Document N2qrmR5BwmXqZEMmQoOLqemKE

The Application of Computer Science to Industrial Hygiene J. E. PETERSON, H. R. HOYLE, and E. J. SCHNEIDER The Biochemical Research Laboratory, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan Automatic sampling and analysis of environmental atmospheres can result in voluminous amounts of data describing exposures to chemicals. The use of a digital computer to process such data and the advantages and disadvantages of the technique are presented. Introduction supervision to control exposures, full use of AUTOMATIC AIR monitoring equipment is expensive. Nevertheless, if it is used to the data to estimate the average concentra tion to which men were exposed was not signal the need for action by operating perfeasible. To illustrate: The instrument rec sonnel to eliminate leaks and to effect needed repairs of equipment, its cost can easily be orded air concentrations at the rate of one every six seconds; this is 432,000 times per justified in terms of reduced exposures, re month. duced hazards, and reduced loss of process material. Furthermore, if sample locations are properly chosen, it provides data on the Because the first continuous air monitor was a success at day-to-day control, others were installed in several plants during the concentrations of air contaminants to which men are exposed. That information, handled 1950's. As each monitor was put into use, even more information on workmen's ex properly, can be used to show long-term trends of exposure which, correlated with posures was "going to waste" simply because there was too much of it. The advent of plant operations, can result in still lower ex digital computers suggested a solution. Tak posures. In addition, such data can be used ing advantage of the fact that the Computa to determine the exposures of workmen in tions Research Laboratory had a Burroughs what is, in effect, a continuing industrial hygiene survey. These data, in turn, could be correlated with medical information on effects of the exposures to confirm or deny present standards or to suggest new ones. B220 computer, the Environmental Research Laboratory in 1961 acquired a machine for translating air concentration data from a recorder to punched paper tape. Continuous air concentration data could then be com At The Dow Chemical Company, auto bined with computer analysis to yield a much matic air sampling and analysis were first more complete description of inhalation ex used in 1950 to monitor air concentrations of posures than had heretofore been possible. carbon tetrachloride in a production plant. This paper recounts some of the problems At that time no method was available for handling the mass of data generated by the air monitoring equipment. Even though the involved, from the installation of air moni toring equipment to the interpretation of the data as summarized by the computer. Actual instrument was successfully employed by plant data are used, but only for illustrative pur poses, so plant, process, and even the air con taminant are immaterial. This is not a report of an environmental survey; it is a primer in Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Confer ence of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. Houston. Texas, May 1965. the application of computer science to indus trial hygiene. 180 any. an result in Tie use of a itages of the posures, full use of average concentra< exposed was not The instrument rec at the rate of one - 432,000 times per inuous air monitor day control, others plants during the ' was put into use, o^^prkmen's ex- istl^PRnply because it. The advent of ed a solution. Takthat the Computay had a Burroughs ronmental Research fired a machine for ition data from a .T tape. Continuous ould then be comysis to yield a much n of inhalation exire been possible, me of the problems lation of air moni nterpretation of the e computer. Actual for illustrative purad even the air conThis is not a report cy; it is a primer in ter science to indus- iiiicrican Industrial Hygiene Association Journal 181 Obtaining Air Samples An automatic air monitoring system must be sensitive enough to detect concentrations of significance to health. Sensitivity must range from concentrations that may be im mediately hazardous to those that have little or no significance even for prolonged, re peated exposures. The instrument should be selective; it must respond only to the matcrial(s) of interest. It must be stable; it should be unaffected by minor (or even major) variations of temperature, humidity, vibration, and line voltage. The instrument must be capable of operating unattended for i datively long periods of time. Daily atten tion by the operator, minor sendee weekly by an instrument man, and occasional perform ance testing should be adequate to keep it in operation. Finally, because a permanent rec ord of air concentrations can be important, concentration data must be automatically re corded. Any continuous analyzer that satisfies these specifications can be used. So far we nave used only combustion-conductivity in struments and long-path gas cell infrared spectrometers; both types produce, data suit able for computer analysis. Single-point monitoring