Document KJpVKY02vk0MzERNB1q6Xopn0

mmor & I I - . 7 ,- 7 . 9 5.. t4 sp .,j/! 5 f 2 5 . 5- / S 4 r4 - Vital Water Graphics An Overview of the State of the World's Fresh and Marine Waters 'R S 9,' About This Report The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has been at the forefront of assessing and monitoring global water resources and presenting information on their use and management for the past 30 years. UNEPi in collaboration with partners and collaborating centres, collates and analyses water resource data on a global basis. Despite a concerted effort to create a comprehensive database on global water use, however, there remain many gaps in the information available. Several projects and programmes are working to fill these gaps. Among them are the Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA), the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land Based Activities (GPA/LBA), and the Global Environment Monitoring System Freshwater Quality Programme (U N EP-GEMS/Water), as well as many other programmes dealing with fresh and coastal/marine waters within other United Nations agencies and partners. The current situation reveals that, while there is significant information on most aspects of water resources in Europe and North America, there are glaring gaps in some of the available data for Africa, South America and parts of Asia, particularly in water quality and quantity. As was the case with its earlier pLiblication on Vital Climate Graphics, UNEP has compiled this report in order to provide an easily accessible resource on the state of the world's waters. The goal of this publication is to produce a clear overview, throLigh a set of graphics, maps and other illustrations, of the state of the world's fresh and marine waters. It also illustrates the causes, effects, trends and threats facing our water sources, with examples of areas of major concern and future scenarios for the use and management of fresh, coastal and marine waters. It is hoped that this information will assist water users and professionals to make better decisions in order to protect our water resources for future generations. Further graphics and links to relevant websites on topics presented in this publication are available on the accompanying CD-ROM or at www.unep.org/vitalwater. Ilk Foreword By Klaus Top fer United Nations Under-Secretary General and Executive Director, United Nations Environment Programme Water-related problems having been recognised as the most immediate and serious threats to humankind. The new UNEP Water Policy and Strategy - which itself is part of a broader restructuring of UNEP that has taken the organisation away from addressing issues sectorally - recognises this need. At its core lie three components: assessment, management and co-ordination of actions. UNEP has long been involved in the field of fresh and marine water and has developed a number of programmes over the years. These, updated and revitalised, are being combined with newer programmes, such as the Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA) and Global Programme of Action to Protect the Marine Environment From Land-Based Activities (GPA), to produce an integrated, comprehensive and dynamic approach to priority water issues. One of the goals of the new UNEP Water Policy and Strategy is to identify and promote the tools that will address the critical water issues facing humanity. Many already exist. New technologies and water management demands can improve efficiency in irrigation and encourage cleaner production in industry. The harmonisation of water policies with land and forestry policies can improve soil and water conservation and halt land degradation. International co-operation, especially among countries sharing water resources, can address the transboundary nature of many water issues. Vital Water Graphics is a valuable and timely addition to existing assessments of the state of the world's water resources. It focuses on our most 'vital' and pressing water issues - issues that will determine the very future of life on Earth. A total of 40 graphics, together with accompanying texts arid maps, highlight how the quantity, quality and availability of fresh and marine waters play a major role in determining levels and patterns of poverty, land degradation, pollution, sanitation, health, and rural and urban development around the world. It also documents water trends in our fast changing environment, with examples from the past two decades revealing present trends and providing potential scenarios for the future. By recounting the latest chapter in the history of our fresh and marine water resources, the publication demonstrates how rapidly these are being depleted and polluted - and how urgently we must work for their conservation. By providing a clear synthesis between water usage and social, economic and environmental factors, Vital Water Graphics will contribute through UNEP's Water Policy and Strategy to the achievement of the relevant goals (coastal, marine and freshwater) of its implementation plan of the World Summit on Sustainable Development. We know that this document will provide valuable messages for the public and the media, as well as being an effective tool for decision-making in water use and management during the years to come. fir Executive Summary Published 10 years after the Rio Summit of 1992, Vital Water Graphics focuses on the critical issues of water quantity, quality and availability - issues that are vital to the quality of life on Earth. The assessment of global water resources and the provision of early warnings on water issues are enshrined in the mandate, vision and mission of the United Nations Environment Programme. UNEF UN agencies, and collaborating centres and partners monitor and analyse water resources on a global scale. This partnership enables a wider involvement in assessing the status of the implementation of Chapters 17 and 18 of Agenda 21, which address coastal and marine waters and freshwater, respectively. Highlights from assessment activities over the past two decades, which are used to establish present and future water trends, reveal that: 1 Freshwater resources are unevenly distributed, with much of the water located far from human populations. Many of the world's largest river basins run through thinly populated regions. There are an estimated 263 major international river basins in the world, covering --23 1 059 898 km 2 or 45.3% of the Earth's land surface area (excluding Antarctica). Groundwater represents about 90% of the world's readily available freshwater resources, and some 1.5 billion people depend upon groundwater for their drinking water. Agricultural water use accounts for about 75% of total global consumption, mainly through crop irrigation, while industrial use accounts for about 20%, and the remaining 5% is used for domestic purposes. It is estimated that two out of every three people will live in water-stressed areas by the year 2025. In Africa alone, it is estimated that 25 countries will be experiencing water stress (below 1,700 m 3 per capita per year) by 2025. Today, 450 million people in 29 countries suffer from water shortages. 5 Clean water supplies and sanitation remain major problems in many parts of the world, with 20% of the global population lacking access to safe drinking water. Water-borne diseases from faecal pollution of surface waters continue to be a major cause of illness in developing countries. Polluted water is estimated to affect the health of 1.2 billion people, and contributes to the death of 15 million children annually. A wide variety of human activities also affect the coastal and marine environment. Population pressures, increasing demands for space and resources, and poor economic performances can all undermine the sustainable use of our oceans and coastal areas. Serious problems affecting the quality and use of these ecosystems include: Alteration and destruction of habitats and ecosystems. Estimates show that almost 50% of the world's coasts are threatened by development-related activities. Severe eutrophication has been discovered in several enclosed or semi-enclosed seas. It is estimated that about 80% of marine pollution originates from land-based sources and activities. In marine fisheries, most areas are producing significantly lower yields than in the past. Substantial increases are never again likely to be recorded for global fish catches. In contrast, inland and marine aquaculture production is increasing and now contributes 30% of the total global fish yield. Impacts of climate change may include a significant rise in the level of the world's oceans. This will cause some lowlying coastal areas to become completely submerged, and increase human vulnerability in other areas. Because they are highly dependent upon marine resources, small island developing states (SIDS) are especially vulnerable, due to both the effects of sea level rise and to changes in marine ecosystems. UNEP is involved in promoting Integrated Coastal Management (1CM) through a broad variety of initiatives, as a way of resolving current and future problems at a local/ecosystem-based level. Through its different assessment activities, UNEP focuses on highlighting key areas to promote policy recommendations. YD Over the past decade, efforts based Estimates of global water resources based on several different calculation methods have -3 on Agenda 21's freshwater manage- produced varied estimates. Shiklomanov in Gleick (1993) estimated that: ment guidelines in Chapter 18, which The total volume of water on Earth is --1.4 billion km 3 . --3 address the protection of the quality The volume of freshwater resources is --35 million km 3 , or about 2.5% of the total volume. and supply of freshwater and the Of these freshwater resources, --24 million km 3 or 68.9% is in the form of ice and permanent --3 application of integrated approaches snow cover in mountainous regions, the Antarctic and Arctic regions. for the development, management Some 8 million km 3 or 30.8% is stored underground in the form of groundwater (shallow I CUl)i and use of water resources, have and deep groundwater basins up to 2 000 metres, soil moisture, swamp water and focused on the following areas: permafrost). This constitutes about 97% of all the freshwater that is potentially available Integrated water resources devel- for human use. 5 opment and management; Freshwater lakes and rivers contain an estimated 105 000 km 3 or --0.3% of the world's Water resources assessment; freshwater. Protection of water resources, The total usable freshwater supply for ecosystems and humans is --.200 000 km 3 of Cl -3 water quality and aquatic eco- water, which is < 1% of all freshwater resources, and only 0.01% of all the water on I systems; Earth (Gleick, 1993; Shiklomanov, 1999). I Cl) Drinking-water supply and sani- tation; Water and sustainable urban development; Water for sustainable food pro- A World of Salt Total Global Saltwater and Freshwater Estimates -3- Ti .11 > duction and rural development; and - 0.3% Lakes and river storage The impact of climate change on 30.8% Groundwater, including