Or a fraction of an inch. Investigations reveal measures that must be taken to prevent recurrence. 3. The cause for each accident must be determined by investigation and eliminated for every type of injury, in order to have an effective safety program. 4. The responsibility for preventing inju ries.rests with supervision. Investigations fur nish the fools for corrective action. Unless supervision acts upon the agreed corrective action, these investigations are useless. SAFETY & HOUSEKEEPING INSPECTIONS By AULEN H. WATTS Safety Dir., Union Camp Corp., Savannah, Go. t Twelve times a year, for more years than I. orally, about everything that was wrong, care to recall, a member of our safety de- Then he tells everyone else, induding all the partment calls the superintendent of every bosses, about the some things that were department in our plant (we have 27 depart- wrong In a written report meats) and schedules an activity we refer to When you consider; ' as a "Safety, Housekeeping, and Sanitation 1. That we don't work for . these people. Inspection." What follows is so unusual as to -not even in their division,- and that we are justify comment privileged to treat them so badly, yet they Our follow and a fellow from each depart- have no opportunity for reprisal (this is most ment involved stomp all through the depart- unusual); ment and observe safety, housekeeping, and 2. That our couriers have not met with sanitation conditions. Our follow makes notes - accident os they moke their appointed of all' the untoward or unfavorable condl- rounds in these areas is evidence of die fact tions observed in three three areas. Their fel- there is a' strong spirit ' of tolerance and low even helps our follow find them. When - brotherly love among us; the tour is oyer, our follow sits down with 3. That our follows and their follows have' the department superintendent and tells him, never-engaged in fisticuffs is evidence of die 29 1967 National Safety.Congress effectiveness-.of the company's, rules against <v Management recognizes that die modem Such activities; supervisor cannot.be an expert in die several' 4. That this performance is repeated'each. matters:he has. responsibility for;, conse month; quently, he needs hdp. There are experts 5. That it i3 highly regarded by manage ment and top supervisory people; giving him hdp'in such areas as planning, cost, budget^ engineering, qualify, etc. 6. That safety has adequate authority for these activities; - This same philosophy recognizes that while die supervisor can and should be die best safety man in his area, it is true he 7. That the several departments involved sometimes cannot see the forest for looking actually compete for top honors in this area --these things are evidence that a satisfac tory, adequate -background condition has at the trees; that he probably has not 'devdoped talents for housekeeping because he had no special training in matters of deanli- been established, against which this usual activity can be successfully conducted. We tiefer to. this background condition'or atmos phere or `understanding or arrangement or authority of whatever you'want to call it as. "The Three P's of Safety, Housekeeping and Sanitation Inspections." ^ ness and' orderliness; that his experiences had more to do with personal hygiene and less to do with industrial sanitation. So, again ho needs help. This help comes from -the safety depart ment While some have been so unkind as to think of us ' as witch hunters, garbage Policy. hounds, and privy purveyors, we think of Our company has adopted a policy which, says we will conduct our operations in such a way as to avoid accidents and injuries to our people (safety); we will maintain our areas and equipment in a dean and orderly condition (housekeeping); we will provide' adequate locker and rest room facilities which we will maintain in a. sanitary manner' (sanitation). As with all policy matters,, our resident manager has responsibility for its enactment at our plant. Without minimizing the impor tance of these matters, and because' he has a ourselves as safety,' housekeeping,' and sani tation, inspectors. This same philosophy says the safety, housekeeping, and sanitation inspector Cannot know a great deal about all the operations involved, so he needs help. He gets his help from the supervisor who accompanies him on the inspection. . Thus it develops that two. men, both ex perts in their respective areas, combine their abilities to sensibly evaluate these conditions for the benefit of those'who have responsi bility for diem. lot of other things to do, he delegates re Procedures.' sponsibility-for these things to his several di vision managers. The third P stands for procedures.' They are simple. We schedule the inspections with For precisely the satire reason, the division the department head. He has advance no managers pared out their responsibility for tice, and provides an associate inspector. ' these thing to their assistants; the assistant managers pass it on to the superintendents;. the superintendents to the assistant superin When the inspection is over, we review the results with toe superintendent. tendents; they to'the general foremen; on to We deal largely in "opinions." the foremen; and, finally, to die dean-up In a few areas, we deal in "facts." than. If .the dean-up man was not the lowest Facts' have to do with' things that are man on the totem polf, he would pass it on above-or below toe line in the light of ac-. to the man who was. cepted standards. This is Cosy. All of this is. os it should be. The impor tant thing to remember is that, in delegating . this reponsibility, no one gets rid of it, no one minimizes it. Instead, they share it with others.... Opinions have to do with things that'.are above or below the line in the light of condi tions we think should exist,' based on stand ards that have not been accepted for- plant use or based on our personal experiences. . This is not so easy. PMosophy, So much for the three P's.- The second F stands for philosophy. In conclusion, we believe, the activity now Pulp and Paper Section has supervision's Interest, ''supervision's 'en lightened participation, supervision's support If this is so, it marks our progress. If dils Is not so, .it marks our objective. There lies the moral of our stofyl This is the way we do it: . 1. Establish a management policy. 2. Implement this policy with a sound philosophy. 8. Develop sensible groundrules in terms of procedure. . It works'with us--it can work with you. SAFETY INCENTIVES By BUBL McGABBAHAN Corporate Mgr- Safety & Workmen's Compensation, The Mead Corp., Chillicotlie, Ohio. Webster states that "An incentive incites 10, 15, 20, or more years injmy free'work or has a tendency to incite to determination performance). or action." Therefore, a ' safety incentive I 2. Blaques and bowls for company loca which is properly conceived and developed tions with excellent safety records, including, provides die motive or stimulus for safe per? also recognition meetings.dinners, picnics, formaqce. Then by definition "true" or real and outings. . incentives are favored by employees--for 3. College scholarships for sons' and' safety as well as for other areas of perform daughters, at locations with superior safety ance related to their Job. performance,' offer a real incentive to the There have been many articles; both "pro" employee .with children of the right age and "con," on the usage of safety incentives group. for employees. Many safety people argue, 4. Trading stamps, cash awards, and mer- - that a good, well rounded safety program is chandise gifts are used in both plant and de- sufficient, and workers should not be re partmental contests to reward good safety warded for safe performance since it is ex performance. pected as. a regular part of their Job. It is - Of course, there are safety displays, safety true that safety incentives sometimes are slogan contests, lucky number drawings, per mistakenly thought of as a panacea for poor sonal letters to the homes, and many other safety performance, and, unfortunately, they gimmicks used*in incentive programs. All of sometimes serve as a substitute for die de these have about the same purpose--to rec velopment and administration of a good ac- ' ognize safe performance' and to encourage cident prevention program. _ continued good performance, or to offer the On die other hand, many safety men are incentive for improved safety performance. in favor of safety incentives as a means of In discussing incentives, we should hot stimulating safe work habits, and they see no forget the Importance of' the supervisor in inconsistency in rewarding persons for work any safety program, with or without a safety ing safely. After all, a large number of or incentive system. Effective accident preven ganizations use incentives in sales and in tion is essential for the most successful oper production departments to stimulate extra ef ation of a company, and it requires the same fort; many, persons believe that incentives supervisory skills as quality, cost and waste ' can be used also to stimulate safe perform control, and production. Therefore, the su ance. pervisor always has the responsibility for the Of the employee safety incentives which safety of his personnel, whether or not an in have been used and are reported to have im centive system is in effect If safety incen proved safety performance, many offer an in tives are used they should complement his centive through a feeling of competition or efforts. through pride of accomplishments In some companies, the supervisor is en- 1. Individually framed certificates for ' couraged to promote safety of his employees years of employee injury free service (for 5, by rewarding him in the form of a cash 1967 National Safety Congress bonus, or some other award,, for safe man hour records or for a time period of injury free departmental performance. Also, fre quently inthe annual performance 'review safety performance of the group supervised is considered in evaluating the overall work performance of the supervisor. Because most employees naturally want to please their su pervisor, the supervisor can provide an in' centive or motive for his employees to work safely by bis evidenced interest in the safety program. .1 am not trying to sell the merits of safety incentives, but if you use them or plan to do so, you should consider the following: 1. Some-incentives appear to be highly ef fective only for 'a limited time, and they must be constantly reviewed to determine continued effectiveness. 2. Goals should be set and evaluation criteria should be understood and fairly ap plied..The incentive) will be greater if the achievement of the goal requires a sighifl? cant effort. . Where possible, employees should be involved in goal-setting. 3. Hie safety incentive plan should be evaluated in the context of other existing in centive plans for production,, quality, and waste, and all such programs should be coor dinated by management It is important that awards be appropriate and that evaluation criteria be fairly applied. ' 4. The evaluation criteria, whether for disabling injuries, for "serious injuries", or for safe manhour accomplishments, should . be meaningful for the size unit under con sideration. i 5. Although it is not|normaffy the case, it is possible for safety and other incentives to be considered as a condition of employment, thereby subject to negotiation. Therefore, it - is advisable to review die labor relations im plications of any proposed incentive system. In summary, where .safety incentives are. used they must be combined with a safety program which contains the best known principles of safety engineering, such as the. well-rounded program outlined in the Na tional Safety Council Accident Prevention Manual. Safety incentives may help to im prove safety performance, but they are not a ' substitute for a good safety program. OFFICERS OF THE PULP AND PAPER SECTION NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 1967-68 $ . . General Chairman--Harry R. Mesleh, Jr., Safety Manager, Ruberoid Div., General Aniline & Film Corp., Bound Broolc, N. J. Vice-Chairman and Program Chairman--Ross E. Scoot, Manager, The Ontario Pulp and Paper Makers Safety Assn,, Toronto, Ontario, Canada . . * ' 1 Vice-Chairman and Newsletter Editor--Aules H. Watts, Safety Director, Union Camp \ Corp., Savannah, Ga. Secretary--Harris K. Williams, Co-ordinator of Safety, International Paper Co'., Southern Kraft Div., Mobile, Ala. ;' Regional Representatives--Richard H. Wahlfeld, (Chairman), Safety Co-ordinator, Bemis Co'., hie., Minneapolis, Minn.; Lake States--"Arthur Cable, Safety Director, The North west Paper Co., Cloquet, Minn.; Middle Atlantic--Vincent P. Coulon, Manager of Safety, Sealright Co., Inc., Fulton, N. Y.; Southern--"Dallas E. Henry, Safety Supvr., Continental Can Co., Inc., Hodge, La.; Pacific Coast--Dak Adair, Safety Co-ordinator, Pacific Coast Assn, of Pulp and Paper Mfgrs., Portland,. Ore.; Midwest--Otto Wagers, Safety Director, Champion Paper, I&c., Hamilton, Ohio; New England--*Robert J. Gell, Staff Ass't, Paper Mills Div., Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y. Statistics and Research Committee--"Gobdon. B. Lemke (Chairman), Dir. of Loss Control -Research, Safety & Health Dept, Employers Insurance of' Wausau, Wausau, Wis.; Harold T. Regan, Safety Co-ordinator, American Paper Institute Inc., Chicago, HI.; Chester W. Matzengeb, Jr., Assistant Div. Safety Co-ordinator, International Paper Co., Mobile,-Ala.; D. A. Cusano, Corporate Mgr. of Safety, Scott Paper Co., Philadel phia, Pa. ' '. Special Projects Committee--Charles W. Hoffman, Manager, of Safety, St Regis Paper Co., New York, N. Y.; J. C. Smith, Gen. Safety Supervisor, Rayonier Inc., Hoquiam, Wash.; Miles Murray, Mgr., Safety Services, Crown Zellerbach Corp., San Francisco, Calif.; Verl Thompson,'Safety Supvr., Kimberly-Clark Pulp & Paper Co., Ltd., Terrace Bay, Ontario; Canada; M. H. Miller, Jr., Director of Safety, Domtar, Ltd.,. Montreal, P. Q. Canada. Off-the-Job Committee--"Forrest E.' Kxmmell (Chairman), Safety Consultant, Blooming- daje, Mich. Pidpwood Logging Committee--K. S. Rolston, Jr. (Chairman), Administrative Asst, American. Pulpwood Assn., New York, N. Y.; J. F. Byrd, Senior Personnel Asst, Wood Dept Price (NFLD) Pulp and Paper Ltd., Grand Falls, Newfoundland, Canada; E. N. Denison, Mgr., The Quebec Pulp & Paper Safety Assn., Inc., Quebec, P. Q., Canada; R. E. Bated, Personnel Mgr., St Regis Paper Co., Jacksonville, Fla. 59 Pulp Manufacturing Committee--H. B.Brawford (Chairman), Safety Coordinator, Weyer haeuser Co., Everett, Wash.; j. W. Hall, Plant Protection Supt., Bowaters Newfoundland Pulp & Paper, Mills, Ltd., Comer Brook, Newfoundland, Canada; H. G. Babhbtt, Safety Director, Ontario Paper Co., Ltd., Thorold, Ontario, Canada; K. L. Gipson, Dir. Safety and Workmen's Compensation, Georgia-Pacific Corp., Portland, Ore.; Robert J. Ison, Mgr., Safety Services, Kimberly-Clark Co., Neenah, Wis.; John S* Turner, Safety Co ordinator, Bowaters Southern Paper Corp., Calhoun, Tenn. Paper Manufacturing Committee--Frank C. Harmon (Chairman), Employment Mgr., Hollingsworth and Vose Co;, West Groton, Mass.;. R'. H. Blunden, Safety Manager, Scott Paper Co., Marinette, Wis,; Fred Ellis, Safety Director, Consolidated Papers, Inc., Wisconsin Rapids, Wis.; Ray H. Grodi, Safety Director, Union Camp Corp., Monroe, Mich!; Paul G.. Hammock, Safety and Training Dir.; Union-Camp Corp., Prattville,. Ala.; Marvin. L. Strode, Corporate Safety Administrator, Boise Cascade . Corp., Boise, Idaho; E. E. Sutherlin, Safety Director, Georgia-Pacific Corp., Crossett Div., Crossett, Ark.; Walter A. Golden, Personnel Director, Hollingsworth and Voss Co., East Walpole, Mass. Bag and Paper Specialties Manufacturing Committee--B. E. McGarrahan ' (Chairman)! Corporate. Mgr., Safety & Workmen's Compensation, The Mead Corp., Chillicothe, Ohio; Durwood Alford,' Asst. Personnel Manager, Crown Zellerbach Corp,, Bogalusa, La.; Harold Hewitt, Personnel Manager, Bemis Company, Inc.,. Peoria; JO.; Oscar P. Rutledge,. Jr., Safety Engr., St. Regis Paper Co., Monticello, Miss.; John D. Taylor, Georgia-Pacific Corp., Crossett Paper Div., Crossett, Ark. Roofing and Insulation Committee--John F. Tuffy (Chairman), Asst. Insurance Mgr., The Flintkote Co., New. York, N. Y.; |Leon Horowitz, Supervisor of Safety, Certain-Teed Products Corp., Ambler, Pa.; J. M. Pringle, Industrial Relations Manager; Canadian Johns-Manville Co., Ltd., North Bay, Ontario, Canada; Harry-Patterson, Safety Director, Wood Conversion Co., Cloquet, Minn.; Forest McQueen, Safety Engineer, Johns-Manville Products Corp., Waukegan, 111. . Shipping Container and Folding-Carton Committee--Robert G. Riley (Chairman), Mgr. of Employee Benefits and Safety, Packaging Coip. of America, Quincy,' HI.; H. Gordon Baird, Training & Safety Director, Hoemer-Waldorf Corp-, St. Paul, Minn.; E. E. Patterson, Safety Director, Olin-Matheison, Forest .Products Div., West Monroe, La.; W. C. Lockhart, Asst Manager, The Ontario Pulp and Paper Makers Safety Assn., Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Eugene W. Monroe, Dir., Industrial Relations, Paperboard Packaging Council, Chicago, HI.; J. R. Stroube, Corporate Safety Director, Container Corp. of America, Chicago, HI. Safety Standards Committee--"Francis H.- Wagner (Chairman), Corporate Safety Director, The Mead Corp., Chillicothe, Ohio. Nominating Committee--IaGordon B. LemkEj_Forrest E, Kimmell, "Vincent P. Coulon. Staff Representative--Thomas F. Powers, National Safety Council, 425 N. Michigan Ave,, Chicago, 111. 60611 ' 60 OFFICERS OF THE PRINTING^AND PUBLISHING SECTION NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 1967-68 General Chairman--Alfred A. Jasser, President Anchor Chemical Co., Hicksville, N. Y. Vice Chairman--Howard K. Codling, Safety Dir., U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Secretary--Wilbert R. May, Safety Dir., Treasury. Dept, Bureau of Engraving & Printing, Washington, D. C. Newsletter Editor--Richard R. Gipson, Mgr. of Safety: & Plant Security, Standard Register Co., Dayton, Ohio _ Associate Newsletter Editor--Robert M. Gohmann, Safety Director, McCall Corp., Dayton, . Ohio Associations Committee--Bernard J. Taymans, President, Printing Industries of America, lnc., Washington, D. C.; Philip. W. Battaglia, Industrial Relations Coordinator, Na tional Assn, of Photo Lithographers, New York, N. Y. v .. Publicity 6- Safety Bulletin Coordinator--Howard K. Codling, Safety Dir., U. S. Govern ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Members At Large--Bernard W. Menke, Plant Supt., Govt. Printing Office, Chicago, III.; Ralph J. Webber, Safety Supervisor, Kable Printing Co., .Div. of Western Publ.. Co., Mt Morris, 111. Membership Committee--John Hopkins, Safety Dir., R. R. Donnelly & Sons Co., Chicago, 111.; E. C. Denny, Safety & Maint. Engineer, Courier-Journal & Times, Louisville, Ky. Newspaper Liaison Committee--Eugene Zaccor, Dir., Plant Frot. & Safety, New York Times, New York, N. Y.; E. C.- Denny, Safety & Maint. Engineer, Courier-Journal- & Times, Louisville, Ky. \ ' Training Aids Committee--John J. Schillo, Consulting Safety Engineer, Printing Industries . of America, Washington, D. C.; Gordon H. Rosbehg, Safety Dir., Richter McCall Co., Chicago, 111. Program Committee--Paul O'Neil, General Safety Dir., Rand McNally & Co., Hammond, lnd.; Frank Neidhart, Dir. of Pers., Miehle-Goss-Dexter, Inc.,. Chicago, HI. Engineering Committee--Ed C. Denny, Safety & Maintenance Engineer, Louisville CourierJournal & Times, Louisville, Ky.; John J. Schillo, Consulting Safety Engineer, Printing Industries of America, Washington, D. C.; Howard K. Codling, Safety Dir., U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Material Handling--William S. Cartwright, Coord. Safety & Plant Prot., Kingsport Press Inc., Kingsport, Tenn.; Wilbert R. May, Safety Dir., Treasury Dept, Bureau of Engraving & Printing, Washington, D. C.: John Bradly, Asst, to Mgr., Magazine Press Div., The Curtis Publishing Co., Philadelphia, Pa. ' Guarding and Controls--F. N. Burt, Mgr., Trip Control Div., Minneapolis Honeywell Regulator Co., Freeport, 111.; Frank Neidhart,' Personnel Mgr., Miehle-Goss-Dexter, Inc., Chicago, HI. Fire--John Hopkins, Safety Dir., R. R. Donnelly & Sons Co.; Chicago, 111. Nominating Committee Chairman--Paul O'Neill, Geri. Safety Dir., Rand McNally & Co., Hammond, Ind. Advisory Committee--Paul O'Neill, Frank Neidhart, William Stevens Staff Representative--Ray F. Smith, National Safety Council, 425 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, HI. 60011 Honorary Men\ber--Lillian StehIp Garzoto, Lakeland, Fla.. 61 H OFFICERS OF THE RUBBER AMD PLASTICS SECTION National Safety Council 1967-68 General Chairman--.L. W. Boulton, Safety and Plant Protection Supvr., Polymer Corp., Samla, Ont, Canada. First Vice Chairman--E. Goldswohth, Safety Dir., Gates' Rubber Co;, Denver, Colo. Second Vice Chairman--]. R. Wethehholt, Safety AtSeCurity Snpt, Uniroyal, Inc., JoIiet,'HL Secretary--G. W. Nickel, Mgr. of Safety, Armstrong Cork Co., Lancaster, Pa. Newsletter Editor--R. G. Fobejt, Mgr., Industrial Relations; General Tire and Rubber Co.,' Pennsylvania Division, Jeannette, Pa. Engineering Committee--T. E. Leah.( Chairman), Safety Pif., Unirpyal, Inc., Detroit, Mich.; R. G- ' Havener, Corporate Safety Engr;; Uniroyal, lie.. New York, N. Y.; J. H. IIaceh, Safety Dir.^Gbio. Rubber. Co., Willoughby, Ohio; J; E; Hahvet, Safety Engr., Mans field Tire & Rubber Co.,'Mansfield, Ohio. . . Health Committee--W. E. McCormick (Chairman), Mgr., Industrial Hygiene & Toxicology, The B. F. Goodrich Co., Akibn, Ohio; H. M. McInebney, Safety Engr., Goodyear , Tire * and Rubber Co., Akron, Ohio; Geoece Wilson, Industrial Hygenist, Firestone Tire and Rubber Co., Akron, Ohio; *S. A. Wbigbt, General Supvr., Safety & Housekeeping Dept, Inland Manufacturing Div., General Motors Coip., Dayton, Ohio. Membership Committee--John Glenn, Jb. (Chairman), Production Mgr., Electric Hose . & Rubber Co., Wilmington, Del.; W.V. Kelly, Personnel Mgr., Stokes Molded Products, Trenton, N. J.; *N. R. Hunteh, Safety Engr., Dunlop Tire & Rubber Corp., Buffalo, N. Y. ' Education and Training Committee--R. N. Johnson (Chainnan), Mgr., Safety & Security, The Armstrong Rubber Co., West Haven, Conn;; L. Hartman, Dir., Training and Safety, Firestone Tire and Rubber Co., Pottstown, Pa.; K. W. Getty, Asst Personnel Mgr., Carlisle Tire and Rubber Div., Carlisle Corp., Carlisle, Pa.; J. E. Egneb, Jn., Person^ Dir., Goodall Rubber Co., Boston, Mass. Publicity, Trade Association, and Liaison Committee--David J. Maiuani (Chainnan), Safety Engr., The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co., Plant 5, Akron, Ohio. ' Code and Standards Committee--*M. R. Batche (Chairman), Mgr., Safety, Firestone Tire and Rubber Co., Akron, Ohio. Statistics Committee--V. G. Come (Chairman), Mgr., Safety; Uniroyal, Inc., Mishawaka, Ind. & Reclaim Manufacturing Committee--'*B. M. Boyles (Chairman), Dir., Industrial Relations, Midwest Rubber Reclaiming Co., East St Louis, III. Rubber Laboratories Committee-M. V. Barba. (Chairman), Fire Be Safety Engr., B. F. Goodrich Footwear Co., Div. of The B. Ft Gobdrich Co., Watertown, Mass.; G. Wayne Bonsell, Supvr., Safety Be' Security, Lancaster Floor Plant, Armstrong Cork Co., Lan caster, Pa. Fire Safety Committee--W. L. Cato (Chairman), Mgr., Safety, B. F. Goodrich Co., Akron, Ohio; O. W. White, Personnel Mgr., Corduroy Rubber Co., Grand Rapids, Mich.; D. K. . Dankesbeiter, Personnel Asst. & Dir., Safety, Hewitt Rubber Division, Hbwitt-Robbihs, Inc., Buffalo, N. Y. Off-the-Job Safety Committee--T>. E. Dudrow (Chairman), Corporate Mgr., Health and Loss Prevention Section, Uniroyal, Inc., New York, N. Y.; Cooke O'Neal, Sec'y. SJPJ. Accident Prevention Committee, The Society of The Plastics Industry.Inc., New York, N.Y. ' Synthetic Manufacturing Committee--]. B. Chenowttth (Chairman), Safety Engr., Goodrich-Gulf Chemicals, Inc., Institute, W. Va. Long Range Flaming Committee--*R. W. Fickes (Chairman), Safety Engr., Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co., Akron, Ohio; *C. E. Beck,-Safety Dir., St, Clair Rubber Co,/Marys ville, Mich;; G. H. Boukhabdt, Dir., Safety, General Tire and. Rubber Co., Akron, Ohio; -S. T. Borrows, Safety Dir., Mansfield Tire and Rubber Co., Mansfield, Ohio; `Frank `C. . Starbird, Safety Dir., Firestone Tire and Rubber, Co., Decatur, HL Past General Chairman. . 7.- . 46 VOLUME 22 National Safety Congress RAILROAD SAFETY ^ NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL Upas 425 North Michigan Avenue Chicago, Illinois 60611 PLAN NOW TO ATTEND ft THE NATIONAL SAFETY CONGRESS OCTOBER 28-31, 1968 / CONRAD HILTON HOTEL, CHICAGO The Congress is always a big week, a worthwhile week for the 13,000 safety people who attend. At the '68 Congress you can meet other safety people, with the same problems and responsibilities as yourself. You can exchange views and ideas on accident preven tion, health, hygiene, and fire prevention.. . on safety in industry, traffic, school, at home and on the farm. You can see the largest of all safety equipment exhibits at the Congress ... an opportunity for you to. make wellinformed buying decisions for your, company. This four-day educational program, planned and pre sented by the National Safety. Council, can be your most thought-provoking, most worthwhile safety expe rience in 1968. Make plans early to attend the 1968 Congress and bring the other people in your organization who have safety responsibilities. FUTURE CONGRESS DATES 1968 October 28.-31 1969 October 27-30 1970 October 26-29 1971 October 25-28 .1972 October 23-26 NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 425 NORTH MICHIGAN AVENUE CHICAGO. ILLINOIS 60611 2\ 55th NATIONAL SAFETY CONGRESS Papers Delivered in the RAILROAD SESSIONS CONTENTS Locomotive Simulation................................................ Harold E. Woodhouae 4 Changing Times ........................... ................... ....................L. W. Dutton 12 Getting On and Off Equipment ................................ .................J. B. Malarkey 14 An Address........'...........................................................;. .Ben W. Helneman 15 Training of Train Service Personnel ................... .................................... 18 Clajms and Safety -- A Cooperative Effort . *..................... John A. RfsendaJ 23 i Five Years of Future. Dates for National Safety Congress ................... 29 Officers of the Railroad Section 1967-68 .........................................................30 Other Volumes in 1967 National Safety Congress Transactions........Back Cover LOCOMOTIVE SIMULATION By HAROLD E. WOODHOUSE Gen. Sales Mgr., Weston Railroad Supply Co, Div. of Western Industries, Inc, Chicago, HL Western Railroad Supply Co. is deeply in* ' Going back to the early 1930s, when Link volved and has been for many years in the first developed the Link trainer,.hitherto,a safety of the traveling public in relation to pilot learned how to operate an airplane sim- lailroads, having. pioneered. the . automatic ply by. riding behind a second pilot and gate and'advanced the art of crossing pro- learning by doing, taking aflthe necessary tection to the.highly refined state which we risks involved in that very primitive type of now. enjoy: We were also very much in- training. The Link trainer for the first time volved in those safety oriented pieces - of allowed a man to make all his mistakes in hardware along your right-of-way, namely, the safety of a ground trainer, so that when bumping posts, derails, switchpoint guards, he first approached the cockpit of a live air- eta. So you see, we are very much concerned plane, he did so. with considerable knowl- with the matter of safety on and off the rail- edge and feel of its operation. Down road property, and are one of the many sup- through the years, this has been developed, ply companies which, through research, are to the fine art that we may see today in the attempting to make the railroad a safer place... simulator for the Apollo mission, built for to work and the crossings of these railroads NASA. This is the largest and most complex.. at grade .a safer place for the traveling simulator ever produced. It provided train- public. . .. ing for the three-man crew of the Apollo A large measure of the success of any pro- spacecraft for flights to the vicinity of the gram in safety is due to the untiring effort of moon and return. Simulated phases are com- the safety committees on the railroads, and plete, except for the sensation of weightless- the acceptance of these safety standards by . ness and gravitational forces for launch and the traveling public can be quickly realized re-entry. A complete visual system provides if you will look at a railroad crossing where views through the sextant, telescope and the cars are going to and fro and count how windows of the spacecraft .during each many cars actually stop and look down .the phase. track to see if a train is. approaching. The In this simulator, the men leave the at- public has, I fear, been to some degree led mosphexe of the earth and arrive in the area down the garden path of believing that all . of the moon,'move from their Apollo craft railroad crossings are as safe as being in into a smaller limb module and approach the their mother's arms. This we know is not moon surface and land. Then they may, still true,- but they have accepted toe reliability in simulation, leave the moon surface, ren- of the protection equipment on toe locomo- dezvous with their orbiting Apollo spacecraft tives and on toe wayside as infallible., and return to the earth. Every feeling, sight, Hence, we still experience entirely too many and operational function of these craft are crossing accidents too often where too many . realistically simulated, and toe astronauts go people are killed or injured. .Motorists must through exercise after exercise so that when realize that a railroad crossing, no` matter they are aboard the real craft making this how well protected, or a fast moving freight memorable trip,, .they will have experienced or passenger train, no matter how experi- ' all the possible aspects of the flight and enced the locomotive, engineer is, can in no learned how to automatically cope with , toe measure take the place of an alert motorist many emergency situations which could pos- behind the wheel of an automobile or truck, sibly arise. This simulator includes , replicas Our partner in toe presentation of locomo- of the actual vehicles, all instrumentation, tive simulators to the railroads is toe Link displays, and operational modes. Group Division of General Precision, whose Sometime ago when one of toe astronauts entire history has .been devoted to making was circling toe earth, he experienced diffi- systems available to. the transportation Indus- culty with the altitude control and the vehi- try to train their ,personnel in the safe han- cle started, rotating rather violently. The as- dhng of their various modes and types of tronaut took remedial action and safely equipment. landed toe craft at its designated landing 4 Railroad Section area. This astronaut was very quickly able to don. These three units are now in operation^ bring this craft under control because he had and at least one of them, has been in opera experienced' this many.times before in simu tion for three years. Their experiences have lation and knew precisely what, to do and proven to them and to many railroad people how to dp it Learning how to cope with an from around the world, who have visited emergency situation before it occurs may and actually operated the unit, that simula only be accomplished in simulator training. tor training is a major tool in standard train It may. be well at this point to describe ing of locomotive engineers. the differences between a simulator and a trainer. A trainer is a device to teach a stu dent the operation of,a type of-vehide. An example of this would be an automobile . trainer to teach him to operate an automo bile--no specific type or no specific manu facture--just an automobile. .'Whereas,- a sim ulator teaches a man to specifically operate a. certain type and a certain make of vehicle. . Italy was then in the process of budding a high speed line, and required simulation to train the engineers to operate safely at the higher speeds. Yugoslavia, Belgium, France, . New Zealand, Argentina, The Netherlands, and many other countries entered into initial negotiations toward the development and purchase of simulators for their railroads. They anticipated ' not only the training of The simulator which Link has designed personnel and the upgrading of present op for locomotive engineer training is in this re erating-personnel, but an area of research spect not purely a simulator. It is designed wherein they could test more efficient oper and will operate as a specific locomotive. For ating procedures and more efficient train instance, one railroad - is interested in' an handling techniques. They also desired to SD-45, and their simulator will be an SD-45 study the effect of various patent drugs on in every respect, dynamically and operation the abilities and coordination of their operat ally, and the furniture in die cab will be that ing people. They felt, and rightly so, that of an SD-45. However, the locomotive man the over-the-counter remedy in some cases. ufacturers have tended to standardize .the . could alter the reflexes and reactions of a lo furniture in. a locomotive cab, and the simu comotive engineer to the point where .he lator may very easily be programmed to act could be unsafeto operate. These and many as two or more types of locomotives. You other bio-physical questions could only rea simply progam in the various dynamics of sonably be worked out in a locomotive simu the particular locomotives and allow die in lator. structor to make the selection of the type of Three years ago the idea of locomotive locomotive which he desires. simulation for American railroads' was' The history of locomotive simulation brought to the Western Railroad Supply Co. began in England a few years back at die for presentation to the railroads of the plant of General Precision Systems, which* . United States, Canada, and Mexico. Since was a subsidiary of General Precision, Inc. that time I have had the opportunity of ad and brother to the Link Corp. The British dressing more than twenty of the major rail National Railways converted two main truck roads and three of the largest transit authori lines from steam power to electric power, ties' in. the United States and Canada. Their and they required some means of quickly in interest in a simulator was immediate, and structing locomotive engineers to learn to * their desire to enter into serious discussions operate this new power unit and to operate regarding simulator training proved a deep it in an experienced and efficient.manner. and very real need in this area. However, it They approached, GPS, which was the larg was -necessary, before a locomotive simulator est manufacturer of aircraft simulators in could be constructed for the. railroads of this England, with this problem. After considera continent, to expand.the parameters consid ble research and development, GPS deliv erably. We found that toe traffic require ered to the British National Railways a loco ments, the speeds of toe trains, the distances motive simulator for test. The results were so involved and toe'tonnages of toe trains were overwhelming that the BNR immediately so very different'than that experienced on placed on order for a second unit. The Lon toe initial simulators in London, that it was don Transit, taking the key from the British necessary to completely redesign, modernize, National, ordered a unit for the purpose of and make more flexible the locomotive simu . training motormen in the subways of Lon lator. . 