Document M4zYVMaB64oqZOYrxdmXvJeOV

Interoffice Communication To H. R. Flammer From E. L. Kieschnjck Data October 4, 1982 Subject VINYL INSTITUTE: INTERIM ORGANIZATION The concept of the Vinyl Institute as an organization of the SPI has* been proposed to the SPI. The proposed organization is designed to encompass and resolve issues specific to the vinyl industry. It is anticipated that the Vinyl Institute will be organized and its programs implemented during the next 6-12 months. Unfortunately, current and anticipated events in the areas of ma.i'or codes, legislative bills., and civil suits may severely limit PVC's use in the construction industry. As a result, strategies must be established and plans implemented within the next 3-6 months. As such, it is proposed that an interim organization be formed to encompass and resolve the : issues as outlined herein. The proposal assumes that the interim organization will be directed by an individual familiar with the issues^^'Who has a? background in higher levels of commercial management. Discussion The usage of PVC in the construction industry has grown to the point that it has significantly impacted on competing materials. Those affected, particularly the ste^l n-jpg and conduit industry, have elected to fight the issue in the public domain encompassing alleged issues of toxicity and flammability/combustability. Additionally, labor unions and environmentalists have supported efforts to reduce or restrict PVC's usage. These efforts have been strengthened within the last two to three years based on alleged links between fire deaths and Hcl emissions during fires. The three major areas in which these issues have been raised are in construction codes, legislative bills, and civil suits. Efforts to clarify and absolve PVC have been undertaken by various groups in the industry, but with mixed results. The major problem revolving around clearly defined answers and a coordinated response to the specific issues. In 1982, various industry spokesmen were responsible for identifying these concerns and in proposing the formation of a Vinyl Institute within the organizational structure of the SPI. Conoco has supported this effort and agrees with both the intent and direction that the Institute has outlined. MPA 000010441 MEMORANDUM/FLAMMER Vinyl Institue:Interim Organization October 4, 1982 Page Two Unfortunately, several major areas of concern, as outlined in Table I, have risen which require immediate attention. The timing for these issues is listed in Table II. As shown, major or far reaching decisions will be reached within 3-6 months in each of the three areas previously mentioned. As a result, an interim group or organization is required to insure that the facts are clearly defined and presented in each situation. The short term action required of such an organization are detailed in Table III. In summary, the organization should: 1. Prepare for and coordinate activities for known areas of contrast with the May, 1983 NFPA meeting being the top priority. 2. Establish response capabilities or functions for future issues or areas of contrast. 3. Initiate or coordinate industry code and legislative efforts. 4. Develop documented position on major issues. 5. Expand and coordinate research efforts to convincingly arrest allegations against PVC. Recommendations It is recommended that the organization responsible for these activities be introduced as an interim form of the Vinyl Institute until such time as the Institute can adequately develop laws and by-laws, organizational and adninitrative structures, and overall vinyl industry strategies. The organizational form recommended is as depicted in Table IV and is similar in concept to that proposed for the Vinyl Institute. The major differences lie in the interim organization having six main personnel from which the organization's strategies/objectives will be implemented. This minimum number of people will provide both close communication and targeted approaches to key situations/issues. The personnel involved can obviously draw from existing industry groups or consultants to administer programs. A listing of the recommended group assignments are provided in Table V. Two areas of departure are in.the emergency and research groups. The emergency group has been expanded to a CCCS team responsible for all plastics. Once on sight, the CCCS team can handle initial situations and/or notify affected industry groups. In the research area, it is strongly recommended that current research be re-emphasized to answer the transport phenomena surrounded Hcl and the irritant nature and severity of Hcl on primates. It is important to note that the key to the validity, credibility, and expediency with which the group must act dictates that the Interim Director must be both familiar with the issues and capable of managing a diverse group of activities within a narrowly defined time frame. As a result, a fairly high level manager with a business or commercial background in the PVC industry is recommended. UPA 000010442 MEMORANDUM/FLAMMER Vinyl Instituteilnterim Organization October 4, 1982 Page Three a ( Implementation The above plan is offered for introduction at the October 6, 19S2 Vinyl Institute Steering Committee meeting for consideration and modification. It is suggested that the Interim Director and five (5) key group leaders be selected in that meeting such that the organization can be named and introduced prior to the end of October. . smb cc: HJH JJl PHW E. L. Kieschnick i. YPA 00001G443 Contact: J. M. Joyce Phone: 216/447-7921 PVC/VCM INDUSTRIES ORGANIZE THE VINYL INSTITUTE CHICAGO, November 11--Major producers voiced a commitment to < the continued growth of the polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) industries as they met to establish the Vinyl Institute. The Vinyl Institute, organized to address the specific needs of the PVC/VCM industries, will promote the use of vinyl resins and compounds for a wide range of socially valuable end products. PVC is the world's second largest-selling plastic and has hundreds of construction, furnishing,transportation, medical and consumer product applications. In addition, the Institute will serve as the focal point for responding to "unfounded attacks" from competitive interests, launched as customers have turned increasingly to PVC from the use of steel and other construction materials. The new organization will be an operating division of the Society of the Plastics Industry and is comprised of domestic PVC and VCM producers, with associate memberships available to foreign producers. The Vinyl Institute was organized to augment the governmental relations, public relations and educational efforts of individual companies and will call upon the resources of both member companies and SPI to accomplish its communications programs. "The formation of a cohesive organization to serve the PVC/VCM industries is long overdue," said Bart A. DiLiddo, president of the BFGoodrich -more- The Vinyl Institute Box 31357 Cleveland, Ohio VPA 000010444 44131 2- - Chemical Group, who was elected the first chairman of the Vinyl Institute. "Our combined efforts to support the marketplace acceptance of PVC will result in strong, efficient and cost-effective programs." DiLiddo added that the Institute's executive board will be hiring a paid, permanent staff and leasing headquarters space within the next few months. Other industry executives elected to the board are Guy E. Disch of Tenneco Chemicals, Inc. (elected vice chairman), H. Richard Flammer of Conoco Inc. (secretary), Lawrence A. Wheeler of Shell Chemical Co. (treasurer), Russell F. Gervais of Occidental Chemical Corp., Fred Timpe of CertainTeed Corp. and J. Frank Whitley of Dow Chemical U.S.A. t Other charter companies include Borden, Inc., The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. and PPG Industries, Inc. DiLiddo says he expects another four to six producers to join within the next several months. Pending establishment of a full-time Institute staff, those wanting further information can.call BFG's toll-free "PVC Interchange," 800-321-2916. -0- VPA 000010445 THE VINYL INSTITUTE AM ACTION PLAN JULY 29, 1982 MPA 000010446 SLIDE #1 SLIDE #2 2133 b/23 A THE VCM/PVC INDUSTRY IS FACED WITH A BROAD LIST OF ALLEGATIONS IN THE CONDUCT OF ITS BUSINESS AMD THE USE OF ITS END PRODUCTS. AS YOU MAY KNOW, THOSE ALLEGATIONS INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING ISSUES: THE EXPOSURE OF EMPLOYEES AND THE PUBLIC TO VCM IN ITS MANUFACTURE AND TRANSPORTATION, AND IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PVC; RESIDUAL VCM IN THE PRODUCT; AND THE DISPOSAL OF BY-PRODUCTS. IN END USE APPLICATIONS, THERE ARE ISSUES ON THE COMBUSTIBILITY OF PVC; ON THE EXTRACTION OF COMPOUNDS FROM PVC; THE TOXICITY OF PLASTICIZERS AND STABILIZERS; AS WELL AS OTHERS. i TODAY THESE. ALLEGATIONS ARE BEING ADDRESSED BY A MYRIAD OF ORGANIZATIONS--MANY WITHIN SPI, SOME OUTSIDE OF SPI, THE PVC/VCM INDUSTRY IS SPENDING MILLIONS OF DOLLARS EACH YEAR IN SUPPORT OF THESE ORGANIZATIONS AND IN CONNECTION WITH THESE ALLEGATIONS. THE COMPLEXITY OF ISSUES AND THE NUMBER OF ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED HAVE FREQUENTLY RESULTED IN AN UNCOORDINATED, INEFFICIENT EFFORT, AND OF COURSE, THE WASTE OF MANY DOLLARS. WE IN THE INDUSTRY NEED TO BRING ORDER TO THIS CHAOS. WE PROPOSE TO DO THIS BY ESTABLISHING A VINYL INSTITUTE TO BETTER ORGANIZE, MONITOR, AND CONTROL THE INDUSTRY'S ACTIVITIES IN RESPONDING TO THESE ALLEGATIONS. UPA 00001044? SLIDE #3 SLIDE #4 2133b/23 TO BE EFFECTIVE FOR THE INDUSTRY, THERE ARE CERTAIN REQUISITES THAT THE INSTITUTE MUST MEET. IT MUST BE RESPONSIVE TO ISSUES, QUICK AND DECISIVE IN ITS ACTIONS, AND KNOWLEDGEABLE ABOUT THE INDUSTRY AND ITS PRODUCTS. THE INSTITUTE MUST BE AN ORGANIZATION WITH A SINGLE PURPOSE--THAT IS, AN ORGANIZATION DEDICATED TO THE VINYL INDUSTRY'S INTERESTS, THE BEST INTERESTS OF THE PUBLIC, AND ABLE TO ACT ON THOSE INTERESTS, IT MUST HAVE A DEDICATED STAFF, A STAFF WHOSE ONLY RESPONSIBILITIES ARE VINYL, AND FINALLY, MEMBERSHIP IN THE INSTITUTE MUST BE OPEN TO ALL INTERESTED PARTIES, IRRESPECTIVE OF OTHER AFFILIATIONS, THE MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE WILL BE TO PROMOTE CONTINUING GROWTH FOR THE PVC/VCM INDUSTRY IN THE U.S., AND TO SERVE THE BEST INTERESTS OF THE PUBLIC BY PROVIDING SOCIALLY VALUABLE PRODUCTS. THE INSTITUTE'S OBJECTIVES WILL BE TO (1) IDENTIFY ALL ISSUES OF POTENTIAL CONCERN TO THE PVC/VCM INDUSTRY, (2) PRIORITIZE AND EFFECTIVELY DEAL WITH THESE ISSUES, (3) INTERACT WITH OTHER TRADE ASSOCIATIONS TO EFFICIENTLY USE INDUSTRY RESOURCES AMD (4) BECOME THE SPEAKING ORGANIZATION FOR THE PVC/VCM INDUSTRY TO ASSURE PUBLIC UNDERSTANDING OF THE MERITS OF INDUSTRY PRODUCTS, A VPA 000010448 SLIDE #5 2133b/23. TO MEET THESE OBJECTIVES, THE INSTITUTE MUST HAVE ITS OWN PERMANENT STAFF, INCLUDING AN EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, A SECRETARY, AMD UP TO TWO FULL TIME MANAGERS. IT WILL SERVE AS THE INDUSTRY FOCAL POINT FOR THE COORDINATION OF THE INDUSTRY'S EFFORTS IN ADDRESSING ISSUES AS THEY DEVELOP. ITS RESOURCES WILL INCLUDE PURCHASED SERVICES FROM AN UMBRELLA ORGANIZATION, OUTSIDE ORGANIZATIONS, PLUS THE COMMITTEES SHOWN HERE. THE COMMITTEES WILL BE HEADED AND STAFFED BY INDUSTRY PEOPLE. THEY WILL BRING TO THE INSTITUTE THE EXPERTISE REQUIRED IN ADDRESSING SPECIFIC ISSUES. : THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR WILL BE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE OVERALL OPERATION OF THE ORGANIZATION, THE IDENTIFICATION OF ISSUES, FOR ESTABLISHING PRIORITIES BASED ON THE MEMBERS' INPUT, FOR DETERMINING WHAT SERVICES AND RESOURCES ARE NEEDED BY THE INSTITUTE, AMD FOR ARRANGING THEIR SUPPLY AND DEPLOYMENT, HE WOULD REPORT TO THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS, jWE HOPE THAT THE INSTITUTE CAN FIT UNDER THE UMBRELLA OF THE SPI. IN THAT CASE, THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR OF THE VINYL INSTITUTE WOULD COORDINATE WITH THE PRESIDENT OF THE SOCIETY TO ASSURE THAT THE GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF BOTH THE INSTITUTE AND THE SOCIETY ARE MET. OF COURSE, THE RELATIONSHIP WITH A UPA 00001044?* SLIDE #6 SLIDE 7 2133B/23 THE SPI WOULD BE STRUCTURED TO ALLOW THE INSTITUTE TO MEET THE REQUISITES EARLIER DESCRIBED, IMITALLY, ACTIONS OF THE INSTITUTE WILL BE LARGELY DEFENSIVE. WHILE ITS ACTIVITIES WILL BECOME MORE POSITIVE, NEAR TERM, ESTABLISHMENT OF A QUICK RESPONSE CAPABILITY IS NEEDED, TOGETHER WITH MORE ACTIVITY IN LEGISLATIVE AND CODE AREAS, LONGER TERM, THE INSTITUTE MEEDS TO GET THE "PLUSES" OF THE INDUSTRY'S PRODUCTS TO THE PUBLIC. THE INSTITUTE AS DESCRIBED PROVIDES THE VEHICLE FOR DOING THIS. THE OPPONENTS OF PVC ARE PRESENTLY BETTER ORGANIZED THAN THE INDUSTRY. THEY HAVE BEEN SUCCESSFUL AS A DISRUPTIVE FORCE. WITHOUT A COORDINATED INDUSTRY RESPONSE, THESE ADVERSARIES WILL RESTRICT AMD UNDERMINE INDUSTRY MARKETS, ELIMINATE GROWTH POTENTIAL, AND CONTINUE TO MISINFORM THE PUBLIC, THE INDUSTRY MUST GET ITS STORY TOLD. IT IS A GOOD STORY, ONE THAT IS. SUPPORTABLE TECHNICALLY AND ECONOMICALLY, AND ONE THAT IS IN THE BEST INTERESTS OF THE PUBLIC. WE HAVE TALKED ABOUT THE ISSUES, THE MANY ORGANIZATIONS CURRENTLY ESTABLISHED TO ADDRESS THEM, THE NEED TO EDUCATE THE PUBLIC ON THE ISSUES, OQOOVO^0 2133B/23 A AND THE MEED FOR A NEW ORGANIZATION TO PULL IT ALL TOGETHER. NOW WE WANT TO TALK ABOUT THE FUNCTION OF THE UMBRELLA ORGANIZATION, WHICH WE WOULD LIKE TO BE THE SPI. WE BELIEVE THE INSTITUTE AND THE SPI HAVE MUCH TO OFFER EACH OTHER, WHILE THE INSTITUTE WILL HAVE ITS OWN STAFF, IT.WILL NEED MANY ADDITIONAL SERVICES WHICH THE SPI CAN PROVIDE. THESE INCLUDE, FOR EXAMPLE, OFFICE AND ADMINISTRATIVE, LEGAL, INFORMATIONAL DATA BANK ACCESS, A DISASTER INVESTIGATION TEAM, AND MANY OTHERS, FOR ITS PART, THE INSTITUTE CAN HELP FUND THESE SPI ACTIVITIES, WHICH FOR ; THE MOST PART ARE IN PLACE ALREADY, AND REDUCE THE.FINANCIAL BURDEN FOR ALL SPI MEMBERS, FURTHERMORE, THE CLOSE ASSOCIATION OF THE SPI AND THE INSTITUTE WILL HELP ASSURE A UNITED FRONT AGAINST COMMON THREATS, AS WELL AS ADDITIONAL RESOURCES TO MEET THEM. THE INSTITUTE HAS NO WISH TO DIMINISH MEMBERSHIP IN THE SPI. TO THE CONTRARY, WHILE INSTITUTE MEMBERSHIP WILL BE OPEN TO ALL, IT WILL ENCOURAGE ITS MEMBERS TO ALSO BELONG TO THE SPI. IN ADDITION, THE INSTITUTE BYLAWS WILL BE STRUCTURED TO REINFORCE THIS ENCOURAGEMENT, WHILE NOW SPI MEMBERS OF THE INSTITUTE WILL HAVE THE RIGHT TO PARTICIPATE FULLY IN-ALL ACTIVITIES OF UFA 0000 10451 2133 b/23 THE INSTITUTE, INCLUDING THOSE OF ITS BOARD AND COMMITTEES, THE RIGHT TO VOTE ON ISSUES COMING BEFORE THE GENERAL MEMBERSHIPS WILL, EXCEPT FOR MATTERS WHICH HAVE FINANCIAL IMPACT ON NON SP[ MEMBERS OF THE INSTITUTE, BE RESTRICTED TO THOSE MEMEERS OF THE INSTITUTE WHO ARE ALSO SPI MEMBERS, WE UNDERSTAND THAT THE SPI ITSELF IS ATTEMPTING TO TAILOR THE SERVICES IT PERFORMS FOR ITS MEMBERS TO ASSURE THE BROADEST POSSIBLE INTEREST IN THEM, THIS WILL ALSO ENCOURAGE INSTITUTE MEMBERS TO BE SPI MEMBERS SINCE INSTITUTE NEEDS AND FUNDING SHOULD CLOSELY PARALLEL SPI MEEDS AND FUNDING IN THE FUTURE. ; WHILE THE STAFF OF THE INSTITUTE WILL ' REPORT TO THE INSTITUTE BOARD THROUGH ITS EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, THIS SHOULD POSE MO PROBLEM FOR THE SPI. THE DIRECTOR WILL COORDINATE WITH THE SPI, THROUGH ITS PRESIDENT. IN ADDITION, THE INSTITUTE BOARD WILL DIRECT AND MONITOR INSTITUTE POLICIES, THIS WILL ELIMINATE THE POSSIBILITY OF CONFLICTS BETWEEN SPIjAND INSTITUTE POLICIES. FURTHERMORE, WE SEE NO LEGAL PROBLEMS INHERENT IN THE REPORTING RELATIONSHIP, ASSUMING THAT NORMAL PRECAUTIONS ARE TAKEN, AS THEY WILL BE. A UFA 000010452 SLIDE n MOW WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE? ASSUMING AGREEMENT ON THE PART OF THE SPI TO FUNCTION AS THE INSTITUTE'S UMBRELLA - ORGANIZATION, WE WOULD PROPOSE THAT AN SPI/INSTITUTE TEAM BE FORMED TO CONSIDER DETAILS OF THE RELATIONSHIP, THESE WOULD INCLUDE PRELIMINARY IDENTIFICATION OF SPI SERVICES NEEDED BY THE INSTITUTE, DETERMINATION OF A MEANS FOR IDENTIFYING COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH SUCH SERVICES, AND CONSIDERATION OF OTHER DETAILS OF THE RELATIONSHIP, FOR EXAMPLE, AVAILABILITY OF SPACE IN SPI OFFICES, I WOULD NOW BE PLEASED TO ANSWER ANY : QUESTIONS YOU MAY HAVE, 4 2133 b/23 VPA OOOOl0453 PVC/VCM INDUSTRY ISSUES 0 TRANSPORT 0 HEALTH (OSHA/EPA) 0 (WASTE DISPOSAL)? PVC RESIN 9 RESIDUAL VCM 8 MANUFACTURE HEALTH (OSHA/EPA) ' WASTE DISPOSAL I 'GENERAL HEALTH-DUST/FIRE (WHSE) APPLICATIONS 3 FLAME/SMOKE/TOXICITY 9 WASTE DISPOSAL 0 EXTRACTION 0 PLASTICIZER/STABILIZER 9 ' RESIDUAL VCM 0 EIR *1 MPA 000010454 INDUSTRY GROUPS 0 SPI 0 FOOD/DRUG 9 PROFILE EXT. DIVISION 9 P.R. COMMITTEE 9 PPI S PVC SAFETY COMMITTEE 0 VINYL SIDING INSTITUTE 'fl VINYL WINDOW AMD DOOR INSTITUTE 9 PMPD 0 PIPE RESIN PRODUCERS COMMITTEE 3 PAC 03 STATE GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS SI CCCS 93 ENERGY TASK FORCE S3 PLASTIC RESOURCE RECOVERY AMD CONSERVATION COMMITTEE 09 PRODUCT LIABILITY 83 FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS 3 PLASTIC BOTTLE INSTITUTE 0 PLASTIC BEVERAGE CONTAINER DIVISION 0 VINYL FILM GP , 9 VINYL FORMULATGRS ' 9 TOXICOLOGY COMMITTEE 9 SHEET PRODUCERS MANAGEMENT DIVISION 0 PPFA 6 ' UN I BELL G RESILIENT FLOORING INSTITUTE G SPE 9 PEG Q CMA `^PA 000010455 QUfll TT1FS REQUISITES @9 RESPONSIVE 8 QUICK 09 DECISIVE 89 KNOWLEDGEABLE INDEPENDENT DEDICATED STAFF OPEN MEMBERSHIP MISSION TO PROMOTE AMD PROTECT CONTINUING GROWTH OF THE PVC/VCM INDUSTRY IN THE U.S. AND SERVE THE BEST INTERESTS OF THE PUBLIC BY PROVIDING SOCIALLY VALUABLE PRODUCTS. OBJECTIVES 9 IDENTIFY ALL ISSUES OF POTENTIAL CONCERN TO THE PVC/VCM INDUSTRY, 3 PRIORITIZE AND EFFECTIVELY DEAL WITH THESE ISSUES, 9 INTERACT WITH OTHER TRADE ASSOCIATIONS TO EFFICIENTLY USE INDUSTRY RESOURCES. BECOME THE ORGANIZATION SPEAKING FOR THE PVC/VCM INDUSTRY. UPA 000010457 VINYL INSTITUTE A PERMANENT STAFF UFA 000010458 IMMEDIATE ACTION REQUIRED 9 RESPONSE CAPABILITY s EXPERT TEAM e INDUSTRY INFORMATION NETWORK 9 INVESTIGATION (FIRE - EMERGENCY) a MEDIA INTERACTION o EARLY WARNING SYSTEM 9 AFFIRMATIVE P.R. 9 CODE/LOBBYIST GROUP FORMATION 9 CALIFORNIA El?. LONG TERM (CONCURRENT) ACTION REQUIRED 9 PUT TOGETHER P.R. "ROAD SHOW" ARRANGE FOR POSITIVE PVC ARTICLES AND PAPERS 8 SELECT INDEPENDENT AND INDUSTRY PEOPLE TO PREPARE 9 DECIDE ON AND PREPARE ARTICLES 0 StLcU IttRUCI rUCLiLrtl IuihS 0 DEVELOP STRATEGY FOR EXPANDING CODES TO INCLUDE PVC VPA 00001045 SP1 REI ATIONSHTP 8 THE IMSTITUTE HEEDS SPI SERVICES, 9 SPI REVENUES FROM THE INSTITUTE KILL BENEFIT' MEMBERS, 9 SPI AND THE INSTITUTE WILL ASSURE COMMON FRONT AGAINST THREATS, 9 THE INSTITUTE WILL ENCOURAGE SPI MEMBERSHIP. 3 REPORTING RELATIONSHIP OF INSTITUTE STAFF WILL PRESENT MO PROBLEMS, gpA 000010460 ACHQNSTEPS a FORMATION OF SPI/IMSTITUTE TEAM. 9 IDENTIFICATION OF SPI SERVICES. DETERMINATION OF METHOD FOR ALLOCATING SERVICE COST. o OTHER DETAILS OF THE RELATIONSHIP, UFA 000010461  MINUTES INDUSTRY MEETING - CHICAGO Tuesday, May 25, 1982 An Industry meeting of VCM/PVC producers was held in Chicago on Tuesday, May 25. Its -purpose was to consider formation of a Vinyl Institute whose mission would be to respond to the continuing attacks on PVC, and the growing attempts to restrict its use. In attendance were the following: Company Repr e s entative s Air Products . . R. C. Sander Borden Chemical. T. Walker Certainteed . . F. Timpe Conoco .................. H. R. Flammer H. J. Hall J. Langford Diamond Shamrock J. Long Dow Chemical . . Ethyl Polymer J. Johnson F. Whitley C. Montgomery { Formosa Plastics D, Boiler General Tire . . R. Poulin Goodrich B. A. DiLiddo T. F. Harrison R. A. Krueger F. C. Smith G. R. Snider L. J. Weisz Keysor Corporation E. Scott Occidental Chemical R. Gervais A. Mack PPG G. Lazarchik J. Thomas Shell B. Suthers L. Wheeler Talleyrand W. Ware Tenneco G. Disch W. Sorenson ...over... Oooio^ The meeting agenda included Introductory Remarks, by Conoco; a Summary of Recent Events, by Goodrich; a Statement of the Problem, by Tenneco; and a Proposed Organizational Solution by Goodrich. Discussion followed. Conoco began the meeting by describing the May Sth Washington meeting, attended by Conoco, Dow, Tenneco and Goodrich, which was convened to discuss the severe challenge posed by the increasing attacks on the Industry. At that meeting, it was concluded that a new approach was needed, and it was deemed desirable to meet with all PVC/ VCM producers to consider the problem and possible solutions. Specific examples of problem areas were then drawn to the attention of the group, by Goodrich, using slides and video tapes. These included a description of the efforts of the unions, manufacturers of competitive materials, and their allies, to restrain the use of PVC in plumbing, electrical, and other applications. The various aspects of the challenge in California, New York, and elsewhere were described, as were some of the Industry and Industry Organization responses currently underway. The fact that the Industry can expect recurring anti-PVC campaigns in the future, and that it does not have a reservoir of public and media goodwill to draw on was emphasized. Tenneco then described in greater detail the nature of the attacks, and the Industry's present posture in addressing them. Principally, the attacks were said to consist of legal suits based on product liability in major fires, and actions designed to disqualify PVC under various codes and standards. The motivation of the attacks was explained. While the Industry was said to be dealing reasonably well with the ; litigation, such was said not to be the case with the codes/standards problem. The Industry was described as splintered, and incompletely represented in its existing organizations. The response of the SPI has not been a sufficient answer, for which the Industry must assume its share of responsibility. Funding of responses made thus far has been a burden, and it has fallen disproportionately on some members of the Industry. Action on a coordinated basis was said to be essential, while inaction was described as the most costly option. Goodrich followed with a presentation including a description of issues faced by the Industry, the uncoordinated efforts of the Industry groups to meet the challenge, and the money presently being spent in such efforts. Creation of a Vinyl Institute was proposed, to be not just another organization, but one capable of quick, know ledgeable, and decisive action. It would be an organization free to act in the best interests of both the public and the Industry. The Institute would have a staff whose only responsibility would be Industry in terests, and membership would be open to all PVC/VCM producers. After the Institute is formed, consideration would be given to inviting additive manufacturers to join. Institute resources would include outside organizations, plus committees representing various desciplines staffed by Industry people. Objectives of the Institute would include identification, prioritization, and response to problems and issues, inter action with other trade associations, to be a spokesman for the Industry, and an advocate for the long-term market development of PVC products. The Institute staff, which was described, would report to a Board of Directors. Ideally, it would fit under the umbrella of an existing trade organization. Near-term activity would largely be defensive, but longer term would undertake positive educational, legislative, and code campaigns. The minimal budget for the Institute was estimated at about $525,000, with special assessments from time-to-time for particular purposes. Interim costs incurred prior to the Institute's formation would be rolled into the first year's budget. Funding would include dues for members, relating Institute costs to members' PVC/VOj capacity on a pro rata basis. Copies of the presentation, including accompanying slides were distributed. ...over... VPh 000010463 - J- 4 General discussion ensued . as follows. While it was agreed that a number of Industry responses to current problems have been organized, these were seen as uncoordinated, and the need for something like a Vinyl Institute which could speak as a single voice for the Industry was recognized. Those present agreed that while the SPI did a good job handling the vinyl monomer problem several years ago, the Industry's problems are more complex today, since they now involve products and applications. Consequently, a different organizational approach is needed. Formation of a Vinyl Institute would permit the marshalling of resources and the concentration of effort needed not only to defend present attacks against PVC, but to structure a positive approach to broaden codes and open up new markets to PVC. Although a number of those present were of the opinion that any of several organizations could act for the Institute as an umbrella organization, the advantage of having the SPI serve in that capacity was recognized, assuming proper terms and conditions can be negotiated. The group believed that the SPI will show flexibility with respect to the question as to whether members of the Institute must also belong to the SPI. The SPI is presently considering how it should structure itself for the '80's, therefore, discussions with it now were seen as timely. A request for a show of hands to determine those in favor of creating a Vinyl Institute appeared to indicate that there were none present who disagreed with the concept. It was suggested that an Interim Committee be formed to oversee formation of the Institute. Seven companies were chosen, Certainteed, Conoco, Dow, Goodrich, Occidental, Tenneco, and Shell.