water resources. Freshwater 2.5% 35 000 000 km3 soil moisture, swamp water and permafrost 68.9% Glaciers and permanent snow cover Saltwater 97.5% 1365000000km 3 I Source igorA. Shikiornanov, State Hydroiogcai instdute (SHi. St Petersburg) and Unrted Nations Educational, Scientific and cuiturai Organisation (UNESCO, Paris), iggg. 12 Global Freshwater Resources Quantity and Distribution by Region Glaciers and permanent ice caps (km 3) Glaciers and icecaps cover about 10% of the world's landmass. These are concentrated in Greenland and Antarctica and contain North Am 9 0O00 Ewope 18216 Asia r 60984 --70% of the world's freshwater. Unfortunately, most of these resources are located far from human habitation and are not readily accessible for human use. 2600000/ J Afna According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), 96% of the world's frozen freshwater is at the South and North poles, I South America 900 with the remaining 4% spread over 550 000 km 2 of glaciers and mountainous icecaps measuring about 180 000 km 3 (UNEP J 'a Antarctica 30109800 Australia 180 1992; Untersteiner, 1975; WGMS, 1998, 2002). Groundwater is by far the most abundant and readily available source of freshwater, followed by lakes, reservoirs, rivers and wetlands: Groundwater represents over 90% of the world's readily available freshwater resource (Boswinkel, 2000). About 1.5 billion people depend upon groundwater for their drinking water supply (WRI, UNEP, UNDP, World Bank, 1998). The amount of groundwater withdrawn annually is roughly estimated at --600-700 km 3 , representing about 20% of global water withdrawals (WMO, 1997). A comprehensive picture of the quantity of groundwater with- Groundwater (km3) Asia (I) North America - urope - 7800000 C) 4 300 000 ' i 600 boo C 02) LU drawn and consumed annually around the world does not exist. Most freshwater lakes are located at high altitudes, with nearly 50% of the world's lakes in Canada alone. Many lakes, especially those in arid regions, become salty through evaporation, which concentrates the inflowing salts. The Caspian Sea, the Dead Sea, of and the Great Salt Lake are among the world's major salt lakes. LU Rivers form a hydrological mosaic, with an estimated 263 (LIIU) -r7 ) international river basins covering 45.3% (-231 059 898 km 2 ) Cr of the land surface area of the Earth, excluding Antarctica (UNEP 9 Oregon State University et a)., in preparation). The total volume of 10 Afri water in the world's rivers is estimated at 2 115 km 3 (Groombridge South America 5 500 000 and Jenkins, 1998). 3000000 Austlia 1 200 000 I 0 Wetlands, large lakes, reservoirs and rivers (km 3) I (0 I LU f4orth AmerW. ,r'T Europe Asia 30622 r 27003 2529 'a Major River Basins of the World 13 IT 1 F>- / South Ameria 3431 km 3 .( Africa 31776 , I --j Australia 221 30000000 UNEP 6 11 10 26 0EIPUJ4E DIGOUT ..2002 8000000 LNL1' 4000000 3000000 1000000 300000 50000 T2 REKACEWICZ 0200 2002 Note: Estimates refer to standing volumes of freshwater. Source: IgorA. Shiklomanov, State Hydrological Institute (SHI, St. Petersburg) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, Paris), 1999; World Meteorological Organisation (WMO); International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU); World Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS); United States Geological Survey (USGS). North America 1 Yukon 2 Mackenzie 3 Nelson 4 Mississippi 5 St. Lawrence South America 6 Amazon 7 Parand Europe 25 Danube Africa and West Asia 8 Niger 9 Lake Chad Basin 10 Congo 11 Nile 12 Zambezi 26 Orange 24 Euphrates and tigris Asia and Australia 13 Volga 14 Ob 15 Yenisey 16 Lena 17 Kolyma 18 Amur 19 Ganges and Brahmaputra 20 Yangtze 21 Murray Darling 22 Huang He 23 Indus Source: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP); World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC(; World Resources Institute (WRI); American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS); Atlas of Population and Environment, 2001. Reservoirs are artificial lakes, produced by constructing physical barriers across flowing rivers, which allow the water to pool and be used for various purposes. The volume of water stored in reservoirs worldwide is estimated at 4 286 km 3 (Groombridge and Jenkins, 1998). Wetlands include swamps, bogs, marshes, mires, lagoons and floodplains. The 10 largest wetlands in the world by area are: West Siberian Lowlands (780 000-1 000 000 km 2 ), Amazon River (800 000 km 2 ), Hudson Bay Lowlands (200 000-320 000 km 2 ), Pantanal (140 000-200 000 km 2 ), Upper Nile River (50 000-90 000 km 2 ), Chari-Logone River (90 000 km 2 ), Hudson Bay Lowlands in the South Pacific (69 000 km 2 ), Congo River (40 000-80 000 km 2 ), Upper Mackenzie River (60 000 km 2 ), and North America prairie potholes (40 000 km 2 ) ( Pidwiny, 1999). The total global area of wetlands is estimated at --2 900 000 km2 (Groombridge and Jenkins, 1998). Most wetlands range in depth from 0-2 metres. Estimating the average depth of permanent wetlands at about one metre, the global volume of wetlands could range between 2 300 km 3 and 2 900 km 3 . 20W 4 0N The Major River Basins of Africa 10W -,_. 0 (- 10E '. 20E- -- 30E 40E --" -_(_,,._. -.. T 50E 40N (/3 w (-2 cc 0 Tropic or (/3 uJ of cc LU U: 20 I (I) LU 7 U) C-) I 0 Ucc: (0 cc U) U: H- 30 lNI-r 10W 0 10E 20E 30E 40E McV2002 50E Source: Aaron T. Wolf et al., 1999; Revenga et al., Watersheds of the World, World Resources Institute (WRI), Washington DC, 1998; Philippe Rekacewicz, Atlas de poche, Livre de poche, Librairie generale francaise, Paris, 1996 (revised in 2001). The World's Water Cycle Global Precipitation, Evaporation, Evapotranspiration and Runoff : ' Vapour transport Precipaon Precipitation Precipftaon Evapotranspiration cc 65200km3 4 $ * Evaporation I 9000km3 :1 I I Infiltration River runoff 42 600 km3 8 -. Area of internal runoff \\ 119 million km2 N cc -. Groundwater flow 2200 km3 Area of external runoff 119 million km 2 Note: The width of the blue and grey arrows are proportional to the volumes of transported water Evaporation 502 800 km 3 t ) Oceans and seas 361 million km2 Estimated Residence Times of the World's Water Resources Biospheric water 1 1 WEEK Atmospheric water River channels I 1 5 WEEKS 1 2 WEEKS Swamps Ii TO 10 YEARS Lakes and reservoirs I 10 YEARS Soil moisture 1 2 WEEKS 101 YEAR Ice caps and glaciers 1 000 YEARS Oceans and seas Groundwater 4000 YEARS 2 WEEKS TO 10000 YEARS rdil LiII' 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 years PHIUPPE REKACEVRCZ APRIL2001 Source: IgorA. Shiklomanov, State Hydrological Institute (SHI, St. Petersburg) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, Paris), 1999; Max Planck, Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg, 1994; Freeze, Allen, John, Cherry, Groundwater, Prentice-Hall: Engle wood Cliffs NJ, 1979. Water is transported in different forms within the hydrological cycle or water cycle'. Shiklomanov in Gleick (1993) estimates that each year about 502 800 km 3 of water evaporates over the oceans and seas, 90% of which (458 000 km 3 ) returns directly to the oceans through precipitation, while the remainder (44 800 km 3 ) falls over land. With evapo-transpiration totalling about 74 200 km 3 , the total volume in the terrestrial hydrological cycle is about 119 000 km 3 . About 35% of this, or 44 800 km 3 , is returned to the oceans as run-off from rivers, groundwater and glaciers. A considerable portion of river flow and groundwater percolation never reaches the ocean, having evaporated in internal runoff areas or inland basins lacking an outlet to the ocean. However, some groundwater that bypasses the river systems reaches the oceans. Annually the hydrological cycle circulates nearly 577 000 km 3 of water (Gleick, 1993). Because much of the world's surface water is far from concentrations of human settlements, not all of it is readily usable. It is estimated that the freshwater available for human consumption varies between 12 500 km 3 and 14000 km 3 each year (Hinrichsen et al., 1998; Jackson et al., 2001). Many countries in Africa, the Middle East, Western Asia, and some Eastern European countries have lower than average quantities of freshwater resources available to their populations. Due to rapid population growth, the potential water availability of Earth's population decreased from 12 900 m 3 per capita per year in 1970 to 9 000 m 3 in 1990, and to less than 7000 m 3 in 2000 (Clarke, 1991; Jackson et al., 2001; Shiklomanov, 1999). In densely populated parts of Asia, Africa and Central and Southern Europe, current per capita water availability is between 1 200 m 3 and 5 000 m 3 per year (Shiklomanov, 1999). The global availability of freshwater is projected to drop to 5 100 m 3 per capita per year by 2025. This amount would be enough to meet individual human needs if it were distributed equally among the world's population (Shiklomanov, 1999). It is estimated that 3 billion people will be in the water scarcity category of 1 700 m 3 per capita per year by 2025 (UNEPi 2002). The uneven distribution of freshwater creates major problems of access and availability. For example: Asia and the Middle East are estimated to have 60% of the world's population (-3 674 000 000 people in 2000), but only 36% of its river runoff - much of which is confined to the short monsoon season (Graphic Maps, 2001; Shiklomanov, 1999). South America, by contrast, has an estimated 6% of the global population (--342 000 000 people in 2000) and 26% of its runoff (Graphic Maps, 2001; Shiklomanov, 1999). These examples do not take into account groundwater abstraction. River runoff is cyclical in nature, with alternating cycles of wet and dry years. Significant deviations from average values differ in duration and magnitude. For example, 1940-44, 1965-68 and 1977-79 are clearly low periods in terms of total runoff from the world's rivers. During these periods, the runoff was estimated at 1 600-2 900 km 3 below the average value. By contrast, 1926-27, 1949-52 and 1973-75 saw much greater levels of river runoff (Shiklomanov, 1999). The last two decades have witnessed increasing runoff in South America and decreasing runoff in Africa. T6 The World's Surface Water Precipitation, Evaporation and Runoff by Region Precipitation lkm3 l Evaporation (%l Runoff(%) Asia 32 200 km 3 55% North America 18300 IkM3 55% I I I South America 28 400 km 3 Africa 22 300 km 3 570/1 80% Europe 8290km3 p65% I 45% - - . - - >1 Ocean - 454 / Ocean - Australia and Oceania 7080km 3 --: , 650% (INEP Source: Peter H. Gleick, Waferin Crisis, New York Oxford University Press, 1993. PC(UPPE RE<ACnCZ. IRCn 2002 River Runoff through the 20th Century 17 Average Annual Volumes by Continent, 1921-1 985 per year 14 000 12000 10 uuv 1 8 000 12 000 10000 1 6000 1, 8000 40 001 20 00 6000\ 4 000\ 8000 600 0 0 2 000 4 000\ 0\ \ 400 0 ' I 2000 AK SO:th Amer1 North Africa gurop e ce 3 stra lia 19 Irl i9 0 1920 lowaillow- n 10 U\EP POILIPPE REKACEWICZ FEBRUARY 2002 Source: IgorA. Shiklomanov, State Hydrological Institute (SHI, St. Petersburg) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, Paris), 1999. Tropical regions typically exhibit greater river runoff volumes. The Amazon carries 15% of all the water returning to the world's oceans, while the Congo-Zaire basin carries 33% of the river flow in Africa. Arid and semi-arid regions, which make up an estimated 40% of the world's land, have only 2% of its runoff (Gleick, 1993). Water quality information is required for sustainable water resource management. Land-based activities can affect water chemistry through pollution, and play a role in transporting sediments in rivers. Sediments carry many types of pollutants from point and non-point sources, the quantity of which depends on the general land use and activities in the drainage basin of origin. Asia exhibits the largest runoff volumes and, therefore, the highest levels of sediment discharge. Due to their high precipitation, the Oceanic Islands have disproportionately high suspended sediment loads (Gleick, 1993). Asia Global Sediment Loads 6349 Suspended Sediment Discharged per Region I North America 1 020 - M-- T Centramertc Europa 230 Eurasian Arctic . 