5 '1 :1967'National'Safety Congress - Itwas almost Immediately established and number of cars, but you must be able to that; initially, locomotive simulators must be change the weights, and also tb arrange the ini some mobile form, whefeasthe simulators . various tonnages .within your train so. that as built andusedin England are permanent you could realistically represent a train haw structures housed ytithin the buildings or ing 20 of 80 empty cars on the head end, confines of the structures of the railroads and with the. balance of the train being loads. - subways. It was necessary to service the vast This presents specific operating problems stretches of American railroads- at many" that can' be simulated in no other way. Op points so that simulator training classes erating procedures, the terrain, the distances could be set up at locations closer to the run, and the type of complex interlocking men who would be talcing die training. operations which we find in this hemisphere Thus, the size of die engineer's training sta also contributed to the requirements for ex tion must be cut down to the point where it panded parameters for the Americanized would be operational within die confines of version of the GPS Link simulator. a. baggage or passenger car or in a highway trailer. Ibis has been successfully accom plished and the simulator as presented to the American railroads today is a completely mobile unit. However, in.cutting down'the size, realism of the in-cab configuration and furniture was not lost A few. feet of the left side of the cab was cut off, but this' in no way minimizes the realism of a man in simu lator training. He stiQ has a complete feeling of actually'being within die specific locomo tive the simulator is deafened to present - The solution to all these various problems was developed in the Link Riverdale Divi sion factory at Riverdale, Md. The systems employed in tills solution were developed at the Link plant at Blnghampton, N,Y. It is af" this plant that.systems development for air-, craft; tracks, buses, and now locomotives takes place. The marriage of the talents of the many specialists in simulation has pro duced today for the railroads a locomotive simulator. which provides virtual ' "real world" training for the student .engineer. In redesigning die simulator, it was found The weight of experience and knowledge of necessary to makeit far more flexible than these specialists in simulation provided many die British -units in operation. If a railroad choices regarding type of . motion, type of were to.dedde an, for instance, a U-33 loco visual display, type of student stations, and motive for simulation* or a GP-SO or a.GP- the type and size of the computer required 85, it certainly would not want to limit itself' to do all the many things necessary in realis for a long period of time to this one and tic simulation. only locomotive for die purposes of training. Therefore^ it had to be sufficiently flexible to . incorporate changes as they became1 neces sary-changes in die type of power, that is, to neweir and more modem locomotives as they come along; changes in speed concepts, considering the higher speeds of your freight and passenger inns today; train weights vary from road to road. Some railroads are going to longer, heavier trains and this made nec essary a far more flexible means of adjusting train weights in simulation, whereas the Brit ish unit had allowance for O to 1000 tons. The simulator as designed for the American railroads handles up to 20,000 tons and more --trains up to and including 200 cars. It also became immediately necessary to be able to change the weights of the cars. For instance, a train load of ore cars, regardless of the length, would certainly not equal a train of . Let me now describe to you tbe Linklocomotive simulator as. it bos' developed and is now presented to tbe railroads. First, we must realize that all simulators have certain spe cific component parts. There is the heart of the unit, the computer and its related inter face network. Secondly, there is th0 training station. In the case of the Iooomotive Simulator, this is the-cab of the locomotive itself. Thirdly, we have the visual system, which will realistically present the view without distortion, without side blurring even at the lower speeds, and realistically present an in finity picture so that the man viewing it does hot believe'he is looking at a screen, but has the real sensation of looking into the distahee. Fourth is the sound system which is operated by tbe computer, the instructor, and the trainee. The sounds must be realistic and be cued in at the exact instance that empty tri-levels. If yon must realistically sound is required. Lastly, we have the mo simulate a specific train, you must have the tion system. This system must realistically ability to. not only adjust your train length represent acceleration and deceleration. It Railroad Section must give the true feeling of a train moving Both the mobile types of simulators would through the .tarn-out with the side motion come equipped with, complete and adequate ' andsway. It must also in some cases, I am air conditioning to maintain a constant tem afraid, represent an engine operating over a perature and humidity control over the full rough track with some low joints, or as some range .of --20 to +120 .outside tempera railroaders say, "high centos". It must rep-, ture. This is'very important to the proper resent the superelevations, on some of the function of the computer and the interface higher speed curves ..and the very minor network. Under both these mobile systems, it grade ascending and descending tilt All this is also possible to completely test , out die must be smooth, automatic, and instanta unit prior to the time it departs from the neous in response. Link plant at Riverdale, Maryland; so that These five sections are now incorporated into a mobile form. There are two basic ways of doing this; one is securing the use of . a baggage car or a secondhand passenger car and . building the simulator into this unit right at the Riverdale plant la most rail cars it would have sufficient room remaining for rooms for the instructor, maintenance man, classrooms; and whatever else may be re quired. The second form is to house this in a 40ft x 8-ft highway trailer. One of the. advan. tages .to the highway trailer concept is that it need not be located for. training purposes next to a railroad or adjacent to a yafd or service facilities. If the railroad desired, the the railroad may. have the advantage of a complete and working unit the day it is de livered to their property. There is also one' other advantage to' this type of delivery in that, as part of the package, the Link Group at Riverdale will undertake the training of railroad personnel in the maintenance of the computer, motion system, and simulator as a whole, right, on their property, working with the men who designed-and constructed the unit. At the same time, the instructors' who will be handling the unit on the railroad will have an opportunity to go through the train ing processes with tEe link engineers prior to the time that they must step out and be instructors. setup for this mobile, trailer can be at any The maintenance. man, who would be convenient point dose to housing or quartos trained at. the Link plant, would, have a for their trainees or next to a headquarters, backup group second, to none. There is at which may be removed from the railroad by every location where there is a Link aircraft some distance. Also, the unit may be moved trainer, and these are many and spread by highway or on a piggyback fiat car, In ei- throughout the country, a group of Link de ther instance, the product of mobility allows sign engineers and. sendee personnel, sup the railroad to move the simulator from dis porting various installations.' These men, in trict to district, giving a wider coverage most - instances, are located quite dose to and extending the opportunities of simulator most of the railroad terminal areas in this, training to their' entire system. This, of country and should a problem ever occur, course, encourages participation on the part which would require the services of such an of the locomotive engineer trainee and al engineer, he could be on their property in' a lows him to, in most instances, live at home matter of hours, no matter where the unit is while he is undergoing the training. located. This would insure constant opera I don't believe that it is necessary to point tion, minimum down time, and an uninter out the economic savings in this type of ar rupted training program. rangement. However, we still must not for Now let us step into the simulator and ex get that a stationary unit also has certain ad amine some of its major components. The vantages in that regular schools may be es computer selected for this service is a tablished at various points which may in. SEL810A General Purpose Digital Computer many cases not only serve the purchasing manufactured by Systems Engineering Labo railroad, but lease time made available to ratory in Fort Lauderdale, Fla. Link, of other railroads operating in die area, setting course, makes many computers for their up a zone type of instruction school which larger units themselves. However, their com may then be expanded to indude system in puter group selected this particular one as struction, and other type of classroom in- , the one which would be most appropriate to struction which can more easily be estab this type of operation; This computer mini lished at single locations. mizes maintenance effort by utilizing self- 7 1867 National Safety Congress checking diagnostic programs. Reliability is windshield wipers, deaidman control, or any field proven-anid it employs the newest in other system or appurte:nance which you ac- the art of integrated circuitry, thus improv . tually have in acab of a locomotive will be ing die reliability of the overall simulator. in the car of'the simulaitor.- Into this computer are programmed the dynamics of the locomotive to be simulated, both general and speciflc'infomiatipn regard ing the right-of-way, which is represented on the film; for instance, type of ballast^ turn out size, road crossings, bridges, super-eleva tions, grades, etc.; all information which would require some response in the way of sounds, motions or visual cue. Also in this computer are die dynamics of the train in general--the various car weights, reliability bn grades, their lengths,, their, reactions to A question was askeci on one road regard ing realism, and we ; minted out that we would even install a water cooler, which does not work, if this e: tone in realism was required. However, the realism is there right down to the last nut, Imlt, and rivet just as the man would see it in the actual cab, and every dial, and operating light are actually operating in the simulator just as they would in the actual, cab. There are no dummy gadgets or dummy lights; everything Is in working order. forces, all die information which could affect die operation of the train, and which is called out by the actions of die student, the instructor, or the coded tape which is acti vated and controlled by the film and the film speed. There is in this computer approxi mately 67 per cent spare computer time and SI per cent spare core storage, which means that as changes are required hi locomotives, in operations or in the various track dynam ics, they may be readily programmed into the computer by simply typing out a pro gramme and feeding it No down time is re quired as this can be done by the personnel who will maintain and instruct on the com puter. Just to the :rear of the" locomotive engi neer's seat is a flop-down seat for the in-' structor so that he may be immediately in back Of the man in training, see the same view he sees, and be able to talk with him and discuss the various operational proce dures. Across from the instructor is the in structor's panel. On this there are controls to change the trade adhesion so that the in structor may, at will, induce rail slips or pro vide die-realism of a wet track condition: Next to this is a dial indicating the number of power units in the consist. The simulator will realistically handle from one to five lo comotives on the head end.' Also, on at least two railroads its been requested to provide . This was one of the major concerns in ini . the additional controls for die operation of tially Americanizing the locomotive simula slave or control units back in the train. This tor. The British units utilized an analog type could readily be accomplished by adding the of computer which is an electronic or elec hardware in the cab and programming in the tro-mechanical type of computer utilizing dynamic ' effects of these units in the - com axles with rheostats, etc., and should changes puter at any time. be required .in power or track structure it would be necessary to physically go in and tear apart sections of the computer and re build them or add to the analog computer additional sections to take care of the addi tional dynamic information necessary in the storage. This, of course, could become a seri ous and expensive problem over the years to come, and as we expect locomotive simula tors once placed in service to become even Next to this power unit , dial is a series of buttons. These buttons, when pressed, light, telling you how many cars you have on the train when lighted. There are ten buttons, each representing twenty cars. This, of course, is changeable according to the spe cific desires of the purchasing railroad. The unit which is now under construction con tains ten such buttons. If you desire to add cars to a train, you simply press the ap more useful to the railroads for many years,- propriate buttons. If you .want to take them it is. necessary that it be so designed that off, you press them again and they release. It .changes may be made from time-to-time is also possible to tell whether these cars you quickly and easily. are adding are loaded or unloaded as the The training station is actually the interior of the locomotive cab to be simulated. The actual stanchion for the controls, the power panel on the electrical, control cabinets, button tilts to a load or unload position. Therefore, an instructor can set up an occa sion where he might have 80 cars fully loaded with twenty empty cars on the head 8 Railroad Section end. .This would certainly create some condi pects. A signal program is inserted into the tions, particularly on descending, grades,, computer, providing a normal., sequence of where' training procedures could save the signal indication. However, the instructor has railroads considerable costs in train derail the ability to over-ride this control and these ments and subsequent equipment and lading two dials are for that purpose. Above each damage. dial is a little light marked near. One of There is one additional feature of this these will be illuminated at all times. The type of display, using the lighted buttons for instructor may then simply dial the type of the number of cars, which is quite novel. aspect he wants on his near signal and do The computer, of course, has the dynamic the same on the second dial; as the train ap effects of a locomotive programmed in and proaches the first signal, the aspect which he also'that of the cars. Should the. engineer has selected will be the one displayed. As operate his train in such a manner where a soon as the train passes this signal, the near break-in-two would normally occur, it's light goes out and the near light on the sec going to occur in the simulator and the in ond dial is illuminated, because at this time structor, simply by glancing at die lights and that is the signal which is near. The instruc seeing where die lights went out, can tell ex tor-can at this time then redial the first one actly where the train broke. In two, and so that he can, for any given stretch of track that's exactly where the train would break- or any given number of signals, select the in-two in actiial operation. Hence, we then aspects he wants. This gives the instructor have a way of determining what die break- the ability to simulate a dear failure on -a in-two stresses are under varying conditions signal and observe the action of the locomo Of actual operation. Also, the instructor has tive engineer. It is also possible to make sig the ability to, at any time, cause a break-in- nal tests -with locomotive engineers by this two simply by pushing a button and extin manner by simply. , flipping his near signal guishing all those lights from that button to1 while it is in his view to a stop indication. the right, which just cuts those cars off his There are many ways and many varieties of train instantaneously just as it would occur experiences which an engineer can face due : in a break-in-two. Then the engineer experi- to signal manipulations. ' ences the full sense .of the motion and acce leration or deceleration, as the case may be, of a realistic break-in-two and he must take the appropriate action. One of the interesting portions of the Brit ish National Railways display is that at the end of each of the film sequences, something is on the track, such as a- freight-car, or an Below this freight car loading panel and automobile,: or a freight car fouling the to the left is a button labeled Torpedo. The mainline. The instructor, through the con-, instructor may press this at any time and the . trol, can provide dear signals all the way in engineer' would experience the sound of a so that an operator can come around a curve . torpedo going off under the wheels , of his at the designated speed for that territory and unit. find himself looking at a freight car sitting Next to this button is an emergency brake on the mainline track. You can imagine this application button. The instructor may at can provide some rather interesting results in . any time initiate an emergency-brake appli the way of reflex action. It is true that al cation by simply pushing this button. though a man knows he is in a simulator, the We then have a panel adjacent to this, reactions and the feeling he senses are very .labeled Malfunctions. This panel will vary real. However, it has been found that his from railroad to railroad according to their ability to.learn is considerably greater be particular desires, but on two specific rail cause he subconsciously realizes that his ac roads these buttons will be labeled ground tions can cause no damage, thus he is more relay, over-speed trip, penalty brake, dy able to concentrate on what he must leant namic brake loss, air-loss, hot engine, and with less apprehension and.be far inore re low oil pressure. Others can be added at the ceptive to learning. request of. a purchasing railroad, or some of ' Next to the signal dials is a button marked these may be deleted. This depends, again, crash. This was placed in there at the re on the desires of the specific railroad. quest of one specific railroad where. they Below, this group and to the left again, we wanted a situation which could not normally have two dials which control the signal as be filmed and what has been done to. accom- 2967 National Safety Congress pUsh almost the same thing is to provide a calls from the end or from the wayside loca man a specific placeto stop on a given piece tion; ; . of trade with another train operating in his View and crossing over in front of him.If he does not stop he gets the full motion, sight, and'sound effects of a collision;1At the same time he exercises freeze and he knows he has been in a crash. The visual system placed before the cab consists of a specially built projector which provides a full range of motion in the film from 0 miles an hour on up to and including 79 miles ah hour, and it is not impossible to. have higher -speeds on the film. Coupled .Next tej this is a film rewind button which with this is .a tape code which is operated at allows an instructor to go back over certain the same speed as the projector film and areas and do them again and again with his gives the cues to the computer regarding the student, or to go back and review thestu- necessary sounds for the right-of-way and denfs action during a particular situation.' the crossing signals which may be passed. Adjacent to this1 is a frame counter which The information on this code determines mo will pin-point certain problems for repeat ex* tion, sound and visual display coordination. ereises.. , Coupled with this also' are two groups of . Below this in the lower left hand comer is an: emergency stop button which has a. pro tecting guard over it This stops everything. It kills die hydraulic, system for. the motion, stops the electrical handling of the com very small spotlights which handle the sig nal aspectsalong the right-of-way. The sim ulator has the ability to handle two signals at a time; that is, two signals .each consisting of two or three aspects. puter, stops all visual display and sound. It . Over the past two years, in talking with actually kills the entire unit various railroads in this country and Canada, Them is also a button for cab motion sys tem. Under certain conditions it may be de sirable to operate this unit without cab mo tion, and this can be readily cut out by the use of this button. Next to this is a tilting .button marked DAY and NIGHT. Normally, the simulator is operated in a daylight.condi tion, because die film is taken, of .course, in the daylight. For the purpose of simulating night time operation, you flip the button to the night side of the switch and the illumi nation is, cut down to the point where you appear to be in a semi-moonlight condition. Your signals, of course, are still as bright as they would be at night They are not cut it has become evident that a very real prob-- lem in training locomotive engineers exists how or is going to exist in-the very near fu ture. Railroads must consider forecasts'which reflect the varying degrees to which the fire men's roster on each particular road has been reduced by application of Arbitration 'Award 282. This situation, of course, can vary sharply from railroad to railroad, and even as between operating divisions on any given railroad. Serious study-must be made regarding the attrition of locomotive engi neers, particularly in view of the latest awards regarding the retirement pay and age allowances. '-- bade at all and it is a very realistic night. But, let's consider the subject of simula time scene. tors in a training process. Do not think we would be doing justice to this consideration Next to this is the exercise freeze button, unless we consider the order and long range . whereby die instructor may at any time stop the film and stop the exercise immediately, and review the situation and the actions of the trainee, pointing out what his reaction was and what it should have been. viewpoint rather than just a short term pro gram for accelerated braining over the next few years. Mr. Reed, president of the Santa Fe Railroad, said in his address before the RSScMA on Motive Power Simulation back ' In die lowest right hand comer is a radio in March, "There is probably no other in control with channel selections and a volume dustry in the world that places more trust in switch, .providing radio communication with 1 its employees than do the railways, especially simulated end-to-end operation- for simula for the proper performance of duty by their tion wayside to mobile operation. It is possi trained semce employees; and there is prob ble, if die railroad desires, to indude tapes ably none that has its supervisory forces of various conversations which would nor spread so thinly over its operations, with the mally come in over the radio and have the . result that, the train service employees are engineer react and respond to these various subject only to random observation and Railroad Section y checking of performance. In a typical rail simulators would become most popular with way operating organization we have fust a the employees themselves. For instance, for handful of supervisory officers responsible a locomotive engineman to be able to ac for the performance of crews operating over, tually handle a heavy coal train down a de many hundreds of miles of line. This is scending grade before he is actually faced enough to suggest the importance' we have with the real responsibility for doing this always attributed to the proper training and could be one of the most comforting and testing of crewmen, particularly those on the " reassuring experiences that could be imag headend of our train." He also referred to ined. This could not only relieve enginemen "education by osmosis" and made the sugges of anxieties, but it could also encourage tion that this old process be revised by sub experimentation with new techniques of han-. stituting' accelerated programs of concen dling these heavy trains, experience which trated training in lieu of the three or four could not possibly be made in real life for year period traditionally allotted to locomo fear of break-in-two.: tive' engineer candidates to prepare for pro- ' motion. Certain specific questions have come up regarding education by osmosis: Are we getting proper quality control in the training process? .. Do our training procedures have gaps that become evident only- from service irregulari ties and mishaps? A determination is. necessary as to what today's training processes really cost us and whether there are better ways, including, the use of a locomotive simulator, to utilize more efficiently the manpower and supervision at . the disposal of the railroad. Thus, a simulator could become, in the words of Mr. Reed, "A computerized test track and -proving ground on which new combinations of power and new techniques of train handling could be given preliminary and painless experimentation." Further, we must consider that there are those few indi viduals, who. are found on some railroad di visions, who fust don't have the knack of handling certain trains under certain condi tions. Here intensive training on simulators set to duplicate the' appropriate roadway conditions that give these men trouble should permit a better analysis of their faults . and an early correction of their methods or The major contribution can. be made by procedure. In other words, simulators would the locomotive simulator in train, handling seem to have the potential of upgrading and train operating. By "train handling" we train handling skills of the entire locomotive mean that dexterity and experience in ma engineers Brotherhood. . nipulating the throttle, brake valve, and Train operation from point to point as ex other controls which produce a smooth, safe perienced today on the railroads is greatly handling with avoidance of harsh slack ac influenced by the type of engineman at the tion and resultant possibility of damage to throttle. The old "education by osmosis" equipment an,d lading. By "train operating" methpd used down through the years has by we mean point to point operation of trains in and large produced many very excellent lo accordance with procedures prescribed by comotive engineers. However, many bad the book of rules, time table, and other regu habits have also been passed on from engi lations. A high standard of train handling neer to fireman and on down the line. These can quickly and easily teach men the mani are the bad habits which affect the operation pulative skill of train handling. If it is neces of a train from one point to another point.. sary to repeat certain exercises to make the This lack of a standard training affects the response to emergency conditions automatic, braking distances, signal recognition and they may he gone over and over and over compliance, the efficient use of the power at again until the response to these conditions - hand, and can also affect the entire point to are second- nature and automatic to thd man point run of a train as to downgrade the en in training. tire efficiency of an operating district. I was The simulator may also be used to intro told by. an engineer of one railroad that their duce experienced enginemen to new types of training is so varied that even a normal serv-. locomotives, new types of brake equipment, ice application to brakes can mean a differ "and even to new configurations of train, such ence, of a half mile to a mile or more be-' as the heavy unit coal trains recently put in tween one locomotive engineer and the sec service on many lines. It is in this area that ond, simply because they were told those 11 1867 National Safety Congress things which the person who taught diem gram of education in the future. A program thought were the most important, and the ' which will not only combine the operation rest of this initial training -has gone by the and instruction on locomotives with instruc boards. tion on the various systems of a locomotive; In visits with many railroads and discus such as the dynamic .braking and the electri sions with their operating mechanical people, cal system, but will eventually be expanded it has never been questioned that a new sys for purposes of instructing shop -personnel tem of training locomotive engineers is and electricians, the various other depart sorely needed, and it has never been ques ments of the railroad in their own particular tioned that a standard system of training craft It will eventually, by the sheer attrac would radd immeasurably to the safe and tiveness of the education and the subsequent economical operation of a railroad. The loco employment on a modem, forward-looking motive simulator would be used as a tool for railroad, attract the young men coming from improving the training of new locomotive colleges and universities who will look to the engineers; the upgrading of those presently railroad as the type of growth industry with on the job; and, finally, as a supplement to which they will want to seek their future. the old overall locomotive engineer program. The .railroad industry, at present, is probably I say supplement here simply because on the the (jne industry which has done so little in railroads, as it is presendy on the air lines, a the way of education or on-the-job training simulator would be used as an on-the-job for its personnel or prospective employees. training mechanism and would in no way Let' us hope that in the' years to come, ever replace! the actual operational training through locomotive simulation and other necessary for the final qualifications on a lo trajning aids and educational- procedures, the comotive. However, having gone through lo railroads will continue toward even greater comotive'simulation training, a man will step goals in safe operation of the life lines of the into the cab of a locomotive with far more; United States, with their tremendous capa assurance and far more knowledge of train bilities and their endless opportunities. To handling and train operation than any engi this end I believe the railroad should be neer over a lifetime of "osmosis" training. dedicated, , and as a member of the supply A locomotive simulator is, I believe, the fraternity I believe it to be the common goal first step in locomotive engineer training and of both the supply industry and the railroad will, I believe, become part of an entire pro industry. CHANGING TIMES By L. W. DUTTON Staff Representative, Railroad Section, National.Safety Council To you as individuals, one of the great values of Council membership is- the oppor tunity provided to associate with people in your own field oLwork and exchange prob lems and solutions. Railroaders, like sailors, miners, and construction workers, are prone to get together with their own kind. Times change, and the Council has tried its best to change with the times. Our chief function is of a clearing house for safety in-, formation. The most valuable information we can give our members concerns trends in the development of the overall national safety campaign. Campaigns (in the plural) is a better word, for the total effort is greatly fragmented. The Council strives-to act os the unifying element, for the various and some times conflicting efforts in the various sectors --industrial, public, traffic, school, farm, and all the rest.'v Within the Council's structure the greatest unifying factor--never fully, brought to reali zation--is industry, including the railroads.. Your interest in all the other phases of safetyis a deep one, involving your own employ ees, on and off the job, and the public at large. Industry provides most of the Coun cil's support, and industry has always ac- 12 Railroad Section cepted its responsibility for helping to pro But now it seems as if we have reached a mote the safety of the American public in all plateau on which our accident experience its activities. continues at more or .less of a .level, and we There are new trends in safety, and the can't seem to force it downward. Council is doing its . best to make its mem In view of the trend toward government bers aware of'them and direct their courses intervention it might be well if we took a to fit the trends. Perhaps the strongest of closer look to see what can be done, to im these trends is that toward federal interven prove the design of all types of railway tion in various aspects of safety. The pattern equipment to the end that all those who is first, a Congressional investigation and, ul have to work with it and maintain it may do timately, Federal regulation. This ultimate so with a minimum of exposure to mechani stage usually involves . Federally imposed cal hazards. Tiffs is especially critical in technical safety standards, in which the in these times, when it seems every day there terests affected may or may not have a voice appears a new type of freight car, of car in the formulation. door, of draft gear--to say nothing of a new Directly involved in . this process is the whole problem of safety standards, because government intervention usually occurs in areas where no safety standards exist--or type of roadway maintenance machine. In the design of all these items of equipment, has enough safety engineering gone into die design to protect the switchman or the track where critics say inadequate standards are in man who has to work with them, and the effect shop man who has to maintain them? This year marks 'the 52nd anniversary of But granting, for the sake of argument, the Railroad Section and the 54th anniver that the railway plant as a whole is in pretty sary of the-National Safety Council. What safe'condition, why can we not improve the have we learned about safety in those years? record any further? There are those who There is an old epigram which points out have a ready answer--human failures. In the difference between having 52 years' ex other words, basically; "carelessness" is caus- perience and having one year's experience ing most of the accidents. . 52 times. If only that word "carelessness" could be A complete set of the transactions of all thrown out of the dictionaryI For if a man is the National Safety Congresses is carefully careless there is .usually an underlying rea preserved at Council headquarters. Any of son. Few people are truly careless about you who wish to do so are invited to visit us their own safety. The reason may bn in a and read the. proceedings of the first session man's mental attitude, in some personal bur of the Railroad Section, which took place at den on his mind, in his physical condition-- the 1915 Congress in Philadelphia. There or it may be that he simply didn't know how you will find talks presented by some of the to do lffs job safely.- He may never have early great, pioneers of the railroad safety been taught how to do it, or his training movement You will find that they were set may have been inadequate. ting forth the same problems. We have with Or ... he may not have been effectively us today . . . and recommending the Jpme supervised. methods we are using today for th^if^olu- So we come to the point that the trend-- . tion. the need--is -for truly effective training in They were great men; those pioneers-- safety. We need- to find new methods, or men like Isaiah Hale of the Santa Fe and perhaps just to make more and better use of Ralph Richards of the North Western. They . the methods which have always been avail-, were evangelists . . . exhorters. They could able. have stood before you today and brought We need to train new workers effectively tears to your eyes. Their like is not found in the all around best method of doing their among us now. They did their , work well jobs, but above all" it is essential that w and left us a great tradition to follow. By train supervisors in how to teach and how to their work and the work of all railroad safety supervise for safety. The supervisor is the men who have come after them,' the annual worker's contact with the'company that em toll of death and injury to railroad workers ploys him. The supervisor Is the one man has been reduced by nine-tenths; compared who is in a position to instruct, examine, -and to 1915. . guide the worker. 13 1867 National Safety Congress Necessarily, then, the prime responsibility for the whole process falls on the supervisor's shoulders. This responsibility cannot be dele gated. The supervisor, in turn, is entitled to: 1. A dear definition of his'training responsi bilities., 2. Instruction in how to do the training. 