- Membership on the Committee will consist of * higher level management people. Consideration will be given to folding activities of the Ad Hoc Pipe Resin Producer's Committee into those of the Interim Committee. Three or four members of the Interim Committee will meet with the SPI to discuss the possibility of having the latteT serve as the umbrella organization for the Institute, and to determine the nature of such a relationship. The Interim Committee will appoint a Working Committee which will have the respon sibility for drawing up an Institute Charter, and of serving as the working arm for the Interim Committee in putting together details of the Institute. Among other things, the Working Committee will be responsible for identifying a response team to respond to Industry challenges. Weisz will coordinate the Working Committee, and members of the Interim Committee will notify him as to the identity of those they wish to have serve on the Working Committee. A further meeting of those present will be scheduled for July, at which time the Interim Committee will report back regarding the outcome of the discussions with the SPI, and any. other matters of interest to the Institute. /lbb i .1 PA GOOD 10464 Chemical releases in area could cause cancer or instant death By BILL DAWSON ' 01986, Houston Chronicle until December 1984. - Then, in Bhopal, India, a poisonous gas leak killed more than 2,000 people and injured thousands, canccr-causing agents and other toxic substances. But the Texas Air Control Board says plants in the five counties still release more than half a billion transforming toxic air pollution into a major envi- pounds of these "volatile organic compounds" an Millions of pounds of ronmental issue of the 1980s. nually. toxic chemicals still pour The Bhopal disaster sparked new concerns about .. into the air annually from ' the complex problem. Last year, EPA proposed Houston-area industries, 16 two plans -- one for responding to accidents posing a, years after Congress de- immediate danger, another for reducing the leaks & dared war on air pollution and routine releases that may. cause cancer and with sweeping changes in other long-term ailments. r '. the Clean Air Act. These routine releases Controversy surrounds both plans. The debate THE AIR WE BREATHE PART. 1 , - include hundreds of tons of / substances that may cause . cancer. Some of the chemi cals also could kill or in has profound implications for the Houston area, whose sprawling petrochemical complex is the ' world's largest. An examination of the issue by the Houston Chronicle shows: i' jure a person immediately Industrial discharges of toxic chemicals in five if they accidentally escape. . . v . , .. counties on the upper Texas coast -- Harris, Gal- . y veston, Brazoria, Jefferson and Orange -- rank ' - Leading scientists say most chemicals proba bly do not cause cancer, but eight of 10 chemicals have never been tested or studied enough to make a judgment about long-term health risks. Twenty-nine companies in the five counties told a House subcommittee their plants released or had permits to release about 10 million pounds of specific toxjc substances in 1984. An EPA study said toxic chemicals in the air cause 1,300 to 1,700 cancer cases a year nationwide. Most are caused by small sources like gasoline stations and wood stoves, it said, but people living near large chemical plants are at much higher risk. More than 12,000 accidental releases of toxic An Environmental Protection Agency study two ;among the nation's largest ' ' chemicals and other air pollutants -- or plant con-, years ago said toxic chemicals are a bigger health * Regulations have forced industry to make sub- -- ditions with the potential for that to happen -- threat in the air than in water or at hazardous -vj stantia! reductions in air pollution from a broad : waste sites, but the problem was mired lo obscurity ifgroup of chemicals that Includes many suspected . . /. See EPA on Page 12. ?t> IQOOOO V40 Ck > - Continued from Page 1. .were reported to the state by compa-. nies in the five counties since 1980. Regulations allow a hodgepodge of safeguards -- sometimes differing for the same chemical at two units of the same plant -- but company and gov ernment officials say a catastrophic re lease is unlikely because of the chemical industry's good safety record. An EPA-commissioned study last year compiled a partial listing of toxic chemical accidents since 1980 in se lected areas, including Texas. There were.at least 6,928 such accidents that killed 130 people and injured 1,478. To prepare for immediately danger ous leaks, EPA has developed a signifi cant new program to give state and local officials guidance, EPA Adminis trator Lee Thomas said. But critics say it pounds. as a group, because some of them help form ozone, which is one of the six priority pollutants and an ingre dient of smog. - . 5' tr But research about most of these or ganic chemicals is too limited for sci entists to add them either to the relatively short list of those that may cause cancer or to the longer list of those without that ability. A National Academy of Sciences committee said in 1984 no research had been done on the long-term risks of 70 percent of the 60,000 to 70,000 chemicals Americans are exposed to. Another 14 percent had been studied somewhat, but not enough to estimate risks. Last year, the House Health and En vironment Subcommittee said it was making the broadest effort ever to find out about releases of individual toxic chemicals. The panel asked 86 large chemical companies what amounts they release, if anv. of soecified sub- tal releases are never reported, but that a catastrophic release is a. remote possibility. Jim Myers, TACB's enforcement chief, said federal work-place safety regulations and an aggrefcsive'effort by' companies make the chance of a disas trous release a smaller concern for Texans than the possible long-term harm of routine releases. . -* < Jon Fisher, research director for the . Texas Chemical Council, said safety ef forts are evident in the industry's low - injury rate. The injury record of Texas chemical plants is five times better than the chemical industry's in the United States, he said, and 10 times better than that of all American manu facturers. Industry generally adopts safety pro- ' cedures voluntarily, said Lewis Cramp- ton. executive director of the National rIhnasrtiiteusttenn fowr Cvahem"Ticha*l rhS^tmud^ieasi in does nothing to require industry to prevent accl- - dents. To combat cancer'and other chronic risks. EPA is boosting its effort to set regulations for more chemicals Thomas than the "very limited" number with controls so far. Thomas said. But crit ics say EPA's regulation-setting pro cess weakens protection of public health. And state officials in Texas and elsewhere doubt they can handle new duties required by the EPA plan. The debate is complicated because government agencies know relatively little about toxic air pollution -- spe cific chemicals released, volumes and long-term hazards. All air pollutants are "toxic" by defi nition, but that term is widely used to designate substances that may pose immediate or chronic risks -- some times both -- even at very low levels. They include chemicals like methyl isocyanate, chlorine, benzene, vinyl chloride, phosgene and hundreds of oth ers. The "toxic" name also distinguishes these-substances from six more com to the inquiry An analysis of the responses shows plants in those counties released -- or had permits to release -- about 10 mil itself is not overly regulated." ne said. "There are no real standards for pro cess safety.," lion pounds of 45 of these chemicals In 1 Some Texas and Houston-area offi 1984. More than 2.5 million pounds 4 cials gave a lukewarm reception last were chemicals known or suspected to fall to EPA's hew plan to help them"*^ cause cancer. Almost 6 million pounds prepare for disastrous toxic releases were chemicals that EPA says can kill .saying they were probably already do- * or injure if a large enough amount es- *ing most of what it recommends, capes into the air. The Texas Air Control Board says Thomas said the program will iii- ' ------ about 350 companies {and a few gov crease awareness'about highly toxic . ernment agencies) with 491 facilities in chemicals and; preparedness for acci those counties have permits to release dents. It is not'a criticism of state and volatile organic compounds. local officials, he said, but showed, Toxic releases here were compared "that we, EPA, didn't feel we were ade- > with those in other areas in an EPA quately responding to the potential: study in 1984. The study summarized threat and we did have a responsibility what was known about sources and in that area. - a .. amounts of 86 potentially toxic air pol "It also reflected that the primary^ lutants. They were mainly estimated responsibility for responding fo' arty from production figures, because kind of emergency as well as develop EPA's data base about the actual vol- ing the plans was a state ancTlocal.1 nines released is poor. sV - * -(responsibility, but we had a significant - Virtually all of about half of .these 86 role in providing technical information, substances enter the air from organic and technical support, chemical plants, the study said, and the ' Along with advice for preparedness, most striking aspect of their location EPA provided profiles of 402 chemicals, was the large concentration between that can kill or injure in an air release.. Corpus Christi and New Orleans. Eigh- Bill Gulledge,`associate environment teen of the chemicals were made en- tal director of the Chemical Manufac- tirely in Texas and Louisiana, with turers Association, said EPA s effort more than f because they are found widely through- the Ttxas-Louisiana sponse nrogram, .developed and out the country -- ozone, carbon mon oxide. airborne particulates, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and lead. , < One indicator of the magnitude of toxic releases in. this area is the Texas Air Control Board's recent estimate that industries in the five industrial > counties around Houston annually re lease 666 million pounds of chemicals - in the broad group of "volatile organic compounds." These "VOCs" number in the thousands and include many oMhe ^ubstanceommo.nly.called "t&Jtic" and many suspected cancer-causers. ' "I can'i conceive of a place with a lot of VOC emissions that doesn't have a lot of the VOCs that cause cancer," said Bern Steigerwald, an EPA air official. Industry has been required to reduce emissions of volatile organic com- and.the Philadelphia-New -lorsev introduced after the Bhopal accident areas, where chemical plants are concentrated, have the nation's largest however, say it should formally require- totals of industrial releases of toxic ffforls t0 prevent f catastrophic re*, chemicals to the air, Steigerwald said, leases. .- ^ ' In the past six years, the 12.000 re- DJid Doniger, senior attorney for ports to Texas officials that described Natural Resources ^Defense <W unintended releases - actual and po- Cl1'(s.fI?2 ctie.m`cats tential - involved immediately dan- but ,^houId, a!f "elude gerous toxic chemicals, others that stances posing only long-term risks;* may pose long-term risks and some fit- PA 5 reliance on state and local gov- ting both categories, as well as other emments is worrisome, be said be,, kinds of pollutants. - cause they often hesitate to seem "too.. State officials say'the reports as a Pjshy" with major corporations, so group are as significant for what they "eir area will not get a reputation of omit as for what they tell. In many *""8 a cases companies left out the identity of tThomas said EPA s plan for immedi- pollutants released, the amount, or jW dangerous releases will produce both. Texas and Houston-area environ- *ot of Public awareness, a lot of VPA 0000104 'L. public pressure, a lot of regulatory pressure on the plant manager1" to avoid accidents, which will prompt a continuing review of production pro- <&sses and also reduce routine releases. j)oniger said procedure changes are essential, but so is abandonment of "the 19th century plumbing the chemical in dustry now uses." ' / .YJhere is no "bright line" dividing .steps to prevent accidental and routine THE AIR WE BREATHE Today Millions of pounds of toxic chemicals still flow into the air annually from - industries On the upper Texas coast. The Environmental Protection Agency's plans to prevent long-term health problems and prepare for accidental leaks are Both controversial.' Monday releases, he said. "The first thing you have to do is adopt an ethic or ap proach that the objective is to stop us ing the air as & hazardous waste dump and to make these processes totally closed." r .{^Gulledge. of the Chemical Manufac-"' turers Association, said, however, that although the industry strives to reduce West Virginia's Kanawha Valley -- the "Chemical Valley1' -- has come face to face with tne threat of toxic air pollution (ike no other American community. Residents are divided -- can tney have jobs and safety? Officials say most chemicals that can kill or ih)ur in accidents are found in the Houston area. One of the deadliest has leaked several times m recent years, sometimes floating beyond plant boundaries. Companies are taking extra precautions. . ./ releases, "zero emissions are just not possible.1' Chemical plants, he said, 'iave to emit things to the air" in some, circumstances. $`Cost has something to do with it, " belaid. "You could cut down, but spend an absolute fortune on it." The technology is not available to stop all routine releases. he said. And chemical pro cesses are "designed for emissions at permitted safe levels." Jjust how those "safe levels" are de Uncertainties surround the debate over toxic chemicals' long-term risks. . Routine releases usually translate into tiny or undetectable levels in the air. What risks do they pose? Scientists are only starting to put the puzzle together. -a EPA officials say they must concentrate on the toxic air pollutants with the biggest long-term risks. Critics say that may leave some pollutants ' unregulated and some Texas residents unprotected, fs it acceptable for some' people to face pollution risks involuntarily? - i ' 1 termined is at the heart of the complex .. ,, < debate over EPA's plan to improve . Gulledge, spokesman for the chemi- Thomas said EPA will give more at- control of routine releases. cal industry, said it "obviously will par- SThe Clean Air Act amendments of 'ticipate in the regulatory process and specified five priority pollutants comment." . ... - v tention to regulating small sources than in the past, but not at the expense of industrial controls. It is allocating for reduction around the country, and Congress added a sixth -- lead -- to that list in 1978. .~ `(ingress also told the new EPA 16 Whatever the reasons. Thomas said he is speeding up and enlarging the program. That strategy is based largely on a controversial EPA study' more funds to set four times as many regulations per year than were im- posed on industrial pollutants in the past, he said. j yeafs ago to regulate other air pollut- that looked at 40 chemicals and arrived . Speeding up the program also in ants -- called hazardous" In the act, at the rough estimate that, they cause volves "referring" some chemicals to but also known as "toxic" -- that in- '* 1.300 to 1.700 cancer cases yearly in the states that EPA determines come crease death or injury. To date, EPA ` outdoor air in the United Stales. from only a few industrial sources and bhs set regulations for six -- mercury, ^Small sources of pollutants, such as do not warrant the expense and effort beryllium, asbestos, vinyl chloride, [f1* tumtj l*w,il at gasulJitesla- to set a federal regulation, he said, benzene and radionuclides -- but envi- - t,ons cause most of those cancers, be- To help the states set regulations, he ronmentalists say all major sources ' cause they are more widespread than said, EPA will provide increased fund- are not covered and the controls that industrial sources, such as 'chemi- ing and its own extensive technical re- were required were not as good as -.cal plants and refineries, the/study sources to help determine risks and some companies already used. said. ` j :what controls are needed. . ' |EPA officials concede the program Some people downplay the signifi- Despite such promises, the "state re- has moved too slowly. ? cance of health risks from industrial ferralprogram"hasprovenhighlycon- i Doniger and other critics in the envi- releases, citing that finding and an- itroversial. Critics fear that states lack ronmental movement and Congress say EPA overcomplicated that process -- and weakened its protection against cancer and other ailments -- when it started asking if pollution controls were technically feasible and comparing their costs with the monetary value of the lives they would save. : EPA at first issued regulations to reduce releases of specific toxic air pollutants basically because a substance . was dangerous, but an intense counter- other EPA study that said most people the resources to handle the complex .are exposed to higher levels of toxic task and may impose lax regulations, if - chemicals in indoor air thari outside, any, to keep from driving away indus- evfn living near chemical plants. try. . ^im Pflce- research director of the Texas regulations now involve three Texas Air Control Board, said advo- tiers 0f controls. "Reasonably avail cates of tighter industrial controls are, able" technology is required for all ^en "haggling and ` quibbling, be- 'sources of volatile organic compounds. ^ cause the EPA study said more pollut- Best available" technology -- a step ants come from small sources.. . up in control -- must be in place on But Steigerwald. an author of the new and modified air pollution sources. study, said large chemical plants poseEven tighter controls are required for attack oy industry prompted the fnuch greater hazards for people specific toxic chemicals with federal agency to start the detailed process of nearby. "Id personally be more: con- 'regulations. , 1\ .deciding just how dangerous each one about being in an area of high y state officials doubt they have the is and how many people are threat- individual risk than about living near resources to set regulations for individ- -ehed. This was done to fend, off law- one * tbe small sources, he said. * ual chemicals. "We would be .impru- suits, the U.S. General Accounting Some critics say EPA is using the dent to say we could do it all," iaia Eli Office said in 1983. ., , . study to back away from industrial gell, who becomes executive director Myers said EPA has "gone along at a ' controls, but Gulledge said the finding 0f the Air Control Board in March, snail's pace" because industry "has * higher risks around chemical plants t j we feej strongly about the fought tooth and claw to roadblock that suggests otherwise. control of toxics. We will look for every program." VPA 000010468 way we can to shift resources into that area, but there's a lot of other work we have to do in response to the (1985) amendments to the Texas Dean. Air Act. Given the list I've seen (of chemi cals likely to be referred to Texas), we'd be hard pressed to get it all done." Other TACB officials were more blunt. Myers said EPA seems to be saying their record "looks awful" and "they're going to try to get money to give us to let us do it. They're kind of passing the hot potato down." Next: Jobs vs. safety; A West Vir ginia community comes face to face with the divisive specter of toxic air pollution. COMMON AIR POLLUTANTS Federal regulations for six major air pollutants found widely around 5i * f f the country are separate from regulations for "toxic" or "hazardous" . pollutants. The six major pollutants; estimated annuafindustrial releases in Harris, Galveston, Brazoria, Jefferson, Orange counties; - i health concerns, and non-industrial sources: . ,, A Ozone -- Volatile organic compounds (666 million pounds) and nitrogen oxides (1 billion pounds) help form ozone, major ingredient of smog. Respiratory problems, eye irritation, reduced resistance to infection. Automobiles also emit VOCs, nitrogen oxides. Nitrogen dioxide -- The nitrogen oxides total is mainly nitrogen dioxide, but includes some nitrogen oxide. Respiratory illness, lung damage. Airborne particulates -- 108 million pounds (a combination including dust, fly ash. metals, smoke, mist), Eye and throat irritation, bronchitis, lung damage. Automobiles are another source. .Carbon monoxide -- 1.1 billion pounds. Impaired ability of blood to carry oxygen; cardiovascular, nerve, pulmonary problems. Automobiles are another source. . Sulfur dioxide -- 651 million pounds. Fjespiratory problems, permanent lung damage. .'*V' .. Lead -- 108.000 pounds. Retardation and brain damage, especially in children. Automobiles using leaded gasoline are another source. i "-v Sources: Environmental Protection Agency, Texas Air Control Board. Ronald L. Goins / Chronicle \ / 'v'PA 00001046V M\+. 'J l TOXIC CHEMICALS IN THE AIR The House Health and Environment Subcommittee asked major chemical companies last year to report on toxic chemicals they release to the air. The list below includes amounts of 31 of 45 substances that responding companies . 'I said they released or had permits to release in Harris. Galveston. Brazoria. Jefferson and Orange counties. Totals were given as 1964 or annual volumes. The list does not reflect all Houston-area releases of toxic pollutants. For example, about 40 companies in the five counties -- many of them not chemical manufacturers -- have state permits to release benzene, which the Environmental Protection Agency says is a known human carcinogen. Some companies told the subcommittee releases were being substantially reduced. Exxon reported large reductions in all emissions at its Baytown chemical plant. B.F. Goodrich said there would be no emissions of ethylene dichloride at La Porte and 1.9 tons of butadiene released at Port Neches last year. . Shell said benzene emissions would be cut almost in half in 1985. W.R. Grace said formaldehyde releases at Deer Park would be reduced to less than 0.4 tons in 1985. I1) Known human carcinogen, according to EPA. * (2) Probable human carcinogen, according to EPA. (3)' Some evidence of cancer-causing ability, according to EPA. - Vf ~ tAX -- - ------------- --------------------------------------------------------------- ..... (4) Carcinogen, according to National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. 'iX**-,: ,.-r".'.Vfc 'X*- * (5) Chemical that can kill or injure if accidentally released to the air in large enough amounts;^ according to EPA. > .. ihwir ; - < - !' -'.-'tifrsLv Company Plant location Tons released Company Plant location Tons-released ... ACROLEIN (5) 11 47 total tons released FORMALDEHYDE (3) (5) 10 to 14.8 total Ions released i* Monsanto Monsanto Rohm and Haas Alvin Texas City Deer Park 1.8 3.6 8.07 Exxon Chemical W.R. Grace * CO.. , -r: Monsanto Houston Chemical 0.5 Deer Park less than 4 8 Alvtn 9.5 ACRYLONITRILE (2) (5) 206.22 total tons released Du Pont - . Goodyear Tire & Rubber Monsanto _ ... Monsanto Beaumont Houston Alvin Texas City AMMONIA (5) 1.959.97 to 1960 07 total tons released Du Pont Dow Chemical Goodyear Tire & Rubber Monsanto Monsanto Rohm ana Haas Sabine River Freeport Houston Alvin Texas City Deer Park ANILINE (5) Du Pont Beaumont HYDROCHLORIC ACID (5) " * 0.43 total tons released (Hydrogen chloride in water solution) 20 22 6 120 60 - 1.9192 less than 0.1 6.2 18.3 94 6.87 Exxon Chemical .. ,. Houston Chemical Beaumont Chem. Specialties -1.'. 