84 1442 South America I. -- Africa 500/ -J - nOlan Dcean I 'n II' Source: Peter H. Gieick, Water in Crisis, New York Oxford University Press, 1993. Million tonnes peryear 18 6000 5000] 4000] 1 3000 2000 1000 0 -_Ajstraiia -- 62 - Qceanic y'lslands PHILIPPE REKACEWICZ MARCH 2002 Results collected and analysed by the Global Environmental Monitoring System on Water (GEMS/Water) over the last two decades for biological oxygen demand (BOD), alkalinity, nitrates and phosphates are indicative of efforts undertaken in various parts of the world to assess freshwater quality. BOD is an indicator of the organic pollution of freshwater. In comparing the past two decades, rivers in Europe and Australasia show a statistically significant reduction in BOD concentrations. Although the reduction is not particularly large, it is indicative of positive trends. There was no change in the assessed results for North America, although there was a tighter data distribution, indicating the data available for 1991-2000 is less variable than for previous periods. Alkalinity (as CaCO 3 ) was analysed for all sampling stations available at the continental level. Concentrations remained reasonably steady between the two decades for Africa, Asia, South America and Australasia. Significant increases in alkalinity concentrations were noted for European and North American rivers, which may indicate a shift towards reduced acidic impacts at the continental scale. Examination of the outflow stations in 82 monitored river basins indicated a decrease in bicarbonate concentrations between the two decades in the northern latitudes, including North America, Europe and Asia. For the period 1976-1990, European rivers displayed the highest concentrations of calcium at the continental level. Concentrations varied from between 2 mg per litre and 50 mg litre for major rivers. Comparing the two decades, observations of surface water showed an increase in calcium concentrations in the Laurentian shield region of North America, and in the rivers of the North Central European region. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOO), 1976-2000 ffl BOD in mgiL concentrations 1976-1990 1991-2000 rica A i I! IS! 4QH A510 .00 so A ft.Afr* --i i Ocean 510 e' fI- 00 I ('.2 1' PHILIPPE REKLCE]P,CZ MARCH 2002 Source: Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS), Freshwater Quality Programme, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2001. Freshwater Alkalinity, 1976-2000 A rICd 1 g 1. NON' L iia . 240 2401 I 6ur0P0 rT1 Af ' 1! 1s - south Aieri0a o ' Ocea' au I Ocean Indian Ocean CaCO3 concentrations T9 1976-1990 1991-2000 0105 10 IL Austr ) ( 0 '/1' GEMS WaLe, PHILIPPE REKACEWLCZ MARCO 2002 Source: Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS), Freshwater Quality Programme, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2001. Global Average Nitrate Levels Tb Concentrations at Major River Mouths Considering the data for all the rivers at the continental level, there has JL been little change in nitrate (NO3--N) concentrations between the two ., decades under comparison. Changes in the median value were not statistical- ly significant. European rivers showed the highest nitrate loads transported to the marine environment. Comparing / f . p 1976-1990 ' ' '. ) / data from the two decades, North American and European rivers have remained fairly stable, while major river basins in South Central and Southeast Asia have recorded higher nitrate concentrations. U) LU C-) 0 (I) LU tTT" LU I (1) LU I WA \ ) r- U) C-) I cC- - I (0 I uJ 1991-2000 / I suff cwnt data for :nalyses 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 NO 3 -N mg/L - . VIP .j r Ilk Is . Decreased levels High I I Medium Low : 4 No change ( Increased levels j ow ium - High Insufficient data for analysis or region not included in study Changes Between 1976-1990 and 1991-2000 SE MS Wa PHI[I1-'E FWKflCF,','ICZ Source: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)- Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) Water Programme, 2001; National Water Research Institute Environment Canada, Ontario, 2001. Global Dissolved Phosphate Levels Concentrations at Major River Mouths ,1 I. /1 1976-1990 ' \k /} 110 A comparison of the major watersheds between the two decades showed that Northern Europe and North America had lower phosphate concentrations, while the Ganges and Brahmaputra watersheds in South Central Asia had higher concentrations. Nutrient control programmes in municipal and agricultural activities may be key factors in the observed reductions in phosphate concentrations. UJL) Al~ _l 0 (I) LU LU jI am \\ (I) LU / 1) U- 13 C-) / 0 ) / C 1991-2000 H PO4 -P 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 mgIL -J Insufficient data for analyses H or region not included in study > ra e Decreased levels High J Medium Low No change . . f ' I" /\ )! , Increased levels 1 Low -_J Medium High Insufficient data for analysis Changes Between 1976-1990 and 1991 -2000 or region not included in study CO) ($) NI-i' GEMSfft Source: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) - Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) Water Programme, 2001; National Water Research Institute Environment Canada, Ontario, 2001. Global International Water Assessment (GIWA) Case Studies TI 1 http://wwwgiwa.neU Black Sea Amazon Introduction: The catchment area is 2.5 million km2 with a population of 162 on/I ion. of which the urban Introduction: The sub regioo 40b measures 6869km 2 and is shared by ox countries population accourrts for 60%. Freshwater shortages: The high rate of Freshwater shortages are a problem. detorestabon in southeautem Brazil is although not yet catastrophic tndustry accounts for 50% of freshwater use, irrigation for t2-40%. and domesbc use for - 28%. Increasing pollution in over basins and rising salinity ate also exacerbating water shortages. Pollution from industries, municipal waste and oil spills is afiechng groundwater. the seas and rivers itnmugh euoophication n altering the water cycle and increasing problems of freshwater availability Pollution caused by chemcel and suspended solids - emanating from agricuttarat wastes and mercury contaminahon respectively - is of growing concern. Habitat and community modIfication is the priority concern, with management desperatoly required to address largescale ootension :mpacts. Unsustainable exploitation of fisheries, In the pant 30 years. pollution has Oner-eoptoitation of fisheries: devastated the fishing industry. Total The regions fishones have a potenhal 14 catches foil from - 750 500 fans in 1986 to -250 000 tons in 199.2 catch of 200 000 - t million tonnes/yeat with '205 enplvitable species However, consumption is based on only a tee duzon Habitat and community modification and loss: Ecosystems have drasticalfy species and those are already thmotonad by over-exploitation. changed as a result of the increasing eutrophication of wuton bodies Soclo-economic Impacts include minor waterstiorfages. grsuerg polluboe in urban Socln-econon,jc impacts include the decreasing amenity value of coastaf areas for tnvnsnr and recreation, losses centres, and increaong social and health problems in the suburbs otttartazon cities. in agncullure, and rising unemployment. IN] Great Barrier Reef Introduction: Bordered on the east by the GBR Manno Patti World Hentage Anea. the sub-region extends north across the Tornns Strait to Bramble Cay and the Aaslrulia-Papuo New Guinea territorial border, west to the PNG-lndones:a borden, and sooth to the tip of Cape York. Austratra. Pollution: Euttophicab on, chemical pollution and suspended solids from the catchrnents, rivers, wetlands and estuanos are causing moderate impacts in the region In some areas. the impacts are considered severe. Habitat and community modification: Loss or modification of ecosystems isa seoere problem locally, notably in marshlands and spahan belts Overall, the impacts are considered moderate Unsustainable eeptoitation of fisheries and xther fixing resources: Onet-noploitation, exceosiue by-catches, discards and deslruOive fishing techniques (benthic trawling) are severe problems, particularly when targeting sharks, mackerel, lobster and shrimps/prawns. Gtobat climate change isa major threat, particularly the impact of 000an sea surtace temperature increases on coral roots. Aguihas Current Introductiun: Them am eight hoer basins in the sub region, forming a nehavorh of traosboundary water systems, including a 5.000 km coasthno off the Mozambique and Sooth Afncan continental shelves The Zambezi catchment area cavern - 1434 680km2 and supports 38.4 million people - about 70% of the region's populuboo. Freshwater shortages am the pninrery concern due to excessive water abstraction and increasing fodution of supplies. Imgasos accounts for 60% of local treshwater use. Sheanrfbes:stheZambezi Sorer hasdedeted by over 50% in the last three decades, due to the constrochon of three large dams. Unsustainable exploitation of fisfserlas, partioulanly tuna and shmnips in marine waters, is severe and likely to escalate to critical levels by the year 2025. Pollution is not a cntical concern at the present, although some hotopots have been reported in the mining and indusmal zones of ma/or cities. Socioeconomic impacts inclado escalabog poverty, food insecurity and mortality due to waterbome diseases and rcraloral/rural-urban migrabon. The major root ceases am declining agricoltural productivity and fishery harneots. and habitat bitten and niodificatron. There are several hundred relevant assessments and access points for meta-data catalogues and holdings, providing a substantial basis on which to build a comprehensive global assessment of international water issues and problems. The Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA) is an example of a comprehensive strategic assessment designed to identify priorities for remedial and mitigatory actions in international waters. The GIWA geographical framework divides the world into a series of areas, based upon environmental, biogeographical and geopolitical factors. These encompass major causes and effects of environmental problems associated with each transboundary water area, whether river basin, groundwater, lake or sea. A total of 66 subregions were identified as the basic units of assessment, and grouped into nine regions for assessment purposes (GEF UnitJUNEB 1998). 