in a production plant is seldom economical. Usually the analyzer is positioned at a central location in the plant, and air samples arc brought con tinuously to it through probes of some sort. Tubing used for these probes must not react with, or sorb, the air contaminant of interest. Preparing Data for Analysis There is no method presently available for reading results automatically from multiplepoint chart paper into a computer. This means that a device must be used to "digi tize" the data as they are obtained. At the minimum, the digitizer must translate the analog data (usually the position of a wiper on the slide wire of a potentiometer) to digi tal form (for example, numbers) that can be handled by the computer. Because data on the time of exposure can minimize programing difficulties, the digitizer includes a digital clock with an output of the day number, hour, and minute. A switch selects a "type of data" digit (from 0 to 9) which is incorporated into the digitizer out put. An extra "type of data" (for example, from an infrared spectrometer or from a com bustion-conductivity analyzer) digit can allow the computer to reject data that obviously do not belong with that being processed. To minimize costs, punched paper tape is used to transfer data from the digitizer to the computer. For each datum the digitizer punches two "words" on the tape. The first "word" con tains the day number, hour, and minute, as well as the "type of data" identification num ber. The second "word" contains the probe number and the actual datum which, in this case, is a number from 0 to 999, propor tional to the concentration of the air con taminant. This information is obtained at a rate that may vary from two times a minute to once in 2.5 minutes. Because collecting each datum generated is not always neces sary, the digitizer can be programed to skip the collection of some data. In every case, once data from probe No, 1 are punched onto the tape, data from the other probes are obtained in serial order, but the digitizer can ignore all but every second, fifth, or tenth sets of analyses. Programing the Computer We decided that the minimum time in the data summary should be an eight-hour shift. For this period the Dow Computations Re search Laboratory programed the computer to calculate the mean concentration at each location, the standard deviation of these data, the percentage of time that the concentration was above several preselected levels, and the appropriate time-weighted averages. Computers are versatile. For instance, if one probe is located to sample air outside the building, the computer can be programed to correct automatically for deviations in the "background." It can take into account peculiarities in the calibration curve of the instrument used for air analysis and can re cognize several kinds of errors in the data and use only "good" data for calculations. 182 March-April, I960 Computer Output The basic computer output consists of the mean concentration, standard deviation, num ber of analyses recorded, and percentage of time the concentration was above preselected levels, all at each location for each shift dur ing the survey. Shift or daily averages can also be obtained over any selected time inter val such as a week or a month. These data, further identified as to department, air con taminant, etc.., are permanently stored on magnetic tape. The computer has been programed to re ject poor data such as that caused by a stick ing punch or by a faulty encoder. If poor data arc being obtained, this fact is often signaled first by an unexplained decrease in Furthermore, assume that, over the time period of interest, concentrations at these data locations behaved in this manner: % of Time Concentration Exceeds Selected Values at Specified Locations Concentration Data Location Number greater than 1 7 4 12 25 ppm 50 100 250 500 26.63% 28.68% 93.44% 31.55% 16.39 22.13 20.08 23.77 6.55 10.65 17.62 11.47 1.63 2.04 16.39 3.68 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 The time-weighted percentage of time spent by operators in concentrations above 25 ppm will then be: (12.5) (26.63) + (31.3) (28.68) + (18.8) (93.44) + (25.0) (31,55) + (12.4) (0) = 38.92 100 the number of analyses used by the computer This means that on the average, during the to obtain the shift averages. This has become time period of interest, men in the opera the normal signal for nonroutinc maintenance tors classification encountered concentrations of the digitizing equipment. above 25 ppm 38.92% of the time. In addition to the basic output, the com puter calculates time-weighted averages of two kinds. The first kind is the "usual" timeweighted average concentration to which men are exposed. It is obtained by combining the air analysis data with "job analysis" infor Similar calculations show that these men encountered concentrations above 50 ppm 28.24% of the time; above 100 ppm 10.95% of the time; above 250 ppm 4.00% of the time: and above 500 ppm 0.00% of the time. mation on the percentage of time spent by men in the vicinity of specific analyzer probes. Job analysis information is also combined with the data on the percentage of time dur ing which concentrations exceed the