003 0.4 HYDRODGEN CHLORIDE (5) 6.21 to 6.31 total tons released . r* Du Pont Beaumont 4.9 Du Pont Sabme River 0:01 Dow Chemical Freeport less than 0.1 Monsanto Texas City 13 HYDROGEN CYANIDE (5) ; 39.89 total tons released \v Du Pont Monsanto Monsanto Rohm and Haas * Beaumont Alvin Texas City >. De*r Park 03 19.8 12 9 6.69 , 1693 HYDROGEN FLUORIDE (5) V Monsanto - Alvm 04 'JF'A 0 0 G 0 10470 BENZENE (1) 5S3 total tons released Dow Chemical Euan Chemical Exxon Chemical Goodyear Tire 8 Rubber Shell Chemical v; Freeport Baytown Olefins Baytown Chemical Bayport Deer Park 7.9 28 10 0.1 507 ' s' : ;KJ.' BUTADIENE (2) (5) 113 3 total tons released HYDROGEN SULFIDE (5) Du Pont Beaumont 0.0009 METHYLENE CHLORIDE (2) Monsanto Alvin >30 METHYL ISOCYANATE (5) Veisicoi Chemical Bayport 1ess than 0 2 B F Goodrich DenKa Chemical Goodyear Tire & Rubber Port Neches Houston Houston 11 7 1.6 * 100 CARBON TETRACHLORIDE (2) - Dow Chemical Freeport 37.3 CHLORINE (5) 391.76t total tons-released 'V J- * METHYL MERCAPTAN (5) 1.41 total ions released . Du Pont Monsanto NITRIC OXIDE (5) La Pone Alvin 1 rfi-- Denka Chemical Houston PERCHLOROETHYLENE (2) -vr - ut 001 1.4 ,* 3.8 :v, ARCO Chemical Denka Chemical Du Pont Dow Chemical Shell Chemical Veisicoi Chemical Port Arthur Houston Beaumont Freeport Deer Park Beaumont CHLOROFORM (2) (5) 83.13 to 88 total tons released Du Pont Allied Corp. Jeaumont Orange 0.1 unmeasured 0.66 340 51 0.001 83.13 less than 4.87 Dow Chemical Freeport 36 8 PHENOL (5) 22.57 total tons released V I VLV . - 'LiU Monsanto Monsanto Rohm and Haas Shell Chemical ;- PHOSGENE (5) Veisicoi Chemical Alvtn 11.t Texas City Deer Park Deer Park '..> * f ,o a ' 0 27 r> - - 11 . t.'ir .`Ti'.l rv Bayport less than 0.2 CHLOROPRENE (4) Denka Chemical . . . Houston . EPICHLOROHYDRIN (2) (5) Shell Chemical Deer Park ETHYLENE DICHLORIDE (2) 30.7 to 30 6 total tons released \V. PROPYLENE OXIDE (3) (5) .x-jptirsti 41.458 total tons released ` v-'v ' 50 ARCO Chemical ARCO Chemical Exxon Chemical Rohm and Haas 164 STYRENE (3) Bayport Charwetview Houston Chemical .. . 5.4 Bayport - 0.058 K ; ' 'v.f s Goodyear Tire & Rubber Houston v.K.v 50 B F. Goodrich ARCO Chemical Dow Chemical Shell Chemical Veisicoi Chemical La Porte Port Arthur Freeport Deer Park Beaumont ETHYLENE OXIDE (2) (5) 7.224 total tons released 12 : 9.less than 0.1 0.1 9.6 SULFURIC ACID (5) 8 total tons released \) f V \^ ^' ' Du Pont Goodyear Tire & Rubber ; Vy.. v'.'. .' La Porte Houston ..O'.lrj ri.e 7 1 r. TRICHLOROETHYLENE (2) Dow Chemical'; j . , j. Freeport less than 0.1 Exxon Chemical Rohm and Haas Houston Chemical Bayport 6.4 . 0.044 VINYUDENE CHLORIDE (3) Rohm and Haas Deer Park 0.78 Dow Chemical Freeport 0.9 iV-jJ * j- EPA says it intends to regulate butadiene, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, ethylene dichloride, ethylene oxide, methylene chloride, perchloroethylene and trichloroethylene. The Natural Resources * Defense Council is suing to speed up the EPA effort. The agency says it will not regulate acrylonitrile ; x chloroprene. epichlorohydrin and vynilidene chloride. n-..tl VPA 000010471 iN <O3" o' >4 ooo 6 6bj uo I03dd3 aS -)sa) qycaq paseajoui saiueduioa jpqi jaq p|Oj iciOAas asneooq `sjaqjo.vi padpq iins-HEj aq) s>fuiqj soAaay *J3))J0M J3UJJOJ 3ui -AiAjns auo pue paip pen oqM sjaqjoM eojij} jo saApepj `Aiituej stq 0) sjuouj -Acd ajjpui 01 paejSe sjuBjd jnoj aqj o| s(eariuaqa papiAOjd jo paiejado peq }cqj saiuedtuoo zi `asea oqj jo )uaiu -9|uo5 aq) U{ lo^aoift )UB)d e uaoq )t>u peq oq** jji)utc[d a`[uo aq) sbav soijojg sjuapisoj pue sjoqjoM pajoS uepua jic aq) m sieaiuiaqa pies i|orq^v `imsMBi am pautof saAaay -papua) -} saijojs aun) eqj punojp soaojo -soqooM ijoj )B sjuapnjs ajaav oq.w uouj Suoiue sasea eiuia>(na[ pjaAas paJOAOOsip osje peq Aaisuavojj, ujei|[tM joXme'j riiuojinai .sjo^joai pasnea peq siucjd jnoj ujojj uoijnnod jib SuiSjeqa )ms.ne[ e jn'oqB peaj saAaay `6Z6I UI uajpnqa om) 3uiabo[ `ja)B[ sjeaA oaaj paip aji jaauea peq aq ZL6T ui paujeaj pue A)p aq) 0) paujniaJ aq `Aujjy aqj uf sjeaA om) jayy s)ueid aojq) iuojj 0[iui -jjcq b `jooqas qSfy saAOjg-soqaafq )J0J iuojj 896J ui pajBnpEJS ay joy JtV oeaio aq) 0) saSueqo qjitt uoj) -n[iod jib uo 5pe))e jofeui e pajunoui ssajSuco ajojaq apooap e'ot sem aq uaq saqaafj jjoj oj paAOiu sasfojg iuiq pa||i)| saAaqaq `saAaay uayg Ajbpi `MoptAA ]saH1S ^qj sauo aq) a)(H -- jib aq) ui s|BO|iuaqa jo s[9ao[ Aut) jo sjaojp Uijaj-3uoi..aqi aieqap Apuejsuoa spadxa jog 'siuEjd aptsjno ajdoad yitij jo ajnfui uea sjeaiiuaip aixo} AjqSiq jo saseapj aiqdojjSEjEa saiuap auo ofsj A)mej -jaaun pus Asjoaojjuoo qjtA )q3nejj suibuioj s^sij mjeaq oiuojqa s.uoij nyod jib aixo} ;o ansst aqj `os uaA^ 'uonduinssE IBqj pajsqs A[juaa -aj saouaias jo XiuapEoy jbuohbm aqj jo jaued uoqqiJ-an[q b pus AauaSy uoij ---- oajojj jBjuarn fr idVd -uoJiAug aqi Aq 3HJLV3U03M sjjodaj jofejq HIV 3HX jaauBo asnso uiaqj jo aiuos s;sa33ns aauap 1A3 `jib aq) u; sjBaiuiaqa asoq) jo junoujE aq) aanpaj 0) suoi)E( -n3aj aoe|d ^jom pue (Bjuaiuuoj -lAua a)fds *ap )eq) `jaAa -Moq `Abs s)si)uaias 3uipea( AubiaJ auoXuB )jnq ubo saauB)sqris oixo) jo spunod jo suoi(|iui jo sasBd[dj aufinoj si; )eqi Suipaauoo 0) sauioa Ajjsnpu; {Batuiaqo -oi;ad aq) se asop se )noqe sev \\ -uois -Boao 3jbj AjqB)jjeuiaj e sb.vi y `pggj ui )insMB| e d())as o) urns pasopsipun uu MOptM siq pied saiucduioo zi uaq\\ ' `K jo a3e aq) is eiiuaqnai jo paip aq ajojaq sjboA ei joj soqaojq yoj ui aioqi jo Jnoj jeau paAi| aq )nq `)UB|d lejiiuaijo b ui pa^JQw. .JaAOU sa^ois soijb3 apiuojgo uojsnoH '9861^ nosmvq ilia As UMOu>|un s|eA9| jeajujaip Auq jo spajje ujjej-6uo"j t S' '"\ J '. Continued from Page 1. One of the largest of those problems risks of some air pollutants than in oth-^ is what scientists call "confounding ers. ' mg for employees. Although they settled the lawsuit, the companies never admitted harming the variables'" -- the factors such as family history, personal habits and occupa tional chemical exposure that may Another puzzling area is the question of "synergism" -- whether chemicals in the air do more harm combined with leukemia victims. Townsley said. And play an unknown or unmeasurable role each other or with tobacco smoke than the Texas Department of Health inves in a case of cancer. they do separately. Regulations are tigated in 1979 and found "no reason to Often, scientists establish that a generally based on their separate ef believe" attending Port Neches-Groves chemical causes cancer only because fects. increased a person's leukemia risk. that cancer is rare, said Marvin Lega "The basic problem is that we hardly Townsley was not satisfied with that tor. director of environmental toxicol know what most of the compounds put . study and wanted the U.S. Centers for ogy at the University of Texas Medical into the air do on an individual basis, so. ' Disease Control to do another one, but Branch at Galveston and a member of it's hard to talk of synergism," said said the Health Department would not the National Academy of Sciences Philip Landrigan, environmental medi make the needed request. panel. cine professor at Mount Sinai School of Epidemiological studies, the type "Unfortunately, most carcinogens Medicine in New York City. done at the school, use statistics to don't cause rare tumors, they just "People are always exposed to a ` search for patterns and possible causes of disease in large groups. They look cause an increase in common tumors," Legator said, and scientists face a mixture of pollutants. Almost cer tainly, there are cumulative effects," for relationships between disease and daunting task in separating the ones said Landrigan, vice chairman of the i factors such as family history, personal caused by environmental pollutants panel that produced the National Acad - habits and exposure to harmful sub- from those with other causes. emy of Sciences' air pollution report. stances at work or in the environment. "Our ability to get epidemiological That report said scientists must But epidemiology has not given de- data on most chemicals is almost nil," learn air pollution's role in causing finitive answers about air pollution's Legator said. "The classic example is lung cancer because it may combine relationship to lung cancer death rates cigarette smoking. It took since 1955 to with smoking and other factors to in 'on the upper Texas coast, which are the present time, with hundreds of mil crease the number of cases. Perhaps significantly above rates in the rest of lions of dollars being spent, and the some of that increased cancer risk can Texas and the nation. A three-year epi tobacco industry is still arguing that be prevented by reducing exposure to demiological study, finished in 1983, it's just a statistical fluke." chemicals in the air, the report said. could not establish or rule out air pollu Bern Steigerwald, co-author of a Robert Phalen, professor of commu tion as a cause of some lung cancer study that heavily influenced EPA's nity and environmental medicine at the deaths in Harris County, the principal new strategy to reduce the chronic University of California at Irvine, stud investigator said at the time. risks of toxic air pollutants, said his ies what air pollutants do to laboratory The National Academy of Sciences agency seldom uses epidemiological animals and has noted several com issued a report last fall that empha- studies to assess hazards and whether bined effects. sized epidemiology's limitations in to regulate them. Sulfur dioxide -- discharged by some weighing toxic air pollutants' role in cancer and other health problems. But it said evidence from several lines of In an admittedly rough estimate, the EPA study said toxic air pollution out doors causes 1,300 to 1,700 cases of can Houston-area industries in large vol umes -- can produce slow, deep breath ing and overwhelm bodily defenses scientific research about all types of air pollution points to the conclusion . that it still causes "substantial adverse health effects in some segments of the cer a year nationwide. Chemicals from small but numerous sources, such as automobiles, gasoline pumps and wood stoves, cause most of those cases, the against other pollutants, Phalen said. And volatile organic compounds can combioe with each other into different compounds, which in turn can easily U.S. population." Among other conclu study said, but people living near in sions: dustrial sources such as chemical react with still other harmful pollut ants like ozone, be said While smoking causes most lung'1.; plants generajiy nave larger individualjfr;v Landrigan said volatile organic com-:: cancer, it is "plausible" that air pcllu-. frisks. ; ` .' 'iv pounds are an "emerging" problem be tion causes or contributes to an un--r To gauge a chemical's cancer haz / known'number of cases, for several ard, EPA first estimates its capacity to i reasons. Cancer-causing chemicals are cause the disease at different doses, found in urban air. Studies indicate usually from the results of animal chemicals taken from polluted air tests. Then comes an elaborate statisti cause tumors in laboratory animals. cal process using that figure and others And a number of epidemiological stud to indicate how much goes into the air, ies suggest a link between lung cancer how much comes from tall stacks and cause so little is known about chronic., effects. Only in the last five years or so have scientists learned some of these hundreds of chemicals can cause brain damage in people exposed at work, he said, and they will have to do more research before they can say what that finding implies for the public. and carcinogens in the air. ground-level leaks, weather patterns Daniel Menzel, a Duke University "Volatile organic compounds" -- and data about the surrounding popula toxicologist who serves on EPA's Sci which are released by petrochemical tion. ence Advisory Board, said researchers plants and refineries and also come from sources including automotive ex hausts. pumps at gasoline stations and household chemicals -- are an `'emerg ing" concern for scientists, because some may cause cancer, mutations or nerve damage in the public. More health studies have been per formed about benzene than any other volatile organic compound. Epidemio logical studies indicate it caused leuke- For example, EPA says the cancer risk from constantly breathing 1 micro gram of acrylonitrile per cubic meter of air over 70 years is about seven in 1 million. The agency has tentatively de cided not to regulate the chemical fed erally. but it is cooperating in studies with several states where it is released, including Texas, to help them decide whether to impose state controls. have been worried about volatile or ganic compounds for several years, but more was known about other pollution problems, which got attention first. "We have a blank on the health ef fects of many chemicals, because they're intermediates, the stuff that's being used to make something else," he ' said. "There are always inefficiencies in any chemical process and you end up - with this guck. It's of no commercial mia in some rubber and-chemical workers. But there is no proof it causes cancer in the general population, and the limitations of such studies make it unlikely they can ever offer proof. Critics say great uncertainty can surround every number used in EPA's risk calculations. Steigerwald conceded he has much more confidence in the numbers EPA assigns to the cancer value. A company has no incentive to investigate the toxicity of that com pound, because they're throwing it away.'' Phalen noted other unanswered ques- UPA 00GOi0473 THE AIR WE BREATHE lions: Why is one person affected by Millions of pounds of Joxic chemicals sMI flow into the air annually from \ exposure to a chemical that does not affect others? What is the role of exer industries on the upper Texas coast. The Environmental Protection Agency's plans to prevent long-term health problems and prepare for accidental leaks. are both controversial. cise. in light of evidence it can multiply air pollutants' risks? What are the rela tive roles of outdoor air pollution and the higher levels of many of the same substances indoors? West Virginia's Kanawha Valley -- the "Chemical Valley" -- has come face to face with the threat of toxic air pollution like no other American community. Residents are divided -- can thev have iobs and safety? A 1964 EPA report said toxic air pol lutants may affect people in ways other than inhalation. "Indirect expo sure may occur after airborne parti Officials say most chemicals that can kill or injure in accidents are found in the Houston area. One of the deadliest has leaked several times in recent years, cles fall to earth and are taken up by crops, animals or fish that we consume. sometimes floating beyond plant boundaries. Companies are taking extra precautions. These particles may also contaminate the water we drink." All the uncertainties complicate the ultimate policy question of how tightly to control toxic chemicals that still flow regularly into the air. Or, as some Uncertainties surround the debate over toxic chemicals' long-term risks. Routine releases usually translate into tiny or undetectable levels in the air. What risks do they pose? Scientists are only starting to put the puzzle together. put it. how safe is safe? Vincent Guinee, head of epidemiol ogy at the University of Texas M.D. Anderson Hospital, conceded studies about cancer patterns in large groups EPA officials say they must concentrate on the toxic air pollutants with the biggest long-term risks. Critics say that may leave some pollutants unregulated and some Texas residents unprotected. Is it acceptable for some people to face pollution risks involuntarily? -- his specialty -- do not give easy answers. But as a public health physi cian. he believes officials must act on what they know. Mobile lab to tour cityMost people already think pollutants should be removed from water -- even without definite proof they are hurting anyone -- and should view air pollution checking on pollutantsthe same way, he said. "We don't do that with water. If it looks bad and Houston Chronicle Section 1, Page 9 smells bad, we want it cleaned up. It's a perfect parallel." Other scientists, such as Phalen and Menzel, cautioned that incomplete in formation can lead to "overcontrol" of industry, and regulations should be bal anced against what Menzel called "the comforts of life" provided by the chem ical industry -- an enormous variety of products ranging from plastics to syn thetic fibers to drugs to agricultural cneimcaui. Opponents of tighter controls on in dustry sometimes argue that smoking poses a much larger health hazard than air pollution. But Phalen said involun tary risks like breathing industrial pol A mobile laboratory may soon be rolling through the streets of Houston, loaded with equipment to measure the air for toxic chemicals and packed with cages containing dozens of mice to breathe the pollutants. It is part of an ambitious project by the Texas Air Control Board's research staff to learn if toxic air pollution poses long-term health hazards for people uvmg aiong uie upper i exas coast. After months of preparation, the agency began in October to check the Houston air for 10 selected chemicals and chemical groups among the dozens that industries release here. The moni toring site is in the Cloverleaf area will reveal about the risks of breathing those chemicals, especially combina tions of them, said Jim Price, TACB's research director. That is where the mobile lab will help, if the agency proceeds with the idea as planned. Marvin Legator, direc tor of environmental toxicology at the University of Texas Medical Brand at uiuvestoh, oesigueu a nseartm puui io expose laboratory mice to combina tion* of toxic air pollutants. The mice then would be studied to see if they have dny adverse health effects, such as genetic damage that might indicate precancerous changes. lutants differ ethically from the risks a person chooses voluntarily, and society must treat them differently. "It's a fundamental social question, whether chemicals ought to be inno cent until they're proven guilty, or the opposite," said Landrigan, a former of ficial of the National Institute for Oc cupational Safety and Health. "Since they're artificial, manmade near Houston Ship Channel industries. The research plan calls for one year of monitoring In Harris County, then a year of measurements in three other counties where refineries and petro chemical plants are concentrated -- Galveston, Jefferson and Orange. The findings will go a long way to ward answering some persistent ques tions. Officials know that industries in At this early stage in the project. Legator and Price have differing views on the risk of toxic chemicals in the air along the Texas coast Regarding the cancer-causing potential of some of those substances, Legator said, "What ever we see in industrial populations is just an exaggeration of what we see in the general population." additions to the environment, I think this area routinely release miliions of By contrast. Price believes the mea they ought to be screened very care pounds of toxic chemicals each year, surements recorded so far at the Clo fully. The burden of proof ought to be but they have relatively little data to verleaf site suggest there is not a on the manufacturer to prove a chemi pinpoint the levels actually present major risk because of the controls that cal is harmless, rather than the other outside the plants. Because most of the agency requires for new and modi way around. It comes down to one's those substances are not specifically fied pollution sources. Those controls overall view of life. As a physician, my i- regulated, government agencies have r. normally reduce community exposure view is that life should be preserved ` not had continuing programs to mea to toxic chemicals to levels many and prolonged." ' sure them. times lower than those required by fed Next: Will EPA's new strategy to The measurements that the Air Con- combat cancer-causing chemicals in .. trol Board is making represent an im eral regulations to protect workers, he said. the air leave some Texans unprotec ted? portant step. But there are serious limitations to what that information -- BILL DAWSON Wednesday, February 19, 1986 .'PA 000010474 4466 LOL-Wufrffei A REPORTER AT LARGE THE ENVIKONMENT N the past few decades, the United on public attention and on the nation's I States has witnessed a series of resources, the movement's supporters remarkable popular movements, cannot now evade the troublesome, po the most prominent being the movetentially embarrassing question: What changes in environmental quality, and these give us an indication of what has happened in the environment since the effort to improve it began. The ments for civil rights, for the equality has been accomplished: Concern with amounts of different pollutants that of women, for peace, and for the envi the environment and efforts to improve are emitted into the environment each ronment. People who have participated it are today worldwide, but the United year can be estimated fairly accurately in these efforts are prone to reflect States is the place where the environ for the nation as a whole from tech after a time on w'hat has been accom mental movement first took hold, and nical data on the behavior of cars, plished. In the case of the civil-rights, where the earliest efforts were made, power plants, factories, and farms, women's, and peace movements, this is so it is a good place to look for an though such measurements do not a subtle task, involving social processes swers. Since the early nineteen-seven reveal the levels of pollutants that peo that are not readily converted to ``ob ties, the country has had basic laws ple actually encounter, which may jective" numerical trends. To assess that are intended to eliminate air and differ a great deal, depending on how the impact of the environmental move water pollution and to rid the environ far they live from the pollutants' ment is easier, for the quality of the en ment of toxic chemicals and agricul source. Local concentrations of some vironment can be expressed in terms of tural and urban wastes. National and common pollutants--for example, the generally unambiguous measurements: state environmental agencies have amount of dust or sulfur dioxide per the changes, since the birth of the been established; billions of dollars cubic metre of air--are measured by a movement, in the amounts of harmful have been spent; powerful environ network of air-sampling devices that pollutants in the air or the water, or, mental lobbies have been created; local are stationed at fixed points, chiefly in for that matter, in our bodies; in the organizations have proliferated. Envi cities, but the resultant information is populations of flsh or birds that have ronmental issues have taken a perma spotty and not readily translatable into suffered environmental harm; in the nent place in our political life. an average national trend. Water tak efficacy of control measures. In one respect, all this activity has en from rivers, lakes, underground The environmental movement is old clearly achieved an important success: sources, and wells is also analyzed enough now--its birth can be dated we now know a good deal more about from time to time for chemical and from the enthusiastic outburst of the state of the environment than we biological pollutants, but, again, the Earth Day, in April of 1970--to be used to. In the last fifteen years, the results are necessarily discrete and held accountable for its successes and United States has established monitor localized. Finally, there are less com failures. Having made a serious claim ing systems that record the annual prehensive measurements that deter mine the amounts of certain pollut ants, such as pesticides, that have been taken up by wildlife, especially fish and birds, and there are also a few cor responding analyses of pollutants car ried in the bodies of the human population. The nation's basic environmental law, the National Environmental Pol icy Act of 3969, assigns to the federal Council on Environmental Quality the task of reporting these data. Un fortunately, among the first of the Reagan Administration's many cuts in domestic programs was a sixty-two- per-cent reduction in the C-E.Q- bud get, which has diminished its reports, especialiv on water pollution. Never theless. by rounding out the C.E.Q. reports with special ones produced by various otr.er government agencies it is possible to piece together a picture of how the environment has fared in the last ten or fifteen years. nformation about the trend? in air I pollution is available from annual reports published by the Environmen tal Protection Agency for the years between 1975 and 1985. (Data tarlier than 1975 tend to be unreliable, be- Sa* cause measurements were not start-' dardized.) The E.P.A. reports de scribe changes in the emissions and local concentrations of the major air borne pollutants: particulates (dust), sulfur dioxide, lead, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, and ozone, a key ingredient of photochem ical smog. One striking fact immedi ately emerges from the monitoring data: it is indeed possible to reduce the level of pollution sharply, for between 1975 and 1985 total annual lead emis sions decreased by eighty-six per cent, and airborne concentrations of lead at national test sites have been corre spondingly reduced. Lead, a notori ously toxic metal, has been responsible for serious health effects, such as men tal retardation, especially among chil dren living in heavily polluted areas. People have benefitted from the re duced emissions: the average lead levels in the blood of Americans de creased by thirty-seven per cent be tween 19/6 and 1980. The successful effort to reduce lead pollution only accentuates the failure to achieve a comparable reduction ir the emissions of the other air pollut ants, which, on the average, decreased by only thirteen and two-tenths per cent between 1975 and 1985. Of these pollutants, dust emissions have im proved most--about thirty-two per cent;--although actual concentrations; in the air at some fifteen hundred tesi; sites have improved somewhat less. But the annual improvements came to a halt in 1982, and since then emissior levels of particulates have increased they rose by more than four per cen; between 1982 and 1985. Sulfur dioxide is a particularly seri ous pollutant, for it diminishes the respirator)' system's ability to deal with all other pollutants. It is also a major contributor to acid rain. Between 1975 and 1985, total sulfur-dioxide emis sions declined by nineteen per cent, most of the change occurring between 1975 and 1981; since then, emission: have remained essentially constant. Average concentrations at national resr sites improved somewhat more, in part because new power plants--a ma jor source of sulfur dioxide--are being built outside urban areas, while most of the test sites are inside urban aieas. Carbon monoxide, a pollutant th:r causes respiratory problems, is pro duced chiefly by cars, trucks, and buses, and the effort to deal with it is based on control systems that re duce emissions from automobile ex hausts. (The control devices also reduce e'nn Admiralentertains a new idea forstoring mine. 47 ' .t For convenience and affordability, nothing comes dose to the new Admiral Wine Cellar. It creates the ideal environment for storing your wines with features like adjustable control 1c? maintair^g constanttemperatures between 40-65, humidity control for damp cork storage, a vibration-free design toguard against sece rnent suspension, and protection from strong fight. Plus The Wine Cellar's 40 bottle capacity lets you stock up on you favorite wines. Cations indude an under-counter kit for built-in installations and a panel trrrrvkftfeefeidoor model) to match surrounding decor. Optional (fcplay cabinet (shown) houses unit plus glassware, books, audio components, etc. See the Admiral Wine Celar today, for more Wiinformation or nearest dealer - - # _ caBl-800-637WML Admiral Horae Appliance* 7 wk \ VFr 000010476 50 anJ 9641 Sunset Boulevard, Beverly Hills, California 90210 (213) 276-2251 Reservations (213) 278-14S7 Cable Address-BEVHILL Telex-691-459 PTO-910-490-2 580 represented nationally by J-800-R-WARNER t;ak;ix>x Gentlemens Belts with a French Twist. From Lhe beau?