112 Global International Water Assessment Tools for Better Monitoring of the World's Water Resources The GIWA Assessment Methodology eTransboundary Diagnostic AnaIysis Scoping and Scaling Identifying Issues Environmental impact Socio-economic impact U Detailed Impact Assessment Assessing Situations Environmental impact assessment Socio-economic impact assessment 1 Causal Chain Analysis Constructing the Causal Chain By following the most significant successive causes of environmental degradation, a causal chain is constructed to discover the root causes of the problems. 111, Policy Option Analysis The evaluation of alternative scenarios follows various projections developed on the basis of actions to address the societal root causes of environmental degradation. These analyses consider methods for evaluating the environmental impacts of various options for water use, before weighing the costs of measures designed to modify unsustainable developments. + Better action in the field UN I' Source: Global lnternaUonal Water Assessment (GIWA), 2001. GIWA's Five Major Concerns Freshwater shortages Reduction of stream flows Lowering of water tables Pollution of existing water supplies .- Pollution Microbiological pollution, eutrophication Chemical pollution Suspended solids, solid waste Thermal pollution Radionuclides Spills V* Habitat and community modification Loss of ecosystems or ecotones 15 Modification of ecosystems or ecotones Unsustainable exploitation of fisheries and other living resources Inappropriate harvesting practices Resource/habitat changes Habitat alteration or destruction Decreased viability of stock through contamination or disease Reduction of biodiversity Global change Changes in hydrological cycles Rising sea levels Increased UV-B radiation as a result of ozone depletion Changes in ocean carbon dioxide source/sink function GIWA's assessment tools for monitoring the world's water resources, incorporating five major environmental concerns and application of the DPSIR framework, are now beginning to yield results of practical use for management decisions. The DPSIR framework is used in many assessments, eg. in GIWA. The DPSIR Framework T13 Driving Forces (Driving forces-Pressures-State-Impacts-Responses) Pressures M ir Socio-economic and socio-cultural forces driving human activities, which increase or mitigate pressures on the environment. Responses .--,," Responses by society to the environmental situation (eg. cleaner production, regulations). / rA fm Stresses that human activities place on the environment (eg. wastewater). State of the Environment (S0E) The condition of the environment (eg. the assessment - of air or water quality) Effects of environmental degradation (eg. biodiversity loss, economic damage). impact4s rill Source: Global International Water Assessment (GIWA), 2001; European Environment Agency (EEA), Copenhagen. , I Water Use and Management Freshwater use by continents is partly based on several socioeconomic development factors, including population, physiography, and climatic characteristics. Annual global freshwater withdrawal has grown from 3 790 km 3 (of which consumption accounted for 2 070 km 3 or 61%) in 1995, to --4 430 km 3 (of which consumption accounted for 2 304 km 3 or 52%) in 2000 (Shiklomanov, 1999). In 2000, about 57% of the world's freshwater withdrawal, and 70% of its consumption, took place in Asia, where the world's major irrigated lands are located (UNESCO, 1999). In the future, annual global water withdrawal is expected to grow by about 10-12% every 10 years, reaching approximately 5240km 3 (oran increaseof 1.38 times since 1995) by2025. Water consumption is expected to grow at a slower rate of 1.33 times (UNESCO, 1999). In the coming decades, the most intensive growth of water withdrawal is expected to occur in Africa and South America (increasing by 1.5-1.6 times), while the smallest growth will take place in Europe and North America (1.2 times) (Harrison and Pearce, 2001; Shiklomanov, 1999; UNESCO, 1999). T14 km 3 3 500 Global Water Withdrawal and Consumption Assessment I Forecast km 3 3500 Assessment I Forecast Top 20 water consumers per capita km 3 per year 2500-i 3000 2 500 3000 2 500 1000to1800m3 1 800 to 3000 m3 2250 2000 2000 5 900 to 8 100 m3 2000 UJ 1 500 1 000 500 1 500 1000- 500- 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 2025 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 2025 Asia North America Europe Africa South America Australia and Oceania w Water use at the end 1750-i of the 1990s Withdrawal I U) 1 500 LJ Consumption 1250j 17 1 000 ci 0 750 0 LJ 500 No ah America I -/ r r Europe - - --- . - A - -- f -J 250 01 0 A frica South America /1 AustraUa-nf-Qce9jdp -, -.'--.,- (sir P,,iLIi'RE Rc.JCEwJcL MAFiCH QO'Z Source: IgorA. Shiklorrtanov, State Hydrological Institute (SHI, St. Petersburg) and United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, Paris), 1999; World Resources 2000-2001, People and Ecosystems: The Fraying Web of Life, World Resources Institute (WRI). Washington DC, 2000; Paul Harrison and Fred Pearce, AMS Atlas of Population 2001, American Association for the Advancement of Science, university of California Presu, Berkeley. The agricultural sector is by far the biggest user of freshwater: In the United States, agriculture accounts for some 49% of the total freshwater use, with 80% of this volume being used for irrigation (Shiklomanov, 1999). In Africa and Asia, an estimated 85-90% of all the freshwater used is for agriculture (Shiklomanov, 1999). According to estimates for the year 2000, agriculture accounted for 67% of the world's total freshwater withdrawal, and 86% of its consumption (UNESCO, 2000). By 2025, agriculture is expected to increase its water requirements by 1.2 times, industry by 1.5 times, and domestic consumption by 1.8 times (Shiklomanov, 1999). The world's irrigation areas totalled approximately 253 million hectares in 1995. By 2010, they are expected to reach about 290 million hectares, and by 2025 about 330 million hectares (Shiklomanov, 1999). By the year 2000, an estimated 15% of the world's cultivated lands were irrigated for food crops, accounting for almost half of the value of global crop production (UNESCO, 1999). In the industrial sector, the biggest share of freshwater is stored in reservoirs and dams for electrical power generation and irrigation. However, the volume of water evaporated from reservoirs is estimated to exceed the combined freshwater needs of industry and domestic consumption. This greatly contributes to water losses around the world, especially in the hot tropical regions (UNESCO, 1999). Industrial uses account for about 20% of global freshwater withdrawals. Of this, 57-69% is used for hydropower and nuclear power generation, 30-40% for industrial processes, and 0.5-3% for thermal power generation (Shiklomanov, 1999). Evolution of Global Water Use 115 Withdrawal and Consumption by Sector km 3 3200 Assessment Forecast Assessment Forecast Assessment Forecast Assessment Forecast Domestic Industrial Reservoirs 2 800 2 400 C 2 000 cc 1 600 cc w F- 1 200 I I - - I 800 cc Lu 400 0 -, - . U U 1500 1925 1951) 1915 2000 2025 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 2025 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 2025 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 2025 18 11111 withdrawal 11111 Withdrawal 111111111 Withdrawal Consumption Consumption Consumption M Evaporation waste waste Waste I 0 cc Note: Domestic water consumption in developed countries (500-800 litres per person per day) Ccc is about six times greater than in developing countries (60-1 50 litres per person per day). uJ F- C Source: IgorA. Shiklomanov, State Hydrological Institute (SHI, St. Petersburg) and united Nations Educational,Scientifjc and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, Paris), 1999. Lu > Industrial and Domestic Consumption 115 Compared with Evaporation from Reservoirs km3 per year 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 rKaE 1900 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1995 2000 2010 Source: Igor A. Shiklomanov, State Hydrological Institute (SHI, St. Petersburg) and United Nations Educationai,Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, Paris). 1999. Domestic water use is related to the quantity of water available to populations in cities and towns. People in developed countries on average consume about 10 times more water daily than those in developing countries. It is estimated that the average person in developed countries uses 500-800 litres per day (300 m 3 per year), compared to 60-150 litres per day (20 m 3 per year) in developing countries (UNESCO, 2000). In large cities with a centralised water supply and an efficient carialisation system, domestic consumption does not usually represent more than 5-10% of the total water withdrawal (intake) (UNESCO, 2000). Water withdrawal in large cities is estimated at 300-600 litres per person per day, while small cities have a water withdrawal of - 100-150 litres, and consumption can reach 4060% of the total water intake (UNESCO, 2000). In developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America, public water withdrawal represents just 50-100 litres per person per day. In regions with insufficient water resources, this figure may be as low as 20-60 litres per day (UNESCO, 2000). 116 low Freshwater Withdrawal by Sector in 2000 - . . Percenge _J0to16 cam E EEE0 Agriculture 19 # _-.-,-., - Pacific Ocean - Atlan- tic - " Ocean Indian Ocean -. - Percentage 16to32 32 to 48 48 to 64 64 to 80 80to 100 Industry . -- - c - - r S , - Percentage - j0to15 15to30 Y Pacific - r 'i 30 to 45 45 to 60 601o81 Pacific Ocean Indian Ocean .S- . . Domestic use (Nit' MARCH2O2 Source: World Resources 2000-2001, People and Ecosystems: The Fraying Web of Life, World Resources Institute lWRll, Washington DC, 2000 Global Freshwater Withdrawal T17 Country Profiles Based on Agricultural, Industrial and Domestic Use Pacific Industry widely dominant . Domestic use widely dominant Agriculture widely dominant Industry and agriculture equally - dominant _J Domestic use and agriculture dominant Agriculture dominant with significant use by the industrial sector _J 20 Industry dominant with significant use by the domestic sector Agriculture dominant with significant use by the domestic sector Agriculture widely dominant with significant use by the industnal sector ._J Data not available PHILIPPE HEK*CEIIICZ MARCPLUII2 - Source: Based on data fromTable FW1 in World P esources 2000-200 1, People and Ecosystems: The Frayin g Web of Life, Wodd Resources Institute (WRI), Washington DC, 2000 Managing water resources using an integrated river basin management approach is the most sustainable way of ensuring ecosystem integrity. In this respect, there is a need to consider the economic value of freshwater ecosystems, including their fisheries, wildlife habitats, recreation and natural flood control benefits. All T18 Water Supply and Sanitation Coverage 100 1990 2000 Urban 1990 2000 80 fl 60 40 20 1 Rural 100 80 2000 1990 60 riM 40 1990 2000 20 Sanitation Highlights, from The Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 The proportion of people with access to excreta disposal facilities increased from 55% Water Supply Sanitation Water Supply Sanitation (2.9 billion people) in 1990 to 60% (3.6 billion) in 2000. Global L] [J Developing Countries (Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean) Between 1990 and 2000, approximately 747 million additional people gained access to sanitation facilities - although '.1 F' the number of people who lack Source Global Water Supply and Sandat,on Assessment 2000 Report, World Health Organisahon 1WHO) and Uruted Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF). 