8. Texts and aids to assist him in doing'the training job. 4. Allowance of time necessary for training. Training does not end at the end of the schooling period. Earl Hannaford, author of our new Supervisor's Guide to Human Rela tions, has this to say: "Everything we do in directing the work force has some elements of training in it; everything we do in train ing has some elements of supervision in it" Lessons learned may not be completely re tained; various influences may cause the de velopment of bad habits. Watchful supervi sion will correct these 'undesired develop ments. Supervision is, in part, a process of continual education, GETTING ON AND OFF EQUIPMENT (A film produced by the Southern Pacific Co. demonstrating correct ways of getting * i on and off rolling stock.) Introduced By 7* B. MALARKEY Safety Supervisor, Southern Pacific Co., San Francisco, Cal. Getting on and off cars and engines is an After dose study of many experienced, ac occupational activity common to all train cident-free employees, it appears that there men, enginemen, and all switchmen. It is is more than one safe method of getting on necessary in switching cars, making up or off. The conclusion is that each man, trains, spotting industries, and in picking up through his own experience, develops an in loads and empties. It is also a part of flag dividual technique that may be, perhaps, ging and train inspection. best for him, which is borne out by his good Unfortunately, getting on or off cars and engines is also one of the principal sources of injury to the men" of the Transportation Department In an attempt to pinpoint the major causes, and perhaps find an answer to safety performance. However, most of these men seem to have one thing in common: a smooth flow of movement that tends to carry them away from the car or engine as they make contact with the ground. this constantly recurring type of injury, the At this point in the study, it was sus Safety Department has spent some time in pected that perhaps faulty technique was filming many experienced employees en not the major cause for most of the accidents gaged in their normal work, in the act of of this type. A thorough analysis was made getting on or off many types of equipment, of the accident reports.of all injuries of this for the purpose of analysis and perhaps iden type occurring during a one year period. tifying the safest \Vay of getting on and off First, the speed of the car was considered.. the equipment. This was not a significant factor. In only six There appears to be some variation in per cent of the cases was the speed over techniques used by different men. eight , miles per hour. Nor was darkness a Let's take a look at the techniques used factor; the accidents were evenly divided be by experienced men, many who have been tween daylight and darkness. . performing this operation for years. One In the accidents involving moving equip man gets off on the leading foot, while an ment, 26 per cent occurred when getting, on, other gets off on the trailing foot; another while 74 per cent occurred when getting off. man swings out and lands on his leading In accidents involving standing equipment, foot, while this man faces the equipment, only 15 per cent occurred while getting .on, stepping of^wjth the trailing foot; again, yet while 85 per cent occurred when getting off. another man who uses the trailing foot Yes, that's right! Eighty-five per-cent in get 14 RaOroad Section ting off, where no movement was involved, where no skilled technique was necessary to maintain balance. This was ah interesting due as to the major causes of most of these accidents. Further analysis brought out that actually about 83 per cent of all the injuries studied were caused not by the way the in jured man got off, hut rather by an error in judgment: Stepping into a hole, onto a switch stand, mud, fallen dunnage, or other debris. Thus, this study of over 180 accidents of this type, indicated that the major problem and its solution lies not so much in the me chanics of getting on or off as in the use of good judgment as to where and when to get off. The conclusions are that this type of ac cident can be most effectively prevented by, first, always being sure of the footing before detraining from either moving or standing equipment--being sure that foe area Is free of water, mud, sticks, stones, and other de bris. If. in doubt, don't get off. Stop the movement and then do not release-your handhold until your feet are safely on foe ground. - Substantial sums are being expended an nually in a system-wide program of weed control, and in a continuing program of cleanup of yard tracks, toe paths, and rightof-way. However, as is die case with any busy railroad, it's possible for lading to faff from passing cars and trains at any time, calling for constant vigilance and judgment when detraining. Maintaining good health and physical fit ness are also important to preventing this type of accident Good physical condition means'greater agility, alertness, and balance. You can further protect yourself with good high top shoes, no cuffs, good {doves, no hanging chains, and no loose clothing. If you are a beginner, observe foe tech niques of foe experienced men you work with. Develop a smooth flow of movement that carries you away from foe car and avoid detraining at speeds that make it difficult to maintain your balance. AN ADDRESS By BEN W. HKINEMAN Chairman, Chicago and North Western Bailway Company, Chicago, IIL There is a waste in industrial accidents, rect the causes of accidents. In a few cases, With tragic consequences to employees and the safety officer was an errand boy for the their families; loss of dollars to the corpora superintendent who. used him for other mat tion; adverse morale. No one gains from ac ters than safety. cidents; everyone loses. This is why, on foe Some of you must be saying, "We would North' Western, we have come to regard never allow this to happen--not on our rail- safety as one of the most vital programs on - road." I can only suggest: Take another the railroad. While we won the Horriman ' look. You may be astonished at what you'll Award of 1965, and over foe years had a find. These problems are , by no means fairly good record compared to other rail unique to any one railroad, or, indeed, fo roads, we felt.that we should do more. any one industry. The North Western's new safety program began January 1, 1967. To implement it, . several key top management decisions were made. Oneof these was foe decision .to take the Safety- Department out of the Operating Department, temporarily at least, so that we could take a whole fresh look at safety. We found that, in spite of our record, men des ignated as safety officers spent most of their time chasing down accidents that had al ready occurred, with little time left to cor My first action was to charge a special team of North Western's officers, headed by. a member .of foe North Western's new Corporate Development staff, with conceiv ing,. engineering and implementing a com pletely new train safety program for foe rail road based on a systems approach, with top management controls -and enforcement A short time later, responsibility for safety ad ministration was similarly removed from foe Operating Department and placed,under su 15 1967 National Safety Congress pervision of the North Western's new Per of Sperry Car time per year to detect hidden sonnel Department, headed by a vice presi rail defects. Presently under evaluation is a dent. plan to install a year-round Sperry Car pro The really important thing in all this was, gram. of course, to firmly establish a rigid safety A new team of car inspectors has been' control and enforcement program on a sys added' to three of our main interchange tems basis for the entire railroad. Our objec points. This team has uncovered a host of tive was to follow -a practice widespread defects that, had they gone unnoticed, al throughout other industry. That is, to sep most surely would have resulted in derail arate quality control from quantity control. ments. These inspectors cost real money, but All this change was not accomplished without first giving the entire subject a thor ough investigation. From mid-October to mid-December, 1966, a careful analysis by a team of North Western officers from various departments of the railroad indicated that, the majority of dollar losses in train acci we have found that the cost is nominal com pared to the results that have been obtained, because they are finding defects in cars be fore we ever accept them for movement over our line. We have embargoed certain types of equipment and' certain loads from high speed trains. dents were those involving in excess ' of We currently have 20 hot box detectors in $50,000 each, with one accident costing us use, and by the end of the year we will have nearly a million dollars. Careful study of installed an additional' 10. These' gadgets these $50,000-plus accidents showed that cost, as many of you know, roughly $40,000 roughly 75 per cent were derailments and 25 each. The capability of the hot box detection per cent were collisions--in terms of dollar system is itself being expanded. Orders are losses. Again in terms of dollar losses, causes being placed for loose wheel and dragging of these accidents broke down into 48 per equipment , detectors which .will be inte cent mechanical failures, 27 per cent human' grated into the hot box detection system, failures, 18 per cent track failures and 7 per and a check out mechanism is being worked cent external. circumstances. on by the North. Western's Communications But our analysis went deeper, than this. We broke the property down into what we call railroad number 1 and railroad number 2. Railroad number 1 consisted mainly of Department If successful, this will allow the equipment to be checked out immediately before and immediately after each .train passes the detector location. Additionally, - heavy-density lines with fast trains and large North Western- is currently testing a hot box tonnages. Railroad number 2 was made up audit system which would be installed on mostly of switch runs, ivayfreights, and little used, branch and side tracks. While railroad number 1 accounts for'only '20 per cent of the North Western's trackage, it carries ap proximately 80 per cent of the railroad's trains at random. This device, os it passes a hot" box detector, will trigger, the detection system, causing a hot box reading to appear in the dispatcher's office if the detector itself is functioning ' properly. The dispatcher gross ton miles in a given year. should then immediately notify the train Our studies showed that railroad number 1 accounted for 90 per cent of all the dollar losses for accidents and that railroad number ' 2 accounted for only 10 per. cent Thus, it was reasonably clear that .in looking at a safety program, for the railroad, we were which will come to a complete stop. If the . train crew inspects the train for an over heated axle bearing' properly, they should find the audit device attached to the wheel. If they don't, of course, the.supervisor will want to know why. looking at the North Western as two sep North Western is the first railroad, to my arate and distinct railroads;. It meant, of knowledge, with ,a "systems" audit device of course, that railroad number 1 had to receive this type. Obviously, it will serve os a field the lion's share of attention and money, even testing system for dispatchers, the train oper though it had only 20 per cent of the mile age. I'll briefly summarize some of the mechan. icol steps North Western has taken to im ating employees, and the hot box detector maintenance crews throughout the railroad, as well as a traveling- audit on the detectors themsdves. . prove safety performance. Currently, North This brings us to the next major area of Western utilizes approximately seven months attention: Human failures. The finest mecha- . Railroad Section sized safety system in the world becomes of Rules Committee is .currently working nearly valueless if human beings responsible with Encyclopedia Britannica to have actual for the actual operation of the railroad fail to programmed instruction material in the field perform properly. by Spring of 1968. .We found that periodic "safety lectures" Rules, of course, are next to worthless un by the division safety officer is not an effec less you enforce them, and. here, too, we've tive tool.; Men frequently did not show up made some major changes. for the -meeting, and when they did, gave Recently, for' example,' North Western, only grudging attention. We are experiment launched its Merit Pay Plan for all ap ing with having division superintendents talk pointed officers. Number one on the list of to the men about safety. Superintendents are performance qualifications, whenever a man about the busiest people on earth I know of, comes up for promotion or a salary increase, but we hope that by having the superintend is his safety record.. I am aware that some of ent make a talk it will have a greater impact our good friends in the labor organizations on the men--and on the superintendent. have long scoffed at the notion that rules en But merely talking to the men about forcement was applied equally to appointed safety isn't enough. We're holding the divi officers and contract employees. I can assure sion superintendent directly-responsible for them-that it. is on the North Western. Since the safety record on his division. We are we launched our new program, a considera looking more and more toward a profit cen ble number of `promotions and prospective ter concept in. which the .superintendent is raises for officer personnel have been turned responsible for all phases of. operation on his down on the basis of a poor safety perform division. ance. In at least one case, I am told, poor What we're seeking is to instill in each safety performance has occasioned reduced and every one of our operating officials the pay for an officer. idea that these accidents are wasteful in a Another new safety performance check in competitive industry that can't afford waste, stituted in recent months has resulted in the and that we are all vitally concerned from astonishment of some of our field operating top management down. officials: surprise inspections. A group of We've also sharply upgraded our rules in Chicago officers known as the Operations struction and enforcement programs Status Team departs from Chicago's Midway throughout the entire system. Every single Airport in the corporate aircraft en' route to operating employee is now subject to annual an unknown destination. Even they don't review and testing on his knowledge of the know, where they're headed. Railroads are operating rules. These tests are all machine covered with telegraph wires, etc., and the scored in order to remove any possibility of word gets around. .Only when this team is in bias. This is, to my knowledge, the first test the air is their destination revealed, provid in the railroad industry to be designed as a ing something of a guaranteed surprise for multiple-choice examination- that does not the inspection visit. discriminate against persons who may be ed Upon arrival, these officers, each a special ucationally handicapped or labor under ist in his own area, proceed, to their area of problems of poor penmanship, spelling, or responsibility--transportation, track, cars, punctuation. We are not testing their Eng motive power, etc.--and completely review lish; we are testing their knowledge. We the operation for eight full horns. Upon re-' have thrown out all oral examinations be-, turning .to Chicago, a deficiency report is cause they were not graded correctly. All submitted to the General Manager of the tests are graded by a rules examiner at Our railroad. Within 48 horns thereafter, the di Chicago headquarters. vision superintendent must have launched a In addition, the North Western is working program of improvement aimed at correcting with a group of railroads operating under a every'single item on the list. single consolidated code of rules: An agree Now. that we've done all these things-- ment has already been drawn up between purchased new hardware, created a new de participating roads to finance the first set of partment; completely revamped management programmed instructions ever to be used by systems and controls procedures, increased operating officials in the railroad industry. A vigilance and enforcement--you are entitled steering'committee of the Consolidated Code to ask, "Does it work?" 17 .1987 National Safety Congress To date, the effects of our experimental Our idea never was simply to find out program are easily demonstrated in sheer what went wrong. What went wrong was ob- economic terms. For the first nine months of . vious. Why it Went wrong was another mat 1967, the North Western's train accident ter entirely. We want to find out why and fix costs are 35 to 40 per cent below the com that; and that is what we set about'doing! parable nine month period of 1966. By the We don't have the only answer. We can end pf the year, we feel that our train acci learn from other railroads. - dent costs will average, for the year as a The' effectiveness of our accident-preven whole,- 40 per cent less than in 1966.1 have tion program is measurable by the savings of not . been in railroading as long as'some of millions of dollars in its first year. We have you, but I have learned over the past 14 focused upon the fundamental causes'under years that railroads have ups and downs and lying our accidents and then followed with a I feel that it will take a span of years to "systematized'' attack using the three major fully evaluate our program. "E's": Engineering, Education, Enforcement. ' Beyond that time, projections. become While we are pleased with our accom progressively more difficult. The ideal would, plishments in the first year, we intend to of course, be to completely eliminate all ac continue pioneering technologically and or- cidents. While theoretically possible, I sup 'ganizationally wherever and whenever we pose, we do after all live in a real'world and feel additional progress and benefits can be not in an.ideal world. Mechanisms do fail realized. We think there is room for work in and humans do err. the area of personal injuries not connected I'm not suggesting that I think we've nec with train accidents. We think we can avert essarily . arrived at the complete' approach tragedy ' from many homes and families, even yet. We are giving some consideration which will be rewarding to the men and to to other steps that, may be desirable. the officers'of the company. TRAINING OF TRAIN SERVICE PERSONNEL A WORKSHOP Presiding:' George J. Barry, Superintend-, ent of Safety, Chicago, Milwaukee, St Paul & Pacific Railroad, Chicago, HI. Moderators: W. V. Hayes, Director of Safety & Training,-New York Central Sys-' t'em, New York, N. Y. . H. A. Linderer, Superintendent of Safety, St. Louis-San Francisco Railway Co!, Springfield, Mo. W. B. Groome, Director of Safety, .Union Pacific Railroad Co., Omaha, Nebr., J, H. Gilfillan, Superintendent of Safety, Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad, Kansas City, Kans. Barry: We. have for discussion a subject that has a wide variance on each railroad property: the training of train service person nel. We are all convinced that training is vi tally necessary for this group. A train service employe must be taught the proper and cor rect way to perform the various' job func tions he -must perform. He must also be made aware of the job hazards that experi ence has taught us. If this effort is made, adrastic reduction in reportable injuries should result Train service employes represent approxi mately 70 per cent of the total personal inju ries,on each railroad property. It, therefore, is a proper subject to have an exchange of. ideas between us to determine if perhaps our own program needs further reinforcements and improvements to make it more efficient We have chosen as moderators men who have had extensive background in operations before moving into the field of safety -and therefore are equipped to handle the ques tion outlined for our discussions. (At this point the workshop sessions began. At die conclusion of the group dis cussions, the entire audience reassembled 18 Railroad Section and each moderator, gave a 10-minute re port based- on the assigned questions. The moderators'reports follow.) Hayes: First, we had to discuss the type of program, starting with the classroom. In the classroom area, we had to talk about how much time is allowed in the classroom itself. Here we ran into a bit of distinction; 'if a man is undergoing instruction out in the field, is this classroom? You might say this is an outdoor classroom. .But, for the sake of adhering to our subject, we separated the in door classroom from the outside, which we called field; ha the classroom, we discuss the type of classrooms that they have on the railroad; some companies 'have assembly rooms, conference rooms. They .might be in the yard office or in the main office building. A passenger coach is often used. It is not a sta tionary item but travels from point to point over die railroad. We also discussed hiring rooms in hotels or motels. It's true this is probably more expensive, but there are advocates who say you should get people out of the railroad at mosphere and into a room where -they don't have distractions. How much time is allowed for this in the field? Here we'had quite a range. The Mil waukee, the Chicago Belt, and the Southern Pacific each spend one day in the classroom. The Frisco spends one day. The Florida East Coast spends nine -days in the. classroom. After the first three days in the classroom, they go out for 21 days in the field, then come back for six additional days in the classroom. .They pay $350 a.month for their students, which works out to $11.55. a day. The New York Central spends three days in the classroom; the EJ&E spends one day, part of which is out in the field, most of the day in the classroom. Does anyone spend longer than nine days in the classroom? . Fred Laing (from the floor): "We have a four-week training period, four hours per day in the classroom and four, hours on the track. This .works out to a total of 12 days inside the classroom." . The Erie-Lackawanna spends three days in the field for student brakemen, the Mil waukee spends six days, the Chicago Belt spends four days, the Southern Pacific spends 14 days, the Frisco spends 10 days in the' field and, as I mentioned before, the Florida East Coast spends 21 days in the ' field. We discussed the question, "What depart- ment on the railroad'mi^ervises this function of education?" Here we found that in every instance the operating people do the train ing. I asked whether any of the training peo ple might come from another discipline,- such as personnel, but those who do the training are all employees of the operating depart ment. There are some people called training specialists and they are all employed by the operating department Another question, "What specific subject matter is covered in the training program?" This is very interesting. For example. New York Central and several others start with organization--the family structure of the railroad--so they know how we're made up. This might cover wage schedules, labor, agreements. In this particular phase of orien tation, other items are covered, such as proper type of dress for the work; weather (some people don't like to work in the rain, you know); some people don't like to work seven days a week, and you'd better tell them in the beginning. We find that the Chicago Belt uses a model yard in' which they show the student what you mean when you say a car is foul of an adjoining track. What do you mean when you say a car is put in the clear? They show him in this model yard. They also have CTC equipment which they use to describe to the student just how this electronic device func tions. They've been hearing a.lot about it so they should know something.about it. Also, the 'phones--how to use a wayside 'phone, in the case of a road man. The physical ac tivity on the job is discussed. Films are used--what do these . films show? In many cases, they show safety rule observation. Operating rules are covered, safety rules are covered and, of course, part of the time in the field is spent with the me chanical group going over equipment. What is a hand brake? How do you bleed a car? What's a cutoff lever? How dp you operate it? How do you operate it safely? "What benefits have been experienced from the program?" This is always difficult to measure. It's hard to measure how well you're doing. How efficient is a stop sign af a grade crossing? Who knqws? How can you tell? The Milwaukee had an interesting com- ' 19 1987 National Safety Congress meat They kept a recbidof all of the train the form of a written rules examination but service. men who have" gone through their was more to' determine, in general, their training, program. Those men who went knowledge about the various things: the through' their training program went five hand brake, the air hose, etc. years without a disabling injury. I'd say that's pretty good. Another railroad said that out of 93 trainees one man had a fairly slight disabling injury. I was very.much surprised to find that this small percentage had any type of. formal written examination following the student trip. The general feeling of the group was What other henefits? First of all, these that there were benefits to be gained by a people tell me that they have better trained written examination if properly - conducted men. Their men are more safety conscious. and if the proper content went into the writ They get them in the beginning and they in ten examination. still this into "them. They are much more The next question was; "How much time aware of rule observation, conforming to the should be allowed for a training program rules. They know what the rules mean. with train service personnel, and how should Another very interesting point which will the time be allotted?" Here again, we found sum up my presentation is that the men who great variance from one road to the other-- ' have gone through this training program all the way from a matter of two, three, or have a better attitude, and. this is good.' four days up.to a maximum of 90 to 120 . Many men. say, "Oh, hell, the management days that the L&N uses for their formal en doesn't care if I get`hurt." We know this gineer training. I'm sure all of you have read isn't true. The people who have .been the Railway Age and other national publica-' .through these training courses have a better tions and have followed, os I have, the attitude. If we can build a better attitude, L&N's program. I think this is something whether it's in safety, in accident prevention,, that all of us are going to be into eventually car costs, or whatever phase we're working with the 282 Award and various other on, we certainly have made a tremendous things. gain. OUe other road, the Central of Georgia,, Linderer: The first task we had was to dis had a 30-day formal training program that cuss specifically student trips; that was bro sounded to me like an excellent program. As ken down into three- sub-questions, one of I recall, for the first week they had- four which was, "Should the conductor have a hours of classroom work on various types of checklist or some guidelines to govern his mock-up equipment; the students were per observations of the new student?" As might mitted to practice on these and then they be expected in a group of 25 people there had four hours out on the Job, under direct, were some pros and Some cons, but the con supervision. The following week, they were sensus was if you are going to send the stu given more time on the job and less time in dent out for student trips with the average the classroom; this carried on for a 30-day run of conductors, the conductors would not period. take the time and attention to spend with "What specific subjects should be covered the new student that they should and, for in training train service personnel?" We that reason, perhaps a checkligi would not didn't hit this subject very hard. It would be be beneficial. Now, if a student were put out elementary, of course, to observe and come with a selected conductor or crew known to up with what are the duties of the type of bo' conscientious people, then a checklist person you're trying to train; a brnkemnn, a would be of benefit. switchman, a locomotive engineer or fireman The second part of the question was to "explore the use of a' written examination at the end of the training period to test the im pact of the training program," and, "If writ and I think .it would be quite easy to cover all of the subjects that should be covered with a new employee in that category, he was going into.. ten examinations are not being conducted, "How many of the group had a formal 1 does the group feel they have value?" Of the training program for train service person 24 people in our group, we had only two or nel?" Only three or four had a true formal three who gave specific written examinations type of training program where they had to their new employees following their train classroom work, mock-ups, and training aids ing program. This was not, by the way, in and, as the student's knowledge increased. . Railroad Section carried on into the yards. It seems to me that this is an indication to all of us that we need to look very strongly into improving a formal type training for employees. . this point on.the actual work of the yard men; they learn the operating rules, are ex amined there and, finally, sent to the yard where they were hired, or where they may We discussed briefly how many of the be needed. railroads pay their students while they' are Right away, our group got into some spirit learning; the number was somewhat higher of rebuttal on that type of training: One man than I had'expected. About one-third of the said you couldn't train a student for work in roads pay the students while they are learn Chicago arid then send him to Detroit, be ing, whether it is the ` classroom type or cause local practices vary that much. This whether they hired them, gave them a day's central training concept seems to be expen indoctrination, and threw them out to the sive; you are faced with the transportation of wolves, so to speak. trainees to the central training location, you We also discussed briefly the physical ex put them up there and arrange for their amination aspect, which is important. Hap board and transportation from the point of pily, a large number, about 75 per cent, re lodging to and from die yard. There seems quire the physical examination, including xrays, in their pre-employment physical exam-. inations. This will pay dividends in the years' to come for those employees. to be considerable doubt in our group that the added expense brings about a better yard service new employee than training on. the job in a local yard. Groome: We had a very interesting dis. cussion with between 25 and 30 railroad men, principally yard men, about problems that arise as a result of a training program I went into some detail with our group on a change we made in.training on-the Union Pacific this year.. Our Los Angeles yard is the second yard in switch engine shifts for training train service personnel. For worked on in the entire system, Kansas City many years, the training of train service per being the first At Los Angeles, due to the sonnel has been pretty much the same on all of the railroads--after some indoctrination, a physical examination, you put the train serv ice trainee with, your freight crews and, as they progress, they even make a trip or two amount of outside employment in demand for labor, we have a tremendous turnover. For several years, we've had a yard man from the ranks instructing students. There were a lot of complaints from engine fore , with passenger service. Certainly a train men about the quality of students this fellow service trainee, a student brakeman, will put turned out A competent yardmaster was in much'of his time in local freight service. chosen this year and placed in charge of . . We talked a great deal about the training training the student yardmen. of yard service personnel. On the Union Pa Students go through a physical first, in cific they now have joint yard and road cluding.a back x-ray, and then report to the rights, which means that the new men, al student instructor. We have a 45-minute mo most without exception, go into yard service. tion, picture, released this year, about Union What has been the training of yard men Pacific, some history of the company, new over the years? I think it has been rather developments,'the CTC, the data processing similar on all the railroads--an exposure system, new communications, etc. This gives type of learning on the job, observing the . them some idea of the scope of our com other employees working, then getting into pany.' From there to the freight loss and the work himself, and, finally,, by exposure damage people because, as you know, that is learning enough about the work to do a a serious problem in train and yard service more or less acceptable job.. on all of the railroads. The Freight Loss and Just a year ago, I learned of the first de Damage Department representative explains parture from this type of training for yard his problems and the amount of loss, in service employees--the centralization' of freight loss and damage. From there, to the yard service training on the Southern Rail Safety' Department for from 45 minutes to way at Atlanta. That's a wide departure iVi hours on safety on the job. from anything I've heard of before.. They Then the student instructor takes the men1 bring their prospective yard service em out, shows them how to get on and off mov ployee trainees from various points on the ing equipment, how to apply and release railroad into Atlanta. They are trained at hand brakes, couple and uncouple air hose. 21 1967 National Safety Congress proper handling' of cut levers and, particu larly, the new long sliding type draft gear with the so-called trombone type cut levers. After-this preliminary work, he puts them out with some of the better engine, foremen. .Our training period lasts from 12 to 21 days, depending upon the aptitude of the student; then they're brought in for rules examination and put out for work as extra yard men. Our training instructor doesn't forget these men at that time. For the first week, in par ticular, he tries to follow-up with the engine foreman working with these new men and ascertain how they are doing. In case the student isn't doing right, he'll call him off to one side and get into the problem, whatever it may be. This has worked out very well for our railroad; "What problems arise if training programs are conducted in several locations?'' One of the problems would be the training of in structors; if they're not the recipients of centralized instruction, perhaps the students get varied training; "the duplication of aids should not be too big a problem. Cost, certainly--the training of students at the individual locations would run considerably less than a centralized training location. So, we find that with the exception of the one very advanced centralized training loca tion of the Southern Railroad at Atlanta and some point training the New York Central has, most of the other roads train their stu dents in train-and yard service right in the territory where they will be used. As for the larger roads, the training in the yard service is at the local points. The consensus was that training should be done at local-points, but that training personnel should be trained to gether to provide uniformity of training. What problems arise if the training is con ducted at headquarters? Of course, the transportation can be rather expensive. There would be differences in hand signals, and other local characteristics that a man would not get at a central training point but would, be up against the very first day he went to work at a yard away from the cen tral training point. Another point made was the lack of per sonal interest or association that local train ing would provide. In other .words, all too often at a central training point the studeAts would not receive the' careful interest of the instructors that they would from a man who was with them from the day they went on the job. ...' On the other side of-the coin, what prob lems arise if training programs are con ducted in several locations? Possible lack of uniformity in the instruction the students re ceive; but where we have many yards under joint seniority,, we don't find that is too im portant. It has-never been much of a prob lem of one of our men moving from one yard to another. On- our railroad it has been .history that the new man isn't hurt too often. The new man in train and yard service has a great re spect for moving equipment. He's extremely careful getting on and off moving equipment, and it's only until-he's pretty well familiar with his work that the characteristic of the American employee will come to the front and he'll come up with a short cut to do the job easier; then someone gets injured. We had an interesting discussion and it was felt by our group that training on the job at individual locations up to now has. been proved.satisfactoiy. Gilfillan; Should an existing department on the" railroad be held responsible for train ing train service personnel? Or should a new department be created to supervise the train ing program? The answer is yes. We'll go to the next.one. Well, that is the answer! It was the consensus of opinion that all railroads should have a department for training people. These other fellows have told you what we should do after we get that depart ment. They would- help the operating de partment or the mechanical department in training men. But those men must be taken out-to the field with 3 practical man to leam the rudiments of the down-to-earth applica tion-of what is taught to them in the class room. When I asked them whether their rail roads were willing to entertain the thought of having a separate department, they all raised their hands. If the same group were asked if their railroad would pay for it, not many hands would come up. That is a prob lem we all have. Can we get the money to put oh a training program? You've heard the benefits of a- training program' discussed; there's money in it,. but it's expensive to form a training department. The benefits to be derived from proper training of employees are hard to measure. Those of us who have worked with men for 22 Railroad Section many years see the need for it. Some younger fellows will probably enjoy working with training departments and doing a good j'ob of getting.'good personnel and training them in the proper work habits. Should the railroad require a certain length of service from new men to protect tlieir investment in a . training program? I think they should but we'd have a helluva time trying to get them to. sign a contract with us. I don't think they would. How could, we get a man to sign a contract to stay with us X number of weeks, months, or years after we had trained him properly to become a switchman, brakeman, engineer,, conductor, 'or what have you? . One fellow came up with a fine thought. There's an obligation on the part of manage ment to orientate this man so that he be comes a willing, loyal employee before he's turned out, as Linderer says, to the wolves. So perhaps it's not a question of whether we could get him to sign a contract. Perhaps management should take this position: "Let's bring this new man in, let's hire him and teach him the good' things about our or ganization. Let's teach him those things that he can expect from being employed' with us --the conditions ofliis employment, so that we have properly indoctrinated him before he goes out into the field where he will have some discouraging things said to him, such as: 'you have to work nights, you have to