\ of exotic reptile, lothe elegance of luxurious leather, each L'Aiglon bell lscrafiedasifii were a work of an. Because.to us.it is I. WnJl It- irwi-ki i!nl t^rv.`i>a! Ifjihr' i'-ni-, iir1 rr>r'i {ilwrUKjlr^ endliii'rt. Hi iht-1 SA l>\ V.jnL. liu JUNE 15, 1987 # waste-fuel emissions.) Total annual carbon-monoxide emissions decreased by fourteen per cent between 1975 and 1985, but between 1982 and 1985 they increased. In a number of cities, in cluding New York, the levels of car bon monoxide still violate E.P.A. standards. Photochemical smog, a complex mixture, is created when nitrogen ox ides emitted from automobile exhausts and power plants are converted by sunlight into highly reactive molecules and these combine with waste fuel to form ozone and other noxious chemi cals. The total emissions of nitrogen oxides increased by four per cent be tween 1975 and 1985. Ozone is not emitted as such but is formed in the air during smog reactions. Concentrations at national test sites decreased by fif teen per cent between 1975 and 1981, but have not changed since. The noxious smog chemicals are responsible for serious health hazards; people W'ith heart or respiratory prob lems are routinely warned to stay in doors during "smog alerts." This hazard is now more or less accepted as an unavoidable aspect of urban life. In some places, improvements in smog levels have been achieved by reducing traffic; yet smog continues to threaten health. For example, in Los Angeles, the worst-afflicted city, between 1973 and 1977 residents were subjected each year to at least two hundred and fifty days in which smog was at levels clas sified as "unheakhful," with more than a^hundred and twenty-five of these classified as "very unheakhful." In most large American cities, res idents are still exposed to unheakhful smog levels for fifty to a hundred and fifty days each year. One consequence of air pollution is acid rain. In keeping with the ecologj(cal rule that everything has to go { somewhere, sulfur dioxide and nitroI gen oxides, once they have been emitj tec into the air, are picked up by rain j and snow and brought down to earth j in the form of sulfates and nitrates, j Both these substances increase acidity, ! and in recent years many lakes--espe- i ciallv in the northeastern United States and Canada, but also in Europe fiave become more acid. In some of i these lakes, serious biological changes have occurred, often involving the vir tual elimination of fish populations. In cities, acid rain erodes buildings and monuments.:. Because scrubbers and the increased use of low-sulfur coal have reduced sulfur-dioxide emissions at coal-burn- upA 000010478 . THE NEV YORKER ing power plants, while emissions of nitrogen oxides from power plants and automotive vehicles have increased, there has been a noticeable shift in the four hundred locations on major Amer ican rivers shows that there has been no improvement in water quality at more than four-fifths of the tested sites. For and more than a hundred billion dol lars spent to meet them, have failed to improve water quality in most rivers The relatively few locations that have . relative contributions of these pollut example, the levels of fecal coliform improved are more than cancelled out ants to acid rain. Reports from Hub bacteria decreased at only fifteen per by the locations that have deteriorated bard Brook, a research station in New cent of the river stations, and increased Moreover, the occurrence of three se Hampshire, where acidity problems at five per cent. At half the locations, rious pollutants--nitrate, arsenic, and have been studied for a long time, the bacterial count was too high to cadmium--has increased considerably. show that as the sulfate content of permit swimming, according to the One of the chief symptoms of the precipitation declined by twenty-seven standard recommended by the Nation environmental crisis in the early nine per cent between 1964 and 1981 the al Technical Advisory' Committee on teen-seventies was eutrophication, es nitrate content increased by a hundred Water Quality Criteria. Levels of dis pecially in lakes. Lake Erie provided a and thirty-seven per cent. Not much solved oxygen, suspended sediments, dramatic example. The lake received improvement can be expected in the and phosphorus improved at thirteen an enormous burden of inadequately acid-rain problem, given the negligi to seventeen per cent of the locations, treated sewage and phosphate-rich de ble improvement in sulfur-dioxide but deteriorated at eleven to sixteen tergents from the cities surrounding it, emissions and the rising emissions of per cent of them. The most striking and chemical plants contributed mer nitrogen oxides. change--for the worse--was in ni cury and other toxic materials as well. The ecological processes that gov trate levels: increases were observed at Rivers carried nitrate and eroded soil ern the qualiry of surface waters are thirty per cent of the test stations and into the lake from heavily fertilized more complex than the chiefly chemi decreases at only seven per cent. Agri farms. By the nineteen-sixties and.sev cal events that govern air pollution. A cultural use of nitrogen fertilizer is a enties, especially in its western regions basic reason for the pollution of sur main source of this pollutant; in rivers and along the shoreline, Lake Erie face waters--rivers and lakes--as well that drain cropland, the number of was exhibiting the classic signs of eu as inshore marine waters is the stress sampling stations that report rising ni trophication: heavy algal overgrowths, placed on the natural ecological cycles trate levels is eight times the number epidemics of asphyxiated fish, and that, if they are kept in balance, reporting falling levels. Another ma sharply declining fish catches. Because maintain water quality. If inadequate jor source is nitrogen oxides emitted of its notoriety as a "dying lake," sewage-treatment systems dump exces into the air by vehicles and power Lake Erie has been intensively studied sive organic matter into a river or a plants and deposited in rain and snow in the last decade, and the results have lake, the accompanying fecal bacteria as nitrate; this accounts for increased been evaluated by elaborate statistical threaten health. As the excess organic river nitrate levels in the Northeast, techniques; the most detailed data are matter is broken down by aquatic mi despite the relative scarcity of heavily given in a recent lengthy E.P.A. re croorganisms, they may consume so fertilized acreage in that area. The port. This report makes a telling com much oxygen that fish begin to die. If survey also shows that there was a parison of pollution levels along vari urban and industrial waste and runoff sharp increase in the occurrence of two ous reaches of the western lakeshore, from agricultural areas increase nitrate toxic elements, arsenic and cadmium where eutrophication had been partic and phosphate concentrations beyond (a cause of lung and kidney damage), ularly troublesome. In 1972 and 1973, the levels maintained by a balanced cy in American rivers between 1974 and three of-twentv-one shoreline regions cle, eutrophication occurs. Heavy' algal 1981; but, as expected from the re were classified as entirely or partly blooms are formed and soon die, bur duced automotive emissions, the oc eutrophic; in 1978 and 1979, eu dening the system with excessive or currence of lead declined. trophication was more widespread, af ganic matter and reducing oxygen An over-all assessment of the fecting twelve of twenty-one shoreline content. In addition, high nitrate changes in these standard measures of regions. levels in drinking water may create water quality can be gained from the According to the E.P.A. report, the health problems such as methemo average trends. For the five standard rate of oxygen depletion in the central globinemia (a condition that reduces pollutants, the frequency of improving basin of Lake Erie increased by fifteen the oxygen-carrying capacity of the trends averaged 13.2 per cent; but the per cent between 1970 and 19*80, fol blood, especially in infants) and may frequency of deteriorating trends aver lowing a trend that went back as far as contribute to the formation of carcin aged l4.y per cent: thus, at more than 1930. The entry of phosphates from ogens. Toxic chemicals only add to four-fifths of the test sites, over-all certain city sewage systems has de these harmful effects. water quality deteriorated or remained clined, as a result of campaigns to In the last decade, particular rivers the same. In sum, the regulations reduce the use of phosohate-contain- and lakes here and there have been mandated by the Clean Water Act, ing detergents--probably the most cleanea up by closing sources of pollu successful such effort, in Detroit, re tion and building new sewage-treat- duced phosphate concentrations in the men: plants. Yet in that period, na Detroit River by nearly seventy per tionally-, there has been little or no cent between 1971 and 1981--but the over-all improvement in the levels of acquisition of phosphates from all the the five standard pollutants that deter rivers entering the lake was reduced mine water quality: fecal coliform bac much less; only four of twelve test sites teria, dissolved oxygen, nitrate, phos showed any improvement. Over all, phorus, and suspended sediments. A phosphates entering Lake Erie de recent survey of the trends in pollution creased by about a third between 1972 levels between 1974 and 1981 at nearly SluART IfCDS and 1982. The same E.P.A. report UFA 00001047? 52 JUNE 15, 1987 Ich records the catch of commercial been observed in Iowa. In 1984, the fish from 1920 to 1980. The once Geological Survey summarized the sit- valuable catch of herring and white- uation: "Current trends suggest that fish dropped off sharply after 1950, nitrate accumulations in groundwater and' by I960 it was close to zero, of the United States will continue to The E.P.A. report showed that the increase in the future." catch had not recovered between 1960 and 1980. T7IFTEEN years ago, public-opin- In 1970, Lake Erie was widely X' ion polls on environmental issues mourned as a dying lake, and serious showed that most people were worried efforts were made to revive it. Yet " about water and air pollution--espe- nearly two decades after our environ- cially smog. Now, even though these tween 1970 and 1980, the body burden of PCB in freshwater fish decreased by fifty-six per cent, and in birds (star lings) by eighcy-six per cent. In peopie, the percentage of Americans with relatively high levels of PCB (above three parts per million) in their fatty tissue decreased by about seventy-five per cent, Since 1950, however, the roster of serious chemical pollutants has steadily expanded. Hundreds of toxic chemi- mental reawakening Lake Erie, despite problems remain largely unsolved, cals, many of them carcinogenic, have some limited improvements, remains a polls show that as a public concern air been detected in water supplies, air, flagrant example of environmental pol- and water pollution runs behind a new and food. For the first time in the lution. The condition of less famous environmental threat--toxic chemi- three-and-a-half-billion-year history lakes is just as bad. This is particularly cals. In the early nineteen-seventies, of life on this planet, living things are true of lakes in heavily farmed areas, this problem was due largely to agri- burdened with a host of man-made where nitrogen and phosphorus fertil- cultural products--insecticides, herbi- poisonous substances. According to a izers leach from the soil into rivers and cides, and fungicides. DDT and simi- recent E.P.A. survey, members of the lakes. A 1982 survey found that of a lar chlorinated insecticides were the general American population now car- hundred and seven lakes in Iowa all most notorious examples. In 1972, the ry several dozen man-made chemicals, were eutrophic, and so were more than use of DDT and related insecticides many of them carcinogenic, in their eighty per cent of the lakes in Ohio was banned in the United States because body fat (and generally in the fat of and Pennsylvania. A national survey they were shown to promote cancers mothers' milk as well). Toxic chemi- of changes in water quality between and also to be a hazard to wildlife, cals now seriously pollute important 1972 and 1982 showed almost no prog- One of the most noticeable effects segments of the food chain. In the ress in lakes. Only 2.4 per cent of the of DDT was the decline in bird pop- Great Lakes, for example, the toxic- total lake acreage improved; 10.1 per ulations; DDT interferes with the chemical levels of salmon, trout, and cent became more degraded; 62.1 per biochemistry of reproduction, making walleye often exceed Food and Drug cent was unchanged; no reports were eggs thin-shelled and thus easily de- Administration standards for human available for the remainder. stroyed before they hatch. Banning the consumption. Tumors are found on About fifty per cent of the popula- use of DDT has been very effective, the fish with increasing frequency, tion of the United States depends on For example, between 1969 and 1975 The total toxic-chemical problem is underground sources--groundwater the average DDT content of brown huge. The American petrochemical i--for its drinking water. The United pelicans in South Carolina decreased industry produces about two hundred States Geological Survey and state by seventy-seven per cent, and by 1976 and sixty-five million metric tons of agencies monitor the quality of ground- the number of fledglings more than hazardous waste annually; toxic chem- water by testing wells throughout the tripled. People have benefitted as well: icals generally make up about one per country. The results, based on readings between 1970 and 19S3, average cent of this material, and the rest is from more than a hundred thousand DDT levels in body fat in the Ameri- made up't>f water and other non-toxic wells, show that in the past twenty-five can population decreased by seventy- carriers. About a third of this waste is years these `sources have become in- nine per cent. The banning of poly- emitted, uncontrolled, into the envi- creasingly polluted by nitrates and tox- chlorinated biphenyl, another notori- ronmem. Moreover, most of the con ic chemicals. Fertilizer was chiefly re- ous chemical pollutant--it increases trolled, or "managed," waste is in- sponsible for the rising nitrate levels. In the incidence of cancer and birth jected underground, sometimes into Nebraska, a 1983 survey showed that defects--has had a similar effect. Be- water systems, and thus becomes a eighty-two per cent of the wells over lone-term threat to the environment. the nitrate limit established by health Only about one per cent of the indus authorities (ten milligrams per litre of try's toxic waste is actually destroyed. nitrogen in the form of nitrate) were The chemical industry has. largely contaminated by fertilizer nitrogen. In unrestrained, become the major threat California's Sacramento Valley, a very to environmental quality. heavily cropped area, nitrate contami nation of wells has been monitored for a long time. In the fifty-year period following 1912, the percentage of wells nvironmental pollution from ra E dioactive materials is in a class by itself; it originates from a single sector with excessive nitrates (defined as five of production--the manipulation of and a half milligrams per litre) approx nuclear energy for peaceful or military imately doubled. More recently, the purposes. Radiation exposure due to percentage of wells with excessive ni the normal operation of the nuclear trates doubled again--this time in only power industry appears to be quite a four-year period, between 1974 and small compared with exposure to natu 1978. The major source of the nitrates ral sources of radioactivity such as ra is nitrogen fertilizer leaching from ir don and cosmic rays: it is less than one rigation water. A similar trend has one-hundredth of one per cent of the THE NEV YORKER 53 natural exposure. But this is a national average; near power plants, exposures are certainly higher. There is no widely disseminated ac counting of the radioactivity that enters the environment from minor nuclear-power-plant malfunctions. At most, there are only reports that an accidental emission of radioactive materia] has occurred--generally with no information about the actual radi ation exposure but only the state ment that "the amount of radiation released was harmless." (Such state ments are wrong. Radiation, no matter how weak, always involves the risk of some harm, and the risk is propor tional to the dose received. A very small exposure from a dental X-ray, say, has a correspondingly small risk, which is presumably worth taking in view of the expected benefit.) A partial measure of the radioactivity released by nuclear power plants is available from E.P.A. studies of krypton-85, a radioactive gas uniquely associat ed with the operation of such plants. The average annual concentration of krypton-85 in the air increased by eighty per cent between 1970 and I /AUSIC OF THE SPHERES 1983, thus increasing the environ mental hazard. Accidents that disrupt the contain UPA 000010480 ment structures protecting the envi ronment from the huge amount of Europe range above a hundred thou chlorofluorocarbons (petrochemical radioactive material in an operating sand; more than a hundred thousand products widely used in refrigerators nuclear reactor present a far larger people have been evacuated from their and air-conditioners). The strato hazard than is presented by typical homes; some hundreds of square miles spheric ozone layer protects the earth malfunctions. Until 1979, this was an of agricultural land have become use from solar ultraviolet radiation; if it is abstract concern, for some abstruse-- less; radioactive fallout disrupted milk sufficient^- depleted, people will be ex and considerably disputed--statistical and vegetable production throughout posed to an intensity of radiation capa computations concluded that the prob most of Europe. ble of significantly increasing the inci ability of a serious accident might be as The hazardous consequence of one dence of skin cancer. Recent studies in low as one in a million per year per aspect of nuclear technology--fallout Antarctica indicate that the ozone reactor. The accident at the Three from test explosions of nuclear weap layer is continuing to thin out. Despite Mile Island nuclear power plant, in ons in the atmosphere--has been con an international agreement to reduce 1979, brought the abstract discussions siderably reduced by the straightfor the production of chlorofluorocarbons, down to earth. While the outcome of ward procedure of simply stopping the and some progress in the United the accident was far less serious than process that creates it. As a result of States, little has been done thus far to it might have been--the reactor's core the 1963 treaty signed by the United stop this chemical assault on the strato partially melted and extensively con States and the Soviet Union, atmo sphere. Another problem is the pro taminated the interior of the reactor spheric tests have halted (except for a gressive warming of the earth's sur building and released some radio few conducted by China and France), face because of the accumulation of activity into the environment--it sug and fallout radioactivity, in keeping carbon dioxide and other gases in the gested that serious mechanical failures with natural decay processes, has de upper atmosphere. Sunlight falling on were far more probable than the cal clined. For example, a national survey the earth is sooner or later converted culations had indicated. of milk showed chat it contained 23.8 into heat, which radiates outward, so In April of 1986, of course, a sec picocuries of strontium 90 per litre in the planet's temperature is determined ond failure occurred--a: the Soviet 1964, 7.3 in 1970, and 2.0 in 1984. by the balance between the sunlight Union's Chernobyl nuclear power falling on the earth and the heat leav Fplant--which led to a radioactive di saster. At least thirty-one people have INALLY, we need to consider the ing it. The concentration of carbon American contribution to global dioxide in the atmosphere governs the died and more than two hundred have environmental problems. One of thesere-radiation process, for the gas acts suffered acute radiation sickness; esti problems is the progressive depletion like an energy valve, allowing sunlight mates of future cancer deaths from the of ozone in the stratosphere, which is through but tending to hold heat radioactive fallout over a wide area of due largely to the increased use of back. Since 1850, the increased use of v'PA 0000104*1 5* fuel that produces carbon dioxide the President and the government between 1975 and 1981 but only 1.16 when it is burned has gradually in agency that is responsible for improv per cent between 1981 and 1985. In creased the atmospheric-carbon-diox- ing the environment, but it is scarcely deed, since 1982 the long-term, if ide concentration, and the earth's av justified by the Administration's en gradual, decline in air-pollutant emis erage temperature has steadily risen; forcement record. From 1973 to 1979, sions has come to a halt. Between an additional three or four degrees the annual number of civil enforce 1982 and 1985, there was an average Fahrenheit in average temperature is ment actions by the E.P.A. increased annual increase of 0.87 per cent in expected by the middle of the twenty- year by year, paralleling the modest these emissions; the emission of only first century. This may cause drastic decline in pollution levels, at least in one of the five pollutants (sulfur diox changes in climate--for example, the air. Then, after Reagan took of ide) declined. It has been argued that flooding of coastal areas (including fice, budget cuts were imposed on the the halt in the rate of environmen many cities), and severe drought in E.P.A. most severely in those divisions tal improvement is due not so much North America, Europe, and Asia. In which deal with enforcement. To no to weaker enforcement and reduced recent years, other gases, such as the one's surprise, enforcement proceed abatement expenditures as to increased chlorofiuorocarbons, have added to the ings dropped off; between 1980 and industrial activity during the period. problem. As a result, the latest projec 1981, the number of cases involving However, industrial activity berween tions predict severe climatic changes violations of environmental laws that 1975 and 1980 increased at about the by 2030. the E.P.A. referred to the Department same rate as it did between 1982 This "greenhouse effect" (glass re of Justice decreased by sixty-nine per and 1985, but it was only in the earlier sembles carbon dioxide in its effect on cent. More recently, with new E.P.A. period that the major decline in sunlight and heat, a property that administrators, the caseload has in air-pollution levels occurred. It ap helps to keep a greenhouse warm in creased, suggesting that the earlier de pears that Reagan has left his mark the winter) can be slowed down only crease reflected Administration policy not only on environmental policy if there is a sharp reduction in rather than some sudden decline in the but also on the environment itself the use of combustible fuel, but noth number of environmental scofHaws. --a mark that can be measured in ing has been done thus far to deal These changes can be directly- tons of dust, sulfur dioxide, carbon with this problem, and it continues traced to policies established by Presi monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and or to carry the world toward a climatic dent Reagan, who in transmitting a ganic compounds that could otherwise catastrophe. recent annual environmental report to have been removed from the nation's Congress' declared, "We have ex polluted air. SO much for the statistics on the panded innovative programs which al The lack of improvement in the changing state of the environ low industry the regulatory flexibility' acid-rain problem can also be traced to ment. What do they mean? Do theyand economic incentives to clean up Reagan's policies. While his Adminis indicate that we can repel the assault pollution." The term "regulatory tration has grudgingly acknowledged on the environment by gradually re- flexibility" is the industrial lobbyist's that there is an acid-rain problem, it dpcing pollution at the present modest well-known euphemism for relaxing has refused to accept the widely held and uncertain rate: Can we accelerate the enforcement of regulations. And view of its cause, and has therefore the process by more stringent emission Reagan's message has obviously been done little to deal with it apart from controls? Each year, the annual received by American industry. Capi a recent Administration promise to C.E.Q. report has accompanied its tal expenditures for new plant and fund more research--an action that environmental statistics equipment for pollution led a member of the Canadian Parlia with optimistic answers abatement by American ment to remark, "It won't reduce to such questions. The industries, which had emissions by a single ounce." 