2000. access to sanitation services remained roughly the same. At the beginning of 2000, two- The supply of safe drinking water and the provision of sanitation are management issues fifths of the world's population that raise concerns of inequitable service provision, particularly in developing countries. (2.4 billion people) lacked Although several successful initiatives have been launched to supply safe drinking water to access to improved sanitation urban populations, efforts continue to fall short of the required targets for sustainable facilities. The majority of these development. In developing countries, water delivery systems are plagued by leakages, illegal people live in Asia and Africa, connections and vandalism, while precious water resources are squandered through greed where fewer than half of all and mismanagement. The World Bank recently estimated that US $600 billion is required to Asians have access to improved 21 repair and improve the world's water delivery systems (UNCSD, 1999). sanitation. Sanitation coverage in rural During the 1990s, the greatest reduction in per capita water supply was in Africa (by 2.8 areas is less than half of that in times), Asia (by two times), and Latin America and the Caribbean (by 1.7 times). The water urban locations, even though supplies available to European populations for that period decreased only by 16% (WHO! 80% of those lacking adequate UNICEF, 2000). sanitation (2 billion people) live in rural areas--some 1.3 billion The lack of access to safe drinking water and sanitation is directly related to poverty, and in in China and India alone. many cases to the inability of governments to finance satisfactory water and sanitation systems. In Africa, Asia, Latin America The direct and indirect human costs of these failings are enormous, including widespread and the Caribbean, nearly 2 health problems, heavy labour (particularly for women, who are forced to travel long distances billion people in rural areas to obtain water for their families), and severe limitations for economic development (Gleick, have no access to improved 1995). Improved water and sanitation facilities, on the other hand, bring valuable benefits sanitation facilities. for both social and economic development and poverty alleviation (WHO/UNICEF 2000). To achieve 2015 sanitation targets in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, an Water Supply Highlights, from The Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment additional 2.2 billion people 2000 will have to be provided with sanitation facilities. The percentage of people served with some form of improved water supply rose from Polluted water is estimated to 79% (4.1 billion people) in 1990 to 82% (4.9 billion) in 2000. Between 1990 and affect the health of more than 2000, approximately 816 million additional people gained access to water supplies - 1.2 billion people, and to con- an improvement of 3%. tribute to the death of an average Two of every five Africans lack access to an improved water supply. Throughout 15 million children every year. Africa, rural water services lag far behind urban services. In 1994, WHO estimated the During the 1990s, rural water supply percentage coverage increased while urban number of people without coverage decreased --although the number of people who lack access to water supplies access to clean drinking water remained about the same. at 1.3 billion. By 2000, nearly In Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, nearly 1 billion people in rural areas 1.2 billion people lacked have no access to improved water supplies. access to clean water, while To achieve the 2015 targets in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, water 2.4 billion lacked access to supplies will have to reach an additional 1.5 billion people. adequate sanitation services, Source: WHO/UNICEF, 2000. Source: WHO/UNICEF, 2000. Problems Related to Freshwater Resources Although the absolute quantities of freshwater on Earth have remained approximately the same, the uneven distribution of water and human settlement continues to create growing problems of freshwater availability and accessibility. The World's Freshwater Supplies T19 Annual Renewable Supplies per Capita per River Basin 4. '4 ; 1995 I, Ilk U I 0 cc U cc LU F- A. > k Projections for 2025 500 1 000 1 700 4000 10000 m 3 per capita Scarcity Stress ll Sufficient quantities North America 1 Yukon 2 Mackenzie 3 Nelson 4 Mississippi 5 St. Lawrence m3 per capita per year 1 249 832 408 243 15167 8973 9 095 South America 6 Amazon 7 Paran 273 767 8 025 Europe 25 Danube Africa and WestAsia 8 Niger 9 Lake Chad Basin 10 Congo 11 Nile 12 Zambezi 26 Orange 24 Euphrates and Tigris m3 per capita per year 2519 4076 7922 22752 2207 1 050 2 189 Asia and Australia 13 Volga 14 Ob 15 Yenisey 16 Lena 17 Kolyma 18 Amur 19 Ganges and Brahmaputra 20 Yangtze 21 Murray Darling 22 Huang He 23 Indus m3 per capita per year 4260 14937 79063 161 359 722 456 4917 2265 361 830 Source: Revenga et al. 2000, from Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems: Freshwater Systems. In areas where surface water is not readily available (located far away from areas of need), groundwater is the primary water source. Groundwater aquifers supply an estimated 20% of the global population living in arid and semi-arid regions. Despite their widespread presence, groundwater aquifers in arid areas receive only limited and/or seasonal recharge - making such aquifers susceptible to rapid depletion. The Northern Sahara Basin Aquifer, for example, was exploited at almost twice its replenishment rate during the 1990s, causing many of its springs to stop flowing Cities With Groundwater Problems (Jackson et al., 2001). The rapid shift of populations to urban areas is causing evergreater demands on groundwater resources, particularly in the developing world. Hat Yai, Thailand: Mixing of unpolluted regional groundwater and canal seep- Where cities are located above productive aquifers and are far from surface water supplies, groundwater is usually the primary freshwater source. It is primarily exploited through hand-dug wells or drilled boreholes (Foster et al., 1998). Although urban aquifers meet the growing water demands of several major cities today (Merida, Madras, Bangkok, Hat Yai, Santa Cruz, Dakar), major problems are being caused by unregulated groundwater exploitation, and the disposal of solid and liquid wastes above or into these aquifers. A growing number of large urban centre aquifers are facing pollution from organic chemicals, pesticides, nitrates, heavy metals and waterborne pathogens. age has occurred in this busy border city. It was discovered that the most polluted urban groundwater has high chloride concentrations, indicating that canal water seepage has occurred at groundwater abstraction points and where downward leakage is greatest. Merida, Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico: With no main sewerage system, the The level of water and wastewater service provision can also radically alter aquifer majority of Merida's wastewater is replenishment mechanisms, affecting not only the dynamic equilibrium between disposed of directly to the ground via increased recharge availability and pumped withdrawals, but also the magnitude of septic tanks, soak-aways, and cesspits. the pollutant load and the rate of aquifer contamination. All these problems occur to The fissured nature of the local lime- a certain degree in towns and cities, depending upon their type of groundwater supply. stone means that water movement to the water table is frequently rapid, and the vadose zone provides virtually i20 An Urban Dilemma Groundwater Pollution by Canal Seepage in Hat Yai, Southern Thailand no attenuation capacity because the aperture of the fissures is many times larger than the size of pathogenic Chloride Concentration, mg/L 140 120 J Chloride (Cl) Potassium Concentration, mgIL 1 16 Potassium (K) 14 2 3 micro-organisms. Not surprisingly, the shallow aquifer has been grossly contaminated, with fecal coliforms (FC) typically in the range of 1 0004 000 per 100 ml. The permitted 100 12 concentration set by WHO for drinking water is <1 per 100 ml. 23 80 10. Santa Cruz, Bolivia: This low-rise, relatively ow-density, but fast-growing 8- city derives its water supply from 60 I. wellfields within the city limits, which .. 40 4 20-1 64. / / extract from deep semi-confined alluvial aquifers. Although groundwater in the deeper aquifer, below 100 metres, is of excellent quality, the uppermost aquifer above 45 metres 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 0j 0 20 40 60 80 100 has begun to show substantial deterioration, with elevated nitrate Degree of mixing expressed as % of canal seepage Degree of mixing expressed as % of canal seepage and chloride concentrations under the more densely populated districts. Mixing of groundwater and polluted canal water These are caused by effluent disposal I Water not or little mixed with canal water 2 Water mixed with canal water 3 Groundwater and canai Water completely mixed to the ground, mainly from on site sanitation units. This urban recharge is drawn downwards in response to Mixing of Unpolluted Groundwater and Canal Seepage pumping from the deeper semiconfined aquifers. Dissolved oxygen Hat Yai and its Suburbs in the urban recharge is low, being consumed as the carbon in the organic load is oxidized to carbon dioxide, M&L Canal 1 1 Canal which, in turn, reacts with carbonate minerals in the aquifer matrix to produce bicarbonate. The oxidation - -..---- Unconfined - --- - .