work weekends, you don't have any set free days. If there are rest days available they'll be in the middle of the week, and not on weekends.' '' So, I think that was a very good suggestion--that management take on the re- . sponslbility of orientating the man before he is placed out in the field. "Discuss quality of training if the instruc tor is an operating officer charged with other duties." Many of you are operating officers. You know' how much freedom you have in the course of your day's employment You spend many hours with the new employee and teach him.all you know, about railroad ing. We have felt that the quality of training decreases if you assign the man to an al ready busy officer. He just will not have the . good type of training necessary. He will not have the type of training that can be ob tained by having an experienced-teacher or trainer working with the trainee. . CLAIMS AND SAFETY-A COOPERATIVE EFFORT By JOHN A. IUSENDAL Executive Vice-Chairman, General Claims Division, Association of American B.B., Chicago, HI. . It has been said that safety is everybody's portunity, and for that reason I have labeled business. With that statement I doubt any this brief presentation "Claims and Safety-- one will quarrel. It follows that for a busi A Cooperative Effort". My objective is to ness to succeed the cooperation of all mem point out as best I can the economic effects bers of the organization is essential:' With of accidents on railroad property or involv the business of railroad safety, as with any ing railroad equipment and perhaps to ac other operation, salesmen--good salesmen-- quaint you with some of the problems in- are essential. Many have devoted their ca , volving safety which face claim departments. reers .to safety and made selling it their life's A number of you have been extremely work. In so doing they are offering a product successful in your activities. Your work on or commodity, without cost to the recipient, your own company properties and with out but which, if accepted, will permit him to side' agencies, such as law enforcement retain the many privileges he enj'oys. officers, school authorities, civic groups, and Claims men I place in this same category. many others has paid huge dividends. Diffi They too are vitally concerned with safety as culty is encountered when an attempt is each day in their work they become involved made , to measure results, to demonstrate the with the results of someone's failure to carry effectiveness of your efforts, as it is impossi out his, responsibility safely. Thus, they also ble to point to the accident which did not attempt to sell this commodity at every op occur because of your work.' 1967 National Safety Congress Not all of us, however, have conducted it is in this area that the greatest economic successful campaigns. Some of us have had impact lies, it will ordinarily receive the only limited success in merchandising our greatest emphasis. I have no statistics cover product of safety. This is apparent when we ing the number of injuries adjudged reporta review the statistics. In the. 19.67 issue of Ac ble to the' I.C.C., now the Department of cident Facts, published by the National Transportation; however, Rex Manion, vice Safety Council, I was appalled to' note the president of tbe A.A.R., recently remarked headlines on page 3: "10,800,000 disabling that the casualty ratio appears to be declin-. injuries in 19B6". Of this number, 2,200,000 ing slightly. Although not expressly so injuries and 14,500 deaths were sustained at stated, I assume he referred to the casualty work. It is estimated that the cost of work- rate on basis of a million man hours worked. accidents in 1966 was $8,800;000,000, a One would assume the number of accidents figure which staggers the imagination. should decrease substantially when we con Let us look at statistics for the railroad in sider that employment in the industry has dustry ' for the year 1966, 'Compilations by dropped from 1,400,000 to slightly' over the A.A.R. Bureau of Railway Economics in 600,000 in the past 20 years. However, the dicate that' in 1966 Class I.carriers spent number of personal injury and death claims $108 million in settlement of personal injury handled each year by railroad claim depart claims; over $158 million in the adjustment ments has not decreased- proportionately; of freight loss and damage claims, more than . Records of carriers reveal that annually set $8 million for physical damage to the prop tlements are arranged in perhaps 25,000 erty of others, and $23 million in clearing such cases. The vast majority of these of wrecks. These are direct charges to the ac course are minor, but too many others.' are counts of the carriers and giye no considera not. tion to incidental.or indirect but related ex If the number of injuries-was to remain penses, such as delays with loss of time and constant, claim costs would still increase be productivity, administrative costs, loss of mo cause this expense is affected directly by sev rale, loss of confidence in our companies and eral factors'. The two.most important bases industry, and the possible resulting loss of for any personal injury, claim are loss of business. At the same time, the grief, pain earnings or earning ability, and medical and suffering, inconvenience, disruption of costs. The average hourly wage rate for rail family life, and other hardships suffered by road employes has increased over 50 per individuals resulting-from these occurrences cent in the last 12 years. As an item of spe cannot be assigned a dollar value. Even in cial damages, this would be considered in the affluent society in which we live today, each personal injury claim handled. the'most prosperous society in the history of' With respect to medical expenses, a recent man, can we afford these costs? I think not! edition of -Labor reported that during the Looking solely at the economic picture, past year alone hospital charges increased what do these expenses represent to our inT over 10 per cent. The Wall Street Journal, dustiy? Operating revenues of Class I rail on October 17, quoted a report from the; Bu roads total about $10 billion a year. In 1966, reau of Labor Statistics that fees for medical these roads had net earnings of approxi services rendered by doctors rose 7.8 per- mately $902 million, their largest earnings in cent in 1966, and that in August, 1967, they recent years. Thus, it can be seen that the were about nine per cent. higher than 12 $108 million spent in the adjustment of per months previously. With these costs con sonal injury claims alone represents over 10 stantly mounting, they will have added im per cent of net income, and the total ex pact' upon the financial picture of the car penses arising from accidents approximately riers, a situation which can be corrected only one-third of the net income. In other years through improverrient in our accident experi within the past decade, when earnings were ence. lower, these expenses have almost equaled in Today the matter of safety - is receiving amount the net income of the carriers. greater emphasis from persons in all walks of Roughly 75 per cent of personal injury ' business, professional, political, and social claim expense incurred annually in the rail life than ever before. The number of persons, road industry results from-handling claims of attending the sessions of the National Safety employes arising from on-duty accidents. As Council attests to that fact. Safety is also the 24 Railroad Section subject of congressional investigations, of de- marketing techniques, new budget controls, bates in the chambers of. other governmental labor agreements that tend to stabilize work bodies, editorials, in each of our newspapers forces, as well as new relations with govem- and periodicals, and is also discussed in. la-. ment, are all part of this picture. They mark bor-manageanent sessions. Topics range from not only change that has taken place, but automobile and highway safety through pol- more and faster change to come. Samuel lution of air, water, and land; the food, . Seeman, Director of Personnel Administra- drug, and tobacco industries; to die rat and tion for the Pennsylvania Railroad, writing other pest control problems. , in the October issue of Modem Railroads, The railroad industry is not immune. In discusses these changes in an article entitled, the past few months it has received its share "Higher Capacity Railroads Need Higher of publicity, much of it unfavorable. In a re- Capacity People". Mr. Seeman states that cent edition of Railway Age, and in the Oc- the industry's human resources, like its tools, tober 2 issue ol Trainmen News, the presi- ' are becoming steadily more- expensive, and dent of the Brotherhood of Railroad Train- requirements of their jobs axe becoming men was quoted as stating that he was serv- steadily more complex. To produce up to ing notice that if carriers did not move ' their potential they must be better selected, ahead on their own, if they did not start a assigned, trained, developed and motivated, real safety program and show results within He`goes on to say that for an industry with a six months, the Brotherhood will begin mov- $5 billion annual payroll the opportunities ing toward contract provisions giving them for return on investment are immense. Just the toughest possible control over conditions five per cent improvement in the efficiency under which their men work. of its people would produce $250 million in On October 11, the Federal Railroad Ad- reduced costs and improved output, for it is ministrator announced that the Department effectiveness of people that reduces overtime of Transportation will shortly nnrWnVa a payments, train delays, equipment defects, thorough and systematic review of railroad less and damage, and employe injuries. In operating practices aimed at restructuring fact, he says, it is what improves the service D.O.T.'s regulatory activities so they more an^ sells it better. appropriately reflect the real safety problems Mr. Seeman has mentioned several areas which the railroads face today. The primary in which I believe railroad safety officers objective for the department's Bureau of must play, a prominent part. Some safety of- Rallroad Safety will be to create a more ana- ficers participate in the selection of person- lytical approach to railroad safety problems. neL Whether or not this lies within your spe- Although to some these statements may cific area of responsibility it is essential that appear to suggest further government inter-' you use your influence to make .certain that vention and regulation and perhaps impossi- only persons physically, mentally, and psy- ble-to-meet self-serving demands from the chologically fit for the duties they must ful- labor side, I prefer to place on them another fill ore accepted. for these positions.. The connotation--that responsible government A.A.R. Medical Section, composed of chief officers and dedicated labor leaders are gen- medical officers of carriers, has recently uinely concerned with safety' and are anxious adopted a set of recommended physical to design and implement programs which standards for all occupations. While individ- will eliminate the causes of work-connected ual carriers are not bound by these criteria, accidents. To. achieve the desired goals, com- many have'adopted them. As they represent plete cooperation of all parties involved is the consensus of trained, capable profes- absolutely essential and" we should enlist the sional people, knowledgeable in the require- aid and acknowledge the efforts of the others ments of our industry, I suggest that at no concerned. On our railroad properties assist- time should physical or mental standards ance will be required from each individual lower than those recommended be applied, worker, and officers at each supervisory level During periods of increased business activ- into die executive suite. Railroad safety ity, pressures may be brought to bear for ex- officers must spearhead this drive. ceptions or general lowering of the. require- Our industry today, as you well know, is men^ In my opinion, such action only leads in . the midst of a form of industrial revolu- l<* difficulty. tion. The use of computers, introduction of The requirements will undoubtedly change 25 i 1967 National Safety Congress as our industry constantly undergoes change. lieved that the fitness of these employes Members of the medical profession serving might have had some effect upon their work our railroads should be made aware of all performance and thus led to the accidents in such changes so that the standards may which they were involved. Thus the carriers be altered as necessary. Psychological test were requested to determine the activities in ing has many proponents and many critics. which these men had engaged during the Some of the objections raised bear upon the 48-hour period prior to the accidents. In sev type of tests utilized. In support of such eral cases it was learned that injured em programs, properly conducted, I might men ployes had been' moonlighting, holding non- tion a study of wort injuries in- the automo raiboad jobs during off-duty hours or relief tive industry recently concluded by two phy days; thus perhaps had failed to obtain sicians at Wayne State University of Medi proper rest Others during their off-duty time cine in Detroit Their findings have been had engaged in activities such as traveling published in a series entitled "The Accident long distances by auto, or devoting many .Process" which appeared in the Journal of hours to sports, or do-it-yourself projects at the American Medical Association. They home. Some were believed to have been concluded that many accidents on the job under the influence of alcohol, or perhaps occur to persons psychologically disposed to suffering symptoms of withdrawal following become injured, who have ignored safety excessive indulgence. A number were be precautions and instructions and are resistant lieved to have been taking drugs, pep pills, to rehabilitation. Numerous examples - are tranquilizers, or medications which conceiva cited, tracing these tendencies to specific bly could cause drowsiness. In certain in problems in die lives of the injured workers. stances' the medications may have been pre Not long ago a conference on absenteeism scribed by personal physicians unfamiliar in industry was held in New York City and with railroad operations, or the nature of the attended by medical directors of national 'man's occupation. In an additional number corporations. Concurrently the group consid of cases it was believed that domestic ten ered accident proneness and decided: sions, financial worries, or other personal 1. ; A small percentage of employes are re sponsible for a large percentage of accidents. problems may have been the source of great anxiety, perhaps resulting in inability of the employe to concentrate on tasks at hand. 2. That the number of accidents these people suffer is greater than one'would ex pect by chance. 3.. If accident-proneness does exist, it is probably a relatively permanent characteris Undoubtedly in the majority of such cases these conditions had prevailed for-some time and. the day the accident occurred was not the first occasion. If the employes were ac tually physically unfit, might tins not have tic. been detected by careful observation when The study also revealed that those who they reported for duty? For the protection of suffer many accidents have personalities dif the' individual, as well as that of his fellow ferent from those who suffer a fewer num workers, the public, and the employer, ber, a finding which would appear to coin would not it have been better if each such cide with thatof the Detroit physicians. Is it employe had been withheld from service not essential, therefore, that every effort be until such time as his physical condition per- ' made to identify such persons who possess mitted him to perform his tasks in a safe such tendencies at the earliest possible date manner? Had they been sent home when so they, may be assigned duties which might their unfitness was noted, inconvenience and better-fit their aptitudes before an accident delay would have been caused. However, occurs? the subsequent accidents, caused much more Some months ago in the Claims Research difficulty, and would'not the prevention- of Bureau we conducted a brief pilot study- of the occurrences been- worth the minor inter severe injuries sustained by employes shortly ruptions of service? after they began work on a given day. This Training of employes, once they are se covered the experience of several railroads lected for service, is an area in which the over a two-month period of time, and cer safety departments must take the lead. How tainly no definite conclusions could be drawn to conduct successful training programs is from the limited data available. It was be not within my limited range of knowledge. 26  Railroad Section and it would be presumptuous for me to . prudence Publishers in a volume entitled . suggest the format for such programs. Be Model Trials. In his article DeParcq devotes cause of the more sophisticated type of oper several pages to a discussion of what consti ations ini which railroads engage today, be tutes an "unsafe place to work". He states, cause of the more complex equipment which "It is recognized that the Federal Employers is utilized, training programs are essential. Liability Act imposes on railroads a contin AH employes today must be thoroughly in uing non-delegable duty to use reasonable doctrinated with the grave responsibility care to- furnish an employe a safe place to with which they are charged, and the pre work. .This is a duty that becomes more im cise manner in which they must perform. perative as die risk increases. Breach of this New processes, new products, and new duty is probably the single most common. methods are highly desirable if they improve ground for recovery in an F.E.L.A. case." wort performance, but with each change DeParcq then dtes many cases in which ju new hazards may he encountered. Safety of dicial decisions have held that in one partic ficers must analyze all factors involved in ular or another the railroad-failed to exercise such changes and take steps necessary to reasonable care to provide a safe place to guard against the possibility of accidents re work. He points out that liability of a earner sulting from their acceptance. might arise if an employe sent to work in an What action should be taken to obtain strict compliance with rules promulgated for the safety of all individuals? First and fore most^ management must accept the responsi bility' for the adoption and enforcement of area not sufficiendy lighted or guarded and frequented .by dangerous individuals suffers injuries from an attack; that a carrier may be found at fault for-requiring an employe to continue laboring in, extreme heat or cold; proper rules and to condone no deviation. that within its yard limits carrier must exer On many occasions an accident has oc cise reasonable care to prevent the accumu curred, an investigation has been conducted lation of snow or ice in such quantity, form, thereafter, and discipline assessed to individ or location as to be a menace; that a place to uals adjudged responsible. But how many work may be rendered unsafe because of a times prior to the unfortunate occurrence clinker in the roadbed, oil on a cross-tie, or have tibe same individuals performed in an loose or unpacked gravel in a railroad yard; identical manner, perhaps- on occasions with' that a breach - of the carrier's duty may be knowledge of their supervisors, yet no disci found where a baggage-handler is required plinary or corrective action was taken?- If to maneuver his truck on an obstructed pr discipline is regarded as the proper step to narrow platform, or to force large mail bags be taken in the event of rule violations, this through a door which will not open to its must be done in every case. No exceptions ' full' width: that an area may be classified un should be permitted. Let us take necessary safe by reason of aq obstruction between action to enforce all applicable regulations tracks at a place that is unsafely lighted, or before accidents occur. ; the location of trees or shrubbery that ob- . . The duties, of safety officers are many and varied. We have mentioned a few in general terms, but specifically, how far does their re sponsibility extend? In my opinion it is lim ited only by boundaries of areas in which streets the view of one whose duties require him to cross tracks near-the growth: that a carrier may be, held liable for failure to pro vide a reasonably safe means of access to the place of work.- railroad employes work or equipment of the There are -many other cases in which a carrier is operated. As you know, claims of railroad employes for on-duty injuries are handled under the Federal Employers Lia bility Act, a federal statute which provides that a carrier is responsible in damages to an employe injured as result' of railroad negli carrier was held responsible for an accident which occurred under conditions which rea sonable people might find difficult to antici pate. Perhaps the largest payment in a rail road case on record--the highly publicized "Bug Bite" case--is a prime example. An gence. Theoretically, if there is no carrier employe alleged he was bitten by an insect negligence, there is ho liability. William while working, resulting in injury or disease DeParcq, a Minneapolis attorney, prepared a necessitating amputation of both legs. In scholarly treatise on F.E.L.A. litigation that case the carrier was found negligent in which has recently been released by Juris failure to remove from its right-of-way a 27 / 1987 National Safety Congress stagnant pool which was claimed to attract vermin and insects. In another, an employe on premises of an industry to inspect a car was injured when struck by an object thrown from the car by an industry employe. In that case the rail road was charged with negligence for failure to'inspect'the industry premises, determine the possible hazards, and properly caution the employe. In yet a third, a maintenance employe was struck by a bullet. The point from which the weapon was fired was not shown, but the railroad was adjudged guilty of negligence for failure to post signs forbidding hunting on its right-of-way. .Mention of these cases is made not in the sense of criticism, of the decisions, but merely to attempt to point out the vast areas of responsibility with which safety, officers are charged. Imagination, ingenuity, fore sight, and constant vigilance are necessary to recognize these dangers arid arrange for the elimination of these Iiazards. In the article previously mentioned the president of the B rotherhood of Railroad Trainmen was quoted as saying, "All the safety we have on the railroads today is the result of a fight by organized labor. Labor has forced safety upon railroads by fighting for proper legislation." With this statement I must take issue! We recognize full well that labor has made mi my extremely valuable contributions to the safety program over the years. However, those working in the field of safety, their associates and their predeces sors, have also accomplished a great'deal. The time has now come when I believe management, labor, and government must join forces in a concerted drive to achieve a true, perfect safety record for the railroad industry. We will welcome the support of all interested parties in our efforts to reach this goal. - 28 PLAN NOW TO ATTEND THE NATIONAL SAFETY CONGRESS OCTOBER 28-31, 1968 / CONRAD HILTON HOTEL, CHICAGO The Congress is always .a big week, a worthwhile week for the 13,000 safety people who attend. At the '68 Congress you can meet other safety people, with the same problems and responsibilities as yourself. You can exchange views and ideas on accident preven tion, health, hygiene, and fire prevention ... on safety in industry, traffic, school, at home and on the farm. You can see the largest of all safety equipment exhibits at the Congress ... an opportunity for you to make wellinformed buying decisions for your company. This four-day educational program, planned and pre sented by the National Safety Council, can be your most thought-provoking, most worthwhile safety expe <9 rience, in 1968. Malie plans early to attend the 1968 Congress and bring the other people' in your organization who haye safety responsibilities. FUTURE CONGRESS DATES 1968 October 28-31 1969 October 27-30 1970 October 26-29 1971 October 25-28 1972 October 23-26 NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 425 NORTH MICHIGAN AVENUE . CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 0611 29 1987 National Safety Congress OFFICERS OF THE RAILROAD SECTION NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 1967-1968 General Chairman-D. K. Miller, The Southern Pacific Co., San Francisco, Calif. . Vice Chairman--W. W. Osborne, Norfolk & Western Ry. Co., Roanoke, Va. Vice Chairman--R. P. Little, Elgin, Joliet & Eastern Ry. Co., Joliet, HL Secretary and Newsletter Editor--H. A. Linderer, St. Louis--San Francisco Ry. Co., Springfield, Mo. Associate Newsletter Editors--Canada: D. P. Russell, Canadian Pacific Railway Co,, Mon treal, Que., Canada; Southwest;' R. S. Van Ness, Chicago, Burlington & Quincy R. R. Co., Ottumwa, la.; East: W. C. Laraway, The Delaware & Hudson Railroad Co., Al. bany, N. Y.; West: H. A. Hopkins, Missouri Pacific Ry.-T.&PJRy., St Louis, Mo.; Central: D. D. Baird, Atchison, Topeka & Santa' Fe Ry., Chicago, IB.; Southeast: R. L. Miller, Western Lines, Southern Railway System, Knoxville, Term. Research and Contest Committee--E. D. Hauville (Chairman), "Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Lines; Chicago, IB.; E. H. Blewer (Vice Chairman), New York.Central System, Cleveland, Ohio; W. C. Lahaway, The Delaware & Hudson Railroad Co., Albany, N. Y.; L. R. Tilly, Peoria and Pekin Union Ry. Co., Peoria, IB.; G. M. Dyer, Jr., Kentucky & Indiana Terminal R. R. Co., Louisvifie, Ky. Audio Visual Aids Committee--M. M. Echols (Chairman), Western Region, Norfolk & , Western Ry. Co., St. Louis, Mo.; C. W. Bailey (Vice Chairman), Duluth, Missnbe & Iron i Range Ry. Co., Proctor, Minn.; L. E. Wall, Hlinois Central Railroad, Chicago, IB.; E. G. Husk, The Pullman Co., Chicago, Bl.; H. A. Hill, Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac R. R. Co., Richmond, Vo. * Railroad Highway Traffic Safety Committee--G. J. Barry (Chairman), Chicago, Milwaukee, . St. Paul.& Pacific R. R. Co., Chicago, IB.; D. F. Gifford (Vice Chairman), Chicago Great Western R. R. Co., Oelwein, Iowa; H. C. Daulton, The LouisviBe & NashviRe R. R. Co., LouisviBe, Ky.; H. E. Shauchnessey, Erie-Lackawanna R. R. Co., Cleveland, . Ohio; D. P. Russell, Canadian Pacific Railway Co., Montreal, Que., Canada; W. V, Hayes, New York Central System, New York, N. Y. Home and Off-the-Job Committee--J. L. Young (Chairman), Southern Pacific Co. (T & L Lines), Houston, Texas; W. B. Groome (Vice-Chairman), Union Pacific Railroad, Oma ha, Nebr.;.B. M. Deafer, Kansas City Southern Lines, Shreveport, La.; R. W. Bowman, Bessemer & Lake Erie R. R., GreenviBe, Pa. Membership Committee--F. R. Ellis (Chairman), Reading Ry. Co., Reading Pa.; C. E. Garcelon (Vice Chairman), Bangor & Aroostook R. R. Co., Bangor, Maine; R. C. Lindquist, Northern Pacific Ry. Co., St. Paul, Minn.; J. H. Gilfillan, Chicago Rock Island & Pacific R. R. Co., Kansas City, Kans.; S. E. Cavalieri, New York, New Haven & Hartford R. R. Co., New Haven, Conn.; C. A. BmcE, Jr., Missouri-Kansas-Texas R. R. Co., Denison, Texas; J. L. Younc,.Southern Pacific Co., (T & L Lines), Houston, Texas; W. J. McPhillips, Union R.. R. Co., E. Pittsburgh, Pa. 30 Railroad Section , Nominations and Elections Committee--*T. L. Hildebrand (Chairman), Soo Line Railroad Co., Minneapolis, Minn.; W. V. Hats (Vico Chairman), New York Central System, New York, N. Y.; D. P. Russell* Canadian Railway Co., Montreal, Quo, Canada. Program Committee--R. P. Ltoe (Chairman), Elgin, Joliet & Eastern Ry. Co., Joliet, HL; J. L. Young (Vice Chairman), Southern Pacific Co. CT & L Lines), Houston, Texas; J. R. Bannebman, Canadian National Railways, Montreal, Qua.. Canada; G. M. Coate, Belt Ry. Co. of Chicago, Chicago, HL; J. T. Andrew, Great Northern Railway, St. Paul, Minn.; J. C. Mackenzie, The Alaska Railroad, Anchorage, Alaska. Publications Committee--N. J. Andrews (Chairman), Illinois Central Railroad, Chicago, ID.; W. J. McPhuxips (Vice Chairman), Union R. R. Co, E. Pittsburgh, Pa.; S. W. Mosvioc. Great Northern Ry. Co., St Paul, Mirm.; O. W. Smith, Grand Trunk Western RJEL Co., Detroit Mich.; Rot S. Eno, Denver & Rio Grande Western R. R. Co, Denver, Colo. Training Committee--J. C. Buckingham (Chairman), Lehigh Valley R. R. Co, Bethlehem. Pa.; D. D. Baird (Vice Chairman), Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry, Chicago, HL; T. L. Hildebrand, Soo Line R! R. Co, Minneapolis, Minn.; J. G. Beldham, Toronto, Hamilton & Buffalo Ry. Co, Hamilton; Ont Canada; W. V. Hates, New York Central System, New York, N. Y.; W. R. Bhown, Lake Region, Norfolk & Western Ry. Co, Cleve land, Ohio; K. L. Patrick, Chicago & North Western Ry, Chicago, HL Staff Representative--h.- W. Dutton, National Safety Council, 425 N. Michigan Ave, Chi cago, ML 60611 Past General Chairman 81 Order Form 1967 Congress Transgctions Quantity Ordered Stock No. Vol. No. Title 1-9 ' 10 or Copied more Q22.37-1 1 General Sessions &Tndex to all Volumes $ .85 $ .65 022.37-2 2 Aerospace; Air Transport .85 .65 022.37-3 3 Automotive & Machine Shop; Power Press & Forging .85 .65 022.37-4 4 Cement; Quarry & Mineral Aggregates .50 .45 022.37-5 5 Chemical. & Fertilizer .85 .65 022.37-6 6 Civic Leadership; Church, Women, Youth, Farm .85 .65 022.37-7 7 Coal Mining .'85 .65' 022.37-8 8 Construction; Public Employee . . .85 .65 . 022.37-9 9 Electrical Equipment . .50 .45 022.37-10 10 Food & Beverage, Meat Packing, Tanning & Leather Products; Trades & Services .85 .65 022.37-11 11 Glass & Ceramics; Rubber -.85 .65 022.37-12 12 Industrial Subject Sessions; Associations 1.10 1.00 022.37-13 13 Labor .85 .65 022.37-14 14 Marine .85 .65 022.37-15 15 Metals ' .50 .45 022.37-16 16 Mining .85 .65 022.37-17 17 Motor Transport; Transit .85 .65 022.3738 18 Occupational Health Nursing .50 .45 022.37-19 19 Petroleum . .85 .65 022.37-20 20 Public Utilities .85 ' .65 022.37-21 21 Pulp & Paper; Printing & Publishing - .85 .65 022.37-22 22 .Railroad .50 .45 022.37-23- 23 School & College 1.10 1.00 022.37-24 24 Traffic .85 .65 . 022.37;25 25 Wood Products; & .Textile .85 .65- 022.37-26 26 Early Morning Sessions. ' .50 .45 022.37-27 27 Public Safety ' * 022.37-28 28 Home Safety .85 .65 .85 ..65 022.17 COMPLETE SET OF 28 VOLUMES $13.60 Automatic 20% discount to National Safety Council members; or 10% discount to government agencies. Please enclose check with orders less than $3.00. SHIP TO: Organization ______ !:::;;,, . Address _____ ' _______ City::!--. State:Zip Code_: to Attention of ____________ ___________' _______________ BILL TO: Organization--;!________________________ :! Address!- _______ , City_::State________________________________ ::,__ --Zip Code_________ to Attention of _____________________ ' '!!_________________ Customer's Purchase Order Nnmhpr _____________________ " MAIL TO: NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 425 North Michigan Avenue Chicago, Illinois 60611 510071665 ; Printed in U.S.A. 022.37-20 82 55th NATIONAL SAFETY CONGRESS Papers Delivered in the WOOD PRODUCTS SESSIONS Five Years of Future Dates for the National Safety Congress................ ' Responsibility for Accident Control;......... ......................Harry L. Duncan We Should Provide Incentives- for Safety................................ Denton Shell Pro and Con of Employee Incentives.........................E. E. Sutherlln 9 Caught Red Handed....'........................................................Ross E. Scott 4 5 7 10 JOINT SESSION WITH PULP. AND REAPER SECTION Effective Safety Training Techniques at the Woodsworkers Level.. Frank Wllle Safety Training in Mechanized Woods Operations........J. G. Huneault Using Educational Television as a Tool in Safety Education.. I . William B. Stuart Are Your Supervisors Your Super Salesmen___ __ ..Robert A. Greenfield IT 14 19 20 TEXTILE SESSIONS How To Kill Your Safety Program....................................... '.Grady E. Gant 26 Middle Management's Responsibility Toward Safety In a Textile Plant.. Frank B. Williams .2 Monsanto Company Loss Prevention Program.. ................EdWard G..Volz ' 3 Management Audit'of Safety Program and Its Performance.......Cole Allen 37 Officers of the Wood Products Section 1967-68......... ..................... .'........ '44 Officers of the Textile Section 1967-68......... . .................................... .... 46 Other Volumes in 1967 National Safety Congress Transactions.... .Back Cover 3 OFFICERS OF THE TEXTILE SECTION NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 1967-68 General Chairman--I. M. Davidson, Division Engineering Manager; American Mutual Insurance Companies, Atlanta, Ga. Vice Chairman--Lyman Cunningham, Safety Director, E. T. Barwick Mills, Inc.; LaFayette|, Ga. ' Secretary--Bruno J. Dygdon, Personnel Administrator, Joanna Western Mills Co., Chi cago, 111. ' Newsletter Editor--James F. Jones, Asst., to Manager, Engineering Dept., American Mu' tual Insurance Companies, Atlanta, Ga. "Engineering and Health Committee--S. L. Sweabenoin (Chairman), Supervisor Safetyand Plant Protection; Fiber Industries, Inc., Salisbury, N. C.; A. E. Connelly, Safety Supervisor, E. I. duPont de Nemours and Co., Martinsville, Va.; W. E. Vinson, Ajner- . icim Mutual Insurance Companies, Atlanta, Ga. " Education and Training Committee--Fiued L. Thackston (Chainnanj, Claims Adjuster, Abney Mills, Anderson, S. C.; Raymond E. Mace, Safety Supervisor, Firestone Textiles, Inc., Gastonia, N. C.; Mbs. Olive B. Coolidce, Personnel Manager, Doughboy Plastics Production, Inc., West Helena, Ark.; W. P. Greer, Jb., Springs Mills, Inc.,.Fort Mill, S. C.- Membership Committee--Virgil Eackx.es, Division- Safety Director, Beaunit Fibers, Re search Triangle Park, N. C.; Feed Derrick, Safety Supervisor, South Carolina Industrial . Commission, Columbia, S. C.; H. S. Baucom, Director of Safety, North Carolina Indus- trial Commission, Raleigh, N. C. V - * Synthetic Fiber Committee--0Robert I. Babb (Chairman), Safety Supervisor, IRC Fibers Div., Midland-Ross .Coip., Painesville, Ohio; B. S. Strength, Safety Supervisor Mon- . santo Company, Greenwood, S. C. Colton Ginning Committee--Robert Cousins (Chairman), Executive Vice President, Arkansas-Missouri Cotton Ginners Assn., West Memphis, Ark.; Arthub B. Bond, Educa- - tion Specialist; Production & Marketing Div., National' Cotton Council, Memphis, Tenn.; Vernon P. Moobe, Engineer in. Charge, U. S. D. A. Ginning Research Lab., Leland; Miss.; Alfred M. Pendleton," Extension Agricultural Engineer, Dallas, Texas. Off-The-Job Committee--0Charles L. Trommeb (Chairman), Corporate Safety Director, Mohasco Industries, Inc., Amsterdam, N. Y.; "Guy Booker, Safety Supervisor, Monsanto Company; Pensacola, Fla. * - Fire Committee--John M. McAlpine (Chairman), Supervisor of .Safety and Plant Pro tection, Celanese Fibers Company, Rock Hill, S. C.; Forrest _N. Petty, Safety and Benefits, Dan River Mills, Ind., Danville, Va. 46. V. . . *' - Publicity and Association Committee--0Glenn G. Fleming (Chairman), Corp. Safety Director, Celanese Corporation of America, Charlotte, N. C.; Mbs. Ida C. Ayers, Asst, to Director of Personnel, . Collins & Aikman Corp., Albemarle, N. C. Rules and Regulations Committee--W. C. Crept, (Chairman), Safety' Director, North Carolina Dept of Labor, Baleigh, N. C. Contest Committee--0E. L. Fermenter (Chairman), Senior Div. Service Representative, Loss Prevention Dept., Liberty Mutual Insurance Co., Spartanburg, S. C.; R. W. Lane, Jr., Plant Manager, P.F.M. Division,- Johns-Manville Products Corp., Marshville, N. C. Nomination Committee--Gxn A. Booker, Safety Supervisor, Monsanto Company, Textiles Div., Pensacola, Fla.; .B. S. Strength, Safely Supervisor, Monsanto Company, Textiles Div., Greenwood, ,S. C.; Mrs. Ida C. Ayers, Asst to Director of Personnel, Collins & - Aikman Corp., Albemarle, N. C. Advisory Committee--B. S. Strength; Guy A. Booker; Mrs. Ida C. Ayers; A. E. Con- . nelly; Forrest N. Petty; E. L. Pehmenter; H. S. Baucom; C. L. Trommer; R. I. Barr; Glenn G. Fleming; John G. Sayers. . Staff Representative--Thomas F. Powers, National Safety Council, 425 North Michigan. Ave., Chicago, HL 60611 Past General Chairman 47 Order Form 1967 Congress Transactions Quantity Stock Vol. Ordered .. Wo. No.: Title ' 1-9 10 or _________ : Copies more 02297-1 1 General Sessions & Index to all Volumes $ 95 $ ;65 022.37-2 2 Aerospace; Air Transport .85 .65 022.37-3 3 Automotive & Machine Shop; Power Press &'Forging .85 .65 022.37-4 4 Cement, Quarry & Mineral Aggregates .50 .45 022.37-5 5 Chemical & Fertilizer .85 .65 . 022.37-6 6 Civic Leadership; Church, Women, Youth, Farm .85 . .65 022.37-7 7 Coal Mining .85 .65 022.37-8 8 Construction; Public Employee .85 .65 022.37-9 9 Electrical Equipment .50 .45 022.37-10 10 Food & Beverage, Meat Packing, Tanning & Leather Products; Trades & Sendees .85 .65 022.37-11 11 Glass & Ceramics; Rubber .85 .65 022.37-12 12 Industrie) Subject Sessions; Associations 1.10. 1.00 022.37-13 13 Labor .85 ' .65 022.37-14 14 Marine .85 .65 022.37-15 15 Metals . .50 .45 022.37-16 16 Mining .85 .65 022.37-17 17 Motor Transport; Transit . -------- f~ 02297-18 18 Occupational Health.Nursing .85 .65 .50 .45 02297-19 19 Petroleum 95 .65 022.37-20 20 Public Utilities 95 .65 . 