1983 report, for exam been at an average level Though environmental organiza ple, began the chapter of about four billion tions are usually critical of Reagan's on environmental trends eight hundred million environmental stewardship, they with this assertion: "As dollars per year (in nearly match his optimism about the measured by traditional constant 1972 dollars) course of environmental improvement. indices, such as the between 1973 and I960, For example, the Conservation Foun amount of pollutants in have since declined, dation's 1982 report entitled "State of surface water and air, the overall sinking to three billion dollars in the Environment" claimed: quality of the environment in the 1983. It is. of course, not surprising The nation has made impressive pro* United States seems to be improving." that Reagan's policies have been car press in it- attack on some conventional This modest claim was inflated by ried out by his environmental agencies environmental problems. . . . Emissions of President Reagan, who said shortly and his industrial supporters. What after the report appeared, "I am proud was also foreseeable, and even more to report that the most recent studies disturbing, was that these policies of the Environmental Protection .would affect the environment itself. So most major air pollutants have continued to decline. ... Available data show no similar progress toward water quality goals. Still, even to hold the status quo is an achievement in the face of significant Agency snow that we have made great while the annual emissions of air pol economic and population growth since progress in cleaning up the air and lutants gradually declined between 1970. water"--a statement, hardlv war 1975 and 19SI, the year in which It seems that at least some environ ranted by the facts, that one environ Reagan took office, they have since mental activists are moderately happy mental leader described as "a big leap decreased much more slowly or not at about their accomplishments. But such forward," because Reagan chose even all. For all the air pollutants other optimism does not necessarily respond to mention the environment. than lead, the average annual rate of to the original thrust of the environ Self-praise is perhaps natural from decline in emissions was 1.52 per cent mental movement, which envisioned A A 56 JUNE 15. 1987 not an environment that was a little tering the environment: either the pol of the phasing out of leaded gasoline less polluted than h was in 1970, or lutant is eliminated from the activity --after all, every ounce of lead not holding its own against an expanding that generates it, or a control device is added to gasoline is also absent from- economy, but an environment free of added to "trap or destroy the pollutant the environment--the installation of mindless assaults on ecological before it enters the environment. an exhaust-control system cannot processes. By this standard, the ques The few real improvements have completely halt carbon-monoxide pol tion is whether the movement's goal been achieved not by adding control lution. Even when the system is in can be reached by the present spotty, devices or concealing pollutants (as by perfect working order, it does not trap gradual, and now diminishing course pumping hazardous chemical wastes all the carbon monoxide but only about of environmental improvement or into deep water-bearing strata) but ninety per cent of it. Besides, the effec whether some different course must, be simplv bv eliminating the pollutants. tiveness of the catalyst rapidly declines followed. To find the answer, it is For example, the reason that there is with use, so any delay in replacing it helpful to distinguish between the rea now so much less strontium 90 in milk means increased pollution. As long as sons for the rather few environmental and in children's bones is that we and control devices are not absolutely per successes and the reasons for the more the Russians have had the simple wis fect--and none are--continued in numerous partial or complete failures. dom to stop atmospheric testing of nu crease in the pollution-generating ac We need to explain the striking fact clear weapons, which produces it. tivity (traffic, for example) will gradu that while the levels of most pollutants When the process that produces a ally overwhelm the devices' effect on have declined only modestly, and pollutant is stopped--the banning of environmental quality. Finally, con others not at all, a few have been pesticides, the halt in atmospheric nu trol devices cannot be used at all if the reduced quite sharply: lead, DDT and clear testing--there is considerable pollutant's points of entry into the en similar chlorinated pesticides, mercury environmental improvement; if, in vironment are so numerous that they in surface waters, radioactive fallout stead, an effort is made to control the are impossible to identify. The classic from nuclear-bomb tests, and, in some pollutant by recapturing or destroying example is the nitrates that leach from rivers, phosphates. Understanding it before it escapes into the environ heavily fertilized soil into rivers and these successes, which begin to fulfill ment, there is some improvement in lakes along every inch of their banks. the original aim of the environmental environmental quality, but generally All these reasons explain why those movement, may shed light on the rea not much. In fact, such controls are environmental pollutants--concentra sons for the more common failures and ultimately self-defeating. To begin tions of carbon monoxide, sulfur diox suggest how they may be remedied. with, the effect of a control device is ide, and dust, for example--that are There are two general wavs in which never complete. For example, unlike now subjected to control systems have a pollutant may be prevented from en the absolute impact on lead pollution decreased so slowly. They also explain Found in finernests everywhere. ' SCn: * > > wJJ'uatf'' -jo; WILDTURKEY 8 years old. 101 proof, pure Kentucky , a-. >rrr { i;rr- *-r; xy. s ***;>* KhPSOsw-t'yS'i ajSTus nCKcS C '.?* THE NEV YORKER. 57 why pollution from agricultural chem icals such as nitrogen fertilizer, which arises from "non-point" sources, has continued to increase. Thus, the decade or more of effort to improve the quality of the environ ment teaches us a fairly simple lesson: pollution levels can be reduced enough to at least approach the goal of elimi nation only if the production or the use of the offending substances is halted. This precept directs our atten altered technology only replaced one hazard with another. Toxaphene, a hazardous insecticide, was widely used instead of DDT, especially for corton crops; as a result, while their DDT content fell the toxaphene content of fish increased more than twentyfold between 1970 and 1980. In sum, there is a consistent expla nation for the few instances of envi ronmental success: they occur only when the relevant technologies of pro pression engines. Today, oil compa nies have replaced lead with petro chemical anti-knock compounds (which they produce) or, to a much smaller extent, with ethanol produced from agricultural crops. Removing lead from gasoline un equivocally eliminated its impact on the environment, but the nitrogenoxide problem is much more intracta ble. Unlike lead, which had been de liberately introduced into the gasoline tion to the technology of production-- duction are changed to eliminate the engine, nitrogen oxides are an un the vast and varied machinery of in pollutant. If no such change is made, wanted by-product of its operation. dustry, agriculture, and transporta pollution continues unabated or, at Modern engines produce nitrogen ox tion. We can then see that all the best--if a control device is used--is ides because they run at higher com really successful environmental im only slightly reduced. For example, pression ratios, and therefore at higher provements have been achieved by pollution from fertilizer nitrates, temperatures, than older engines. At altering that technology. The very which cannot be controlled, has in such elevated temperatures, when the considerable reduction in mercury in creased because nitrogen fertilizer, far oxygen and nitrogen in the air are Lake Erie nicely illustrates this fact. from being banned, continues to play a drawn into the engine they react In 1970, there were very high concen major role in agricultural production. chemically, forming nitrogen oxides. trations of mercury in Lake Erie sedi In the same way, adding a control After the Second World War, because ments; most of the lake bottom con device to the automobile engine with American car manufacturers decided tained a thousand to two thousand out changing its basic technology has to build larger cars they were forced to parts per million, and more than that only slightly reduced carbon-monox install more powerful engines. In turn, near the outlet of the Detroit River. In ide pollution. What has been done in more power required a higher com March of 1970, walleye contaminated regard to automotive technology ac pression ratio, and, inevitably, nitro with seven parts per million--fourteen counts for both a striking environmen gen oxides were emitted. Thus, the times the acceptable level--were found tal success, the eighty-six-per-cent re auto industry's decision to build larger in a tributary of the lake. The major duction in environmental lead, and a cars created the photochemical-smog source was soon discovered: chlorine- very troublesome failure, the contin problem and worsened the problem of producing plants that used mercury to ued emissions of nitrogen oxide, con acid rain. conduct the electric current that, tributing to the attendant smog and Apart from a limited flirtation with passed through a brine solution, acid rain. As we have seen, lead pollu small cars during recent energy yielded the chlorine. Threatened by tion was reduced by the simple expedi shortages, the industry has been un legal action, the plants adopted an al ent of cutting back its use in gasoline. willing to build cars light enough to ternate technology in which a semi- This change was motivated partly by be driven by low-compression engines. porous diaphragm instead of mercury concern over the health hazard but An existing engine that can operate at established the electrical circuit. By perhaps more strongly by a technolog high compression ratios without sub 1979, the concentration of mercury in ical accident: the platinum catalyst in jecting the air in the cylinder to exces most of the lake sediments was less the exhaust system designed to control sive temperatures (the "charge-strati than three hundred parts per million, carbon monoxide is poisoned by lead. fication" engine) could also help to and fish levels were much improved. But when the E.P.A. was forced to solve the problem. But American man Mercury pollution in Lake Erie was mandate a shift from leaded to un ufacturers have thus far been reluctant sharply curtailed by the simple process leaded gasoline the lead had to be re to make the large-scale production of changing the technology of chlorine placed, not merely eliminated, for it changes needed to take advantage of production. performed an essential function in cur this opportunity. Nitrogen oxides from PCB provides a similar example. rent gasoline engines. It prevented the automotive transportation could also This highly toxic synthetic substance "knocking" that can seriously hamper be eliminated by the substitution of ,, was widely used in a number of the operation of modern, high-com- electric motors, which produce no en processes, ranging from the manufac vironmental emissions at all, for the ture of "carbonless*" carbon paper to present ones. In diesel engines, diesel- the manufacture of electrical trans fuei combustion produces carcinogenic formers. When PCB production was banned, in the late nineteen-seventies, each of these manufacturing processes was simply altered to exclude it, and emissions' into the environment fell precipitously. In the same way, the levels of DDT and related insecticides in the environment and in the human body have declined considerably be cause those substances were eliminated from agricultural practice in the early nineteen-seventies. In this case, the chemicals, and these adhere to the tiny carbon particles emitted by the engine. Here, too, the auto industry has been unwilling to make the considerable changes in engine technology needed to reduce the hazardous emissions. Smog and diesel carcinogens continue to burden the air--and our bodies-- because the productive technologies that generate them have not been changed to eliminate them. In essence, the effort to deal with A PA 0000 L04c'4 A 58 JUNE 15, 1987 environmental pollution has been triv fuel, and since these fuels produce far ample, a Time cover story on the Bho ialized. A great deal of attention has less sulfur dioxide and dust than coal pal disaster stated: been paid to designing--and enforcing the use of--control devices that can reduce ha2ardous emissions only mod erately. Much less attention has been does this shift has added to the sulfurdioxide problem. But no serious effort has been made to promote existing sources of power that can improve en The citizens of Bhopal lived near the Union Carbide plant because they sought to live there. The plant provided jobs, the pesticide more food. Bhopal was a modern given to the more difficult but reward ing task of changing the basic tech nologies that produce the pollutants. Production technology encompasses vironmental quality. These include so lar sources, such as photovoltaic cells, and decentralized power systems--no tably cogenerators--that greatly en parable of the risks and rewards originally engendered by the Industrial Revolution. . . . The world is Bhopal, a place where the occupational hazard is modern life. History teaches thal there is no avoiding not only the design of a particular facility, such as a car, but the over-all system in which it operates--in this case, transportation. While remedying hance fuel efficiency, so that their en vironmental impact is much less than that of conventional power plants. Under the Reagan Administration, that hazard, and no point in trying: one only trusts that the gods in the machines will give a good deal more than they take away. the vehicle's inherent faults government support for the This is a widely held position: the is useful, much greater en development of such energy chemical plant improved the life of the vironmental improvement sources has been severely Indian people; such disasters seem to can be accomplished by reduced. be a price that must be paid for such addressing the system of In the petrochemical in benefits of modern production technol transportation as a whole. dustry, which generates the ogy. But the facts contradict this posi Compared with railroads, toxic chemicals that so tion. Consider how well the Bhopal cars are a highly inefficient grievously pollute the plant "provided jobs." Bhopal is a city means of long-distance and environment, there is a of six hundred and seventy thousand commuter travel, but they unique relationship between people, and perhaps a third of them are essential in many places, environmental impact and were living in shanties next to the even with effective mass transit, for the technology of production. In other plant. But the plant provided jobs for urban travel. Cars designed exclusive sectors of production--the electric- only a few hundred. The community ly for this purpose could be much power industry, say--the product is that grew up around the plant had lighter and driven by less powerful not itself a pollutant, and there are been attracted not by jobs but by sec low-compression engines or, for that environmentally benign ways of pro ondary amenities like the water supply matter, by non-polluting electric mo ducing it. In contrast, the manufacture and the roads, and the vast majority of tors. Together with the expansion of of almost every petrochemical product the people lived in extreme poverty. urban and suburban mass-transit sys is accompanied by the production of And how well do the pesticides that tems and inter-urban rail lines, this toxic wastes. Moreover, many of the are produced from methyl isocyanate would virtually eliminate ozone and goods manufactured, such as pesticides --carbamate insecticides such as Sevin smog and greatly reduce environmen- and plastics, are pollutants themselves. and Temik--provide more food: Such .. tal nitrogen oxides. Moreover, lower In effect, environmental pollution Js pesticides can, of course, protect crops ! gasoline consumption would reduce an integral aspect of petrochemical- from insect attack and improve pro ' carbon-monoxide emissions even with proouction technology. duction. However, in developing out exhaust controls. In the same way, -- The chemical disaster in Bhopal, countries most pesticides are used not carcinogenic diesel exhaust could be India, in 1984, in which thousands of on local food crops but on crops crown sharply reduced by a shift from truck- people died and two hundred thousand for export--cotton, coffee, bananas. borne freight to railroad freight, were injured, manv of them for life, Such "monoculture" agriculture is which is four times as fuel-efficient. In dramatizes the problems inherent in particularly susceptible to insect at sum, the serious continuing impact of petrochemical-production technology. tack, so there is a heavy reliance on the transportation system on the en The conventional view is that the pesticides. For example, a 1979 study vironment results from the failure to Bhopal disaster was due to some tech reported that El Salvador, a very small alter not only the technical design of nical fault in the plant that produced country, used about one-fihh of the cars.'crucks, and buses but also the sys the toxic chemical methyl isocyanate, world's parathion output to treat its tem of transportation itself. which is used to manufacture insecti coffee crop. Moreover, Third World The effort to deal effectively with cides. There is, of course, no perfectly countries use many hazardous pesti sulfur-dioxide and dust pollution from accident-free industrial process; and cides that have been banned in the power plants has been hampered by the this is particularly true of petrochemi developed countries. Although rela- same sort of superficial approach--re cal plants, which not ortlv are complex tivel) little pesticide is used directly on liance on control devices rather than but turn out numerous dangerous food crops, they are nevertheless con changes in production technology. products and by-products, Indeed, taminated by pesticides sprayed or. Since the early nineteen-seventies, there have been repeated accidents at nearbv export crops. As a result, food more stringent requirements for con the L r.ion Carbide methyl-isocyanate grown in Third W oric countries is trol systems have apparently reduced plants both in Bhopal and in Institute, often heavily contaminated. Yet crops the contribution of coal-burnir.e est Virginia--accidents that have can be produced with much less depen power plants to sulfur-dioxide and exposed workers and ir some cases the dence on pesticides. "Integrated pest dust emissions. But changes in the neighborhood to this dangerous sub management" is a way of deciding at over-all structure of the power system stance. The conventional view accepts precisely what time and in precisely have had the opposite effect. In recent the inevitability of such risks and seeks what amounts an insecticide is needed. years, coal has progressively displaced to balance them against the benefits of It can considerably reduce the amounts oil and natural gas as a power-plant producing methyl isocyanate. For ex- used, and therefore the danger of con THE NE'*' YORKER tamination. Because of opposition cial heart--petrochemical products ject to human choice. Logically, there from the chemical companies, how could be replaced bv less hazardous fore, the decisions that determine the ever, this process is still little used in ones. Thus, the petrochemical indus choice of production technology ought the United States or in other developed try is unique: not only its wastes but its to be governed by the constraints in countries, and is used hardly at all in developing countries. The real goal at Bhopal, therefore, should be not merely to make the plant safer but to end the need for operating very products degrade the environ ment; its hazards are largely immune to either prevention or control; and most of its products are replaceable. The petrochemical industry is inher herent in nature. But in fact the actual direction of governance is reversed. The design of the man-made system of production is not governed by the nicely balanced attributes of the natu it by transforming the technology of agricultural production: eliminating-- or, at least, greatly reducing--its de pendence on pesticides. Rather than trust in the gods in the machines, we need to decide for ourselves what kinds of machines best serve both the envi ronment and society. Unlike the steel, auto, and electricpower industries, the petrochemical industry--on its present scale, at least --is not essentiilj Ncftfly all Its prod ucts are substitutes for perfectly ser viceable preexisting ones: plastics for paper, wood, and metals; detergents ently inimical to environmental qual ral system; instead, as we have seen, ity. The only effective wav to limit its the state of the environment is deter dangerous impact on the environment mined by the production technologies is to limit the industry itself. that have been chosen to support in dustry, agriculture, and transporta TO ardent environmentalists, such tion. talk about the technology of pro So the environmentalist who wishes duction may seem an irrelevant, toorgrapple with this illogical arrange even a hostile, digression. Like any ment needs to turn from the fairly embattled minority, environmentalists rigid but harmonious pattern of nature are prone to emphasize the singular to the more flexible but chaotic realm importance of their special interest-- of human decisions. And this realm the preservation of the natural envi necessarily includes not only the ronment. This position, of course, has choice of production technologies but a good deal of merit; after all, every also the closely related economic deci for soap; nitrogen fertilizer for soil, organic matter, and nitrogen-fixing crops (the natural sources of nitro gen); pesticides for the insects' natural aspect of human society depends on the ecosystem--for the natural resources that support production, for the air we breathe, for the green plants that feed sions. Logic tells us that the economic system--the processes that mediate the flow of wealth--is contingent on the system of production, which is, after predators. Apart from relatively few items that cannot be produced in any other wav--such as pharmaceutical drugs, videotape, and the plastic artifi us and other animals. Moreover, the environment is governed by stubborn, largely unalterable natural forces, while the system of production is sub all, the source of the goods and ser vices that generate economic wealth. In a logical arrangement, therefore, just as environmental constraints Gu00104w5 The latest improvements were made over 600 years ago. The classical perfection of Korean An is admired QQp the world over. .And its ..