___ aquifer S - V V Poor quality Water - - . jpomet sutiaC - - V y y V V V V Semi-confined aquifer Zone of maximum leakage Increasng Cl. NH-N. NO-N, Fe, HOD 1< of the high organic load also mobilises naturally occurring manganese from the aquifer matrix, and some of the production boreholes in the main wellfield have started to show concentrations above 0.5 mg per litre, leading to taste and laundry problems. Sources: Foster at at., 1998. Source: Lawrence et al., 1997. It is estimated that water pollution/contamination denies close to 1.3 billion people (-- 20% of the global population in 2000) access to clean water supplies. In 1986, WHO reported that there were 250 million new cases of waterborne diseases each year, causing the deaths of nearly 3.5 million people. An estimated 4.2 billion cases of waterborne diseases are reported each year, with diarrhoea accounting for 4 billion of the total (Cosgrove and Rijsberman, 2000; Revenga et al., 2000). Some 460 million people - more than 8% of the worlds population -- live in countries using so much of theirfreshwater resources that they can be considered highly water stressed (UNCSD, 1999; WMO 1997). A further 25% of the population lives in countries approaching a position of serious water stress (WMO. 1997). Water scarcity occurs when the amount of water withdrawn from lakes, rivers or groundwater is so great that water supplies are no longer adequate to satisfy all human or ecosystem requirements, resulting in increased competition between water users and demands. According to Population Action International, based upon the UN Medium Population Projections of 1998, more than 2.8 billion people in 48 countries will face water stress or scarcity conditions by 2025. Of these countries, 40 are in West Asia, North Africa or SubSaharan Africa. Over the next two decades, population increases and growing demands are projected to push all the West Asian countries into water scarcity conditions. By 2050, the number of countries facing water stress or scarcity could rise to 54, with their combined population being 4 billion people -- about 40% of the projected global population of 9.4 billion (Gardner-Outlaw and Engleman, 1997; UNFPA, 1997). Many African countries, with a population of nearly 200 million people, are facing serious water shortages. By the year 2025, it is estimated that nearly 230 million Africans will be facing water scarcity, and 460 million will live in water-stressed countries (Falkenmark, 1989). Today 31 countries, accounting for less than 8% of the world's population, face chronic freshwater shortages. Among the countries likely to run short of water in the next 25 years are Ethiopia, India, Kenya, Nigeria and Peru. Parts of other large countries (eg. China) already face chronic water problems (Hirlrichsen et al., 1998; Tibbetts, 2000). Bahrain, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates have resorted to the desalinisation of seawater from the Gulf. Bahrain has virtually no freshwater (Riviere, 1989). Three-quarters of Saudi Arabia's freshwater comes from fossil groundwater, which is reportedly being depleted at an average of 5.2 km 3 per year (Postel, 1997). Definitions of Water Stress and Scarcity Freshwater Stress and Scarcity in Africa by 2025 121 An area is experiencing water stress when annual water supplies Morocco drop below 1 700 m 3 per person. When annual water supplies drop / Algeria Libya Egypt below 1 000 m 3 per person, the 24 population faces water scarcity. Cape Verde Sources: UNPD, UNEP, World ') Bank, and WRI, 2000. Burkina Paso Niger Eritrea Djibouti Ghana Togo Nigeria Ethiopia Water scarcity in 2025 less than 1 000 m 3/capita/year Water stress in 2025 1 000 to 1 700 m3/capita/year Uganda Som Rwanda Kenya Burundi Tanzania Global Water Stress and Scarcity Billions of people affected High 7-' Medium 13-j Low 2 01._________________________ 1995 2050 Population projections Siress Scarcity (i?) M ? Mozque Zimbab Comoros - - Mauritius South Africa Source:United Nations Economic Commission for Africa uNEcA). Addis Ababa. Global Environment Oulloo 2000 (GEO), UNEP, Earlhscan, London, 1999: Population Action International Water has been associated with conflicts between several neighbouring countries. In Africa, Central Asia, West Asia and the Americas, some countries are arguing fiercely over access to rivers and inland seas, and confrontations could arise as water shortages grow (Gleick, 2000). Countries currently or potentially involved in international disputes over access to river water and aquifers include: Turkey, Syria and Iraq (the Tigris and Euphrates rivers); Israel, Jordan, Syria and Palestine (the Jordan River and the aquifers of the Golan Heights); India and Pakistan (the Punjab rivers); India and Bangladesh (the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers); China, Indochina and Thailand (the Mekong River); Tajikistan, Kyrghyzstan and Uzbekistan (the Oxus and Jaxartes rivers); Ethiop, Sudan and East African riparian countries, including Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda and Egypt (the Nile River) (Gleick, 2000; Villers, 1999). 122 Turning the Tides Regulation of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers Vol U BLACK S GEORGIA Baku U P) ARMENIA -U U AZERBAIJAN Yerevan U LU F- I Nakhichevan IPN LU TURKEY (Azerbaijan) KABAN KAKAYA I118 25 N - ATATURK -- LI) C) 0OLKY I \) ) BAK4II1A IRAN acr 'Kl MOSSOUL Mossul a- BAMA DN uJ TABKA / Kirkuk'. \ XBH'N SYRIA JORDAN YAL.AWEIR HADITAH KAHN BAGHDADI''\ RAMADI1 KHAN BEN SMO Baghdad IRAQ HINDIYAH Karbala evol 3 KUT Nadjaf. SAUDI ARABIA Nasywahssoa rah Forest and grazing land Rain-fed agriculture: grains, vegetables, fruits Irrigated crops (saline soils) Alluvial plains: potential for irrigation Dry lands, mainly used for pastoralism KUWAIT Kuwait City _J Regions influencing the flow of the Tigris and Euphrates Main dams Swamps Horticulture 0 200 400 km Source: Le Monde diplomatique, Paris, 1994, updated in 2001. PHILIPPE REKACEWICZ Freshwater ecosystem alterations The construction of large dams - defined as those with walls at least 15 metres high - has have been carried out by man through increased significantly over the past 50 years. The average height of new dams, estimated at much of modern history, with the 30-34 metres from 1940-1990, increased to about 45 metres in the 1990s, due largely to intensity of modifications increasing construction trends in Asia. The average area and volume of freshwater reservoirs have also in the early to mid-1900s. Common steadily increased, rising to about 50 krri 2 between 1945 and 1970, declining through the waterway modifications - such as the 1980s to 17 km 2 , and increasing again in the 1990s to about 23 km 2 (WCD, 2000). construction of dams and irrigation channels, inter-basin connections By 1997, there were more than 45 000 large dams worldwide, 22 100 of them in China. and water transfers - can impact on Other nations with many large dams include the United States (with 6 390 large dams), the hydrology of freshwater systems, India (with more than 4 000), and Spain and Japan (with 1 000-1 200 each) (WCD, 2000). disconnect rivers from floodplains and wetlands, and decrease water The countries with the greatest number of large dams under construction, in order of velocity in riverine systems. This, in significance, are Turkey, China, Japan, Iraq, Iran, Greece, Romania and Spain, and countries turn, can affect the seasonal flow and in the Parana basin in South America. The river basins with the most large dams under sediment transport of rivers down- construction are the Yangtze with 38, the Tigris and Euphrates, with 19 each, and the stream, impacting on fish migrations Danube, with 11 (Revenga et al., 2000). and changing the composition of riparian ecosystems. Exotic species Damming and flood control can have negative impacts, such as declining fish catches, loss of often thrive at the expense of indi- freshwater biodiversity, increases in the frequency and severity of floods, loss of soil nutrients genous ones, leading to an unquantifi- on floodplains, and increases in diseases such as schistosomiasis and malaria. In Egypt, for able loss in freshwater biodiversity example, the massive Aswan Dam has caused the fertile Nile Delta to shrink, with 30 of 47 and inland fishery resources (Revenga commercially exploited fish species becoming economically or biologically extinct. On the etal., 2000). Mississippi River, the rising frequency and severity of flooding - attributed to local flood control structures - have reduced the river's ability to support native flora and fauna. And a dramatic increase in floods on the Rhine River has been attributed to increased urbanisation, 26 engineering, and the walling off of the river from its floodplain (Revenga et al., 1998). River Fragmentation and Flow Regulation 723 LL River channel fragmentation and flow regulation Unaffected Number of new dams under construction in 1998 20 to 38 Moderately affected Strongly affected 6 to 20 No data 1 to 6 ) Not assessed in present study PHI[ IPPE REKACEW]CZ Source: Revenge et al., World Resources Institute (WRI(, Washington DC, 2000. River fragmentation - the interruption of a river's natural flow by tributaries have been dammed, the total river discharge has dams, inter-basin transfers or water withdrawal - is an indicator only declined by less than 2% (Revenga et al., 2000). of the degree to which rivers have been modified by man (Ward The combined length of rivers altered for shipping increased and Stanford, 1989, and Dynesius and Nilsson, 1994, as cited from less than 9000 km in 1900 to more than 500 000 km in in Revenga et al., 2000). A fragmentation analysis carried out by 1997 (Naiman et al., 1995, as cited in Revenga et al., 2000). the University of Umea and the World Resources Institute showed The only remaining large free-flowing rivers in the world are that, of 227 rivers assessed, 37% were strongly affected by found in the tundra regions of North America and Russia, and fragmentation and altered flows, 23% were moderately affected, in smaller coastal basins in Africa and Latin America. and 40% were unaffected. Considerable parts of large rivers in the tropics, such as the Strongly or moderately fragmented systems accounted for nearly Amazon, the Orinoco and the Congo, remain basically 90% of the total water volume flowing through the rivers analysed. unaffected. China's Yangtze River will become strongly affected Strongly fragmented river systems are defined as "rivers with with the completion of the Three Gorges dam project (Revenga less than a quarter of their main channel remaining without et al., 2000). dams, where the largest tributary has at least one dam, as well as rivers where the annual flow pattern has changed The last three decades have seen several inland ecosystems (eg. substantially." Fragmented rivers are only considered the Aral Sea, Lake Chad, the Mesopotamian Marshlands) decline unaffected if their main channel has no dams or, if their in size and function. uJ U 0 LO LJ L,J I cn uJ The Shrinking of the Aral Sea: Socio-Economic Impacts 27 Aralsk Aral sea 1960 KAZAKHSTAN rd (ralsk 2001 U C-) I 0 0 0 KAZAKHSTAN Kzyl Orda UZBEKISTAN TURKMENTAN\\ IJNEP Bukhara , Fishing zone Food crops, partly irrigated Fish exports ra hkent TURKMENISTAW kha S PHILIPPEREKACE CZ MARC2OO2 Dry zone and unusable areas (salination) _J Cct Fish imports ) Dam --u4p Source: Philippe Rekacewicz, An Assassinated Sea, in Histoire-Geographie, initiation conomique, page 333, Classe de Troisirne 1-latier, Paris, 1993 (data updated in 2002); LOtat du Monde, 1992 and 2001 editions, La DOcouverte, Paris. The Aral Sea: A shrinking regional resource Over the past 30 years, the Aral Sea in the former Soviet Union has shrunk to less than half of its original size. The reduction in the quantity and quality of water in the Aral Sea basin, and the resulting spread of toxic dusts, has caused an ecological and socio-economical disaster in the region (Pidwirny, 1999). Will the Aral Sea Disappear Forever? 