02297-21 21 Pulp & Paper; Printing & Publishing .85 .65 02297-22 22 Railroad .50 .45 022.37-23 23 School & College . 1.10 1.00 022.37-24 24 Traffic .85 .65 02297-25 25 Wood Products; & Textile .85 .65 . 02297-26 26 Early Morning Sessions . .50 .45 02297-27 27 Public Safety .85 .65 02297-28 28. Home Safety 022.17 . 1 95 .65 COMPLETE SET OF 28 VOLUMES 113.60 Automatic 20%-discount to National Safety Council members;.or 10% discount to government agencies. Please enclose check with orders less than $3.00. SHIP TO: Organization,:::: Address____:!:___________________: City::_______________State:____________________ Zip Code--___ to Attention of___: ______________________ ' ______ BILL TO: Organization..:............................................................ L. Address.' _______ !:! CityJ :___________________ ____ StateZip Code-- __ to Attention of:______________ ___________ : Customer's Purchase Order Number. MAIL TO: NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 425 North Michigan Avenue Chicago, Illinois 60611 510071665 PrinlwHn U5JL. 02297-20 82 . ,\ HIGHER EDUCATION SESSIONS HIGHER EDUCATION SECTION TENTH ANNIVERSARY PROGRAM By DENIS J. KICIN Assistant.Dean of Extension and Professor of Industrial Technology, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona; Chairman, Higher Education Section, National Safety Council. As you are all aware,' organizations such Council agreed to publish the proceedings, as the Higher Education Section do not just which became Monograph No. 2. The fol happen by accident. These accomplishments lowing year, the Second National Confer are the result of planning, researching, and ence on Campus Safety was held at the Uni critical thinking--even scheming, along with versity of Minnesota. These proceedings be some trial, and error. Success has not come came Monograph No. 4. easily. . During this, time, the American College Although the Higher Education Section is Health Association -had asked for National celebrating its Tenth anniversary, the roots Safety Council help 1 in finding. out what of the Section extend back much further. types of accidents'were happening to college For example,' the Section has this year com students. In -1955, the joint project of this pleted a revision of the listing of-"Safety Ed group and the National Safety Council was ucation Courses in Colleges and Universi published as Monograph No. 3. ties." The exact date on which the National By 1957, National Safety Council finances Safety Council prepared the first such listing allowed.for the hiring of a full-time staff is unknown, but we do know it was previous representative for higher.education, so some to 1938, when the School and College De few months after the Russians spun Sputnick partment of the National Safety Council into its historic flight; unanimous approval moved from New York to. the headquarters was given by the National Safety Council's in Chicago. During the years between 1938 School and. College.Conference to the estab and 1953 there was an active group.of inter lishment of a Higher Education Section. ested college and university people which, in Clayton W. DeMent of Purdue submitted 1944, was given official status as the Higher the historic resolution on October 20, 1957. Education Committee. It was during this On October 21, 1957, Lowell B. Fisher "of time that, in cooperation with the American the North Central Association, then Vice Teachers College Association (now known as President for. school and colleges of the' Na the American Association for Colleges of tional Safety Council, presented a resolution Teacher Education), the first national survey to the Board of Trustees, requesting ap of safety education in teachers' colleges was proval. The Board approved the request, es conducted. It was during this period also tablishing the Higher Education Section. that the first "Safety Monograph for Colleges . The Higher Education Section now consists and Universities" was published. - There are of four divisions: now 23 of these monographs. In 1953, due to monetary restrictions, the National Safety Council put the Higher Ed' ucation Committee on inactive status, with..drawing staff help. A small group of men re fused to be deactivated and'- continued to meet at Congress time, With more or less bootleg assistance from their former staff . representative they managed to keep in touch with one another. Independently, this 1. The Campus Safety Association, which became active during the years the Higher Education Committee was inactive and was instrumental in asking for permission to. es tablish the Higher Education Section. 2. The Research Division, established with the Section. 3. The College- Safety Education Division, 1 added in late 1957. group called the First National Conference 4. The College and University Division, on Campus Safety at the'University of Illi established in 1980. The combined member nois, Urbana Campus. The National Safety ship of the four divisions of the Higher Edu- 79 1967 National Safety Congress cation Section now exceeds.-1,100. The com bined safety experience represented reaches a magnitude which defies numerical meas urement. The Higher Education Section is a volun tary association of college and university personnel dedicated to the cause of coordi nating, promoting, and strengthening all as pects of college and university safety. Each division holds its own election of officers and develops its- own objectives, terms of rcferT cnce, and projects. ' An example would be the national confer ences on .campus safety sponsored by the Campus Safety Association. These confcr. ences have been held annually since the first meeting in 1954 at Urbaha. To make an organization lis complex as the Higher Education Section - functional takes many, people. The Section has been, fortunate in its leadership; in ten years it has had nine chairmen: 1957-59 John W. Hill, Texas A and M/ 1959- 60 Arthur Brandstattcr, Michigan State University. 1960-61 Bernard. Loft, Indiana University. 1961- 62- Charles Peter Yost, West Virginia University. . 1962- 63 James Aaron, Southern Illinois Uni versity. 1963- 64 Warren Huffman, Universityof Illi nois. 1964- 65 Richard Bishop, Florida State Uni versity. . 1965- 66 William Mann, Michigan State Uni versity. ." I have had the honor of serving as chairJnan for 1968-67, completing the ten years. The National Safety Council's staff has contributed greatly to the direction and sta bility of the Higher Education Section. Our staff representatives have been: Prior to 1957-, Vivian Weedon 1957 to 1963, Daniel Webster 1963 to 1984, William Burnette 1964 tp and including present,. Jack N. Green Truly fine leadership. The second ten years will start out in the firm hand of J. Duke Elkow, of Brooklyn College, as chairman. This is the capsule story of the Higher Education Section, but I want to assure you, the Higher Education Section long ago "De cided for Safety.'' If we do make some mis takes, remember we are. only ten years* old. THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION FOR SAFETY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL By SARAH FOLSOM Superintendent of Public Instruction, State, of Arizona The term "safety" has many connotations and covers a wide range of ideas, programs, and philosophies. I am not ah authority on safety education, but as a State Superintendent of Public In struction, I know that I have a responsibility for supporting all measures that will enable us to provide a greater degree of protection against .the physical, psychological, and so cial hazards of our present-day school envi ronment. School safety, like all the other areas of safety, has not been a well-planned or effec tive program iri the vast majority of our schools. State Departments of Education^ through apathy or lack of funds or person nel, for the most part have not been able to provide assistance or lend . .support to pro grams of safety education within the elemen tary and secondary-schools. To a sipall extent, at least in Arizona, this problem has been attacked through in creased State financing and the utilization of Title funds made available by Public Law 89-10. Ori the other hand, we are too often faced 80 School and College Conference by an apathetic attitude toward school safety With adequate financing and a qualified, and safety education, on the part of teachers staff,'state departments should be able to and administrators. The incidental teaching provide good consultant services to all sec-: of both health and safety has been substi- ondary schools and, in some instances, super- . tuted for a well-planned, well-taught pro- vise the preparation of plans for developing gram of health and safety education. broad; comprehensive programs of school It has been my contention for many years safety and safety education, that outside of the home the teaching of It is important that state-department p.cr- both health and safety to our children must sonnel working in the areas of health and begin at the kindergarten level and. should safety be fully qualified through training and be integrated or correlated with the entire experience. They should not only be capable elementary school program. On the second- of participating in school-community plan-, ary level, we should make efforts to provide ning but should also have the ability to com- / some direct instruction in health and safety municate effectively with local boards of cd- for at least one semester, preferably two. ucation, school personnel, and community The Society of State Directors of Health, gtoups. A school safety program is only as Physical Education and Recreation, in' its strong or effective as the support it receives publication, "A Statement of Basic Beliefs," from the staff and the community. Public re- strongly endorses the correiated-direct in- lations, budgeting techniques, a knowledge structional approach for grades kindergarten of safety equipment and facilities and. the through 12. actual teaching of safety in the schools arc, Another glaring weakness affecting our in- my. opinion, prerequisites for state depnrt- school programs has been thie failure of our ment consultants. institutions of higher learning to provide our State Departments of Education should be student teachers with even a minimum in a position to provide programs of in-serv- amount of information in the areas of health icc safety education for secondary .school and safety. personnel' including teachers, administrators, State Departments of Education are faced bus drivers, and custodians.. Such programs" by all of- these problems and, therefore, must must be tailored to best merit the physical assume a leadership role in respect to pro- needs of .the total school plant, the. class- grams of health and safety education. .' room, and the playground. Such seminars I have mentioned -the utilization of Title should be scattered throughout tho state, funds in providing the services of a qualified jn cooperation with the schools, colleges, consultant of health and safety education. and universities, in-service education, work- With the funding of the new Federal Traffic shops, conferences, and seminars should bo Safety Program, we have another means of offered by State Departments of Education implementing our programs op the state not on]y to disse,ninate t},e latest safety in level, especially in safety and driver educa- formation to all school personnel but also to tion. Also, many state legislatures have be- provide a core of trained," qualified, and mo- come quite concerned about programs of tivated safety coordinators for the secondary school safety and have approved budget re- KC],ools. quests for improving their effectiveness. The preparation and distribution of educa- Providing legislators with information re- tional "materials relating to school safety garding the need for adequate school health should be a function of State Departments and safety legislation and assisting in the of Education. With limited funds and staff, .preparation of such legislation is a responsi- the actual preparation of materials may not bility of State Departments of Education, be possible; therefore, the preparation of a Enabling legislation which permits State comprehensive bibliography on safety and Boards of Education to adopt rules and reg- - safety education for secondary schools might, ulations concerning school health and safety be an alternative. Audio-visuals are available programs provides for greater flexibility and in all areas of safety, but such training aids is more acceptable than rigid statutory re- are expensive and may soon become out- quirements which are always difficult to dated. It is in this category that state depart- amend or repeal. Board regulations may be ments may greatly assist the schools through changed to keep pace with new trends in the production of such simple and inexpen- education and architectural design. sive, but effective teaching aids. 81 1967 National Safety Congress Within the last two years many states In addition, the State Department of Edu have prepared and published excellent cation should be responsible for keeping guides and courses of study in health and school districts informed in respect to legis safety education for both elementary and lation affecting school safety and all the secondary schools. State Departments of Ed legal implications of legislation, standards, ucation should develop such guidelines and and rules and regulations. Liability has be should revise materials of this type at least come a serious problem, even a threat, in every.three years. areas such as California and Arizona where Arizona's 1968 Health Guide For Second-. the supreme courts have ruled against gov ary Schools was prepared for the State De ernmental immunity. State departments- are- partment of Public Instruction through the in key positions to obtain from state attorney cooperative' efforts of a .committee of -out generals' offices legal opinions concerned standing educators who volunteered- their- with any aspect of school administration, in time and services for this purpose. The cur cluding the administration of school pro riculum committee included three special grams of health and safety. Information of sections on-first aid, medical self help, and this type should be communicated directly to safety. The section on safety contains twelve the schools of the state. independent teaching units which may be I should like to emphasize another depart taught separately, or as a combination of. ment responsibility. I have found that units. through association with the representatives This is only one example of the nation of. -many disciplines on state-level safety wide interest in the subject of safety, and committees or councils, a great deal of sup safety education. State departments must as port may be obtained for school safety pro- sume a leadership role in respect to publica ' grams. Both our consultant- for health and tions of this type and should utilize every re safety and I have participated in several source in communicating the most recent such groups, including the Governor's Coun and valid information to the administrators cil on Traffic Safety. The membership of and teachers at-the local level. such organizations represent a good, cross- Courses in health and safety and teaching section of community life; thus, through methods must be constantly upgraded. The these people much information relating to- responsibility here rests jointly with the State school safety may be channeled to the var Departments of Education, bur schools 'of ious communities of the state. education, and with the elementary and sec In .summary, I should like to enumerate ondary schools themselves. The new concep some of the functions .that should be per tual approach in health.education (including formed by the state department staff. safety) made possible by the health educa tion study is the innovative type of program that should be brought to the attention of teachers and administrators. Too often, our teaching of health and safety in the second ary schools is much too formal and lacks vitalization and realism. We cannot motivate our high school youngsters to a positive-type thinking- in respect to health and safety if' we continue to rely upon the typical "textbook approach" and fail to use new methods, new The state director and his staff should be in a position to: 1. Provide expert consultative services, on safety matters to local school systems and to colleges and universities. 2. Plan periodic visits to local school pro grams to keep abreast of trends, successful practices, and programs; to .provide on-thespot assistance; and to lend support to local efforts. ideas, and new materials. 3. Establish and maintain, effective com State boards of education, through the state departments, have added responsibili ties for programs of school safety in the area of safety standards. If State statutes provide munication with the other state -and local safety agencies and groups and provide ap propriate services and assistance upon re quest. . for the. adoption of rules and regulations by 4. Initiate and conduct comparative and the -Board of Education, the State depart-' status studies as .well as other special safety ment is responsible for the promulgation of studies; encourage and assist in needed safety standards which may be adopted by safety research. . the Board of Education. 5. Organize study groups, and special School and College Conference project committees to deal with particularproblems or to take timely action. 6. Establish and carry out pilot and dem onstration programs of school-community safety applying (a) New approaches to the planning', financing, and construction of school facilities; (b) New ideas in program planning and developing; (c) Ways of mak ing greater- use of safety resources; and (d) Other innovations and promising practices. 7. Work to improve the professional prep aration of safety personnel and increase the supply of qualified safety coordinators. 8. Assist colleges and universities to up grade their curricula for pre-service and inservice education of teachers. 9. Establish high standards for the profes sional preparation of safety personnel em ployed by the schools. Such standards should be similar to those of other areas of instruc tions but should also require appropriate preparation for community leadership in safety. Help set up state board or depart ment policies and procedures relating to the qualifications and selection' of school health and safety personnel. 10. Where appropriate, take the initiative to organize or strengthen a state interagency committee on - safety, or some similar me dium for effective cooperation among the state agencies. 11. Interpret and publicize the safety in-' terests and services available from the State Department of Education. WHITHER COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY SAFETY CENTERS? By. CHARGES H. HARTMAN Director, Education and Manpower Development Division, Automotive Safety Foundation, . Washington, D. C. Federal legislation enacted last year offers compelling reasons for overcoming obstacles to progress without further'delay. Under the Highway Safety Act of 1900 enlarged oppor tunities for university service are provided by means of: 1. Training of two types to; pro.vide the higher degree of official competence re quired to meet the objectives of the Act. These include: a. On and off campus in-service short courses for traffic safety workers em ployed at state and local levels of government. b. Undergraduate and graduate degree instruction for career safety people who are in short supply. . 2. Consulting assistance in resolving tech nical problems as requested by the state" and its local political subdivisions. 3. Planning assistance, particularly among the counties and towns, to develop compre hensive accident control programs in con formance with the state program and as re quired by the Act. 4. Research into accident causes and the development of countermeasures contribut ing to the solution of traffic safety problems peculiar to the state and its local subdivi sions. The Act provides several incentives for stepped-up. state and local activity- which may be of interest to the state universities'. Among these are: 1. The promulgation of Federal safety performance standards to be met by the states and their local subdivisions. 2. The requirement that each state per iodically 'evaluate its progress in each stand ards "area and report thereon to the National Highway Safety Bureau. 3. Federal-aid matching funds to help the state meet the standard's. Forty per cent of these must be expended for local programs. 4. Direct Federal grants to qualified insti tutions for safety research, training projects,' and demonstration projects. .5. The long-range possibility of cutbacks in Federal aid for state highway construction in event of failure to meet the prescribed safety standards. So much for the need. What are the prob lems, the obstacles to progress? Four factors appear to be basic: 83 . 1967 National Safety Congress - _ 1. Money--there is a. well recognized shortage. ' 2. Manpower--less well recognized as being in short supply, but equally as. critical a problem. 3. Inadequate definition of function and goals--a seemingly chronic. ailment that' blocks understanding and support on all sides.. 4. Support--without it the money, man power, and other needs can't be met. The money, manpower and support fac tors are largely self-explanatory. Hence, I'll comment only on my contention that univer sity safety centers are seldom well defined and 'interpreted. Functions and goals would be easier to. understand, and thereby more likely to gain support, if greater , care were taken to both determine and define: .1. The Center's area (s) of concern. Is the goal traffic, industrial, home, fire, of some combination of these "safety" fields? If traf fic, does this embrace all traffic areas, such as enforcement, education, engineering, or just some aspects of the total field? 2. The Center's scope of service. Will there be a teaching. program? Research? Service and assistance to others? Combina tions of all? 3. The Center's target ' groupfs)' to he served. Are the intended beneficiaries at the local, state, or national level? Is it- the professional or the- man-inrthe-street who is the target of the Center's efforts? Providing answers to the above questions will mark only a beginning in the search for purpose, manpower, money, and support. All of us are obliged to join in the search. WHAT ARE THE CHALLENGES FOR SAFETY CENTERS? By WILLIAM T. RICHARDS Safety & Driver Education Supervisor, Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis. Why school safety programs? Obviously, because there is a school-age accident prob lem. But how. serious is the problem? It is diffi cult for us to generalize. Statistics have been found to be of little interest to most people. Fifty thousand killed on our streets and highways has become a part of the American way of life. Apparently our psychological make-up will not allow -most of us to envi sion ourselves becoming part of these statis tics. School safety specialists agree that there is a school-age accident problem. The quantity and quality of school safety programs vary from "Absolutely nothing visible or identifi able" to "Excellent, comprehensive pro grams." Why the difference - in the quantity and quality of our school safety programs? It appears that these differences exist be cause: 1. There never has been an adequate ac counting or accident-reporting system ini tiated in too many schools. 2. There is no interested, qualified individ ual in too many schools to provide the lead ership necessary for initiating and conduct ing a good, school safety program. - 3. The schools have, taken on more and more responsibilities and tasks, so somo school officials have not believed that safety -education should be their responsibility. These same persons believe that there is no time and not enough money available to support such a program. ' . 4. We have had relatively few universities offering in-depth, quality safety-education programs for adequately preparing school safety coordinators. Thus, the quantity and quality of school safety coordinators have not been available to our schools. No wonder the leadership has not been available in our. schoolsl 5. State departments of public education' have been slow to add qualified, safety-per sonnel to their staffs. These departments too often have' not developed a well-coordinated safety program at the state level. So, I am really saying that at the state level too often the leadership and the consulting help has been lacking. 84 School and College Conference 6. It appears that- there is a real shortage. stndypnterview, mailed questionnaire survey, of. weft-qualified safety coordinators at the and philosophical approaches. local and state level and, as serious if not Interviews have been conducted with the more serious, there is a real shortage of qual key college-university . administrative staff ified college-university safety professors. members and the college professors in this, 7. Tcf date, many, if not most, of our field. In die twelve college-universities in states have not developed certification stand Wisconsin with traffic and safety education ards for school safety coordinators. Thus, programs, more than seventy interviews were there is little identity and no credential for conducted. The investigator did the inter those who are attempting' to cany the re viewing at each college-university site. sponsibility of a "School Safety Coordina A historical background, an analysis of tor." present major components of the program, 8. We have not defined the need or role and an analysis of future plans of each uni for school safety programs effectively. versity program will be compiled. 9. We have not communicated the These aforementioned techniques will "School-Safety-Need" message to the ded- help gather the needed data. This data will sion makers effectively. ., be (halted, with the use of bar graphs, in I believe two of the basic reasons we do order to show relationships of major compo not have the number and' the quality of nents of each individual university program safety centers that we need is because: (1) in comparison to the other universities offer- Our' schools have not demanded nor sought - ing such programs. the services that a safety center can provide, ' These findings shall indicate - trends, and (2) State. Departments of Education strengths, and weaknesses of the individual have failed to do this also. college and university programs, as well as A study entitled, "The Role of Higher Ed the. weaknesses and strengths of the twelve ucation in the Professional Preparation of - college and university programs on a collec Traffic & Safety Specialists" is being con tive basis as compared with already existing ducted for the primary purpose of improving national recommendations. the preparation of personnel in this field. The findings and conclusions will be This study-explores the problems of col based upon- newly developed standards by leges and universities in Wisconsin which the investigator. These standards shall have prepare traffic and safety education person been criticized and refined by a national nel, conduct research, provide extension board of judges. The investigator formulated courses in this, ^rca, and provide accident his original standards based upon past na- prevention clinics, conferences, and services. . tional studies, past national conferences on Principally, this professional preparation is designed for elementary, secondary, and university teachers.. Some of these persons do enter industry, or business, or governmental agencies upon completing college courses the. subject, authoritative literature, in the field, and past experience of the investigator from his working on national- committees in this area. These standards will be finalized With the help of these authorities. and/or degree programs in the area of traffic From these newly developed standards for and safety education. Too, there exists a real Wisconsin college and university traffic and potential for' providing new courses and safety education programs and from the find safety services for industry, business, and ` ings of the study, recommendations will be governmental agencies. made. Because this discipline is comparatively This study will-then be-presented to the young, it faces serious problems. Among the, Coordinating Committee for Higher Educa predominant problems to be cited are lack of tion for its use in identifying the role of a (1) Sufficient financial and administrative selected number of Wisconsin colleges and support, (2). Qualified professors, (3) Ade universities in traffic and safety education. quate laboratories, and (4) Proper identifica The study shall not only analyze the present.. tion. and articulation of the traffic and status of existing programs and needs, but it safety education program. shall recommend what the programs should Those problems are being studied by sev be. eral research techniques. It is proposed that Another part of this study dealt with an these, techniques include historical, case analysis of the supply and demand for traffic -85 1967 National Safety Congress and safety specialists in one state, Wisconsin. Another part of the study surveyed driver education teachers and school safety co ordinators. They were asked: 1. What their future vocational plans are in our field. 2. What degree programs they, would be interested in. ' 3. From a list, of eight additional courses, which would they like to see offered. 4. What their "role" is in their present job (a breakdown of tasks). ; 5. What they have done to upgrade their own competencies in this field within the past twelve months, 6. What additional inservice experiences and programs that they would like to have offered. 7. What competencies they .believe are necessary to make an ideal driver education teacher. 8. What units they are presently teaching in their classroom course of driver education. The study should be able to indicate to in stitutions of higher learning and a proposed safety center the following: 1. The supply and demand for traffic and safety personnel. ' 2. The basic thinking and desires of school superintendents for personnel in this field. 3. The desires of present teachers for pre-servicQS and inservice courses.and pro grams. . 4. The tasks that this personnel is pres ently performing, 5. What is.being taught in the classroom phase of driver education.' I believe that with this information our in stitutions will be in a better position to re define their own individual roles in traffic and safety education. I would like to conclude by examining one of the prime functions that a safety center could provide--the planning and execution of applied research. It would appear to me that most State De partments of Public Education and local school districts make'their educational deci sions based upon past experience, biases or prejudices, pressures, "hunch" or guess, and subjective thinking. I believe we have found the answer in most states in initiating programs in our schools'. We have quantity of programs in many states. But do we have the quality that we need? . We now need to devote a great deal more attention to improving the -quality of these programs. We have upgraded our certifica tion requirements for driver education teach ers, at - least -sometimes in numbers of courses and total number of credits. In order to help, insure standard .quality- programs, we utilize minimum standards. These stand ards too often have become' the guidelines1 which school districts have adopted as ideal standards. Because the field of safety and driver edu cation is a comparatively new field (with lit tle more than 30 years experience), there is little research upon which to base the mini mum standards which we have adopted and enforce for .our driver education aids pro gram. . .. I would like to suggest that tire following are among the problems facing bur State, and I wonder if these same problems aren't facing most states. Is. it best to schedule the classroom phase in a block manner, once a week for the en tire year, or twice a week for one semester of two semesters? What certification standards (total credit? and specific courses) are necessary for com petent teaching? * What should be an acceptable driving rec ord? How can the effectiveness of driver educa tion programs be measured? How can the scheduling of the various . laboratory methods--driving simulators, mul tiple-car-range, and dual-control-car-on-the- street--be best planned? .What is t,he role or the task of the driver education teacher? What is the role or the task of the school safety coordinator? What are the total number of clock hours, that should be provided in the classroom and the laboratory phases of driver education? What are the minimum standards that states (total' and combination) should re quire for scheduling the utilization of driv ing simulators and the multiple-car-range? ' What are the minimum lengths of time (total number of weeks) that should be re quired for scheduling the classroom and the laboratory phases of driver education? What is. the over-all school age accident problem in individual states and how can it be improved? ' Are there particular subject: areas in our 86 .j (. . School and College Conference schools which experience a disproportionate number of school accidents? Are special provisions (special 'teachers, scheduling, and materials) made for the ex ceptional child in safety and driver educa- tion? ` What is and what should be the role of the state supervisor in liis visitations to a school setting? What are the ingredients of: A. good driver education program? A good compre hensive school safety program? What impact does the state supervisor have on school programs? Does it make a difference that'visitations have been made? What should the follow-up be? How does the safety and driver education teacher work with other school colleagues and members of the community in perform ing his job? . How are emergency procedures taught in our driver education programs? Does the course content appear to be uni form in our state? Should it be? How do high school driver education stu dents evaluate the effectiveness of their driver education programs? .How. do-parents evaluate the'effectiveness? Is there a relationship between accident involvement arid: ' A. Intelligence? B. Grades? C. Extra-curripular activities participated in? D. Completion of high school? ' E. "Kinds" of courses taken? Does the school building, grounds, and the total school environment (one story only or two stories, floor surfaces, etc.) have a bearing on the school districts' accident ex perience? What impact does the charging, or not charging, of a materials fee have on- pro grams, students, and families? How effective are night courses in rela tionship to the regular school day courses? How are summer programs scheduled in relationship to regular school year programs? What should the maximum (ideal) in structional period (minutes) be for the'labo ratory phase? - What is the maximum length per instruc. tional period that should be allowed in the classroom phase? What is the effect of children and youth, as transmitters of safety information, upon the safety attitudes, knowledge, and prac tices of their parents (as in the utilization of seat belts)? How1 should' the laboratory' (simulation, multiple-car driving range, and on-the-strect driving) phases be scheduled in regards to sequence? Can the simulation, phase follow the range instruction with beneficial results? It is generally and widely believed that the range instruction must follow the simulation laboratory instruction. ,, THE PROBLEMS ARE...THE SOLUTIONS MAY BE... By DOUGLAS TOMS ' Director of Motor Vehicles,' State of Washington ' In the past ten years (1957-1967), fewer than five major safety, centers have been de veloped as a part of our nation's colleges and universities. In the ten year perjod between 1947- and 1957, a sizeable number of safety centers were founded. Can we assume that those centers (such as California's 1TE,- Michigan's HTSC, and New York's CSE) have sufficiently filled the void so that subsequent safety center devel opment became unnecessary?. I think notl The growth, the expansion, and the com plication of the traffic'problem in the United States is considerably more severe today thaft it was in the period 1947-1957. The need for the services that such centers, can provide is greater now than ever before. I doubt that' anyone will challenge the desperate need that this country is experi encing for talented and able workers on the traffic safety scene. If we can then accept that there is a desperate need for educated personnel in the traffic safety field, why then has there not been a greater development of traffic safety centers? Certainly traffic safety is not the only 87 1987 National Safety Congress problem confronting, today's society in th'e to maintain their present programs. I think United States. Last year's Chrysler Corpora that we should continue to look to them for tion Opinion Poll indicated that crime was much of the support that would be needed. the number one problem, on the mind of the to broaden safety center activity in the nation's public. Air pollution, water pollu United 'States. tion, mental health, urban renewal, all No one has attempted to review the na aspects of the racial problem, and a long list tional scene as it relates to safety center ac of other issues could easily be defined as tivity.' Certainly some safety centers should being terribly important to today's society. modify their easting structure. For example, Traffic safety must compete with that list for the Institute for Transportation and Traffic attention. I do not see crime research centers Engineering does little or no teaching. On sprouting up on our campuses of higher edu the other hand, the Highway Traffic Safety cation, rior do I see centers for air or water Center places a heavy emphasis on their in pollution. One can only conclude that our structional programs. From a geographical nation's leadership, does not view the devel standpoint, southern California students can opment of such centers as a major solution not afford to journey to Michigan in order to to the problem. I think tliat we must accept attend classes. Conversely, some of the work the fact that safety center activity is supple done at the ITTE is not particularly applica mental to the solutions of such problems. ble to the problems facing the citizens of the' Certainly such obstacles as money, public State of Michigan. A degree of orderliness support, and the lack of personnel to staff and a review of regional concerns would be such centers can be readily identified. I a help in this discussion. doubt that anyone would challenge-the fact ' It would be my recommendation that the that money is always hard to acquire, how DOT or a national agency from the private ever desperate the need. Additionally, no sector undertake a nationwide' survey of this one will probably challenge the difficulty of obtaining public support for any expensive activity. The very crux of the problem, i.e., a shortage of educated personnel, also bears directly on. any explanation as-to why safety problem. For example, there is absolutely no ' safety center activity in the Northwest. Yet, the growth of the Northwest in the past, five years has created a need for the services that a traffic safety center could offer. centers are not being created. However, such a recommendation should I think that we must be careful that we not be misinterpreted so as to mean that the do- not place more emphasis on the acquisi private sector should take the total responsi tion and development of safety'centers than bility for the development oh future safety is warranted'by the existing public and of centers. The majority of the existing centers ficial support. There are. professionals hard at work in many other fields. They are compet. ing for the same money that we are. You can ask any legislator and he can give you a operate out of a publicly financed college or university. Of this majority, the bulk of them are state, rather than city or county financed institutions. Because of this consideration, pretty good idea of the competition for the popular support is-a necessity. State legisla taxpayer's dollar. So, We must keep our ob-. tors will not back the creation of a safety- jectives in proper perspective. center at one of their local colleges and uni There is one common denominator that versities without strong public, support to do prevails in the solution, to any problem. It is so. In that sense, it is we, the `leadership," money. In the traffic safety businejss^jve are who must assume the responsibility for the blessed with a lot of support from'the pri creation of future traffic safety centers. vate sector. A great many foundation's, com Certainly the future appears brighter. Ah mittees,. and cooperative agencies receive, though the past ten years has seen little or money from the private sector for dispensa-' no development, I predict that the next ten tion to grass root agencies. The Automotive years will again see the creation of a number Safety Foundation, the Insurance Institute for of such centers. I think that we can under Highway Safety, the Inter-Industries High stand why such things seem to move in cy way Safety Foundation, and many others cles. We experience a good deal of activity have been supporting traffic programs for a and then we sit back contented that we have long time. Without them most of the existing done something about the problem. The traffic safety centers would be hard pressed problem then has to grow worse again be- 88 School and College Conference fore we are spurred to future action. The need to be spurred to- such action ap pears to be commonly felt across the country today. Last year there were two bills in our state legislature to create a traffic safety cen ter.