-i-,, affordability is appreciated by every visitor Korea offers some of the best antiques and antique markets in Asia. And reproducuons are simply 'unimproved' versions of the classics. Solid, well-made. the products of craftsmen. Let us send you more on the unique shopping. and everything else, that makes Korea so special. S ) 10 Korss Naoom.' Tounsrr, Corponuor. K'jra Center BiJt.. 4&J Part. Avt . Suite 40u. Ncj York.NT I002C. U S.A Tei ,2i: f#?-r>4i4 Tb. kntcnyvr::;^ Nam?__ Addrss . KoreA. HOMI O' THE OLv".*Ki MCM. ipi 0000 10406 .60 JUNE 15,1987 ought to govern the design of the pro duction system, that design should, in turn, specify appropriate features of the economic system. For example, if thr importance of eliminating smog by the higher profits obtainable from alternative investments in oil and chemicals. Similarly, the postwar his tory of American agricultural chemi cals was motivated by the increased same effect. For these reasons, the eco nomic productivity of agricultural chemicals--that is, the crop output per unit of chemical input--has decreased by fifty per cent since 1960, and it is ought to specify the design of. automo economic returns on investment that still falling. Thus, both increased bile engines, then the need to build they engendered. Finally, the produc stress on the environment and falling such engines ought to govern the au tion of petrochemicals is more profit economic efficiency are inherent in the tomobile industry's investment deci able than the manufacture of the prod present system of agricultural produc sions--in part, at least. But here, too, ucts that they replace; for example, tion. In the past few years, American the logical direction of governance is" profits on detergent production are farming has been undergoing a deep reversed: the decisions that determine significantly higher than profits on ening economic crisis, marked by nu the design of the system of production soap production. merous bankruptcies, especially of --what is produced and by what tech It is economic motivation, then, that family farms. Each year, as agricul nological means--are determined has impelled the sweeping anti-ecolog- tural chemicals become more expen largely by economic considerations ical changes in the technology of pro sive and less efficient in improving that are quite independent of the prod duction that have occurred since the crop production, farmers must incur a uct's environmental impact, the chief Second World War. These changes higher debt to buy the chemicals, and consideration being the profitability of have turned the nation's factories, thereby become more vulnerable to the enterprise. farms, vehicles, and shops into seed bankruptcy. The heavy dependence of In sum, the decisions that govern beds of pollution: nitrates from fertil agricultural technology on chemicals environmental quality originate in the izer; phosphates from detergents; toxic has hurt not only the quality of the economic realm, and are translated residues from pesticides; smog and car environment but the farmers' liveli into the design of productive technol cinogenic exhaust from vehicles; the hood as well. ogy, which--as now constituted--in growing list of toxic chemicals and the Economics also explains the reluc turn visits upon the environment the mounds of undegradable plastic con tance of the petrochemical industry to evils of pollution. This relationship tainers, wrappings, and gewgaws from deal effectively with its toxic waste. becomes dear when we consider the the petrochemical industry. The only practical, though far from origins of the major environmental The decisions to make these techno satisfactory, way to keep toxic chemi problems. Smog, for example, is the logical changes have been shortsighted cals out of the environment is to de end result of the economic motivation not only because of their impact on the stroy them--in specially designed in that led the auto industry to decide to environment but also because they of cinerators, for example. This process, manufacture large, powerful cars, for, ten generate serious economic prob however, is so expensive--as much as as John DeLorean, a former General lems. For example, the intensive use of two thousand dollars per metric ton-- Motors executive, has said, "when we agricultural chemicals has harmed not that if it were to be applied to the total ishould have been planning switches to only the environment but, in recent annual tonnage of toxic chemicals (an smaller, more fuel-efficient, lighter years, the agricultural economy as estimated two million six hundred and cars in the late 1960s in response to a well. As increasing amounts of fertil fifty thousand tons) it might cost about growing demand in the marketplace, izer are applied to the soil, crop five and a half billion dollars, an G.M. management refused because growth reaches a limit, and thereafter amount larger than the annual profit `we make more money on big cars.' " the yield produced per unit of fertilizer of the thirty largest American chem Recent changes in the technology of falls, and economic productivity is re ical companies, which include most of electric-power production which have duced. At the same time, excess, unas the nation's petrochemical industry. seriously affected .environmental qual similated fertilizer leaches through the Proper treatment of its waste would ity have also been economically moti soil into surface water and intensifies thus force the industry to raise prices vated. When the utilities were per pollution. Similarly, the continued use and face serious competition from the suaded that nuclear power would be of pesticides breeds resistance in the natural products that it has replaced. "too cheap to meter," they hastened to pests, so that more and more of the In the end, the decisions that have build nuclear power plants, thereby chemicals must be used to achieve the so gravely affected the environment creatine the monumental have also had serious eco hazards of nuclear accidents and the still unresolved prob lem of radioactive waste. LAMPS REPAIRED LAMPS REWIRED nomic effects, because they govern a factor that is closely linked to both the environ Then, when this hope turned ment and the economy--the into an illusion, there was a svstem o? production. In a rapid switch to coal-fired plants, because they produce cheaper electricity than oilpowered or nuclear-powered oiants--but they also produce free-rr.arket economy, capital tends to be invested in those production enterprises which promise to vield the great est return in the shortest much more sulfur dioxide. In the same way, the steel in dustry's response to the demand for plants that would be less polluting--closing rather than improving them--is motivated i time. Since the social interest in environmental quality or lone term economic effi ciency is not represented in such investment decisions, neither of these desirable re- 0 0 0 0 i l' r o THE NEV YORKER 61 suits is likely to be achieved by them. and the environment. The electric- been causing a good deal of concern There seems to be a paradox embed power industry provides an informa since the Chernobyl disaster.) By re ded in the conclusion that most, if not tive example. The power industry is a designing the technology of electrical all, environmental pollution is the out notorious source of pollution: respon production in keeping with sensible come T>f decisions guided by free-mar- sible for a great deal of environmen ecological principles, both environ ket forces. It is often argued, after all, tal dust, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen mental and economic improvement can that the market operates--automati oxide; contributing considerably to be achieved. What is needed is to de cally, in the best of circumstances--to acid rain; and generating the threat centralize the production of electricity seek out those decisions which make of nuclear disasters. In the United and install cogenerator plants just the most efficient use of the available States, the industry is also in a precar large enough to meet the local demand resources. And one of the well-justi ious economic condition: the utilities' for heat and electricity. With the fied claims for ecological processes is heavy investment in huge power plants cogenerator operating at a much that they are characteristically effi --especially nuclear plants--has higher level of both economic and cient: there are, after all, no "wastes" driven the cost of producing thermodynamic efficiency in the ecosystem. If the present system electricity sharply upward than a conventional power of production is counter-ecological, it and has threatened some of plant, fuel consumption is must be wasteful; if this is so, new the companies with bank reduced, and the environ systems of production, more closely ruptcy. (A Business Week mental impact and the cost guided by ecological principles, ought cover story has asked the of energy are decreased. to be more efficient than those devised question "Are Utilities Ob Similar environmental by the present market-guided system. solete:") A major reason and economic gains could be Why then haven't they attracted in for these economic difficul achieved by reorganizing vestors and entered into successful ties is that the present tech agricultural production competition with the present system: nology of electric-power along ecological lines. For The over-all economic efficiency of production is highly central example, it has been found the new technologies that have trans ized. Typically, each new that the net economic re formed production since the Second plant is very large and re turns of large-scale Mid World War--and have polluted the quires a huge capital invest western organic farms, country--is unmistakable. Consider ment--billions of dollars. which use no fertilizer or ably more profitable than the technolo The plant is so large because it repre pesticides, are equal to the returns of gies they have replaced, the new ones sents an investment in the capacity- otherwise similar conventional farms, have generated a more than fourfold needed well into the future. Con which use a great deal of these agri increase in total production (as mea sequently, when a new plant begins to cultural chemicals. This represents an sured by the gross national product) operate, the system inevitably has an economic gain for the organic farm since 1950. However, the improve excess capacity, and for a time part of ers, since with lower production costs ment in efficiency responsible for this the capital investment yields little or they are less dependent on bank loans achievement has been unbalanced. no return. Moreover, the transmission and therefore less vulnerable to While the efficiency with which labor system that distributes electricity from bankruptcy. Similarly, if the crop is used--that is, the value of the prod central stations is costlv and consumes system were properly redesigned to uct yielded'per hour of a person's la a significant fraction of the power. produce bgth food and ethanol (a bor--has increased a great deal, the Finally, centralized pow-er plants are solar fuel, and thus renewable) the corresponding productivity of capital inherently inefficient, because, for farmers' income could be diversified and natural resources such as energy inescapable thermodynamic reasons, and national energy production en has declined. For example, the postwar two-thirds of the energv available hanced. substitution of plastics for leather has from the fuel is dispersed into the en These gains can be achieved only if displaced an industry characterized by vironment. This means that the in the social need for both environmental low labor productivity and high capital dustry wastes two-thirds of the fuel quality and economic growth is al productivity with an industry char that it uses, and causes three times as lowed to govern the choice of produc acterized by high labor productivity much pollution per unit of useful tion technology. Typically, measures and low capital productivity. To gen energy produced as it would if the designed to meet such a need require a erate the same value of product, the wasted energy could be recaptured for relatively large initial investment. plastics industry uses about a fourth as use. This is a serious hurdle, which people much labor but ten times as much The heat discarded bv a central who would benefit most--the poor-- capital as the leather industry. The power station could readily be recap have difficulty in overcoming. Another disparity between the rwc industries' energy productivity--the amount of energy used to produce a triven value of product--is even greater: the plas tics industry uses about thircv times as much energy as the leather industry. However, if one takes a more funda mental approach to the problem of en vironmental quality by recognizing that it is inherently linked to the tech nology of production, one can find ways of improving both the economy tured and used--to heat homes, for example. But large centralized plants cannot be used for this process -- cogeneration--because heat can bt transmitted effectively onlv over short distances. No one wants to live such a short distance from a power plant, es pecially if it is nuclear. (Some people are in this unhappy position. For ex ample, a nuciear power plant in Gorki, in the Soviet Union, provides heat for that city; its presence must have hurdle is the relatively slow rate of return or. some of the necessary invest ments. If such an investment--for ex ample, the relatively slow restoration of impoverished soil through a transi tion to organic farming--must com pete with an existing investment-chat yields quick profits, it is certain co be ignored. However valuable to society, the investment is not likely to be made if it must compete in the free market, which favors large-scale investments A 62* JUNE 15.1987 A over decentralized ones, and short chemicals, or oil--that offers the in term over long-term returns. vestor the most promising rate of re turn, the greatest market share, or PERHAPS the most profound ques some other private advantage. tion raised by environmental issues The institution that largely deter is to what extent the choice of producm ines the course of production tech or benefit a multitude of individuals, affect whole districts, shift the currents of trade, bring rum to one community and prosper ity to another. The organizations which they control have passed far beyond the realm of private enterprise--they have be come more nearly social institutions. tion technologies should be determined nology in the United States--the cor From their detailed analysis of this by private economic considerations and poration--is itself a peculiar amalgam situation, Berle and Means concluded to what extent by social concerns like of social and private features. In one that the separation of corporate own environmental quality. These values sense, a basic purpose of the corporate ership from control places society "in a are in sharp conflict. There appears to form is social: to accumulate from a position to demand that the modern be a broad consensus that it is in the relatively large number of people an corporation serve not alone the owners national interest to restore the quality amount of capital far larger than that . . . but all society," and that "it re of the environment, and the resultant available from any one person. More mains only for the claims of the com legislation confirms the general im over, almost all the earliest American munity to be put forward with clarity pression that achieving this goal is a corporations were chartered for a spe and force." social, governmental responsibility. cific social purpose--constructing a The date of Berle and Means' work And, as we have seen, significant envi canal, a bridge, a turnpike, or estab --1932--is significant, for it suggests ronmental improvement requires the lishing a bank--that required large, that the shattering impact of the Great proper choice of technologies and sys collective capitalization. Today, cor Depression on confidence in the free- tems of production, so that this choice, porations may be chartered for any market system had impelled them to too, becomes a social responsibility. legal purpose, and thus have the right seek alternatives. Since then, potential Yet in our free-market economy the to determine privately how their so critics have been, if not silenced, at right to make such a choice is in pri cially collected capital will be invested. least inhibited by the remarkable vital vate, not public, hands, and this is a However, corporations are certainly ity of the American economy after the right that very few Americans would still social in their effects--not only on Second World War: by the dazzling challenge. the environment but on employment, new products, and by the growth of The recent entrepreneurial history wages, and working conditions as national and private wealth. Now that of the United States Steel Corporation well. Yet with respect to their control the attendant social ills--persistent (now renamed USX) illustrates what corporations are private, for they are unemployment, insufficient affordable can happen in these circumstances. In governed by a small, self-perpetuating homes, pollution, and the threat of the nineteen-seventies, the company group of officers, who have no general nuclear annihilation--have become developed a plan to build a large, mod accountability to society except for ad more evident, the silence has been bro ern, low-pollution steel mill on Con- herence to relevant government regu ken. For example, the recent Catholic neaut Lake, in Pennsylvania--a so lations, or--apart from profitability-- bishops' pastoral letter on the econ cially useful way to reduce both steel to the stockholders who own the cor omy, citing Thomas Aquinas, asserts, imports and pollution. Then, in 1982, poration. "No one can ever own capital re with the price of steel driven down by The conflict between the modern sources absolutely or control their use cheap imports and the price of oil ris corporation's social role and its private without regard for others and society ing, U.S. Steel decided to buy the control led Adolf A. Berle and Gar as a whole. . . . Short-term profits Marathon Oil Company, For about six diner Means to declare, in their classic reaped at the cost of depletion of natu billion dollars. The Conneaut Lake work "The Modern Corporation and ral resources or the pollution of the plant was never built. By 1985, fifty- Private Property": environment violates this trust." The four per cent of the company's business The economic povser in the hand? o! the bishops' letter reflects the 19S1 encyc was in oil and gas, and only thirty-five few persons who control a giant corpora lical "On Human Work," in which per cent in steel. In July of 1986, the tion is a tremendous force which can harm Pope John Paul II asserted, on moral company dropped the word "Steel" grounds, that ownership does not jus from its name in favor of the ambigu tify exclusive control of production fa ous "X." The economist Robert Reno cilities: ". . . in consideration of hu has commented: man labor and of common access to the Now. it is arguab!- whether t'nr best interest of the nation would r.ZM' been better $er\ed ii U.8. Sfee! had reinvested in modernized steel plants rather man goods meant for man, one cannot ex clude the socialization, in suitable con ditions, of certain means of produc tion." One can, of course, embellish purchasing Marathor. Oil. Anyway. there < no iau that sa\< corporations must choose national intercst> over those oi tneif stockh'jiaers. these observations and arguments with a doctrinal term--socialism--and em brace or dismiss them by reacting to that term. While this may satisfy one's In fact, the companv's ie^al oblisation ideological convictions, neither ap is not to the nation but to its stock proval nor disapproval can alter the holders. and that obligation is to pro* reality, which, as we have seen, is that duce not steel but profits. substantia] environmental improve This is, after ail, the meaning of ment has occurred only when the "free enterprise": the owner of capital choice of productive technology was is at liberty to invest it in any enter open to social governance. prise--whether it produces steel, The New Deal's response to Berle THE NEV YORKER 63 and Means' statement concerning the "claims of the community" on the cor porations was regulatory legislation, then applying especially to banking and securities. This served as a model for subsequent regulatory measures, which reached a peak in the environ mental legislation of the nineteen-seventies. These social interventions into corporate activity have been proscrip tive rather than constructive: they tell the corporations what not to do rather than what should be done. Yet certain provisions of the new envi ronmental legislation do in fact at least imply that moral booby traps built into the costbenefit philosophy is provided by the E.P.A.'s recent justification for fur ther reducing the lead allowed in gas oline. The E.P.A. carried out a costbenefit analysis by totting up the cost of more expensive methods to boost octane and refinery changes needed to replace lead in gasoline (about six hundred million dollars in 1986) and comparing it with the monetary value of less engine damage from the lead additives, better fuel economy, reduced emissions of other conven tional pollutants, and sav ings in the cost of medical Stay at tlie Barhizon. The shopping center oi NevAork. environmental improvement care and compensatory edu may be achieved by the cation for children suffering socially mandated choice of production technology. from the physical and cogni tive effects of lead poisoning taNY*Co. V,, Thus, the basic instrument (a total of about two billion created by environmental legislation, dollars in 19S6). The E.P.A. analysis the environmental-impact statement, is concluded that the dollar value of the required to include a presentation of "alternatives to the proposed action" when that action would have an un avoidable adverse environmental ef fect. This provision implies that in, benefits of reducing lead in gasoline was more than three times the cost-- clearly, a bargain to be snapped up. In those terms, the decision seems to have no more moral content than choosing East 63rd St. at Lexington Ave. New York. N.Y 10021 Call toll free: (800) 223-1020 In N.Y State call (2'2) 838-5700 say, a public hearing on a trash-burn one brand of breakfast cereal over an * * * COLDEN TULIP * * * ing incinerator that would unavoid other. Suppose, however, that a new B ARBI Z ONably emit dioxin into the environment medical advance were to sharply re a citizen could call for a decision man duce the cost of treating lead poison HOTEL fit. RESTAURANT dating the choice of a technology that ing, and so bring the dollar value of would separate and recycle trash the benefits below the cost of control rather than burn it. The banning of ling lead. What then: Would this new the use of DDT in agriculture or of cost-benefit balance justify continued PCB in manufacturing is a concrete, if lead pollution? The apparently "objec relatively narrow, example of this ap tive" cost-benefit approach is thus proach. Opportunities, then, do exist quicklv engulfed in deep moral issues. within the framework of environmen Should society attempt to mitigate all tal legislation which, though they human suffering, regardless of cost: have been little used thus far, would On the other hand, since social re permit at least the public weighing of sources are limited, is it not reasonable alternative choices of production