prese lected levels. This results in a second kind of average which is the "time-weighted percen tage of time" exposures exceeded the prese lected levels. An example of how the time-weighted per centage of time is calculated is given below. Assume that the following information is true Data Analysis Automatic air monitoring reveals that in an industrial situation the variation of concentration with time can be large despite the use of a rather large time base. Figure 1 is a plot of daily time-weighted average concen trations to which operators were exposed on each shift over one week. Each point on the graph is the mean of several hundred deter minations spaced equally over an eight-hour period. These are actual plant data. ,, ,'fi / / ; for an operator in a plant: Data Location Percentage of Time Spent Number at That Location 1 12.5 7 31.3 On the second shift there was little variation during the first four days, but over the l||| last three days of this period the shift average -fi' varied by a factor of almost four. If the iM threshold limit value (TLV) for this mate- ^ 4 12 Unexposed 18.8 rial were 50 ppm, an industrial hygienist tak- ^ 25.0 ing air samples during the first three days on 12.4 the second shift would probably have de clared that the hazard to health was low or ?. 100.0 nonexistent. On the other hand, if he had J3 Co March-April, 1966 ! sumc that, over the time concentrations at these this manner: ntraton Exceeds Selected pecified Locations Data Location Number 7 4 12 f) 28.68% 93.44 % 31.55% 22.13 20.08 23.77 10.65 17.62 11.47 2.04 16.39 3.68 0.00 0.00 0.00 1 percentage of time spent entrations above 25 ppm .nerican Industrial Hygiene Association Journal 183 ) (0) ------- = 38.92 i the average, during the est, men in the operaountered concentrations % of the time, is show that these men rations above 50 ppm above 100 ppm 10.95% 150 ppm 4.00% of the opm 0.00% of the time. utoring reveals that in i the variation of conan be large despite the ime base. Figure 1 is a ghted average concenators were exposed on ek. Each point on the several hundred detcrlly over an eight-hour lal plant data. there was little varia>ur days, but over the eriod the shift average almost four. If the TLV) for this matedustrial hygienist takhe first three days on 1 probably have deto health was low or her hand, if he had Figure 1. Daily time-weighted average exposures for each shift from January 30 to February 5. Time-weighted average for the week (all shifts) was 82.32 ppm. sampled on the last day of this period (on the second shift) he could have experienced a strong inclination to "push the panic button." Variation of concentration between shifts can also be striking, as illustrated by a com parison of the third shift with the first or second shifts during the first three days. Figure 2 places Figure 1 in a broader con text. Data for Figure 2 are also time-weighted average concentrations to which operators were exposed. The rather extreme variation shown in Figure 1 for a time basis of one shift can be repeated for a time basis of one week. The information contained in Figure 2 is based upon hundreds of thousands of indi vidual air samples. Average concentrations and time-weighted average concentrations are not the only data summaries provided by the computer; aver age concentrations are accompanied by the standard deviation of the data. Having the standard deviation and using it quantitatively are two different things, however. We do not yet know how to use such information effi ciently. On the other hand, the spread or varia bility of the data is indicated in a more mean ingful manner by the percentage of time the concentration exceeded certain levels. Figure 3 is a plot of the time-weighted percentage of time above these levels on log-probability paper. The interval during which data were gathered and the operational classification are identical to those in Figure 2. This graph shows that the median concentration to which men on all shifts in this classification were exposed was 40 ppm and that they were exposed to 500 ppm or higher 2% of the time. The conventional plot (Figure 2) shows a maximum concentration of about 135 ppm, but it is one of seven-day averages, whereas Figure 3 is a summation of instantaneous values. Both kinds of graph have advantages. A conventional plot illustrates better how ex posures vary with time, and any trends be come readily apparent. With this kind of graph, however, the only usable index of ex posure is the time-weighted average, a num ber of limited utility because it cannot reflect i. ,. f !1 ; I I F.r r - .v*\ 184 March-April, 1966 Figure 2. Weekly time-weighted average exposures for each shift from January 16 to April 10. Time-weighted average for the whole period (all shifts) was 79.09 ppm. *Thcse points are expanded in Figure 1. concentration variations. A log-probability plot such as that shown in Figure 3 is not very useful as a trend indi cator, but the fact that time-weighted expos ure data plot as a straight line on this graph paper offers exciting possibilities. In our limited experience all time-weighted percent age of time data have been best fitted by a straight line on log-probability paper. That