-I am sure that this situation is not pecu liar to the State of Washington. I am confi dent that it has been felt elsewhere. . SUPPORTING ELEMENTS OF AN EFFECTIVE MAJOR AND MINOR IN TRAFFIC AND SAFETY EDUCATION By AUGUST J. SCHULTZ Associate Prof., Safety Education, Stout State University, Menomonie, Wis. Any discussion of majors and minors in traffic and safety education forces one to realize that this subject is not only compre hensive in scope, but that it is also a subject most difficult to document with current ac curacy. Supporting elements include: .The selec tion of qualified instructional staff; sufficient academic references; identifiable courses and content; and, use. of flexible instructional methodology. The order of acquisition, and the strength, separately and collectively, of these supporting elements-will to some ex tent determine the effectiveness of the overdll Traffic Safety Education Program within a given institution of higher education. Before discussing the supporting elements, let us review earlier historical efforts related to the growth of traffic and safety education courses and programs.' A little over 41 years ago, a survey of se lected institutions of higher education ob tained a variety of "vintage" convictions concerning the opportunity of teachers in training in' accident activities. Some ty_pical. responses from widely separated geographi cal areas were: (1) "The tendency to add new courses- to our curriculum has .already gone too far, but I dp think the subject is' worthy of some consideration and attention"; (2)"This kind of work is desirable, but there is doubt if it should require full time as a formal course"; (3) "Organized mate rial is scarce. We"would be glad to do more along this line if material organized for teaching is . available"; (4) "This varies greatly according to instructor,. During each year we have half a dozen in charge of this work"; (5) "This state has so many laws bow about teaching fire prevention, humane ness, narcotics, alcoholic drinks, and the like, that it is actually impossible to obey the laws"; and; (8) "I shall be interested, in a statement from you as to what more can be done than we are doing to prevent accidents in our school." It is known that there are officials in higher education' who are actively voicing today' the same- type of comments `recorded ' forty-one years ago. By 1941, only 18 states had developed state courses and only six required that safety be taught in elementary and second-, ary schools. The slowness of growth was at tributed tO the lack of higher education to give proper recognition' to safety education within their institutions. Later, in 1958, a survey revealed that 328 colleges and universities offered a total of 975 offerings available for educating person nel in the fields of highway safety andhigh.way traffic. Finally, a more recent survey of higher education in 1966 revealed a . total of 39 in stitutions in 21 states offer , safety education minors for a Bachelor's degree. Iti addition, 13 colleges and universities' in ten states offer a minor in a Master's degree program, and seven schools in six states permit doc-' toral candidates to minor in safety. Further, majors in safety may be obtained in a total of 22 institutions in 18 states at the bachelor, master, or doctoral level. The survey of 1966 reveals the growth of traffic and safety education courses and pro grams over the years since the initial survey, carried out in 1926. The. recent passage of the Highway Safety Act of 1966 has stimu lated renewed interest in higher education personnel relative to the establishment or ex- 89 1967 National Safety Congress pansion of programs in traffic and safety ed An effective major or minor program ucation. needs the general Holdings of the university It is toward this . renewed interest in library, but it also needs specific holdings, higher education that this discussion of the within the discipline. These holdings will not supporting elements is directed. be there unless the person in charge of the The element which I consider to be num program works with the library staff in the ber one in any major dr minor traffic and acquisition of the needed references. Items safety education program is an interested such as course texts, interdisciplinary refer and qualified staff. According to Policies arid ences, . comprehensive periodicals, doctoral Practices for Driver and Traffic Safety Edu abstracts, doctoral holdings (which are now cation, published by the National Education available in microfilm and Zerox copies), and Association, college and university instruc indexing and abstracting services related to- tors in .driver and traffic safety education, the specific discipline are all vital to a pro need competences beyond those expected of gram. . teachers in the secondary schpol who teach A basic holding in periodicals could in the beginning driver. College and university clude the following: Journal of the American: personnel should hold at least the master's Society of Safety Engineers; Current Litera degree with a major in safety education and ture in Traffic and Transportation; Family should have had administrative or instruc Safety; Highway Research Abstracts; Home tional duties, .preferably .in a. secondary Safety Review Holdings; International Occur- school. ' pational Safety -arid .Health Information Policies and Guidelines--Teacher Prepara ' Service; Journal of the American Association tion and Certification supports the recom for Health, Physical Education, and Recrea mendations of Policies and Practices'and fur tion; National Safety News; Journal of the ther relates that, since driver and safety edu Society of Automotive Engineers; . Safe cation draws upon the contributions of sev Worker; Safety: Safety Education holdings; eral disciplines, responsibility for coordina-' School ' Safety; Safety Journal; Safety tion of the program should be delegated to a Maintenance; Safety Standards; Traffic Di ' person who is.well qualified in general edu gest and Review; Traffic Engineering; Traf- cation as well as in safety education and ac fic Quarterly; Traffic Safety; British Journal cident prevention. In addition,, faculty mem of Industrial Safety; and, The British Journal, bers should.be carefully selected on the basis of Commerce Safety. of preparation and interest. The third "element" needed in. the devel Another important consideration in the se opment of a major or minor is the identifica lection of staff for traffic- and safety educa tion of course content and subsequent tion programs is to. select staff that are able courses in traffic and safety education. A re to work effectively "outside" the academic view of course titles presently offered in se ' atmosphere. Traffic and safety education ac lected colleges and universities can provide tivities are restricted when they are limited direction to schools who hope to extend their to the confines of the college or university traffic and safety education programs. Fifty- campus. The support, understanding, and eight course titles are; offered at colleges and cooperation of the community is vital to any universities on the undergraduate and gradu- effective Traffic and Safety Education Pro- ate level. The variety of course titles would gram. tend to suggest that there is a wealth of The second element which I consider to "content" available in the field of traffic and be important in any major or minor traffic safety' education. However, no effort has arid safety' education p'rogram is sufficient been made at the national level to ascertain academic reference. This area-is probably what kind of uniformity or similarity exists the most overlooked aspect of developing the between the different titles.of presently of major or minor program. Only recently have fered courses. sufficient numbers of text become available The final element needed in the develop to support already existing courses in the ment of a major or minor is the "use of. flexi area. However, all too often the supporting references in college, and university libraries bogl_ey.tar nd appropriate instruct1ional methodol- are lacking in both quantity and active hold Courses in educational methodology urge ings. prospective and in-service teachers at the 90 . School and College Conference secondary level to utilize an appropriate method which will present the content in the most stimulating and most meaningful way. Yet, few colleges, and universities provide the necessary facilities and equipment to allow their staffs to "practice what they . preach." Lecture courses are necessary and appropriate, but traffic and safety education ' instructional staff should also utilize such methods as role playing, projects, audiovisual methods, psychophysical testing, surveys, ac cident analysis, .group discussion-decision, field trips, resource persons, demonstrations, educational television, simulated experiences, and. individual field experiences. Each of these methods can add to the interest and the self improvement of all who are exposed to them. In conclusion, it is. apparent that traffic and safety education majors and minors will accelerate at a much faster rate than they did in the first 67 years of- this century. However, their success will depend to a great extent on how. they select their staff, how they organize and. gather educational references, how they identify courses and content, and how they employ methodology in the courses taught within their respective institutions. Each of the individual elements have' a major contribution to make to the overall success of the major or minor in traf fic and safety education. Our task is to work for the improvement of all four. References American Association of School Administrators, Safety Education. (18th.Yearbook). Washington, D. o., National Education Association, 1940. National Commission on Safety Education, Courses m. Highway Safety and Highway Traffic. Washington, D. C., National Education Associa tion, "1958." National Commission on Safety Education, Poli cies and Guidelines--T-cacher Preparation and Cer tification- Washington, D. C., National Education Association, 1965. National Commission on Safety Education, Poli cies and Practices for Driver and Tragic Safety Education, Washington, D. C., National Educa tion Association, 1964. National Highway Safety Agency, United States Government Memorandum--Draft Standards. Wash ington, D. C., U.S. Department of Commerce, Feb ruary 16, 1967. National Society for the Study of Education. The Present Stat,us of Safety' Education (25th Yearbook). Bloomington. HI., Public School Pub lishing Company, 1926, . GRADUATE PROGRAMS IN SAFETY EDUCATION By A. E. FLORIO Professor of Safety Education, University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana, Illinois When we look at graduate programs today we find quite a variety of patterns. We have five year programs of undergraduate and graduate work culminating in a professional degree which may or may not be a Master's degree; one year graduate programs . for teachers or professional personnel; one year research oriented programs as a first step to ward the doctorate; a two year program, leading to a professional degree; a three year program, without foreign language and a formal dissertation, (this is usually the Ed.D. degree); and the three year program with foreign language and .formal disser tation requirements, terminating in the Ph.D. Through these varieties of patterns, graduate schools attempt to fulfill the needs of the' students. What, does the safety educator need? Re gardless of the type of degree, I believe the graduate programs that (1) add to `the stor age of knowledge through basic research, (2) prepare scientific research workers and humanistic scholars for colleges and Universi ties, business, industry, and government, and (3) provide advanced study, for teachers, specialists, and' administrators for school should all be available for those interested in the entire field of accident prevention and injury control. Graduate work in safety education was first offered at New York University in the mid-1920's, Jhit several theses and disserta tions in this'atea were completed at Colum bia arid the University of Chicago before .1930. In 1938 the Center for Safety Educa tion at New York University was established and probably to this- day is the leading uni versity in this field for providing opportuni ties at all graduate levels. One of the major questions confronting us today concerns the nature and purpose of 1967 National Safety Congress graduate study. What is the difference be the various types of degrees that should be tween "graduate work and degrees" and offered or, more importantly, what type de professional work and degrees? A conference gree'the college and university is qualified to of Deans of Southern Graduate Schools award. Does the graduate faculty have the made the following distinction: It thinks of qualifications and specializations needed to "professional" graduate curricula as having offer the master's, intermediate, or certificate an emphasis on application and that instruc program, the 'doctoral and post-doctoral pro tion is chiefly concerned with, "training" in gram? What criteria should be used for se the skills and techniques of practice in a lecting graduate faculty? Should graduate field of endeavor. It thinks of "graduate teaching be limited to only those having a work" as being concerned with the history doctor's degree? Certainly they should have and theory of a subject as being occupied sufficient preparation, in a selected phase of evidentally and critically with the materials the discipline to assure a high degree of of knowledge in-a field.. competence and provide background for'sig Major Issues and Problems. nificant research or creative production in . the specialty. They should be well qualified The major issues center, around the ques to do scholarly work; be competent teachers, tion of where emphasis in graduate educa perform research, as well as guide research tion should be placed. Should it be primarily activities. They should also have ability for professional or academic in nature? Should creative activity and thinking in order to de the emphasis be placed on vocational prepa velop- creativity in students and, finally, ration or on advanced study and research in should also be involved in college and com an academic field? Should it produce the ed munity service. ucated man or the skilled specialist? What kind have we. produced in our field in the past twenty years? Part of the difficulty or controversy arises from the fact that methods for advanced, study differ for the various dis ciplines. The scientific method which has ' been used effectively in the biological and physical sciences may not be applied as ef fectively in the humanities and social. sci ences; yet the scientific method has certainly had an undue influence on the nature of What should be the instructional and re search, resources essential for quality gradu ate study? Quality graduate study demands an excellent library, special laboratories, data processing, special institutional research re sources for funding pilot programs and re search exploration for. faculty and staff. Scholarships, fellowships, and assistantships should all be a part of the resources of grad uate education. graduate work. . Graduate Program of Study in Safety Ed- Regardless of the point of view regarding ucation--Degrees and Expected Outcomes. the basic issues, many other questions re The master's degree in safety education, main to be answered: - generally speaking, is designed to prepare 1. By what graduate programs and meth- . teachers, coordinators, and supervisors for el- ods are teachers for schools and colleges best ementai'y and secondary schools, school dis prepared? tricts, and junior colleges. The program like 2. How can the undergraduate and gradu wise is designed to prepare personnel for ate programs be articulated effectively? government and private agencies, service or . 3. Should, graduate research be directed ganizations, and industry. It.should also pro ` primarily toward the advancement of knowl- ' vide the necessary competencies, for those edge or toward the education of the student? wishing to proceed to an intermediate certif 4. What constitutes an acceptable disser- ' icate or degree, or the doctorate. tation topic?`How should the M.A. or M.S. Graduate study programs leading to an in thesis differ significantly from the Ph.D, . dis termediate degree or certificate beyond the sertation? ' master's degree consist of 30 or more credits . 5. Should foreign language be a require and are designed to provide opportunities ment for the Ph.D.? for specialization of a terminal nature or as a . These are some questions that must be basis for advanced study. , answered, particularly for those institutions The doctor's degree with an emphasis on. starting graduate programs. safety education is designed to provide com Additional factors of over-all concern are petencies for those wishing to teach at col- 92 School and College Conference leges and universities, researchers, directors of university safety centers, and for high level supervision in schools, colleges, univer sities, industry, private and public agencies, and governmental agencies. Admission Requirements. They should be-the same as those for other graduate specialization 'at the particu lar institution. The institution should meet at least the minimal standards of an appropri ate accrediting agency. Degree Requirements. Briefly, the applicant for the master's de gree must have a baccalaureate earned with a grade of B or better from an accredited institution. Those below B may be admitted after demonstrating their capacity for ad vanced study. The degree requirements should be equivalent to a minimum of one year of academic work beyond the bachelor's degree. At least, three-quarters of this work should be completed in residence, and at least one-half of the course requirements should be jn the area of safety education, ac cident prevention, and injury control. The candidate should also provide evidence of his capabilities by meeting requirements such as a thesis, supervised field experiences, and written and/or oral comprehensive ex aminations. ` The candidates for the intermediate de gree'program shall present a master's degree from ah approved institution and also re.ceive .approval from the .appropriate safety education department. Two years of profes sional experience or its equivalent are desira ble. While this degree or certificate program should be planned on the basis of. the back ground and professional goals of the candi date, all should include a minimum of 80 semester hours of graduate study, two-thirds of which are recommended to be in safety education or closely related fields. Other re quirements may be field experience, research projects, and in addition to these profes sional work experience should be required. The doctoral degree; candidate, besides meeting formal requirements .demonstrating his competencies and capabilities for pur suing doctoral study, must manifest a desire to advance knowledge and provide quality service in safety education, accident preven tion, and injury control. The doctoral program should- be based on a comprehensive core of knowledge in safety education. The candidate should show profi ciency in this core and through his formal work should keep up with the.core of knowl edge that will prepare him to understand re search findings and synthesize them for . professional application and give him a bet ter understanding of. the techniques for in fluencing behavior-. The culminating experience should be a major independent scholarly undertaking which through research or other creative ef forts produces a significant contribution to the field. The post-doctoral program should provide opportunity for- intensive and sophis ticated research in safety and accident pre vention. The Core Body of Knowledge. The core of safety education embodies the fundamental concepts of human behavior, philosophy, educational techniques, measure ment, research methods, and epidemiology which leads to the development and under standing of -the psychology of accident pre vention and injury control. These concepts and understandings have application in such settings as traffic, home, public, work, school, farm, sports, .and recreation, where accidents are a major problem in our society. The breadth of the core programs should be, much the same for the master's and doc toral candidates; however, greater depth of knowledge, informed grasp of synthesis, and additional competencies for application should be expected of the doctoral candi date. The same should be true for compe tence in evaluation and research, with differ ences primarily on emphasis. In order to fulfill the requirements men tioned, the college or university should pro vide a series of sequential courses involving lectures, seminars, and independent research. The following are'guidelines for sequen tial course programming: General Courses Social and philosophical foundations' of edu cation. Psychology of learning. Social psychology. Statistics, Human growth and development. Adolescent and child psychology. 1967 National Safety Congress Specialized Courses The philosophy and science of accident pre vention. Principles of safety education. Problems of safety education and accident prevention. Driver and traffic safety education programs. Problems , in driver and traffic safety educa tion. Psychology of safety education and accident prevention. Safety engineering. Highway and traffic engineering. Traffic safety management. Research methodology in safety and accident prevention. . Research in safety and accident.prevention. Organization, administration, and supervision of safety education and accident preven tion programs. Organization and administration of industrial safety programs. Interdisciplinary aspects of safety education . and accident prevention. Field experiences for the safety, specialist. Independent study. ' Dissertation and thesis seminar. Additional types of learning experiences in. safety education include externships in such organizations as the National Safety Council, State Departments of Public Instruction, highway safety divisions, governmental acci dent prevention divisions, and other national organizations responsible for accident, pre-' vention programs; . and interrelationships with other divisions of the university dealing with aspects of safety education and acci dent prevention, such as the university safety coordinator, the legal staff, and the physical. plant personnel. The above has been adapted from the booklet. Graduate Education,. A&KBH1R, 1967. SAFETY EDUCATION COURSES--SURVEY AND ANALYSIS A SUMMARY By DANIEL P. WEBSTER Public Hcnlth- Advisor, U.S. Public Health' Service, Greenbett, Md. In essence, the quality of the safety and driver education programs which we admin ister and conduct, and the stimulation which we. provide, have immeasurable impacts upon the youth of America:- Out of these brief comments on the listing of college safety education courses, I hope that you will agree'that .the growth of'course offerings . is gratifying. However,-' you also may find some facets which may be disturbing and challenging, and worthy of further explora tion.' At the very least, you may want to con sider. whether or not these listings are wor thy of the time and expense which they in volve, the changes which may be made both in scope and to assure accuracy and com. pleteness of content for guidance .of future committees which may be charged with this responsibility. Looking hack, it appears that these sum- manes of safety education courses have un- dergone three overlapping stages of develop ment. The first listings, developed by Marion Telford of. the National Safety Council. School and College staff about 1938 and ear lier were simple one and two page mimeo. graphed lists showing teacher-preparatory institutions where teachers could take sum- ' mer courses in safety education. Continuing ' this function of providing information to. teachers, the - listings expanded rapidly' and became an annual feature of Safety Educa tion magazine, beginning in 1939. But the listings quickly began to serve a second important function. I hesitate to use the word "rivalry," yet the identification of participating colleges and universities un doubtedly served to stimulate other colleges to "get into the act." Finally, in recent years, the periodic com pilations of course "data" Jiave served as a 94 ' School and College Conference subjective, nevertheless useful, yardstick to of education, by name and title of the direc evaluate die status and trends in curriculum tor of safety education, or the department development, course. offerings, and require head if known. ments. N In spite of this somewhat incomplete re Overly simplified, the mechanics of the porting and inconsistencies in titles of current survey were to devise a survey form, courses reported, it is gratifying to find that develop a listing of colleges and universities a total of 235 responding institutions indi and other. appropriate representatives to cated a total of 778 courses being offered whom they were to be mailed, and to list the during this academic year, or an average of returns by colleges within states. Because; of about three credit courses for each of these the growth in numbers of colleges and institutions. Of the 778 courses, 668 or about courses being offered, the preparation of list 85 per cent provide credit on the semester- ings of colleges and universities to be mailed hour basis. survey forms waS delegated to members of. What "significant" observations or conclu the College Safety Education Division, each sions can be derived from this listing? assigned one or more states as listed in the 1. It is likely that no one will ever again ' preface of the report. come up with an original course title--at It also was necessary to decide upon a least it would appear so from the variety of number of definitions'and delimitations. For titles listed. This may pose difficulties for in purposes of this , survey, a safety education.' dividuals seeking specific course information course was one . in which the major purpose if descriptions are not provided, and in the and content was in safety and driver educa transfer of credit for certification. tion. Short courses were not to be included; 2. It appears that variations in course con only.those conducted during the regular aca tent and level, in relation to credit given, is demic year and for which'credit was given. as inconsistent as it possibly could be. In Catalog pages describing the courses were some instances the variations are considera requested, as was information about minor ble, with one institution giving double or and .major curriculum offerings, with defini more credit than that given at another.' It is tions left to the responding college or uni admitted, however, that this judgement is versity. necessarily tempered by course descriptions. As you may note from the listing, the Again, these inconsistencies would appear to "honor" system of listing 'applicable courses pose problems in -reciprocity of credit for has its weaknesses. It is recognized that transfer students, or when submitting cre some institutions listed courses which might dentials for certification. be cancelled in event of inadequate registrar 3. Disconcerting is the number of. states, tions. Others, at least by course title, .such as excluding the six from which no reports First Aid, Police Traffic Control, Industrial were received, which on the basis of this Safety or Fire Prevention, or Alcohol Educa listing have.-no college or university which tion for the Classroom and Community, may offers the three and six credit courses recom . have fallen outside of the stipulated defini mended as minimum for teacher preparation tion. Because few institutions submitted de in safety and- driver education. It would ap scriptive literature, the committee felt bound pear that unless other courses are offered in to accept the report of the participating in off-years, the District of Columbia and the stitution, and these courses were listed. States of Maine, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Another limitation of the summary was Montana,. Nevada, ' New Jersey, Oregon, the failure of the committee to receive sur South Carolina, South Dakota, Virginia, and vey reports for'any colleges in the States of Wyoming do not offer a combination-of such Alaska, Delaware, Hawaii, New Hampshire, courses or.their equivalent as recommended Rhode Island, and Vermont. In other states by the National Conferences on teacher it also is likely that reports were not received preparation in Safety and Driver Education. from certain colleges offering courses due to For students residing in. or attending colleges personnel changes or vacations resulting in in these states it would mean travel else inquiries being misdirected or unanswered in where to receive this equivalency training. accumulations of waiting mail. Basically, 4. At the other extreme, the growth in however, the questionnaires were sent to all colleges offering a wide range of courses is institutions having departments or colleges notable. Leading the list is New York Uni- 95 versity, with 21 credit courses. Others in the "top five" are: California State College at Los Angeles, 19; Iowa State University, 15; Southern Illinois University, 14; and West Virginia University, 14. Finally, it. is interesting to note that,, of the 235 reporting institutions, 45 now offer a minor or major curriculum in safety or driver education. This is a notable advance as we look back only a few years when the'number could be counted on one hand. Even here, the variations are many; this peculiar listing may help to explain the spread: . Safety Education--Minors and Majors Key: U or u--undergraduate. u 22 G or g-^graduate. U4 Lower case--Minor. u, g 5 Upper case--Major. u, U, g u, G u, g, G U, G u, U, g, G 1 1 4 4 4 ; .45 In regard to minors and majors, you may find some curious situations, possibly due to errors in reporting' or the fact that some courses are offered only in alternating years. Some colleges offer-minor curricuhims with only two or three listed courses. One college offers undergraduate and graduate majors, but courses are listed at undergraduate level only. Another indicates, an undergraduate major, but lists only one two-hour course. A STUDY IN DEPTH OF THE CORNELL UNIVERSITY DORMITORY FIRE By ROBERT GAUDET Fire Investigator, National Fire Protection Assn., Boston, Mass. At approximately. 