125 The last 40 Years and Alternative Future Scenarios What has happened... In 1989-1990, the Aral Sea separated into two parts: the 'Large Aral' and the 'Small Aral' 40 to 1957 from a map 1977 from satellite images 1982 from satellite images 1984 from satellite images 1993 from a map November2000 from satellite images U) What could happen... U) Cr2 0 U) km 3 per year Predicted demand km 3 per year U) 160 2010 160 km 3 per year 160 Between November 2000 and June 2001, Vozrojdeniya Island joined the mainland to the south uJ I- 140 2000 - 140 2000 140 2000 120 120 - 120 I U) 100 U) Steady growth 100 100 : 80 scenario 80 Stable 80 linear 2000-level 60 -\stractro,i P'" 60 Abstraction demand 60- Abstraction 28 40 of water 1960-2000 40 of water 1960-2000 40 of water Optimistic 1960-20 scenario 20 20 20 beO ava,Irble June 2001 U) 0 (2 1960 1980 2000 2020' 1960 980 2000 20 1960 1980 ' 20002020 I from satellite Images 3- 3- Cr2 PHILIPPE vEKACEwICz LU - MARCH 2002 II- -02 Sources: Nikolai Denisov, GRID-Arendal, Norway; Scientific Information Center of International Coordination Water Commission (SIC ICWC(; International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea (IFAS); The World Bank; National Astronautics ans Space Administration (NASA); United States Geological Survey (USGS), Earthshots: Satellite images of environmental change. United States Department of the Interior, 2000. The demise of the Aral Sea was caused primarily by the diversion Fishing in the Aral Sea has ceased completely, shipping and of the inflowing Amu Dar'ya and Syr Dar'ya rivers to provide other water-related activities have declined, and the associated irrigation water for local croplands. These diversions dramatically economic changes have taken a heavy toll on agricultural reduced the river inflows, causing the Aral Sea to shrink by more production. Rising unemployment has led to a major exodus than 50%, to lose two-thirds of its volume, and to greatly increase from the region. In Aralsk Rayon, for example, the population its salinity. At the current rate of decline, the Aral Sea has the has dropped from 82 900 to 72 500 people in the past 10 potential to disappear completely by 2020 (Pidwirny, 1999). In 1963, the surface of the Aral Sea measured 66 100 km 2, with years (Okda, 2001). The quality of drinking water has continued to decline due to an average depth of 16 metres and a maximum depth of 68 increasing salinity, bacteriological contamination, and the metres. The salt content was 1%. During the 1960s, upstream presence of pesticides and heavy metals. irrigation schemes for growing rice and Cotton consumed 90% Diseases like anaemia, cancer and tuberculosis, and the of the natural flow of water from the Tian Shan Mountains. presence of allergies, are on the rise. The incidence of typhoid By 1987, 27 000 km 2 of former sea bottom had become dry fever, viral hepatitis, tuberculosis and throat cancer is three land. About 60% of the Aral Sea's volume had been lost, its times the national average in some areas (DLR, 2002; LEAD, depth had declined by 14 metres, and its salt concentration 1997; Okda, 2001). had doubled. Today, about 200 000 tonnes of salt and sand are carried by the wind from the Aral Sea region every day, and dumped within a 300 km radius. The salt pollution is decreasing the area available for agriculture, destroying pastures, and creating a shortage of forage for domestic animals. The number of domestic animals in the region has become so low that the government has issued a decree to reduce their slaughter for food. Recently steps have been taken to change this disastrous state, through the International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea (UNEP GRID-Arendal, IFAS, 1997). If all steps are adhered to, a substantial recovery might be achieved within 20 years, although it is doubtful that the Aral Sea will ever be restored to the conditions that existed before the large-scale diversion of its inflowing rivers. T26 1973 . Amara From Wetlands to Dry Lands The Destruction of the Mesopotamian Marshlands 2000 1 Amars \ & 1 IRAQ .QalSa Hawizah // .. '1asiriyah Central Marshes Marshes Qumah (1 0h?ate5 IRAN Ahvaz . IRAQ J Nssirjy QtS Central Marshes Hawizah Marshes ( urnah IRAN Ahvaz. < Permanent marsh Basrah Abadan Permanent marsh Basrah IPA Abadan Seasonal marsh Permanent lake Mud flats or temporary marsh Od Shallow or seasonal lake U) ._._..j uJ Permanent lake .i' Dead or dry vegetation C :2 Shallow or seasonal lake CO) KUWAIT Persian Former extent of marshlands 0 U) ', Persian UJ ) Gulf 0 50 100 km KUWAIT Gulf of PJPPEREKACEWMZ C i - . MAY2022 Note: These two maps are sourced from satellite images and maps originally created by Hassan Partow, GRID-Geneva. I Source: Hassan Partow, The Mesopotamian Marshlands; Demise of an Ecosystem, United Nations Env;ronment Programme (UNEP), Division of Early Warning and Assessment co C (DEWA). 2001. I Wetlands remain a grossly underestimated asset in many parts The central and Al Hammar marshlands have been completely 29 of the world. Because of their erroneous reputation as unproductive destroyed, with 97% and 94% of their respective cover ecosystems or hazardous places, many governments still transformed into bare land and salt crusts. Less than a third encourage the conversion of wetlands to more productive land of the transboundary Hawr Al Hawizeh/Al Azim marshland uses. In recent years, however, people are coming to understand remains today. and appreciate the multitude of vital environmental functions that The water filtering role of the marshland has ceased and the wetlands perform. Saddam River discharges polluted agricultural drainage directly into the Shatt-al-Basrah Canal, before emptying into the Gulf The value ofthese environmental services to humankind is immense. at Umm Qasr via the Khawr al-Zubair. The seawater around Costanza et al. (1998) estimated the global value of wetlands at Warbah Island on the Iraq-Kuwait border has become less nearly US $5 trillion a year, based on their ecosystem functions as saline and more polluted, with potentially harmful impacts on flood regulators, waste treatment plants, wildlife habitats, and areas local fish resources (Partow, 2001). of fisheries production and recreation. Another estimate put the The entire Marsh Arab community has suffered serious social value of one hectare of wetland at US $15 000 (Holmes, 1997). and economic upheaval as a result of the marshlands' destruction. About 40 000 Marsh Arabs were forced to flee to The Mesopotamian Marshlands: From wetlands to dry lands southwest Iran because of this natural disaster, combined with The Mesopotamian Marshlands in the Tigris and Euphrates river the 1991-93 armed conflicts (AMAR, 2001; UNCHR, 1996). basins were devastated by damming and river channelisation The impact on marsh wildlife and biodiversity has been during the late 1980s. Satellite images taken in 1973-76 revealed catastrophic, with the probable extinction of the endemic that the wetlands were more or less intact. By 2000, however, smooth-coated otter, and the disappearance of the African most of the dense marsh vegetation had been replaced by Darter and the Sacred Ibis from the Middle East. A further 66 vegetation on moist-to-dry soil. bird species existing in the marshlands in internationally Massive drainage works in southern Iraq in the late 1980s significant numbers are now at risk. A wide range of migratory and early 1990s, together with major upstream damming, aquatic species have been affected - including the penaied caused the loss of more than 9 000 km 2 of wetlands and shrimp, which migrates between the Arabian Gulf and nursery lakes from the vast and ecologically vital marshlands. grounds in the marshlands - with serious economic Only minor and fragmented parcels remain today of the consequences for coastal fisheries in the northern Gulf. marshlands, which once covered an area of 15 000-20 000 The disappearance of the marshlands will doubtless have a km 2 . At least 7 600 km 2 of primary wetlands (excluding seasonal significant impact on the regional micro-climate, with an and temporary flooded areas) were lost between 1973 and 2000, anticipated reduced cooling effect from the wetlands and lakes with most of the change occurring between 1991 and 1995. (Partow, 2001). Lake Chad: A conspiracy of climate change and crops Straddling the borders of Chad, Niger and Cameroon in West Africa, Lake Chad has been a source of freshwater for irigation projects in all these countries. Maps drawn from a series of satellite images show a dramatic decrease in the size of the lake over the past 30 years. Since 1963, the lake has shrunk to nearly a twentieth of its original size, due both to climatic changes and to high demands for agricultural water. Since 1963, the surface area of Lake Chad has decreased from approximately 25 000 km 2 to 1 350 km 2 (Scientific American, 2001). Between June 1966 and January 1973, the surface area of Lake Chad shrunk from 22 772 km 2 to 15 400 km2 . In 1982, the lake's surface area was estimated to be atout 2 276 km 2 . In February 1994, Meteosat images were useol to measure it at just 1 756 Km 2 Between 1953 and 1979, irrigation had only a modest impact on the Lake Chad ecosystem. Between 1983 and 1994, however, irrigation water use increased four-fold. About 50% of the decrease in the lake's size since the 1966s is attributed to human water use, with the remainder attribute1 to shifting climate patterns. Invasive plant species currently cover about 50% of the remaining surface of Lake Chad. Research carried out over the past 40 years indicates that the main factors in the shrinking of the lake have been: Major overgrazing in the region (Coe and Foley, 2001), resulting in the loss of vegetation and serious deforestation, contributing to a drier climate; Large and unsustainable irrigation projects built by Niger, Nigeria, Cameroon and Chad, which have diverted water from both the lake and the Chari and Logone rivers. 