tech to alleviate suffering in keeping with nologies. some measure of effectiveness: If a Since conventional environmental monetary measure is objectionable, Jfe bigb-letb sharpener acclaimed by trorld ciaacbtfs, cookiagtcboois andserroxs cooks. ism is preoccupied with controlling emissions, rather than with changing the production processes that generate them, economic considerations are what better measure can be used: It is, of course, unreasonable to ask the E.P.A. to answer these questions, which have frustrated numerous ef ChefsChoice '"'"""T'i -5^5- DarrotiHoneShaipenET hiicbea knurs tOf a SDe in your sea. call Edgeoaft Cop- [302)^2-0303 usuallv reduced to what is called a forts over many years to answer them. cost-benefit analysis: the cost of the Bur it is nor unreasonable to insist that VPA 0000104 w necessary controls is compared with these issues be acknowledged rather the value of the benefits (to human than reduced to a trivial, easily dis HOTEL/ , ji health, for example) generated by a missed monetary "solution." ~DALLAS l! reduction in the level of pollution. Risk-benefit computations involving Such an analysis attempts to give a toxic pollutants have a similar out ! social aim--the protection of the envi come. Since the pollutants' ultimate |i Celebrated for-excellence. ! ronment and of public health--dollar effect can often be assessed by the ] FREQUENTED FOR VALUE. j. dimensions. Transformed into a number of lives lost ('from cancer !, pseudo-economic value, the social caused bv an environmental carcino j, value can then be' compared, it is sup gen, for ' instance), the risk-benefit !2f4i g'l-1200 . T'/.'Tm J iSOQt t'4-65-;; ! ! posed, with other economic factors, analysis requires that a value be placed like the cost of controls, and some on a human life. Some economists A HOTIL ASP KESTAl'KANt . IS7KI KOSSlr TRAt'ClOSOf EX-eIUNCS "cost-effective" balance struck. have proposed that the value should be An illuminating example of the based on a person's lifelong earning J! A 64 JUNE 15,1967 power. It then turns out that a should abide by this rule, and live in organic matter through photosynthe woman's life is worth much less than a communities supported by their own sis. The organic matter, in turn, pro man's, and that a black's life is worth local or regional resources. And others vides the energy that drives the en much less than a white's. In effect, the derive from these same considerations tropy-decreasing process of plant and environmental harm is regarded as the conclusion that ecological im animal growth. On the earth, solar smaller if the people it kills are poor-- provement requires the imposition of energy counteracts entropy. a standard that could be used to justify controls on economic growth. In the abstract sense, there is a limit situating heavily polluting operations The "limits to growth" approach is to economic growth, yet this limit is in poor neighborhoods. And, in fact, based on a serious misconception about determined not by the present avail this is an all too common practice. the global ecosystem. It reflects the ability of resources but bv a distant Thus, thinly veiled by a seemingly notion that the earth is like a spaceship limit to the availability of solar energy. straightforward numerical computa --a closed system, isolated from all It is true, of course, that the ecosystem tion, there is a profound, unresolved outside sources of support and neces occupying the earth's thin skin and the moral question: Should poor sarily sustained only by its mineral deposits underlying that skin people be subjected to a own limited resources. The are essential to economic production more severe environmental earth, however, is not a and that they are finite. It is also true burden than others, simply closed, isolated system, for its that economic growth is limited by the because they lack the re behavior is totally depen finite amounts of those essential re sources to evade it: Once dent on the huge influx of sources. However, since mineral ele again, what is at issue is energy from an outside ments are indestructible they can be not to resolve this question source--the sun. (In fact, recycled and reused indefinitely as long .but to allow that it be the same is true of the space as the energy necessary to collect and asked. These examples warn us that ship, for it relies on sunlight to gen refine them is available. And precisely environmental considerations are erate the electricity that runs its this is done when the resource is suffi likely to raise troubling social is machinery.) On the earth, solar en- ciently valuable: despite extensive dis sues--issues that in recent practice ergy creates the weather: the seasonal persion, well over half of all the gold have been swiftly reduced to "solu and daily changes in temperature; the ever mined is still in hand today. tions" by forcing them into the Pro moisture that the sun lifts from the Hence the ultimate limit on economic crustean bed of the free-market econ oceans; the storms that carry rain and growth is imposed by the rate at which omy. snow to the earth and replenish the renewable solar energy can be captured Recognition that significant envi lakes and rivers that feed the oceans. and used. If we ignore the exceedingly ronmental improvement depends on The weather, in turn, molds the phys slow extinction of the sun, this limit is social rather than private governance ical features of the earth's surface, cre governed only by the finite surface of of production decisions helps us under ating the ecological niches that living the earth, which determines how- stand why the considerable effort to things occupy. Solar energy, captured much of the energy radiated by the sun . improve the environment has had so by photosynthesis, sustains every form is actually intercepted and is therefore little effect. This effort, however of life and drives the ecological cycles capable of beine used. How close are .forceful, meets a politically immovable in which they participate. If an eco we to this limit: It has been estimated 'object: the conviction, powerfully em logical cycle is viewed only as a static that the solar energy that falls annu bedded in American society, that the array of animals, plants, and micro ally orvthe earth's land surface is more decisions that determine what is pro organisms linked through the physical than a thousand times the amount of duced and by what technological environment mto a circular system, it energy (from fuels and hydroelectric means ought to remain in private, cor appears to be closed, like a ring. But and nuclear power) now beine used porate hands. In the United States, this image is misleading, for without annually to support the global econ there appears to be a powerful taboo the energy that the ecosystem receives omy. Of course, because of the relative against ever, public discussion, let externally, from the sun, the plants inaccessibility of some parts of the alone criticism, of this principle. Con and animals would die; the circular earth not all the solar energy that fronted by the taboo, the environmen system would disintegrate. reaches the planet could be used. If, let tal movement has splintered into a se This misconception also leads to the us say, only ten per cent of the solar ries of separate, more palatable cam notion that the earth, as a supposedly energy falling on the land could be paigns. isolated system, is subject to the in captured, it would still be possible to Another consequence of this un creasing chaos arising from the un expand our present rate of energy use resolved confrontation is that environ avoidable increase in entropy. Entropv perhaps a hundredfold before encoun mental organizations have beer, drawn is a measure of disorder in a physical tering the theoretical limit to growth. toward explanations o: the environ- svstem which is bound to increase Even if this figure should turn out to mental crisis that avoid its origin in whenever energy is used to generate be somewhat optimistic, it seems clear economic forces and appeal instead to the system's only useful product, work. that at present we are nowhere near the princicies o; ecology. Thus, on the But this increase in disorder happens the limit that the availability of solar assumption that the global ecosphere is only in a system that is isolated from energy will eventually impose on pro a closed system of limited capacity, an outside source o: energy. The fact duction and economic growth. That some environmentalists claim that the is that in the earth's ecosystem en distant limit is simply irrelevant to key to environmental quality is popula tropy-increasing processes--for exam current policy decisions. The issue we tion control. Similarly, on the assump ple, the combustion of fuel, the death face, then, is not how to facilitate tion that ecological cycles are closed and decay of living organisms--are environmental quality by limiting eco- and self-sustained, other environmen reversed by the external supply of solar nomic development but how to create a talists maintain that people, too, energy, which regenerates burnable system of production that can grow THE NEV YORKER and develop in harmony with the envi ronment. There have been lively debates over whether environmental degradation can. be reversed by controlling the species is governed by this same natural law. And there are signs in many parts of the world today--Ethiopia is only one of many places, a tip of the iceberg--that we Homo sapiens are beginning to exceed the carrying capacity of the planet. were slowly starving. But the total food output of the state was sufficient to provide the entire population with ninety-nine per cent of the required diet. The problem was not an ecologi growth of the world population. A cal imbalance between the size of the decade ago, many if not most envi Examples can be readily cited to population and the size of the food ronmentalists were convinced that pop show that Peterson's conclusion is supply. The problem was poverty: the ulation pressure and "affluence," wrong, and that, quite apart from well-fed people earned about fifty per rather than inherent faults in the tech moral considerations, Hardin's Swift cent more than the starving ones. In nology of production, were the chief ian proposal to use nuclear weapons as general, there is considerable evidence reasons for environmental degradation. a contraceptive device is therefore mis that in developing countries poverty Since then, the hazards dramatized guided. It is useful to remember that encourages a high birth rate, for par by Chernobyl, Three Mile Island, people in other countries did not go ents hope that enough children will Seveso, Bhopal, Love Canal, and hungry because they sent food to Ethi survive the scourge of disease to sup Agent Orange have convinced many opia to relieve the famine--that what port the family. The reason for mal people that what needs to be controlled was sent to Ethiopia was surplus food. nutrition, starvation, and famine, is not the birth rate but the production In fact, the world produces more than then, is poverty, not overpopulation. technologies that have engendered enough food to feed the total world Excess population is a symptom of these calamities. In the last few years, population. Total world production of poverty, not the other way around. however, the notion of population food, equally distributed to the global Hunger and overpopulation are not control has been given a new impetus, population, would today provide ev ecological manifestations; they arc not so much from popular support as from the declarations of national envi eryone with more than enough for the physiologically required diet. Accord signs of economic and political prob lems that can be solved, humanely, by ronmental organizations and some of ing to a recent estimate by the United economic and political means. their leaders. Several examples are Nations Food and Agriculture Orga Many people have been attracted to worth noting. Richard D. Lamm, the nization, the world now produces the environmental movement by their ex-governor of Colorado, who is a enough grain alone to provide every dismay over the present state of human leading environmentalist, has fre person on earth with thirty-six hun society. Some of them are interested quently pleaded for population control, dred calories a day--more than one not only in correcting the environ demanding an end to the flow of ille and a half times the calories required mental abuses that erode the quality of gal immigrants into the United States in a normal diet. Enough grain is life but also in establishing a new, from what he calls "never-to-be- produced to give everyone on earth happier way of living. They want to developed countries," and urging on two daily loaves of bread. create better places to live and better the terminally ill a "duty to die." In Famine is caused not by a global ways to work. They regard industrial support of these ideas, he cites Aris food shortage but by the grossly un society as the root not only of environ totle: "From time to time it is neces- even distribution of the global food mental problems but of all social, po sary-thac pestilence, famine, and war supply. This is not an ecological phe litical, and economic ones as well. prune the luxuriant growth of the hu nomenon but a political and economic They look toward ecology as a guide man race." Garrett Hardin, a fre one. Neither England nor Haiti pro to the creaJwon of a new culture, a new quently cited environmentalist who is duces enough food for its own popula style of living. Kirkpatrick Sale, a also a major proponent of population tion, but hunger is much more preva prominent exponent of this view, control, once gave this very general, lent in Haiti than it is in England, wrote in The Kation that this style of ancient proposition an apparently because Haiti cannot afford to import living would be "rooted in the natural ironic, distinctly modem--if astonish enough food to make up this deficit, world, in harmony with natural sys ing--form: while England can. A more localized tems and rhythms, constrained by nat example of the economic origin of ural limits and capacities and devel How can we help a foreign country to escape overpopulation? Clearly, the worst thing we can do is send food. ... Atomic hunger comes from a 1967 study of the state of Madras, in India. The study oped according to the natural configu rations of the earth and its inherent bomb' would be kinder. For a few mo found that about a third of the popula life forms." Seeking to establish an ments tht misery would be acute, but it would soon come to an end for most of the people, leaving a very few survivors to suffer thereafter. tion consumed an amount of food well below the physiological requirements for protein and calories: those people ecologically harmonious way of life-- for themselves, at least--some people return to the land, growing their own For a more reasoned support of pop ulation control, we can turn to Rus sell W. Peterson, the former president of the Audubon Society, which is a ma food, building their own homes and furniture, recycling their waste to the land. Others have a wider vision, seek ing "self-reliance, not so much at the individual as at the regional level." jor environmental organization.: This approach, "bioregionalism," en Almost every environmental problem, almost every social and political problem visions a society based on ecologically defined regions rather than on areas as well, either stems from or is exacerbated by tht growth of human population. ... .As any wildlife biologist knows, once a species reproduces itself bevcmd the carrying ca pacity of its habitat, natural checks and specified by politick boundaries. It embraces the belief that such an eco logically founded society will have many laudable features: it will be co balances come into play.... The human operative rather than competitive, 66 JUNE 15,1987 spread out rather than centralized, in precepts of corporate power. In Sep t L F I \earn renc i terdependent rather than polarized, tember of 1971, he indicated that he evolving rather than growing, peace had made a complete reappraisal of his ' I O Y O ! |n our wn ful rather than violent. Certainly it makes ecological and, I Not ju pNwebtx*. bdttreal tapia* ocunc' More thin 40 houn of recorded maienel mike ultimately, economic sense to organize environmental policies, and told an audience of auto-industry executives that he would not permit concern for Dus unique *If-Btrueucriil eeueae/bock coune I * ovly effective wiy to teaTM French The coune cmsuu of tenet of caueaes re I canted by natiw French speaker*. end accompany in| teitbaok You'll kern to speak French the way you teamed English -- by lislerung u-d repeal I ing It's east, and lakes only 25 minutes a day* Your cassette player becomes your "teaching I machine " You team where and when you warn to. and at your own pace. The course was developed try the Foreign Ser society in ways that harmonize with nature. Problems arise, however, when one attempts to translate this general proposition into practice. According to Sale, bioregionalism is achievable, be cause its appeal overrides conventional political distinctions, and thereby avoids polarization and opposition: the environment "to be used sometimes falsely and sometimes in a demagogic way basically to destroy the system." IN referring to the environmental impact of production technologies, environmentalists often speak of the "hard path" and the "soft path." The I vice Institute to rain U $ State Department per sonnel In addition, it has been used successfully by thousands of our mail-order customers. The bioregional idea has the potential hard path--the huge, centralized to join what are traditionally thought of as technologies created without concern I Packaged in handsome vinyl binders, the course is available in two pans Order eitner. or save 10% by ordering both I Basic French Pan A: 12 cassettes (15 hr | and 194-p te*i.SI35 I Bask French Part B: IS cassettes (25 hr ) and 290-p iext.S159 the right and the left in America because it is built on and appeals to values that, at bottom, are shared by those on both sides. In effect. Sale hopes bioregionalism can eventually remake society and for their environmental impact--leads to nuclear power, chemical agricul ture, and high-powered cars. The soft path leads to technologies more appro priate in scale and design to their hu || (CT residents add sales tax 1 Ptione orders call tnU-ftec: l-BOO-243-1234 ~~1 | somehow overcome opposition from the powerful economic forces that now To order by mail, dip this ad and send with your name and address and a check or money largely govern it. This would be a man purpose and ecological setting-- cogenerators, solar energy, organic farming and small cars, mass transit order -- or charge to your credit card (VISA. Mas remarkable political conjuring trick, and bicycles. This distinction is useful, terCard. AmEx. Diners! by enclosing card number, expiration date, and your signature Try it for 3 weeks at no nsk -- we promise for there is no way to reorganize soci but it is incomplete; in reality, the soft ety along ecologically sound lines path of ecologically appropriate tech pimign refund if not completely satisfied. We ctfer courses in 4? languages: send for free catalog without directly challenging the pow nology is a hard political road, for erful, politically conservative forces-- those travelling it confront the real vauDia*awm RoomK*50j more plainly speaking, the corpora source of environmental degradation ^ 96 Broad St -Guilford.CT 0643? W tions--that now control the system of --the technological choice--and de production. bate who should determine that choice, The illusion that environmental im and for what purpose. And a soft po THERE ARE ONL? 31 provement is a politically neutral issue litical road, which avoids this debate, is not new. When environmental qual inevitably leads to the environmental PRESTIGE HOTELS IN BRITAIN ity first emerged as a public concern, in hazards presented by the giant tech 1970, a major politician declared, nologies. "Ecology has become the political sub In the United States, the major en stitute for the word `motherhood.5 55 vironmental organizations are aware The theory that conservatives and lib that itv order to influence the resolu erals will happily join forces to develop tion of environmental issues they need an ecologically sound society has been to find a way of participating in the tested by an eminent practitioner of political process. But they have gener MiddJetborpe Hall Is One A SisangcisrieG Wham 111 house fte hotel stands in 26 acres on the ousians of the ancient waiieo Crty of Yorx About 3Vr hours arv? from Lonoon For free &ro- ^ cfiure. area touring mac (2l2t 535-9530 For 68 page booWet a!' Pratne Hotes sene S2. Scot! CaWer int i. 152 hteesoii NYC 10016 * political realism, Richard M. Nixon. He discovered that even his Adminis tration's modest environmental efforts were a serious threat to corporate power. In 1970, on signine the Na tional Environmental Policy Act, al]}' chosen to travel the soft political road, which evades the issue of who should govern the choice of productive technologv. This is evident in the re cently published "An Environmental Agenda for the Future," by a group President Nixon adopted the environ of ten self-described "leaders of mental issue as his own, promisine a America's foremost environmental or Sterunt iu't- ishbont tor-tr R-Vj' k*i S39i pc H^rxlmsa? n.iusi.eh to- 1 \I-AVFC & C OMPAM. LTD j`. jxy 'nv s-ttt- TSoj twi Sc Vvi too:: - 5i~ aau vigorous campaign to clean up pollu tion. He said, "The nineteen-seventies absolute!