4 a'.m. on the morning of April 5, 1967, a fire of unknown cause ' began in the basement lounge of a dormitory at Cornell University,' Cayuga Heights, New York. Nine occupants died of .asphyxiation, and several of the other' 60 occupants suf fered injury. The property damage was esti mated at $50,000. The Dormitory Building. Built in .1953, the fire-resistive unsprinklered two-story-and-basement building had been occupied as a residential club housing university guests. It was" purchased by Cor nell University in 1903 and converted to a dormitory in 1968. The 278-foot-by-42-foot main residential section of the building was of brick and precast concrete construction/ A 40-foot-by-56-foot one-story section adjoin ing the rear of the main section contained a lounge, a kitchen, and a dining room. The fire, which originated in the basement lounge of the west wing spread to the corri dor and also to Room 54 in the' basement of the west wing. The one-story section at . the rear contained the kitchen and the dining room. Two hatchways in the roof were accessible from the stairway enclosures at the center of the building. '. The two enclosed 'stairways, which ex tended from the second story to the base ment, were each located adjacent to the entrance foyer in the center of the building and had doors leading directly outside at the first-story level. Both stairways were ac'cessi ble from the corridors in all -levels, except that the west stairway opened directly into the basement lounge, where an. ordinary glass panel and a solid-core, wooden door had been installed- by the university. A wooden door-with an ordinary glass panel beside it. separated the basement lounge from-the west stairway. There was-extensive fire damage" at the bottom .of the stairway, where the plywood 'paneling completely burned away. . Lighted exit signs were provided at each stairway door. The.foyer was two stories high and had an inside balcony at . the sec ond-story level. The 100-foot-long corridors, which opened into the foyer, had dead ends in the first and second stories. The basement had an outside door at the west end of the corridor (the west end of die basement was 96 / School and College! Conference at grade level .because of the slope of the site). Grade level at the east end of the building was at first floor level. There were no'exits at this end of the building. There were five separate furnace rooms in the basement; .two in each'wing and one in the center of the building. Large sections of the basement area were unexcavated. The corridor, six bedrooms, and lounge in the west wing of the basement had plywoodcovered walls. The west stairway also had plywood finish up to the landing between the basement and the first floor. All the ply wood paneling was attached to wood furring .strips. The university had replaced combusti ble acoustical tile ceilings in the lounge, cor ridor, ' and basement bedrooms with sus pended ceilings of glass , fiber supported by metal channels. The plywood paneling burned from the opposite end of the corridor in the west wing to the door leading to the outside. The bedroom doors in the .basement were of hol low-core wood. The east wing of the base ment contained no living Quarters. The first and- second stories had 24 bedrooms each! The walls and ceilings were plaster finish. The building' had no interior manual alarm system; the only means of fire protec tion were portable extinguishers located . throughout the building. The decision to in stall a. partial sprinkler -system had been reached in March, 1906. Delays in complet ing the installation were reportedly due to a strike at the manufacturer's plant; Installa tion of the inside piping was scheduled to be started soon. The areas to be protected by sprinklers included the basement, the two stairways, the corridors, and the entrance foyer. The university does not have its own fire department; fire calls received by the Safety Division are immediately relayed to the Ithaca or Cayuga. Heights Fire Depart ment. The Fire. On the morning of April 5, at approxi mately 4 a.m., the 69 occupants were asleep in the building. The fire originated in the basement lounge and completely destroyed the contents. Only charred wooden nailers remained after the plywood paneling had completely burned off. Although the sus pended ceiling tiles did not contribute to the fire, the heat twisted the metal channels, and ceiling tiles fell to the floor. Both the door to the west stairway from the lounge in the basement and the door leading from the stairway to the first-floor corridor were wedged open (reportedly, there had been constant, difficulty in ' preventing stair-well doors , in the building I from being wedged open). The doors leading from both stair ways to the-second-story corridor had been removed by an outside contractor for short ening after installation pi carpeting. The . fire produced dense smoke that spread through the basement and through the rest of the building by way of the open west stairway and the two-story-high foyer. There was complete destruction of the ply wood paneling in the stairway. The paneling terminated at the landing. The intensity of the fire in the stairway was evidenced by the destruction of two wooden doors which were directly opposite the open stairway door across the five-and-one-half-foot-wide corri dor. Awakened by. the smoke; the occupants of the basement bedrooms were able to es- cape through the door at the west end of the corridor, and through bedroom windows. These occupants stated that they saw smoke in the hallway but that no flames were visi ble during their escape. The fire in the room- of origin fed on the plywood paneling and all the combustible contents, including five couches, three chairs, eight plywood tables, a wooden TV cabinet, and a bookcase, all of whiph were destroyed. The fire spread from the lounge in the base- ment of the west wing to the corridor lead ing to the six bedrooms in the lower level of the-building. A door at the far end of the corridor led outside at grade level. There were left only charred remains of the wooden strips to which the plywood panel ing had been attached on the concrete-block corridor walls. Distorted metal hanging from the overhead had held the glass fiber ceiling panels. '' 1 As smoke and heat traveled up the stair way to spread throughout the building, a professor who occupied Rooms 24 and 25 in the first story, telephoned the Cornell Univer sity Safety Division at 4:08 a.m. The Safety Division immediately called the Cayuga Heights Volunteer Fire Department, which responded with two pumpers and the chief's car. By the time the firemen arrived, many of the' occupants of the building were at their windows. Some jumped to safety; oth- 97 1987 National Safety Congress ers used sheets and blankets tied together to story. Both of thesegkictims had left their lower themselves to the ground. rooms after the fire started and then re Upon arrival, the Fire Department re turned, apparently leaving the doors to their quested assistance, under a mutual-aid plan, rooms open during their absence. Three stu from the Ithaca Fire Department,, which re dents died in the foyer and one oh the foyer sponded with one pumper and one aerial balcony. Two students died in the second- ladder truck. The fire fighters used protec story corridor. The professor who occupied tive breathing equipment during their initial Rooms 24 and 25 perished in the first-story rescue efforts and helped some of the corridor just off the foyer. Asphyxiation was trapped occupants over ladders and led oth the cause of all nine deaths. ers out of .the building to safety. Some of the occupants of the first- and second-story The Life Safety Code On Dormitories rooms managed to escape unaided through, To those college administrators who are the front entrance,, but many others, .finding reassessing the-life safety of their dormito the corridors filled with smoke, returned to ries, we recommend consideration of the their rooms. Some of those who tried to es provisions of the NFPA Life Safety Code cape through the front door were overcome ia particular. Section II-4, "Dormitories." by smoke. Occupants first awakening to the Among the provisions are the following: odor of smoke alerted others by running (a) The travel distance from any point in from room to room pounding on doors (the an unsprinklered building to an exit shall not building had no alarm system). exceed 100 feet. In sprinldered buildings the The fire department succeeded in confin- . maximum travel distance shall be 150 feet. ing the fire to the basement and stairway of (b) Dead-end corridors are not permit the west wing. The lounge was destroyed, ted. and fire spreading down the basement corri (c) Every sleeping room in a dormitory dor entered Rooms 58 and 54. There was ex housing more than 10 persons must have ac tensive fire damage in Room 54. The two oc cess to two separate and distinct exits in dif cupants of this room, awakened by the ferent directions with no common path of shouts of others, attempted to enter the cor . travel. ' ridor but were driven back by the heavy (d) Exit .stairways and other vertical smoke. They escaped through the bedroom openings shall be enclosed, except that in ex window.'. Fire fighters used three 2%-inch. isting buildings that are not more than two hose lines from two hydrants. One line was .' stories high the authority having jurisdiction laid directly to the rear of the. west wing to may permit unprotected vertical openings if extinguish the fire in Room 53 and the stair the building is completely sprinklercd or if way. The other two lines were connected to every sleeping room' has direct access to an pumpers. Several 131-inch and booster lines outside exit and the building is equipped supplied by the pumpers were used to extin with a complete automatic fire detection sys guish the fire in Room 54, the lounge, and tem. the basement corridor. (e) The interior finish for exits and access ' The. actual fire damage was limited mostly to exits must be Class A or B, and at least to furnishings and interior finish in the base Class C elsewhere. ment and the first story. The building itself (f) Unless the dormitory is equipped did not contribute fuel to the fire. with a complete automatic sprinkler system, One student died in Room 21 in the first it shall have a manual fire alarm system. story, another in Room 27 in the second (g) Fire exit drills shall be held regularly. I'N 98 $ch^ THE 3 R'sOFSCHOOL TRANSPORTATION By A. C. FINCH v Manager. Motor Transp. Dept,.National Safety Council School administrators know that today's suspect that they are not getting the.full.text schools must be concerned with more than oh school bus accidents. the familiar "readin', 'ritin' and 'rithmetic." A seribus-deficiency in records is a draw ' To these modem'needs have added the 3R.'s back to creditable research programming. As of transportation--remiitment, replacement,; bad as this is in tenns of research, it can be and reimbursement But this is only the be even' worse when it comes to sifting all the ginning. .The scientist, die legislator, and information in preparation for short and long others are demanding records, research and . term planning.Without records,-you may be redesign. faced with. changes not justified by long Some years back several of die bus xnanu- . term experience. facturers started testing their product in The entire subject is highly charged with crash impact studies. These were followed emotion and it's ho trick for a clever writer, by the much publicized school bus tests con-- speaker, or lobbyist to. sway support without ducted, by the Institute of-Transportation proper identification of all the facts. Appar and Traffic Engineering of-the University of ently, its not news that the school industry . California at Los Angeles./The tests, com volunteered to study their heeds, but it is missioned by the National Safety Council news that a bus body shifted 17 inches in a and financed in part by a $15,000 grant violent head on crash.'As dose as I.have- from Allied Chemical Corporation,, have" been to this experiment from the very begin opened. the flood gates of curiosity and ning, I .couldn't venture to say that this spawned a-wholesale deluge by free lance shearing action was good or bad. Yet, some writers. self styled experts pounce on this unfinished Unfortunately, in die translation from idea piece of business as if it revealed a shocking to the completed tests and reports, some neglect by the- manufacturers. I say, until - writers have overlooked. the fact that the they test, under identical conditions, another tests were planned by school transportation bus- that doesn't shifty and measure the administrators, school' bus manufacturers, forces transmitted 'to the anthropomorphic and others in the voluntary sector-of our dummies, it could .be- anybody's guess economy. Because these people, many of whether shifting absorbed energy or intensi them in this room, had a progressive curios- fied it. If'we had pat answers to begin, with . ity and courage to seek new information there'd be no need-to test-crash, would * should they now be criticized by Johnny there? come lately writers who pick up bits of re Not once have I read or heard anyone, in? search and even twist facts to suit their own duding tiie new Department of Transporta crusading purpose? tion, say in a loud dear voice for all to hear, Such is the penalty for research. Little "Gentlemen of the school transportation and- wonder that some sectors resist research or school bus manufacturing, industries, hats off any mention of change or innovation. to you for being progressive, for being cou- .Team mates of research, are-records and ' rageous, for seeking new information. Hats adequate reporting programs. Out of .the off for choosing only the most talented crash smoke and heat generated by the scientific impact teams in our nation. Hats off for ap . approach to pupil protection has' come the proaching the follow up period with studied - perennial fry for better school bus accident application of new information. Hats off for records. This time, however, such demands not losing your heads like so many good in- will not be denied too long. Several groups tentioned but inadequately informed crusad who have suddenly become aware of such' a ers are doing." tiling, as school transportation are painting Hl-conceived legislation such as seat belts some -very ugly pictures, simply because they for present day buses without modification 1967 National Safety Congress ' i, ' * .would'have been .costly and would even, guidance from knowledgeable school transhave contributed to more injWies; HopefuU portation people,' I am surethat all concerns premature, action .will not be. taken. l am can be meshed so that we havea smooth sure that everyone ls anxious tbimplement functioning progressive machine.-We must newtechnology but there is always a danger all look for that proverbial- "monkey of going too fast too soon. With the proper wrench".\ . SCHOOL BUS SAFETY AND FEDERAL ACTION FOR HIGHWAY SAFETY By DR,. NORMAN KEY -.* Executive Secretary, National Commission on Safety Education, ' '' National Education Association, Washington, D. C. Safety legislation has been spotlighted in purchased by the Federal Government. The recent months by the following:'-- ' Federal Government purchases about 60,000 1. Highway Safety-Act of 1966 vehicles each year, including buses for pupil 2. National Traffic 'and Motor Vehicle transportation. This same year die so-called - Safety Act of 1966 Baldwin amendment to the Federal Aid 3. General Sendees. Administration--Fed- Highway Act was passed. Its purpose was to ehil Standard No. 515- require each state to have a highway safety 4. Amendments to Fair Labor. Standards program that wouldL comply with certain Act; and Hazardous Occupations Order `performance standards to'be developed by' No. 2 the Bureau of Public Roads. In Febroary of 1959, following a congres- . Federal Standard'No. 515 was published sional mandate made in 1956, the Secretaiy in the Federal Register on June 30,1965, to . of Commerce . transmitted. to Congress a become effective one year and 90 days later 232-page report on "The; Federal . Role in. (on October 1, 1966)'. Several proposals de- Highway Safety." . This report is a prologue signed to affect the design and construction to present-day developments in highway of school buses included these items: safety. Here is what the report said about . Anchorages for Seat Belt Assemblies, school transportation (p. 129): Anchorages of Seats. ."Another phase of traffic-safety education Hydraulic Service Brake Systems; is that of school bus transportation safety. Windshield Wipers and Washers. . The enormous expansion of school bus trans- Glare Reduction Surfaces. ^ portation, how carrying nearly 8 million . GSA published .an amended Federal pupils, (about 17 million now) daily,- has Standard No. 515 on July 15, 1966, to be- been a major challenge to school administra- come effective on October 13,1967. The Na- * tors. The school bus safety recordappears to tional Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety .Act be exceedingly good; only 31 fatalities for of 1986 (Public Law 89-563) was signed the year 1957 (with 37 States reporting), into law by President Johnson. This law re-' The National Conference on School Trans- quires the new U. S. Department of Trans- ' portation has made a large contribution to portation to establish Federal Motor Vehicle the standardization of school buses 'and in Safety Standards. National Highway Safety programs for the improvement of their oper- Act of 1966 (Public Law 89-564) was also ation" signed into law by President Johnson. This Congress passed Public Law' 88-515 in . law requires each state to have a highway 1964 which required the General Services safety program that is in accord with uni- ' Administration (the .custodial agency of the form performance standards promulgated by Federal Government) to establish standards the Secretary of Transportation, for safety. devices for automotive vehicles , Federal Standard No. 515 became effeo- School Transportation'Section tive. on..October 1,; 1960, requiring certain be. employed..any, longer, The ruling standard safety devices ;on automotive vehi postponed until July 1, 19671.1 shaff discuss cles purchased, by. the Federal; Government more about this deve1 opment later, The U.'S. Department pf Commerce pub . On February 3rd, the U. 3. Department of lished in the Federal Register of December Commence publishel-. the "initial Federal 3,1966, the ^Proposed Initial Federal Motor Motor Vehicle Safety Standards" in ,the Fed Vehicle Safety Standards," called for by P. eral Register, to become effective January 1, L. 89-5631 Several of. these proposed ,stands 1968., .... ...* weds were:designed to affect school buses, as .. On February 16,1967, the National High well as other types ofvehicle^. For example: way Safety Agency) (now Bureau) issued .:X, Transmission ' Shift Lever Sequence (P-R-N-D-L).on automatic transmission ve hicles. 2. Reflecting Surfaces, designed to reduce glare 3. Lamps, Reflective Devices, and Asso ciated Equipment, designed to increase' the- draft standards for state highway safety pro grams. .. .J The National Commission on Safety Edu cation held a meeting .March 8-9 attended by 76 persons from 36 states .to review -and organize constructive, comments on the draft standards. These`comments were put in writ visibility, of motor vehicles from the side, as . ing and submitted, to Dr. Haddon. well as the front and rear. Oh April 1st, die new U. S. Department 4. Glazing Materials, specifying require of Transportation'came into being, with Alan ments for the lands of laminated windshield that have already been proved to reduce the severity of injury when people are thrown against, them in' collisions, (thinner glass, S. Boyd as the first secretary of this cabinetlevel Department By June 27, die standards for state highway safety, programs were is sued by the National Highway Safety Bu with thicker laminate sheet between the two pieces of glass.) . 5. Seat Belt Assemblies. . reau of the Department of Transportation; Many of them have either, direct or indirect relationships to pupil transportation: . These motor vehicle safety standards were . 1. Periodic Motor Vehicle Inspection. patterned in part on.the GSA standards de 2. Motor Vehicle Registration. veloped earlier. The expectation that further 3. Motorcycle Safety. . work by the General Servipes Administration 4.. Driver Education. 'would be copied, atleast in part, by the new 5. Driver Licensing. U. S. Department of ' Transportation has 6. Codes and Laws.. caused people to watch GSA developments 7. Traffic Courts. closely.. The GSA, proposed some revisions 8. Alcohol in Relation to Highway Safety. and extensions to the Federal Standard No. 9. Identification and Surveillance of Acci- 515 last March 6. On that occasion. Dr. Wil-- dent'Locations.. .liam Haddon, Jr., of the Department of 10. Traffic Records. Transportation, and Commissioner Abers- 11. Emergency Medical'Services. ' . feller of the General Services Administration 12. Highway Design, Construction, and both made it clear that the two agencies Maintenance. would work together in order to develop 13. Traffic Control Devices. compatibility in the motor vehicle safety Standards on three additional subjects, are standards .their two agencies must develop yet to come: Law Enforcement, Community under the provisions of two separate laws.' Support, and Pedestrian Programs. . The latest word, as of September.29, is Under a contract with the National High that GSA safety standards have been re way Safety Bureau, our- Commission is cur voked; thus, the proposals which GSA pre rently conducting a nationwide study of sented ' last. March will not be followed school transportation, with ejmpbasis. oh through by GSA, since the responsibility safety. This entails a. critical review of the now rests with the National Highway Safety literature in a search for reliable and valid Bureau. principles for school bus safety. A represent On February'1, 1967, as a- result of ative sample of 100 knowledgeable people in amendments in 1966 to the Fair Labor the field were asked to suggest areas of need, Standards Act, student school bus drivers, and steps for program improvement Four under 18 years of age would .not be able to "case-study" states are. being visited for on- 23 1987 National Safety Congress loeatidh .observation of practices and over-all operations. The study is expecfed to produce criteria .for programs of safe operation, and to set forth recommendations for both shortrange and long-range projects for program improvement ' . We are advised that the National High way Safety Bureau will soon have a person on its staff to work in this field.Tt seems rea sonable to assume that a full-time staff will step up die Bureau's activities in.the field; and likely will produce further guidelines for states and school systems. * The Fair Labor Standards .Act of. 1938 was amended by Congress >in 1986 and for the first time, under the amendments, fori Act was extended to apply to elementary and secondary schools and institutions of ' higher learning. In addition to its basic mini mum wage and overtime provisions, the Fair Labor Standards Act contains provisions re lating especially to child labor. For example, the Act sets age standards of 16 as the basic minimum age for employment; 18 as die minimum age for employment in occupations declared to be hazardous, and 14 as die min- imum age for specific occupations outside school hours. There are seventeen so-called hazardous occupations for which the mini mum age is' 18-years. One of these is "Motor Vehicle Occupations," meaning driver and helper. When' it was realized that sixteen states that now employ under-18-year-old students as,school bus drivers would be drastically af fected hy the ruluig scheduled for February T, 1967, the Secretary of Labor suspended foe ruling until July 1, 1967, and asked for comment from die states concerned as well as from other persons. The National Commission on Safety Edu cation held a meeting in February, 1967, for representatives of foe affected states', and representatives from eight states -attended, including Alabama, Florida, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia. Following foe February meeting, fori Commission prepared a brief statement listing general principles which foe group felt should be brought , to foe attention of foe Labor Department for its consideration in arriving at-a final decision .on under-18year-old student school1 bus drivers. The statement was circulated among foe sixteen concerned states for comment, and the slightly revised version was then sent to foe U, S. Department of Labor. Each state, sub mitted additional material of a more specific nature, based on Its own experience, with student, school bus drivers under 18 years of age. In mid-April it was learned that an exten sion of foe time would be allowed by the Secretary of Labor for public comment on foe matter and alerted foe sixteen states by a special memo. In Marchi Maryland and 25 other states, including all of foe. states except North Car olina and Nevada where students under 18 may drive school buses, brought suit to re strain foe Secretary from enforcing foe amended Fair Labor' Standards Act The grounds for this suit were that foe. Act, as amended to cover employees of schools and other governmental entities, is unconstitu tional. A recent court order from a federal court in Baltimore has been issued restraining foci Federal Government from enforcing pro visions of-foe wage law (part of the Federal Labor Standards Act) until foe matter is de cided by foe U. S. Supreme Court The ear liest time for foe Supreme Court to hear foe case would be late 1967, and a final decision is not likely to be made until 1968.); . According to informationreceived by -us June 30, 1967, foe Secretary of Labor has decided'not -to enforce Hazardous Occupa tion Order No. 2 as it-may pertain to 18and 17-year-old school bus drivers' until foe Supreme Court renders a decision on foe constitutionality of extensions of foe Fair Labor Standards Act to state and municipal employees. As to new and amended- automotive safety standards expected to appear, in thisi Federal Register soon the word from foe National Highway Safety Bureau is that foe new and amended provisions, as presently written, will allow either foe red four-light signals on school buses (as in Minimum Standards for School Buses) or foe eight-light system (four red and four pre-warning amber) as now used in -New Jersey, Florida, and one or two other states. These alternatives will provide for either system, and then foe Bu reau will be able to make a final decision later, on foe basis of widespread use of both' systems. The only other provision has to do with braldng systems on station wagons and would affect school transportation programs 24 . School Transportation Section only where station wagons may be used as school buses; . 'The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1685-espedaIly Title V also has im portant Implications forpupil transportation. Dr. John Lumle/t testimony before die House Education, and Labor Committee urged that disaster aid amendments to H. IL 6230 (ESEA amendments) be included. We have given Dr. Lumley a statement for bis use before the Senate Committee on Educa tion urging that disaster aid relief he pro vided through amendments to present edu cation legislation. If provided as NEA's testimony urges, school districts would receive dollars to help replace school buildings, school buses, school bus garages , mid maintenance facilities, if these properties should be substantially dam aged through any type of disaster. Can the .states seize the initiative and as sert the forward thrust which our times re quire? I believe that they can--that they wilL . TOTAL FITNESS AND PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTS By nwACT.KS p. YOST Prof. Rhys. EcL, Dept of Safety Education, West Virginia Univ., Morgantown, W. Va. Total fitness has a place in helping to we refer to more than lifting a weight over prevent accidents. Accidents don't happen; one's head, running a mile, or touching one's they are caused, and many of the causative toes. These physical performances demon factors of accidents axe directly or indirectly strate a degree of physical fitness, hut they related to the fitness of the individual. The. fail to indicate one's emotional stability, so degree of fitness many times determines' cial adaptability, or problem-solving ability whether or not there will be an accident . --all of which are essential ingredients for The primary reason fbr total fitness is cen- totalfitness. tered around the personal benefits .derived 'This paper is concerned with portraying from it A man should keep in shape fb* his .how accidents can he prevented through 'own sake so that he can live a better, health possession.of the qualities which describe a- ier life. Only those whose level of total fit totally fit individual. The discussion is organ- ness is relatively high will he able to cope ized under, three broad categories: physical with ihe ever increasing number of acci fitness; emotional and mental fitness, and so dent-producing situations in modem living. cial fitness. .. Total fitness allows the' expansion of oppor- tunities for adventure, which is one of the How Physical Fitness Prevents Accidents. highest goals of safety. Physical fitness can be defined in either a - To understand the value of.total fitness in specific or a general sense. From a specific preventing accidents, we must first of all un standpoint an individual who performs a derstand "what total fitness is.** Broadly con particular task with a reasonable degree of ceived, total fitness is a thorough develop efficiency, without undue fatigue, and with ment of both the mind and body. Since the rapid recovery from the effects of the exer days of the andent Greeks,.people have car tion. is considered physically fit; hut he is fit ried the belief that a sound mind and a only for that particular task. From a "gen sound body go hand in hand. eral1* standpoint, physical fitness refers to the Fitness in today's world is obviously not a- absence of disease and the proper function matter of mere muscle, nor is it a matter of ing of all body organs and all body parts. . physical capacity alone. Total fitness of the Physical fitness connotes, especially that the individual calls for the cultivation of physi body is able'to move in reference to cal, mental, emotional, social, and spiritual strength, endurance, agility, and coordina qualities that best serve the potentialities of tion. '* each individual. Many criteria are used to evaluate physi When we speak of fitness for life today,. cal fitness, frequently in. combination. How 25 1967 National Safety. Congress ever, speed alone, or muscle strength, flexibll- efficient movement Is also dependent upon ity.and elasticity, or even "health** based on' "the ability to Judge spatial relations and normal organic conditions, are by no means timing,"' the: ability to solve' motor situations true indicators or measures of fitness. and to make adaptive decisions, tile ability Is there a characteristic feature that might permit a detection of differences in condition among individuals or among groups of indi-' viduals? If we imagine a natural catastrophe to remember'past movement situations so that they can bo applied, and the ability to understand the mechanics' of effective movement."* that could force people to escape certain Since body movement is essential to lo death only by marching for many : days comotion and effective: perfonriance in any under unfriendly environmental conditions, ' life situation, movement exposes people- to who would last longest? All other essential accident situations. Many people do not pos conditions being equal, we .'would give the sess the techniques of handling their bodies greatest chances of survival to individuals or protecting themselves from the. ordinary possessing the greatest physical reserves. It hazards of everyday life. We are aware of can be postulated, therefore, that the size of the incidence of fails as a leading type of . tiie physical reserves and the general adapta home accidents. It Is sup)rising how many bility to great physical demands must be de . people suffer severe injuries and sometimes termining factors of physical fitness. In other death from such incidents as stubbing , the words, physical fitness depends, oh the indi - toe, falling backward from a standing posi vidual's biodynamic potential, his functional: tion when thrown- out of balance, tipping and metabolic potential. The best test of over backward in a chair, stumbling and physical fitness would be man's ability to falling down a flight of steps, slipping on an survive under extraordinary biological icy pavement or a waxed floor, or foiling demands.1 from a fodder. Those situations aU seem very Characteristics . describing the physically simple, yet they are everyday occurrences fit individual have been listed as follows:* that catch most people, unprepared. If foe 1. Strength enough to be ready for tasks person involved has learned foe basic funda- encountered in everyday routine and in mentals of handling foe body in a.variety of emergencies. situations, he would be able either to pre 2. Stamina' (endurance) to continue nec vent foe fall or to minimize foe results. essary tasks without undue fatigue, and en Knowledge and application of foe basic prin ergy enongh to participate in recreational ac ciples of human movement can prevent acci tivities after a day*s work. . dents. "If foe physicallaws of force and re 3. Cardiorespiratory .endurance for sus sistance and foe physiological potentialities tained effort in activities involving motion of of 'foe human, body are understood, with foe the entire body.' limitations that such potentialities imply, foe 4. Agility to be able to make a wide range chance for accident resulting in injury is of movement easily. considerably lessened."1 . 5. Speed to be able to move rapidly when* personal safety demands it. . 6. Control to coordinate body movements skillfully. Especially pinpointed in the preceding characteristics, is body movement. The . human being possesses, the capabilities for movement and is essentially an active crea ture. Movement is more than a basic physio logical necessity, however; it is our interpre tation of self to ourselves and others. The way we act depicts our personality. Unfit and inadequately trained athletes are often involved in accidents that could have and should have been prevented. Students should not be allowed to participate in any activity until foe instructor has made very, possible effort to ensure' foat'toey are suffi ciently skilled and in good enough condition to -do so without needlessly endangering themselves. "Young people are usually eager to participate in sports and because of this they often grow impatient with foe condi tioning exercises and practice sessions neces The degree to which an individual may be sary to develop foe strength, agility, and skill' efficient in his movement is dependent upon ' required for safety on foe playing field. Too a variety of factors: body build, 'reaction. many students axe satisfied .with mediocre time, strength, power, flexibility, endurance, performance, failing to realize that lack of and acuity of the senses. The quality of skill in sports demands unnecessary effort. 26 School Transportation Section thus! causing awkwardness, a rapid onset'of tidty, their ability to withstand trauma, re fatigue, and Increased vulnerability to acci ceived when a joint is at an extreme position, dents. Good' physical conditioning is a pre can be increased through conditioning exer requisite for successful andsafe participation cises which increase the strength of muscles. in sports.*-; ; In -other words, if we wish to improve the- Tie1 need for fitness, conditioning, and stability of joints, we must increase the. training in organized sports and games,: both .strength of muscles which cross the joints* amateur and professional, is evident. There Competent athletic trainers and coaches is a.great incentive'to win, and the'value of spend a great deal of time in proper condi proper conditioning is readily understood tioning of athletes, for "the most important and accepted by the participants. On the phase of prevention of injury is condition other., hand, .in individual, nonorganized ing." .sports and.recreational activity, engaged in One of the most troublesome disturbers of for personal exercise and social contacts, human efficiency is' fatigue, which can be there is little incentive for conditioning. In both mental and physical. Fatigue is a com many recreational activities, however, such prehensive term which, in its widest applica as skiing, skin diving, and mountain climb tion, embraces all those immediate and. ing, top-notch physical condition is essential temporary changes, whether of a functional > for the avoidance of personal injury and gen or organic character, which take. place eral safety. within an organism or any of its constituent In skiing, for example, the most-important parts as a.direct result of its own exertions - single: preventer of injury is proper condi and which tend to interfere-with or inhibit tioning, adapting the body to the physical the organism's further activities."* The prin requirements of skiing. While it is difficult to cipal effect of fatigue is the loss of efficiency prove'to what degree the physical condition in both mental and physical output in an in of a skier is responsible for accidents, some dividual. indirectly, mental fatigue can definite information points to the fact that cause accidents. For example, , a mother ex good physical condition is extremely impor hausted by work and noise cannot have the tant . Two instances may serve as complete awareness of her children's activi illustrations:* ' ties that is essential. 1. A Westchester, N.Y., sld club averaged5,000 . skiing days during 11 years. During this time pre-ski conditioning was practiced. No fractures, and only two mild sprains oc- . curred. When the pre-ski conditioning was given up, three fractures occurred during the first year. . A person who is tired or near the .end of a long period of exertion is more- likely to be involved in an accident than an alert and rested person." Control in coordinating ac-. tivities and directing movements is the first function to fall away-under the influence, of those disorganizing factors which interfere 2.. At the- North Country School, Lake with efficiency. The ability to execute move .Placid, N.Y., 50 children, aged 8 to 14 years/ ments will.tend to remain after, one has lost accumulated a total of 5,000 siding hours. the power to control and coordinate them. Seven fractures and five; sprains occurred. When a pre-ski conditioning program was adopted, none of the children participating in the program suffered accidents in the first year <5,000 skiing hours). Two boys who did hot do conditioning work suffered frac tures of the leg. Muscular endurance is necessary for pro longing the onset, of fatigue. For example, a person who is able to perform a given task a greater number of times with proficiency be cause of lessened energy requirement is less likely to become injured in a situation where injury is imminent. The individual who lacks Proper conditioning of the muscles helps endurance and becomes fatigued has a -tend to prevent injuries hr sports. For example, ency to disregard potential accident situa the most frequently injured joints in sports, tions. This person often becomes lax and in particularly football, ore the ankle and knee. attentive and tends to take undue chances, While ligaments attach from bone to bone to erroneously assuming that be can react as help stabilize joints, they are reinforced by quickly as he did in a rionfatigued state. the major stabilizers of the joints, the mus This person also seems to lose insight into cles, which actually span joints via their ten tiie seriousness of the hazards of potential dons. Since ligaments have little or -no elas- accidents. 