Figure 3. Data for the period of time shown in Figure 2 (all shifts). The air monitor was not being used by operating personnel to assist in the control of leaks. straight line is a complete summary of ex posure information, including measures both of the average concentration and of the con centration variability.1 The data in Figure 3 were obtained by a survey using the equipment described. How arc these data to be interpreted? If we still assume a TLV of 50 ppm, is the exposure represented by Figure 3 a hazardous one or not? These data are among the most com plete ever gathered for men industrially ex posed to a potentially hazardous vapor; what kind of animal experiments should be con ducted to interpret these exposures? We can '5 not yet answer these questions, but we know that they must be answered eventually. Despite this void in our knowledge, the data from this type of survey have several uses. Any information about the intensity of exposures helps to interpret medical findings. Even without complete interpretation, rank ing of exposures is possible. From graphs such as Figure 3 one can judge if the exposure is obviously hazardous or nonhazardous. For instance, in Figure 4 the >t concentrations to which the men were ex- ^ posed are shown to exceed 15 ppm 50% of il, I960 of exres both the con- we still .-xposure ; one or >st comially ex>r; what be conWe canre know yIge, the several ;nsity of findings, n, rank- graphs the exnhazar4 the ere ex50fo of Amnican Industrial Hygiene Association Journal 185 the time. They exceed the assumed TLV of 50 ppm only about 14% of the time. With out any further knowledge, the exposure rep resented by this curve would probably be judged nonhazardous by most industrial hy gienists, provided that contacts with high concentrations were more or less randomly distributed, of short duration, and of little or no consequence in themselves. The data in Figure 4 were obtained in the same plant, for the same group of men, and by the analyzer using the same sample points as for Figure 3. During the period of time when the information in Figure 2 was ob tained, the air analyzer was being virtually ignored by operating personnel in the plant. On the other hand, the data in Figure 4 were obtained when the concentrations recorded by the air analyzer were used to prompt cor rective action. Even plants with a large num ber of leaks and spills can be brought from a potentially hazardous situation to one that is without hazard by using the automatic air analyzer as an operational tool. This is the way an automatic air monitor should be used; it will not justify its expense unless it is so used. Ficure 4. Exposures for the same people as shown in Figures 2 and 3, but for the period Jan uary 5 to June 18 when the air monitor was used to signal the need for maintenance. The timeweighted average concentration for this period was 28.83 ppm. ignored or assumed to be similar to the day shift. Finally, the records obtained can be stored on magnetic tape for indefinite per iods of time in a minimum of storage space. Access to records on magnetic tape is simple and easy. These are important considera tions, because proof of past accomplishments can be of considerable value. Advantages of the Technique The advantages of automatic air analysis coupled with a computer analysis of the data are many. First, air monitoring gives a true picture of the manner in which air concentra tions of the contaminant vary with time. Coupled with a good analysis of the percent age of time men spend in the various loca tions, this technique can give the best esti mate presently obtainable of the actual ex posures encountered. Second, this technique enables a correlation of air concentrations with varying plant activities. This type of correlation can point out "trouble spots" quite readily and, when used properly, can lead to dramatic reduction of concentrations to which men are exposed and a corresponding reduc tion in materials lost. Third, automatic aitmonitoring is the only technique so far de vised that truly shows the air concentration variation between shifts. Too often, air sam pling is done only on the day shift, and the afternoon and midnight shifts are either Conclusions Use of automatic air sampling and analysis equipment, coupled with a computer analysis of the data so obtained, can be an extremely potent weapon in the fight of industrial hy gienists against inhalation hazards. Mere installation of an air monitor, however, does not end the battle. Data obtained by the monitor must be used by operating personnel in much the same way that monitors of other operating variables are used, namely, to assure control. Computer analysis of the data obtained by an air monitor can give the best estimate presently obtainable of the con centrations of air contaminants to which men are exposed. In fact, the environmental an alysis is so thorough that it poses a challenge to toxicologists to devise animal experiments that will provide a better basis for judgment than does the present threshold limit value. References 1* Litchfield, J. T-, Jr. and F. Wilcgxon: A Simplified Method of Evaluating Dosc-EfTcct Experiments. J. PharmatoL Expil. Therap. 96: 99 (1949).