} must be the years when America pavs its debt to the pas*, by reclaiming the purity of its air, its waters, and our living environment. T. is literally now or never." In his 1971 ganizations." The agenda recognizes the need to confront the root causes o? environmental degradation, stating that "because the laws and regulations often have not dealt with root causes, thev have been inadequate to cope with added problems that have arisen, State of the Union Message, Nixon, partly from new- technologies." Given The Pequot Inn OVERLOOKING WES' HARBOR T*e ,-r. o'- rine<T Isia-ic Fir* Rooc A LOOfling Friendi. Service eno Gomton Reservations Reouesie: still sounding like a crusading ecolo gist, declared that environmental qual ity would be the "third great goal" of what he called the New American Revolution. But less than a year later this laudable intention, and what we now know about the root cause of environmental pollution, one would expect the environmental leaders to guide us toward the future by propos 51E-7M.7346 *ti you are a: tne ooc* o* lerr, .c*!1 to- trar.sportauor* Nixon seemed to believe that environ ing national policies such as these: that mentalism threatened the basic the present reliance on nonrenewable THE NEW YORKER 67 'nergy sources, and especially nuclear ing costs and diminishing returns, recommended by the study, its basic ^ower, be replaced by renewable solar- have accordingly shown a tendency to structure is clear: it relieves the power energy systems; that the present chem- seek less frustrating--and less costly companies of the cost of installing ically based system of agriculture be --routes to environmental improve- scrubbers, or of the competition replaced by a system based on organic ment. The main outcome has been the threatened by local cogenerators-- farming; that the inherently danger- formation of small committees, com- both facilities capable of reducing pol- ous petrochemical industry be rolled posed of leaders of environmental or- lutant emissions--and shifts the eco- back, its products and processes re- ganizations and corporate executives, nomic consequences of achieving a placed by ones more compatible with that seek to work out compromise po- modest reduction in emissions onto the environment; that the nation's sitions. the miners. According to one Round- present heavy dependence on cars and A good example is the Acid Rain table member, the study was designed trucks be replaced by a vast expansion Roundtable, a twelve-member group to "break the legislative deadlock." of railroads and mass-transit facilities. representing environmental organiza Not surprisingly, the United Mine However, the agenda offers a policy tions and power companies. In 1985, Workers is not one of the member statement only with respect to popula the Roundtable reported the results of organizations of the Roundtable, al tion control: "The Administration a study that it had commissioned to though, as important parties to the should establish formal population devise "cost-effective programs" for issue, they would receive respectful at policies, including goals for the stabi the reduction of emissions of sulfur tention if it were to be resolved by lization of population at a level that dioxide and nitrogen oxides from conventional democratic means, in the will permit sustainable management of power plants. The study concludes legislature. resources and a reasonably high qual that a reduction of twenty-six per cent One result of the national organiza ity of life for all people." Indeed, the in sulfur-dioxide emissions and twenty tions' tendency to travel the soft politi agenda takes a gingerly approach to per cent in nitrogen-oxide emissions cal road has been the appearance of a any measure that calls for socially could be achieved at an annual cost new "grass roots" environmental mandated changes in the technology of of about two billion six hundred movement. This movement has arisen production. For example, although million dollars. The study opposes out of the direct impact of environ favoring a shift toward renewable en the strategy of reducing sulfur-diox mental pollution on community life, It ergy* the agenda recommends only ide emissions by installing scrubbers, is concerned chiefly with toxic chemi that federal and state governments which are regarded as too costly. Ac cals, toxic-waste dumps, and dioxin- "develop successful strategies," rather cording to the study, a more cost-effec producing trash incinerators. It is ex than recommending a formal policy, as tive solution is to cut back the burn emplified by Love Canal, in Niagara in the case of population. Similarly, ing of high-sulfur coal--a step that Falls, New York, where local resi according to the agenda, organic would reduce coal mining in the dents, who had been exposed to toxic farming should be "researched and en Midwest and northern Appalachia. chemicals, organized to demand the couraged," but no political action is Concerning the resultant unemploy actions that finally led to the evacua proposed to actually put this advanta ment, one Roundtable participant tion of the area and some compensa geous technology into practice. notes that the study was directed to tion for their financial losses. Lois The agenda appears to reflect the ward ways "to address miner unem Gibbs, who led that fieht, has formed environmental leaders' effort to adjust ployment by means other than man a national federation of similar com the goals of environmentalism to the dating the installation of scrubbers." munin' grqyps, For such groups, the reality of Washington politics. As The report proposes to aid the miners front line of the battle against chemi they see it, the reality is this: To who would lose their lifelong jobs by cal pollution is not in Washington but obtain legislation that would improve helping them obtain unemployment in their own communities. For them, environmental quality--by urging and health insurance for one year after the issues are clear-cut and are not more stringent pollution standards, for they are thrown out of work. Regard readily compromised: A waste-man example--a majority of Congress must less of the merits of the compromise agement company decides to build a be won over. But legislators are sub trash-burning incinerator, but the jected to the influence of well-financed community, fearful of the health ef industrial lobbyists, who fiercely resist fects, doesn't want it. A chemical com such restrictions on their companies' pany keeps dumping toxic wastes in a . operations. In the past, these battles leaky lagoon, but the community have often been lost by the environ wants the practice stopped and the la mentalists or, at best, have produced a goon cleaned up. In these battles, there legislative compromise. The alterna is little room for compromise; the cor tive to lobbying is litigation--a porations are on one side and the peo lengthy, costly, and often inconclusive process. Thus far, clearly, neither ef ple of the communin' on the other, challenging the corporation's exclu fort has done much to improve the state of the environment. In recent years, with an Adminis tration that strives for minimal gov ernment programs in all but military affairs, environmental lobbying has seemed particularly fruitless. The en vironmental organizations, which have found themselves facing mount- U-T evi sive power to make decisions that threaten the community's health. Thus, confronted by powerful cor porate opposition, the environmental movement has split in two. The older national environmental organizations, in their Washington offices, have taken the soft political road of negotia tion, compromising with the corpora- ` 4 "4 68 JUNE 15, 1987 * tions on the amount of pollution that no questions were asked about the en Party obtained five and six-tenths per is acceptable. The people living in the vironmental effect of the new engines, cent of the vote in the national election polluted communities have taken the and their social impact was revealed, and won twenty-seven seats in the hard political road of confrontation, too late, by the blanket of smog that Bundestag. The Party began with an demanding not that the dumping of covers the cities. ecological outlook that emphasized not hazardous waste be slowed down but It is, of course, quite possible to only the hazards of pollution but also that it be stopped; not that dioxin- choose a technology on the basis of its the dangers of the ultimate ecological producing incinerators be equipped social consequences. When environ disaster--nuclear war. The Greens' with unworkable emission controls but mentalists speak of "appropriate tech anti-war position was an important that they be abandoned in favor of- nology," they have in mind production source of votes, for neither the Social more benign recycling technology. methods that not only enhance envi Democrats,-who were then in power, The national organizations deal with ronmental quality but fulfill such other nor the opposition Christian Demo the environmental disease by negotiat social purposes as conservation of en crats were against the expanding ing about the kind of Band-Aid to ergy and material resources and hu American nuclear presence in West apply to it; the community groups deal mane conditions of work. The social Germany and the rest of Europe. In with the disease by trying to prevent it. significance of a technological decision the 1983 election, peace-oriented vot It can be argued, of course, that, is much wider than its impact on envi ers, who were not necessarily preoccu given the considerable power of the ronmental quality. The series of deci pied with ecological issues, found in polluters, it is better to compromise sions that substituted plastics for the Greens a way to express this con with them, in the hope of making leather, for example, aggravated nm cern. This helped the Greens appeal to some partial improvement, than to en only environmental pollution but un a group of voters considerably broader gage them in a battle, which may only employment as well, for the plastics than ecological activists. end in frustration. On the other hand. industry uses more rapiral and less la Yet the Greens' preoccupation with there is a danger that in the course of bor than the leather industry did. In ecology was also a serious political negotiating a compromise the environ this sense, social guidance of techno- drawback. The 1983 election occurred mental organizations will become hos logical decisions is vital not only for at a time of high unemployment, un tage to the corporations* power, and environmental quality but for nearly precedented in recent West German will experience the Stockholm Syn everything else that determines how history. Some Greens believed that the drome. in which hostages take on the people live: employment; working con best way to reduce environmental deg ideology of their captors. Perhaps ditions; the cost of transportation, en radation was to lower the level of in something like this happened to Jay D. ergy, food and other necessities of life; dustrial activity, which they regarded Hair, the executive vice-president of and economic growth. And so there is as inherently anti-ecological, and this the National Wildlife Federation, an unbreakable link between the envi belief was translated into an open dis which is heavily involved in "enlight ronmental issue and all the other trou regard for the demand for more jobs; ened and responsible dialogue with blesome political issues. after all, more jobs meant putting fcorporate leaders." Hair recently ad Efforts to develop a frankly political more people to work in polluting fac monished environmentalists that "our Arguments must translate into profits, earnings, productivity, and economic incentives for industry"--precisely the arguments of corporate executives against the regulation of pollution. approach to the environmental issue-- that is, to seek political power in order to use it to solve the environmental crisis--inevitably confront this link age to the whole of politics. The most striking example is the brief but re tories. Naturally, unemployed workers and many voters who sympathized with them were not attracted to the Greenr. Thus, from its inception the Green Party, like the environmental move Because the effort to improve the markable history of the Green Party in ment generally, ran head on into the environment is so closely linked to the West Germany. In 1983, only four firm bond linking ecoloey and eco decisions that govern the technology years after it was founded, the Green nomics. In the last few years, this of production, it is inevitably drawn into the realm of politics. Though technological choices are often thought of as being outside the realm confrontation has given rise to a basic split within the Party. One group con sists of the "fundamentalists," who adhere to what they regard as basic of public policy or politics, and driven ecological principles: advocacy of a so instead by "objective" scientific con cial structure based on "unity, with siderations, the evidence contradicts nature;" a spiritual devotion to harmo this view. That high-compression au nious relations among people and na tomobile engines are particularly pow tions; respect for all forms of life. At a erful and generate smog is certainly ar. objective scientific fact. Tne decision to manufacture sue;, ar, engine rather recent Green convention, one member of this group pleaded passionately for a resolution condemning the "slaugh than one that is less powerful bur does not produce smog is, however, not a scientific necessity but a human choice. ter" of thousands, of frogs in biology laboratories, comparing it with the Holocaust. The fundamentalists are When the auto companies decided to build high-compression engines, the concerned chiefiv with combatting pollution and fostering a transition to choice, as we know, was motivated by a private interest--higher profits. But thetr decision created a social problem --smog. When the decision was made, renewable resources, "soft" alternative technologies, and a way of life appro priate to these. The other group con sists of the "realists." They recognize THE NEW YORKER the fundamental origins of ecological example, recently they have helped to and other problems in the political reverse the Italian Communist Party's control of the economy. They are con earlier support for nuclear power. In cerned not only with the technology of turn, such developments may encour production and its impact on both the age environmentalists to work with environment and jobs but also with in the parties, and thus link environ which social class holds the governing mental concerns more firmly with the power. The realists are linked to labor rest of politics. unions, and most of them favor politi In the United States, environmental cal alliances--with the Social Demo politics has followed a distinctive crats, for example, whose positions on course. Here the environmental move environmental and peace issues have of ment is part of the phenomenon that late moved closer in some since the Second World respects to the Greens' posi War has given rise to tion. wave after wave of popular, In October of 1985> the issue-oriented movements: split between the funda for civil rights', against nu mentalists and the realists clear-weapons testing; for took a dramatic turn when, women's rights; for gay and over the objections of the lesbian rights; against the national Green leadership, war in Vietnam; for the en the realist-led Green Party of the in vironment; against nuclear power and dustrial state of Hesse agreed to join for solar energy; for world peace. the Social Democrats in a governing These movements have a good deal in coalition. (The coalition broke up ear common. All of them have arisen out ly in 1987 over a disagreement about side the arena of conventional politics, a nuclear facility.) The Christian sparked by outsiders like Martin Democrats quickly attacked the Hesse Luther King, Jr., and Rachel Carson Social Democrats for making a pact rather than by established political with "fanatical opponents of our free figures. Their level of public support economy." In the heat of the accom has typically gone through successive panying debate, the fundamental polit cycles of enthusiasm and apathy. At ical issue generated by ecological con their height, some of these movements cerns became plain when a Christian have achieved notable successes--the Democrat who opposed the coalition civil-rights and environmental laws, declared that major corporations the nuclear-test-ban treaty, the new woitld-leave Hesse, because "free com employment opportunities for women panies-decide where they want to in --all of them accomplished by non- vest." Thus, the history of the Green electoral means: marches, demonstra Party is a lively and effective drama tions, lobbies. Yet, as the record of the tization of the links that tie ecology to Reagan Administration shows, these economics and both to politics. It also successes can be quickly eroded when illustrates the ease with which a officials hostile to them are elected to failure to understand these links power. Indeed, the movements' great properly can lead to a politics that rises est failure is their inability to translate in defense of laboratory frogs but not the millions of votes that their com unemployed workers. bined adherents represent into sig Italy provides a different example of nificant electoral power, and put peo environmental politics. In the 19S5 ple in office who will protect their elections, environmentalists organized gains and expand them. "green lists" of candidates, and some A major reason for the tenuous con were elected to office. While the Ital nection between the movements and ian greens are strongly oriented to politics is that their issues have been ward environmental issues--in partic consigned to the political ghetto that is ular, opposition to nuclear power, tc reserved for "special interests." In a nuclear -weapons, and to industrial sense, this isolation is self-imposed, for pollution--most of them share the the varied concerns are usually mani general political orientation of the fested--in a legislator's office, for ex Italian parties of the left. This leads to ample--as single-minded constituents, a kind of "red-green" situation, in one pleading for peace, another for which environmental concerns are sexual equality, a third for environ ... joined to a broader left political pro mentalism, on down the list. Each spe gram. In this sense, the green lists cial pleading demands a special re have also become important through sponse, at best unrelated to the other the pressure they exert on the parties issues, and often in actual conflict with to adopt environmental positions; for them. Each o? the issues is regarded as 69 Now our Weekend Plan includes the three of you. YOU TWO AND YOUR CAR. $ CA15*fnpmai,|w4q. adouwbt#* occupancy Ti .nelwcM. Frida, and Saturday nights. Includes deluxe room. Continental breakfast. New York Times. box of gourmet chocolates, 2 "Big Apples," bottle of cnampagne and PARKING. Enjoy our fashionable location, close to shops, theatre and enter tainment and the warm hospitality and friendly welcome. Experience the Ooral Park Avenue difference. * Limited (vailaD4'ty Existing reservaton* cannot ba conwenad--(xm rates oo not acpi, to group* conventana. me. PARKAVENUE Atf YORK S IKITt. SMALL HitTEL Park Avenue a: 38m Street * New York 10016 Te> i2i2l637-7050 *Te'ei 966572 For reservations, can your ravel agent or toll *ree B00-847-4135 er "ALONE TOGETHER" Julie Wilson CELEBRATES THE MUSIC Ot ARTHUR SCHWARTZ AND THE IVRtCS OP HOWARD DtET2. DOROTH* FIELDS AND JOHNNY MERCER s> i.i Sno5 A Sn"0v1''ili'SoiB",MVoTmje6sPirM.r'a $*. I N t OAR ROOM AT THE CTz^on^uut ^ 58 W. 4tn St- vr* WTvaiiona. Mfr-SaoO jjj VPA 000010495 the s? = t oc it s rvely tt s *r3naji i: s nici&ri; t: s75 miies o'sr.ugnarco-sanesa->ovDea:nes H stenms got1 Oming and antiCuing 't s glamorous It s ouaim i; s unoae'y -tsait it s Case Coodc 7Jpap* AecWomn'm* toooraoiiuorna Dfactory ov call (SI 71581-3225 fire Send S i to cover aostage ano handling is CAPE COD CHAMBER OF COMMERCE Myennts 124. Massachusetts 02601 ?0 JUNE 15, 1987 A Ancient civilizations, art treasures, a possible modifier of national policy but not as a creator of it*--a correction natural history ... Start a lifetime of travel in the Swan tradition. in the course of the ship of state but not a motive force. Yet the issues that the movements represent, taken to Wherever you tr**l with Swan Hellenic, it's Ntely to be a decidedly civilized affair. Whether you choose a short walk in the Andes, s long cruise in the Mediter ranean or sailing slowly down Jhe Nile, we mate every effort to keep you in a style to which you could easily become accustomed. Or as one of our passengers phrased it: 'After a long day on Athenian archae ology. the last thing you want to come back to is Spartan accommodation.* But a Swan Hellenic holiday certainly Isn't aB Chablis and deck quoits. Every tour or cruise is accompanied by guest lecturers, always experts in their held and often leading authorities. Lectures are always entirely optional, but their relaxed, informative style has proved remarkably popular. Swan Hellenic, as the name implies, built its reputation on its cruises to the Eastern Mediterranean. But these days there's a wide variety of cruises and tours to choose from. Apart from 16 different cruises to the Mediterranean, the Aegean, the Black Sea and the Red Sea. and cruises on the Nile, there are over 40 art trea sures tours to almost everywhere from Renaissance Italy to Mayan Mexico In addition Swan Hellenic now organizes natural history expeditions to some of the most unspoiled comers of Pte MKld: the Galapagos. Patagonia, Madagascar and China, to name but a handful. And a number of special interest tours to places tike Papua New Guinea, North Yemen and Indonesia Wherever you go. the price is fully inclusive: flights, accommodation, meals, excursions and gratuities are taken care of from the moment you teat till the minute you return. So if jrou'd like lo see the world's civilizations in a more civilized fashion, see your travel agent for the color brochure, or contact Esplanade Tours espl'twS BellenHc ftrt to grant * P*0 US General Sales Agent HI Boyteten Straet-Beston. MA #2116 16171 266-7465 THE ART OF THE NEW YORKER gether, and added to those of the much older labor movement, constitute not only the major aspects of public policy but its most profound expression: hu j man rights; the quality of life; health; j jobs; these peace; survival. movements to What can unite enable them to exert an effect on national policy that ' expresses the profound political meani ingof their collective issues? I he environmental experience sug gests an answer. As we have seen, the obvious manifestations of the environ mental problem--smog, toxic dumps, nuclear catastrophes--that set it apart as a "special interest" are but percepti ble expressions of a deeper, underlying issue: how the choice of production technologies is to be determined. Here environmentalism reaches a common ground with all the other movements, for each of them also bears a funda mental relation to the choice of pro duction technologies. Discrimination, !: for example, resembles pollution in Jl that one of its major features--paying women and racial minorities less than white men--originates in decisions made by the managers of productive enterprises. Of course, other factors, social, cultural, and psychological, are involved, but the end result--wage discrimination--is, after all, an effec A 60 YEAR RETROSPECTIVE tive way of reducing production costs. Or, to look at this relationship from the other direction, if it were to be determined through some system of social governance that all the employ ees in an enterprise who do comparable work should receive equal pay, regard less of sex or race, a major effect of the t social, cultural, and psychological | forces that engender discrimination would be nullified. The connection be- I tween this common ground and the i issues of peace and foreign policy is | less direct but nevertheless substantial. I It explains, for example, the apparent j justification for the Administration's ! military belligerence--the insistence j that force must be used wherever it is needed to support governments and j political groups that, like the Admin istration, favor free-market principles i of economic governance. In particular, J it would be difficult to explain the ! Administration's deep-seated antagoI; nisrn to the Soviet Union--which en- i genders the monstrous threat of global I nuclear destruction--if it were not for II the opposite views of the two govern- THE NEV YORICER mencs on the stewardship of economic enterprises. Perhaps the most useful outcome of the environmental experience is that it illuminates the relationship between the outward manifestations of the ills that trouble modern society and the common origin of those ills. But there are risks in expounding this rela tionship. Calling attention to their source may appear to minimize the importance of the immediate problems that initially attracted adherents to the cause, and so risk their ire. At the same time, an effort to transform the "special interest" into a critique of basic and even more troubling faults in the social structure is likely to inten sify opposition to it. The path taken by Martin Luther King, Jr., in the last few years of his life is a cautionary example. At the height of his influ ence, King had won major victories and had acquired a broad following as the leader of a powerful attack on outward expressions of legally en forced racial discrimination: segre gated schools and public facilities. Then, a few years before he was assas sinated, he began to link racial dis crimination to its origins and, thereby, to other social issues. He sensed, it seems, that blacks could not break out of their persistent social ghetto if they remained trapped, as a "special inter est,*' in a political ghetto. And so he declared his opposition to the war in Vietnam, led a march of poor people (black and white) on Washington, and championed the cause of striking black garbagemen in Memphis. In this new role, King quickly became more controversial. He was out of his depth, it was said--taken in by political radi cals and diverted from his true mis sion. But he died believing, it seems, that this new course had brought him closer to the heart of the problem he had set out to resolve: that beneath the legal basis of racial discrimination lay the deeper problems of poverty and violence; that the root o: racial dis crimination is also the root of poverty anC war. Neither the environmental move ment nor ant of the other issueoriented movements have vet at tempted to follow the road that Dr. King began to travel before he died. But the environmental experience powerfully illuminates that road--a historic passage toward a democracy that can exert its force on the germinal decisions that determine whether we and the place we inhabit will thrive. --Barry Commoner WE SOLD OUR FIRST GEORGE L. NOYES IN 1916. "He make* vou a Lmdtcape vnu would like it* **-alk right out into." Boston Herald-Jan 21, 1917 The critics of his dav seemed to share this point of.view. George L~ Noyes painted with great intensity, and produced canvases which conveyed a tremendous degree of intimacv. $ Noyes was a Boston based artist. He received his early training at the Massachusetts Normal Art School under George Bartlett. He later traveled to Paris to study at the Academy Colarossi. (The records indicate (hat Noyes possessed as many as seven different Boston studios during his career as a painter.) George L. Noyes held his first one man show at Pat Fields Gallery in Boston in 1906. The following two decades were to be (he anise's most prolific period. It was during this time that Noyes showed regularly at the Copley Gallery and the Guild of Boston Artists. In 1915, Noves won the esteemed silver medal at the fcnama faclfic Exposition. George L. Noyes was an important artist of the Boston School, and vet he remains virtually undiscovered todav- Only now are critics beginning to again take an interest in his work. 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