1887 National Safety'Congress , Vision-and tearing play vital roles in per with the most physical defects or physical fit sonal protection. It ls obvious that a person ness barriers. It has been the practice to with visual or . auditory defects would be in allow' almost anyone to operate a car, al- great peril when placed in situations where . though several states are at this time institut these characteristics ore essential. A blind ing programs by which they can check the person may be unaware of hazards on a busy physical condition of drivers before and after street; a deaf person may be in danger when licensing. There is yet no valid proof to .approached from the rear. .show that a high degree of physical well A point of considerable argument is that concerning the frequency of accidents in volving persons with physical handicaps. Many people believe that .die handicapped individual will compensate for his defect by adhering strictly to all rules of safety and by attempting to develop good attitudes toward safety; others feel that no matter how much extra effort such a person gives, his handicap being will cut down accidents to driving. Physical fitness may thus contribute to re ducing accidents on the highway, but by it self it cannot solve the problem. Whether it be on. the highway, at work, at home, or at play, other elements of total fitness axe needed to'provide for safe living. A most fm portant element is emotional and mental fit ness. will impede him in his struggle for safe liv ing. A study conducted by M. S. Viteles attempted to determine whether or not peo How Emotional and Mental Fitness Prevents Accidents.' ple with physical impairments have more ac An individual can be an ultimate stage of cidents than people who are* without physi physical fitness but because of an emotional cal disability. The study followed 57 men ' or mental problem' he may be considered tot without physical handicaps and 49 men with' unhealthy person' as far as total fitness is . handicaps over a ten-year period. The results concerned.11 A mentally well person wfll pos showed that the men with handicaps were sess good mental control, poise, and Steady ' involved in more accidents by a ratio of nerves. Without these attributes an individ 3:i.M ual will , be more susceptible to accidents; A study. of causation of industrial acci Symptoms of mental, unfitness which could dents, revealed that the leading causes of lead to an accident-causing situation sre: accidents, regardless of sex,, were visual and (1) the individual is indifferent to his envi auditory defects, poor motor and reflex co ronment, (2) the individual does not show ordination, alcoholism, and fatigue. Factors any appreciation to and of other people, (3) such as menstruation, pregnancy, lactation, toe individual is unable to face responsibili and menopause were leading causes of acci ties, (4) toe individual tends to take his dents among women.11 troubles out on other people, (5) toe indi Many accidents in industry can be traced vidual loses his social and moral inhibitions, to physical reasons or characteristics. Twp and'(6) the individual has frequent states of* . studies have shown that there is a relation depressions and moodiness. ship between illness and accidents. ' People ' who have suffered from chronic diseases are more susceptible to accidents. As the number of illnesses from which an individual suffers rises, his rate of susceptibility to accidents goes up.1* Obesity can play an important role in the . accident record of an individual. A man who This is not an all inclusive list, but it can easily be seen that toe presence, of any of these symptoms could easily, lead to ah acci dent. For example, a driver may exhibit disregard for the rights of othera by hogging toe road, demanding toe right of way, and speeding--all of which are accident-produc ing situations. . . allows his weight to increase steadily can be putting himself and bis peers in a hazardous position. At a time when quick movement is necessary, be may be too sluggish to avert an accident. If his weight- drops below a. proper level it can also lead to accident11 . Physical fitness or its lack is probably most noticeable in highway and traffic safety rec ords. This area involves the most people Emotions are those inner forces, powerful and primitive, that set the course for all' human behavior.11-If an individual Is to be considered totally fit he must have control of his emotions or emotional" stability. Control of emotions does not mean that the emotions should remain within toe individual: rather, it means that healthy ways should be found to work them out. 28 School Transportation Section Sometimes there are blocks between a have listed, personality traits which lead to need and. Its satisfaction, a barrier which accident*. Some of thae traits are aggressive- prevents the individual temporarily or per ness, anger, attention getting, being easily, manently from, reaching his. need. Frustra offended, bereavement, boredom, competi tion results when one Is enable to. reach a tiveness with inability to lose, excitement; desired; goal. .When one is frustrated, the feelings of inferiority, feelings of superiority, type of behavior that he exhibits depends frequent conflict with authority, frustration, upon his previous experiences and bis per guilt feelings, and unconscious need for sonality. The two most common types of be self-punishment.* havior when one Is frustrated are aggression ' A person possessing all' or some of the and withdrawal, foregoing traits is- said to be "accident The important thing in accident preven prone" but the list does not define a certain tion is how much frustration one can take type of person in onr society. The hulk of and what type of reaction it will produce. evidence indicates that there is no such An easily frustrated person may become dis thing as a single type of "safe" or "unsafe" turbed and upset and susceptible to acci individual. "Rather, each individual has a dents. range of behavior, any portion of which may. . Individuals exhibit different types of emo be safe or unsafe, depending upon tire envi tional patterns when .confronted with frustra ronmental hazards to which he. is tion. Anxiety is one common pattern.. Some exposed."* characteristics of an. anxious person are Many accidents do occur when people are worry, drinking in circles, fearfulness to such emotionally upset. However, being upset at an extent'drat he Is unable to reach his goal. one time or another is an inevitable conse Many people who are in this state of anxious quence of living. Our charge.-as accident behavior realize it but are unable to correct prevention specialists is .not to recommend it themselves/* that people stop being upset hut to educate In dealing with frustration, some people people teat if they are under unusual stress become worried, others angry,- and some they should: withdraw from potential acci fearful of .the problems facing them. Some dent situations until tire stress is dissipated. people seem to thrive on frustration; others The emotionally mature person is someone feel the frustration and made it If the peo who has learned to cope with problems ple who are having difficulties could be dis which may arise. He may accomplish this by covered and helped, many accidents could talking over his problem with a friend. He be prevented.* may build those qualities for which risky be When a person's emotions block his com havior is often substituted, or learn to man mon sense, his reactions often lead to an ac-^ age problems through less dangerous meth cident Not all emotions have a maladjustive ods. He may-take up some hobby as a re aspect however! Emotions may also have a lease for -frustration. If there Is a great need. motivating effect for achievement he may direct his energies Unman behavior is affected by attitudes. toward a sport.or take active part far a When attitude changes, behavior will also church, lodge, or civic organization. When change. Past experiences of'such things as emotions are controlled and directed in such pain, fear, and grief influence a person, and if a manner,-tire hazards leading to many acci they, cause.a negative attitude, safety rules dents are avoided. are likdy to-be disregarded. From what we know about learning,.per To. change an attitude is a long and diffi ceptions, attitudes, and emotions are more cult process. A teacher cannot change any important in developing total fitness in the one's attitudes if he does not show the person than indoctrinating him with safety proper attitude himself id his daily behavior. facts or dolls. For facts memorized or re While the importance of attitudes in acci peated do not necessarily change behavior. It dent prevention studies is generally is the .individual's responsible or irresponsi conceded, "there is no conclusive experimen-. ble attitude toward a fact that makes him tal evidence of the absolute or related effec safe or unsafe. tiveness of various measures and programs for changing attitudes toward safety."* How Social Fitness Prevents Accidents. Studies in the area of emotional fitness Another integral part of total fitness is 29 '1967- Natiohal' Safety Congress good soteialladjuriiraht. This nOt'only ifr- or inmore limited terms'a skfecoiidhuiiity, cludesrftuikldg personal adjustments butalso 'is dependent upon safety 'conscious its inaldng' group and social adjustments as well. individuals are. ;1 * : . " Anlridividual is sodaDy well adjusted when - The/social needs of the child include the he is able to meet his social needs. If for 'ability to assert, defend; andprotect .himself . scrme' `reason' thbse needs are unmet, antiso and the ability to work and play with others. cial behavior may begin to develop. An. anti In zecreaticmal pursuits; he riefeds to develop social person displays characteristics which a sense of responsibility for die welfare of dp not.coincide with those of society; he does the group. The teacher ban help by showing not keep aggressive tendencies In check and the child what his responsibilities concerning, refuses .to beawareof other people's property safety are to other children; The teachers and'rights.1: can help establish ah understanding of the Antisocial behavior .Can easily lead to an necessity for group activity .by maldng-plain accident-causing situation.' The presence of. the need for one individualto bear responsi . social well-being and peace of mind is ac- bility for the safety of afi. This is the reason tuaHy a factor m accident prevention. The why safety education shbtdd involve pupil critical factor in- controlling accidents is the . projects in which youth work together on individual's ."abflitv to discipline himself and safety rather than in a teacher-dominated, to respond voluntarily to disciplines imposed, telling situation. It is the reason why safety by society in order to achieve safety." activity'is more likely to fionzish if tried in A perron who is -Socially fit Is least' likely tile prestige organizations of the school, in to break any rules of safe living because he cluding clubs, and honor societies. has' a thorough understanding of the needs ' . Today there seemslo be a lack of training for such rules and ;a genuine concern for his in responsibility and an. overemphasis upon . fellow citizens. The socially fit person is not the right of self-expression. We see too many concerned solely with a happy and safe life ' people striving to get all they can for them for hhnself, but concerns himself with tire selves with very little regard for the rights of problems of. other and readily lends a help- their follow citizens. We' see a decay in . 1 ` ing hand or watchful eye if necessary. In all, public and private integrity and a declining ] the socially fit perron attacks his own per- state of morality. The feet is that too many - ' sonal problems and is readily available tp teenagers have been brought up with a tre give assistance, to others. mendous appetite for their rights and privi Associated, with social- fitness' is the ele leges and a very limited realization of their ment of "sportsmanship." This-means that duties and obligations. As a result, they are the individual respects the rights of others, not grateful for privileges and lade a sense works for the best interests of the team or of responsibility. Social fitness means that an . group, is tolerant toward persons of less abil individual feces the world willing to give as ity, gives his best to the team or group, and well as to get controls his emotions under great stress. . To develop social fitness an individual . Another aspect .of social fitness involves needs to he loved, respected, and needed. "courtesy." This means that the individual He should be given responsible, challenging respects and appreciates the individuality of tasks to perform. He should be allowed to others, and at. tire same time shows an inter make a reasonable .percentage of ordinary est in other people and behaves in a friendly and kindly manner.' Sportsmanship and courtesy are desirable ip any situation where' groups of people are to work or play safely together. If a person is to be adapted by society, he must realize that only through self-imposed` rules can group cooperation he achieved. He must realize that the importance and welfare of mistakes to learn from' experience. Above all he must he made to realize that privileges, such as driving a car, cany with them the obligation that.he must not endanger himself or others. The individual who has not adjusted so cially is apt to be reckless and irresponsible; His actions, selfish and immature, may often create hazardous situations. the individual is dependent upon the welfare. - In our society we find that conflicting so . of society and that the welfare of society de cial standards make the formation of proper pends on the welfare of the Individual.' attitudes difficult The hot rodder is often Safety is everyone's Job and a safe society, idolized by his fellow students. Poor exam- 80 v School Transportation Section pies, wee set .by adults when safety violations are ignored if the violator is'wealthy andinfluential. Promoting good safety attitudes is Marion R. Broer, Efficiency of Human Move ment. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1960. p. IB. * Delbert Oberteuffer and Celeste Ulrich, Phystr thus a very complicated task. oal Education. Hew York: Harper and Bofr?V 1962., p. 121. > T Reckless . conduct ' in adolescents often 1 A. E. Florlo and G> T. Stafford, Safety Edu stems from, their need to rebel against the authority of their parents. They resent cation. Hew York: MoGraw-HIB Book Company, 1962. pp. 889-340.. "Occupational Safety.** Accident Prevention . adult-imposed restrictions and wont to show that they .can get along on their own. If they . and Emergency Care.' Hational. Health. Forum, Cleveland, 1962. p. 7-8. * Elwood O. Davis mud Gens A. Logan, "Muscu fail to attain status in a socially approved manner, they often assert themselves through lar'Activity Helps. Prevent Bodily Injuries," Bio physical Volute of Muscular Activity. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. 0. Brown Publishers, 1961, p. 96. destructive! behavior. Rebellion against so ciety os well as conflicting social standards often lead to unsafe behavior. For many children who wonder if they are loved, or. how much they are loved, hiking chances becomes a way of provoking a car-' ing response. Sometimes the "daredevil" is seeking the affection of his parents, some times of his ..peers, or sometimes, both. "When minor risk-taking orminor injury fail to .evoke the desired response, stronger meas Howard S, Bartley and EloUe Chute, Fatigue. and Impairment in Man. Hew York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,. Inc., 1947. p. 27. '' - * Mnriand K. 8trassor, James E. Aaron, Ralph C. Bohn, and John R. Erics, Fundamentals of Safety Education. How York: Macmillan Com- ' pany, 1964. pp. 81*93.. "fi. M. Vernon, Accidents and. Their Proven- tion. Hew York: Macmillan Company, 1986. p. BO. \ ; u Morris S. Schulringer, The Accident Syndrome. Springfield,- IB.: Charles C. Thomas, Publishers, . 1966. pp. 180-195. u Bruce W. Waxman, Patricia C. Campbell, and . Roland R. Bonnto,'"The Relationship of Physical Health to. the Incidence of Accidents." The Journal ures often, ensue.' Bandages in the school of Trauma, September, 1961. p. 587." room are badges which win attention and "Harry C.'Johnson, "Off the Job," National Safety Newt. August, 1959, p. 60.' admiration."*^ u Lance Flanagan, Florence Fredericksoh, and John E. Nixon, An Introduction to Physical Edu A Philosophy for Safety The spiritual aspect of total fitness men tioned earlier will not be discussed, but in conclusion, let me say this about it. The in dividual who lives by the "Golden Rule," il lustrating' high ethical standards, develops his own philosophy of life, the integration of cation. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1965. p. 58. ' " Justus J. Schlfferes. Essentials of Healthier Hiving. Hew York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1960. pp. 178-174- . 14 Harry Levinson, Emotional Health in the . World of Work. New York: Harper and Rotv, 1964. pp. 29-82. ' ' wRoUin H. Simonds and John V. Grimaldi. Safety Management Accident Cost and Control. Homewood, BL: Richard D. Irvin, Inc., '1968. pp. all acquired knowledge which patterns human behavior and is controlled by values, attitudes, ethics, and habits. This philosophy 4.-5: 406. "Frank Freeman, Charles. Goshen, and Barry G..King. The Bole of .Human Factors in Acci dent Prevention.- Washington, D.C.: U.S. De helps man to form his own destiny and be come aware of other people, sharing activi partment of .Health, Education, and Welfare, . Public Health Service, 1960. p. ill. is Schnlringer, The Accident Syndrome, pp. 166- ties which promote the general welfare for all 67. ' * William Haddon. Jr., Edward- Suchman, and people. In die opinion of the writer, this phi David Klein. Accident Research, Hew York: losophy, this concern, can be relied on in ac cident-preventing situations. Harper and Row, 1964. p. 8B7. .. " Herbert J. Stack and J. Duke Elkow. Educa tion for Safe-Living. Englewood. Cliffs, N.J.: REFERENCES Prentice-Hail, Inc. 1966.- p. 2. a Ray O. Duncan and-Helen B. Watson, Intro 1 Seward C. Staley, Thomas J. Cureton, Laura J. Huelster, and Alan J.- Barry, Exercise and Fit ness. University of Illinois, I960, p. 74 - Carl E. WMffooBe, Evaluation in Health and Physical Education. Hew York: McGraw-Hill Bbok Company, 1961. pp. 16-17. duction- to Physical Education. Hew. York: Ronald Press Company, 1960. p. 27. "Nelson N. Foote, "Sociological Fedors in Childhood Accidents, Behavioral. Approaches to Accident Research. New Yoric: Association for' the Aid of Crippled Children, 1961. p. 182. 31 Transit Section IS TRANSIT MEETING THE CHALLENGE? By C. KK15KB Operating Manager, Chicago Thmrit Authority, Chicago, HL ' ' There are many challenges for our indus try: 1. Urban SprawL 2. Decentralization of industry. .3. Traffic congestion. 4. Restrictive traffic regulations. 5. Slower schedules: 6. Equipment damage: and personal Infu ries. . 7. Complaints. 8. Few commendations. 9. Loss of patronage. 10. More restrictive labor agreements. We could go on and on. But, you say, these problems have been with us throughout all of our transit careers. I agree; they have been with me during my 31 years of association with die industry. Are they different today? In reply to this question, I ask others. Are new employes today of die same quality as those lured five years ago? Are they adequately meeting job performance standards? Are they creating problems among other employes who are doing satisfactory work? - If yoiir company is at all typical of the trend in most businesses today; .you will agree with me that tills is' a real problem area. You will also agree that we as training, safety, and personnel people must recognize these facts and make appropriate adjust ments in our personnel programs. The challenge is one of maintaining de sired performance standards in today's labor market. All across the nation, in all types of businesses, you can bear the same questions raised: "Where is the old time employe? What has happened to pride in work?" Perhaps it's because we. have it too easy these days. Maybe it's too easy to get an other job if we don't like the,one we have or if tiie .boss doesn't like us. lit spite of these conditions^ we still have to run our buses and trains with the manpower available to us. There is a bright side to the picture. In my company, in your company, in any com pany, we do have some employes who are doing their jobs in a satisfactory manner--, and we also have many more who can do tiie same tiring. I believe it.to be more of a . matter of attitude toward the job. A psychol ogist would describe tiie good employe as being ptopedy motivated. How. then can we get properly motivated employes? t ; There are three steps to having motivated employes: 1. Hire employes who are motivated or have the potential to become motivated em ployes. ___________ 2. Provide good training for the job for - which they are hired and keep them at an acceptable level of performance' throughout . their employment. 3. Provide opportunities for an employe to seek greater job responsibilities.' Hiring, as we tdl know, consists of two parts: Recruitment and Selection. In .today's . labor market; neither of these tasks are easily accomplished and our challenge begins to sub-divide: Are we doing everything we can to recruit suitable applicants? Are we doing a good job of selecting applicants? Let's first discuss recruitment. At CTA, we believe that our best source of applicants is from our present employes, jhr a sense, applicants are pre-screened. The applicant usually has a pretty good under standing of working conditions and feels some obligation to the person who referred him. .- We have used just two formal means of - urging employes to make referrals: Passout material and articles in tiie company maga zine. We hope that by making CTA a good place'to work, present ehfployes will volun tarily make referrals. A question you might have is: "Do we pay employes who make referrals?" The answer is, "No". We have thought about it - but so for have not done it Our nest best source of applicants are "Help wanted" announcements on car cards in buses and trains and posters in rapid - transit stations. Another fairly successful 40 Transit Section source Is"Help wanted" information on the tivation. Conversely, a person may not test backs of transfers. well bnt may be. a good risk.' . We've had a little succs in - spot an Of course,-even an experienced, compe-- nouncements' on radio, and ourCBS station, tent interviewer cannot be expected to ferret in Chicago has a. weekly telecast tided "Op out everything about an applicant, so. we portunity Iine^T on which they publicize job also rely heavily on an investigation. We vacancies in several industries The network- ' have a sizeable staff of. investigators who is picking up the idea for other large metro check out references and make,inquiries in ' politan areas. the applicants neighborhood and at former Probably least successful--and a source places of, employment. For bus driver and one might think should be most successful rapid transit applicants we run their finger --is the "want ad" section of newspapers. prints through local police files.and the . We do get referrals from the Illinois State F.BJ. files.. Employment Service, aiid we have just em You may be interested in the number we barked on a' cooperative venture with the hire compared to the number of applicants. Chicago Commission on Urban Opportunity. In 1960 we had just.over 10,000 applicants, We also participate in community organi and in that year, we hired just under 3,000. zation "Employment Fairs". These are gen For every person wo hired, we interviewed erally at high schools, and we consider this about four. participation as a kind of long-range recruit Unfortunately, I can't say that every one ment activity. Another source of applicants, of the 3,000 we hired turned out to-be a . are'the people who merely come in off the competent and well-motivatedemploye. We street and just figure that maybe CTA has still have a long way to go in determining job openings. ... who should and should not be hired. How In 1968 we had more than.10,000 appli ever, we are conducting a study of 500 new cants for afl types of Jobs Jnst about a half: bus operators in an attempt to Correlate our . of these were for bus operator; the openings hiring requirements and the operators' back we most desperately need to fill. As yon can , ground experience with their performance on see, we have many sources and not too much the job. trouble in recruitment We get lots of appli Performance on the job brings up the sub cants. But now left dismiss selection--a ject of training, which is the second step to much bigger challenge, so for as having a ward having properly motivated employes. motivated employe is concerned. Training can motivate. We .realize, and. Selection is probably the most difficult even expect, that every.person hired, is not' phase of the hiring process, Assuming that a well adjusted to and motivated in ms new group of applicants ' are. equal bom the job. We also realize that wo must instill mo standpoint of age and medical requirements, tivation into the employe. Good training can how can we dioose the ones who will -lie- help immeasurably in this, regard. When I come property motivated employes? Who say "good" training, I mean training that is wtil do a good job? Who will do a poor job? permeated with the. ingredients 'that will T.flr most companies, we use some tests. make the employe want to do an outstanding For,most entrance level jobs, we use simple job. tests. For bus operators, for example, we use . What are these motivating ingredients?- . die standard ATA test Also, we use a range What' must instructors emphasize to the new rather than an arbitrary- cut-off. point For employe? . some Jobs, we use other tests such as Won- 1. The company he has chosen to work derlic, die Flanagan Industrial tests, Purdue for is a. good company.-It is-a company wor Mechanical, Purdue Electrical, etc. In some thy of his taints and abilities. First impres-. instances we prepare our own work sample sions are impbjjant and if the new employe tests. gets the impression that his instructor doesn't ` However, we believe that our best selec think much of the company, that's the tion criteria are what we can learn about an impression he's going to get of the company. applicant through a .personal interview. A If we have an instructor who does not be person may test well, but through good in lieve that his company is a good company, terviewing we can.get a much better insight we had better relieve him of instruction du ' Into a person's attitude personality, and mo ties. ,. 41 - 1987 National- Safety Congress 2. The new employe is an important per based on what tbs employes sold. Ids as son. He must be made to feel: that bn is though they designed it. .. wanted and needed;, and that the Job be'is 7. A few minutes ago; I said that to be training for is an important Job. He must be motivated; enqployes. must'feel important-- made' to feel that the instructor has. a per that' they 'aie needed and wanted. In our in sonal interest in seeing that he becomes pro dustry, foe group thritis most needed--and' ficient and skilled in his new Job. ' probably foe group that feels most neglected 3; The training program must be well- --is our operating persormeL This is foe planned and 'we&executed. The program group that .meets oirr customers, and. I be must be designed and presented'in a way. hove that we must do everything we can to that die new employe will learn quickly and motivate them!': ' '. [ thoroughly. Throughout dm program, he . This month at'GTA we are having a com must be checked to determine that be. is pany-wide campaign. A lapel button is a learning. ' v symbol of the campaign; it says "CTA-- 4. There must be follow-up to die train- Teamwork", ' ing to" determine that-foe employe is per The campaign has three objectives:. forming as set forth lit the training. a. To make "Teamwork?' a by-word 5. There must be a program of.retraining tp talcecare of employes who- fall below an acceptable level of performance. A program of retraining shows the employe that the company- does care, about, him. Very often,' discharging ,an employe is: the only alterna tive to retraining. . among employes, but*^n actions, not in words. ' '' b. To have aO employes aware that our operating personnel, are' very important peo ple and should get cooperation from idL c. To get employeS'to use "Teamwork" to communicate troubles or problems that they observe on CTA vehicles'and property and, 6. There must be what, at CTA, is. called where possible, minimize foe effects of ad refresher- training. This training is conducted verse publicity. when certain employes, as a group, are hav As you can see, foe purpose is to show our ing a problem. For example: operating employes that foe whole company a. Drivers on a'certain route may be hav Is working with them. We don't just want to ing more than their shareofaccidents. . ` be sympathetic to them--we want to help b. Rapid Transit conductors may be mak them in a very positive way. ing poor station announcements. c. There may be a rash of trip sheet or transfer errors. d. Mechanics may be weakonacertain phase of trouble shooting. ! e. Complaints may'be on'the rise. - In circumstances like these, we bring the particular: group - together to discuss ' die' problem and then conduct training to'over come it 8. There must bo training when there are changes in service; equipment;' or proce dures. Employes want to learn'what is new in foe company. At CTA, this kind of train ing gets `'excellent response. Some employes attend training two or three times, because they'want to be sure that they, understand foe. change. Sometimes employes who-are not affected by foe change attend--they- are just interested. , Does this.kind, of training motivate em 9. Training can sometimes be conducted ployes? We think'it does; because we believe off the. company premises, or outside.instruc that most employes want to do a good Job tors'will;come to your property and conduct even if they are not self-motivated to: help training. .This training makes the employe .themselves. feel that his Welfare is betog coSsidered,-and One ' type of refresher training that is it is highly motivational. highly motivational is "brainstorm" sessions. For', example; ' some of our apprentice' In .this kind of training, we state a problem training is .conducted at a trade school on'a and ask foe employes involved how the . regular basis. Suppliers of equipment come problem can be. solved. We record their to our property and conduct specialised answers,' and after'all foe sessions, are coin-., training in some aspect of the equipment pleted we'tabulate foe answers, print,them; they sell. When we purchased our new rapid and'feed them back to foe' employes. This transit cars, certain key personnel went to training is effective because foe training is Erie, Pa. to receive training on foe new 42 Tratutt Section dectricaLequipmentSomo also went to the tential leaders. As supervisory employes re Safety Equipment Co. : in New-Haven, tire, get promoted, or <31e, wo need people to' Conn., tp receive training on die air-condi-. fill their jobs. The best way to fill these Jobs tioning system. . is from within the e impany--to up-grade - 10. Training must, be conducive to jeariu your present employes. Webelieve mat up fog. The straight lecture type of training is grading must be based on Ability; Nothing ho longer considered good trailing. Training can-be more demoializbg to a group of em must, be intersting and ; palatable to die ployes than seeing a man promoted because trainee. It must be well-paced, eye-catching, he's'somebody's "fair-h aired bo/\ and appeal to more than one of the five At CTA, we believe: that there should be a senses. Much can he accomplished by means systematic up-grading progression. To illus of. audiovisual aids, such as round-slide trate, following is the progression in the sur films,, motion pictures, flip charts, transparent ' face system: of our Transportation Depart des im -an' overhead projector, magnetic ment: boards, blade boards, tape recordings, and . - We start with some 6,000 bus drivers. The models and cut-a'-ways. first step upward is to Line Instructor--the All of these audio-visual devices'are fairly inexpensive to purchase and, best of all;. many materials for them1 can be home-made. The advantage of making your own audio-: visuals is that they can bb designed to meet your own particular needs.. group that gives-platform,instruction to new bus drivers. There are 350. regular, line in structors and another 350 who are in the line instructor "pool". These pool men instruct when-needed. Line instructors-must apply for-the job and are selected by thmStation Superintendents on the basis of their past There are other types of teaching aids on performance. Those selected receive training the market The "Edex" system combines for the job and additional pay when instruct sound slide films and motion pictures .with electronic equipment for trainees to record ing.. . The next step in the progression is to their choice of multiple-choice questions. ^Intermedia". is another type of response Traffic Supervisor. This is a group of about 200 men. .For this up-grading, selection is learning system using electronic equipment more formalized. Again,, bus operators apply One advantage of this type of training is for the job on a posting system. One require that one person can instruct a large size ment is that they must be qualified line in class. structors. Station Superintendents make xec-; At CTA we' have 70 full-time instructors , ommendations as to whom they believe are in the Transportation Department In the' most acceptable. The men recommended are. Shops & Equipment Department we have 16 sent to tiie general office for teste and inter full-time instructors and 10 who instruct on views. As many as 100 or 200 men may be a part-time basis. Live instruction is no interviewed and .tested, but generally only problem to us. about 25 or 30 are nfeeded. The ones finally Simulators such as the "Altrea" driving selected are given training for the job, and .machine and the one by die Bockwell Manu those who pass the training are placed in the facturing Company ( "Drive-O-Trainer") Supervisor "pool"- where they fill in when have met with some favor. However, at needed'and get appointed to full-time super CTA, we believe that teaching on -the actual visor as vacancies occur. vehicle.is' better than using a simulator. The next step is to Instructor. Although, Video-tapes also have a real place in train the. pay for Supervisor and Instructor is the ing programs and.may just fit your own par Same, transfer to "the Instruction -group ticular needs.. places a man in line for the job of Station There have been many studies made and theories proposed on what motivates em ployes to dp a better job. It is generally agreed that one of the greatest motivating Superintendent. There are 60 men in the In. struction force. Selection is similar to thpt of supervisor, and a formal training program is also established for tbis group. factors is to give an employe opportunities to From Instructor the progression is to Su accept greater responsibilities--motivation pervisory Instructor and then into the ranks by incentive. of Station Superintendent. We also must recognize that we need po In summary, the progression goes like 43 1867 Notional Safety Congress this: From a group of dOOO men. (driven) gible evidence of the company's Interest In to a group of 700 men (line instructors). an employe's growth. From a group of-700 men to a group of There should also be Incentives for rum* 200 men (traffic supervisors). promotable employes. We must realize that From a group of 200 men to a group of many employes, particularly in the large op- 60 then (regular instructors). erator group, will not bo promoted. It is im* From a groupof 60 men to a group of 50 portant . that they realize the importance of men (station topmintendents). their job.They must be kept aware that With this system of progression; even the other employes appreciate their contributions brand rievfr. bus" driver can see. that he has to the success of the company. > opportunities , for advancement; There is an Of course there are many other forms of incentive for.doing a good job. . incentives that many companies have;' and to . A similar system of progression is avail- a greater extent than we have at CTA. For able to men beginning as Bus Servicemen in example: Driver of the month; awards for the various garages, and in other depart- safe driving, such as National Safety.Coun- ments. too.; cil's Safe Driver Award; dinners for accf- . Another form of motivation by incentive is dent-free drivers; cash and/or gifts for satis- the "job posting" system. Practically, every factory records; etc. job vacancy within CTA is subject to posting Our challenge of producing property moti- and bidding by anyone \Vho believes he can vated employes ip today's labor market must fill..toe job. Thus- anyone, even toe bus be recognized mid accepted. The methods driver,'realizes that he is not .bailed down" we used five years ago. are ho longer ade- to his present job. If an employe can demon- quate. I urge you to review your areas of ro strate his abilities, his!promotional possibili- - sponslbility with a view toward strengthen- ticsare almost unlimited. ing your programs. We must improve our Yet another. form. of incentive is' thetechniques to compensate for what we know Suggestion System,. Here toe employe can to be lacking in our raw material The time demonstrate his creative ability and receive -to act is now. monetary recognition. Every inept act, every task slighted, every Tuition Refund on advanced education^ 1 don't care" attitute by an employe hurts programs is highly motivational. This is tan-' your'company. K 44 3