30 z 3- 3- A 'Win - Win' Solution: Using Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment, Habitat Creation and Food Production uJ Constructed Wetlands (CW5) use the natural processes involving Despite current usage patterns, tropical and subtropical I- wetland vegetation, soils and associated microorganisms to climates hold the greatest potential for wetland use. Cold > assist in treating wastewater. They are designed to take advantage climates cause problems because of both icing and thaw. of many of the processes that occur in natural wetlands, in a The annual production of papyrus in tropical conditions, for more controlled environment. example, can exceed 100 tonnes per ha per year. The foliage can be sustainably cropped, while the papyrus stems can Constructed Wetlands fall into two general categories: Subsurface be used for matting and thatching roofs. Water that has Flow Systems (SFS) and Freewater Surface Systems (FSS). SFS passed through the wetland can be used to irrigate crops systems are applied to improve water quality, while FSS systems and/or introduce to fishponds. In this final stage, the maximise wetland habitat values and reuse opportunities, while remaining nitrates and phosphates stimulate the growth of also improving water quality. phytoplankton - the favourite food of Tilapia, a freshwater food fish becoming increasingly popular in Europe. Benefits of using Constructed Wetlands: CWs require little maintenance, and remain effective after Constructed Wetlands are an effective, environmentally more than 10 years of use. friendly means of treating liquid and solid waste. Research CWs could bring major economic benefits to developing in France in the 1980s, for example, indicated that Reed countries through the provision of biomass and aquaculture. Bed Filters (SFS) designed to treat waste from 100-250 people were highly effective in improving water quality. Such wetland systems can yield a significant profit for local communities, and might be a powerful tool for breaking the CWs are effective at reducing loads of BOD/COD, nitrogen, poverty cycle. phosphorus and suspended solids by up to 98%. However, In developed countries, CWs can provide a valuable habitat despite the suitability of climate in developing countries, the spread of wetlands in such areas has been "depressingly for wildlife and a natural tourist attraction. Slimbridge in the UK has become a popular venue for viewing birds, slow" (Denny et al., 1997). amphibians such as frogs, newts and toads, and insects In recent years, there has been a tendency to construct more such as dragonflies. Its wetlands are also used to treat all SFS-type wetlands, which are believed to be more effective liquid waste produced on-site (up to 4 000 m 3 per day). in treating wastes. Source: Fujita Research, 1998. A Chronology of Change Natural and Anthropogenic Factors Affecting Lake Chad 1963 1973 . 1987 Niger Chad Niger ' Chad Niger Chad Nigeria 77 Niger Cameroon 1997 Chad Nigeria Niger Cameroon 2001 Chad Nigeria i Cameroon waWater Former shoreline J Vegetation Nigena '"\ - - -- : Nigeria This collection of maps has been sourced from a series of satellite images provided by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center: uJ 0) http.//w.gsfc.nasa.gov/gsfc1earth/environhiakechad/chad.htfl1 cc 'J) Ui Cameroon Cameroon cc Of Lu The changes in the lake have contributed to local lack of water, crop failures, livestock deaths, collapsed fisheries, soil salinity, and increasing poverty throughout the region. I Freshwater biodiversity: Although freshwater ecosystems such as rivers, lakes and wetlands occupy less than 2% of the Earth's total land surface, they provide a wide range of habitats for a significant proportion of the world's plant and animal species. Although many are yet to be discovered, the number of freshwater species worldwide is estimated at between 9 000 and 25 000 (Cosgrove and Rijsberman, 2000). This number is rapidly decreasing due to human interference. LU F- Physical alteration, habitat degradation, excessive water withdrawal and pollution have contributed directly or indirectly to the decline in freshwater species. Other factors that reduce freshwater biodiversity include the incursion of non-native species and the mismanagement of inland fisheries. Today, an estimated 20% of the world's freshwater fish are vulnerable, endangered or extinct (Revenga et al., 1998). T2 9 Fish Diversity in Freshwater Systems .I Ii High number of fish species High number of endemic fish High number of fish species and endemics Low number of fish species and endemics ..J Nodata Source; Revenga et al., World Resources Institute (WRI), Washington DC, 1998. .'I PHILIPPE REI(ACEWICZ WC0 2002 128 Changes in Freshwater Species Populations Indices 1970-1999 120 - 100 80 a 60 . 40 20 . - NorthAmerica - LahnAmenca - - urope Africa Asia-Pacific = Australasia Freshwater5pecies Population Index 19 1975 1980 1985 1995 2000 I \I P 2NE0GOUY Source: J. Loh (ed), Living Planet Report 2000, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). Freshwater Species Population Index Between 1970 and 1999, the Freshwater Species Population Index fell by nearly 50%, which constitutes a very rapid decline in population indices. The Freshwater Species Population Index measures the average change over time in the populations of some 194 species of freshwater birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians and fish. The index represents the average of six regional indices, which measure freshwater species populations in Africa, Asia-Pacific, Australasia, Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean, and North America. There has been a much smaller decline over the past 30 years in the freshwater species of North America and Europe than those in the other regions. Much of the loss and degradation of freshwater ecosystems in the industrialised world took place prior to 1970. The status of freshwater bird and mammal populations is better known than those of other groups. Waterfowl are among the most closely monitored of all wild species. Much less is known about population trends among freshwater fish and amphibians, although many biologists believe these to be among the most threatened classes of species in the world. Recent evidence suggests there has been a drastic decline in amphibian populations in many parts of the world since the 1950s. Source: Loh, 2000. The harvest of freshwater fish is likely to increase either through more significant in landlocked countries, where data on the\ capture fisheries or aquaculture (otherwise known as fish farming). fish caught are often not formally recorded, and their importance In many developing countries, freshwater fish provide a significant is not fully known. contribution to the diets of local communities. In 1999, the reported fish production from inland waters "The introduction of the non-native Nile Perch to Africa's Lake totalled 28 million tonnes, with contributions of 8.2 and 19.8 Victoria in 1954, combined with pollution loading and increased million tonnes from capture fisheries and aquaculture, water turbidity resulting from agriculture and industrial develop- respectively. With major under-reporting from subsistence ment, has greatly reduced indigenous fish populations. Kenya, fisheries, these figures could be twice as high (FAO, 2000). for example, reported only 0.5% of its commercial fish catch as Nile Perch in 1976. Five years later, the proportion was The over-exploitation and mismanagement of fisheries, particularly 68%. Lake Victoria, the second largest lake in the world, has when combined with other manmade stresses, can lead to the lost an estimated 200 different endemic cichlid species found collapse of regional fish faunas. In many countries, aquaculture 32 nowhere else, while the remaining 150 are endangered. Two- is rapidly increasing in response to declining natural fisheries, thirds of the freshwater species introduced into the tropics often exacerbating the degradation of inland and coastal ecosystems worldwide have become established" (Revenga et al., 1998). through habitat alteration, pollution and the introduction of alien In Africa and Asia, fish provide 21% and 28% of all animal species" (Revenga et al., 1998). protein, respectively (Revenga et al., 1998). The figures are The State of the World's Fisheries Inland and Marine Capture Fishery Trends Inland capture fisheries - trends, 1984-1997 Decreasing Stable Increasing No data Ratio between 1998 catch ,- o and maximum recorded catch 1.00 Oto 0.50 I 0.75 1f 0.50 to 0.80 0.80 to 1.00 0.50 Marine fishing 0.25 zones 1 Source: The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2000 1999, Rome. PIILIPPE REK200WPCZ MAY 002 Review of the Slate of World Fishery Resources: Inland Fisheries, Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), : Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 stresses the need for the protection of A wide variety of human activities can affect the coastal and the oceans, all kinds of seas, including enclosed and semi-enclosed marine environment. Population pressure, increasing demands 33 seas, and coastal areas, as well as the protection, rational use and for space and resources, and poor economic performances can development of their living resources. The chapter covers the all undermine the sustainable use of our oceans and coastal areas. following programme areas: The most serious problems affecting the quality and use of these I 0 The integrated management and sustainable development of ecosystems are: coastal areas, including exclusive economic zones; Marine environmental protection; The alteration and destruction of habitats and ecosystems; w The effects of sewage on human health; The sustainable use and conservation of living marine Widespread and increasing eutrophication; resources of the high seas; The decline of living resources, such as fish stocks; H- The sustainable use and conservation of living marine Changes in sediment flows due to hydrological changes; > resources under national jurisdiction; The impacts of climate change, including rising sea levels The addressing of critical uncertainties for the management (GESAMP 2001b). of the marine environment and climate change; The strengthening of regional and international cooperation and coordination; The sustainable development of small islands. Coastal Zone Statistics for Countries Grouped by Region Length of Coast (km) Area of Continental Shelf, <200m (1000 km 2 ) North America Central America & Caribbean South America Europe Middle East & North Africa Sub Saharan Africa Asia Oceania World 398,835 73,703 144,567 325,892 47,282 63,124 288,459 137,772 1,634,701 5,107.5 806.6 2,203.0 6,316.0 786.5 987.0 5,515.4 2,565.0 24,287.1 Source: Burke et al., 2001 Territorial Sea, up to 12 nm for each country (1000 km 2) Exclusive Fishing Zone (1000 km 2) 3,484.1 1,050.0 1,030.0 2,589.4 649.7 871.9 5,730.9 2,830.4 18,816.9 X 197.2 1,814.1 1,783.0 196.0 3,111.1 249.5 X 12,885.2 Species Diversity in the World's Seas, 1990-1 998 131 J No~ralIchi6fiacst South Pacific Southeast Pacific . Southwest Atlantic I Antartica Few Species Numerous Species West and - Central Africa East Africa Southe rn Africa I Kuwait !g:;tti I1t::p=est P( EastAsian - seafi_......_ an ne M amma l s Southwest Australia Arctic I ' I _- II - On Kuwait Northwest wH- North St - marine -- Pacific Pacc / North Atlantic Mediterranean uJ C5ribbean Sea Re'Sea and Soath .- Asia - -u Gulf of Aden - - CentralAfnca Asian South Pacific Southeasf Southwest Fo-n 0 East Ahica Southern Africa Sharks Southwest*Tfihialia Arctic 34 II --- - - - I - Kuwait Northwest - -i Northeast ---. marine -- Pacific Pacffic t._ North Atlantic Mediterranean area I 1 01. Cdribben Sea Bert'Sea and Lth HO __J I of I rGultofAden Asia --'- - (0 00 HO Southeast South Pacific Central AfrIca i1rica Antarctica SouthernAfrica Molluscs East AsaM-- seas Southwest&a!ia HO > II Arctic Northe re Pacifi South Pacific ,._ _=J- - Cadbbean --- Southeast Pacific Southwest Atlantic North Atlantic - Mediterranearr - Sea - - Kuwait marine _-- area _Be Sea and Gulf of Aden West and Central Africa --East Africa Antarctica Southern Africa Northwest Pacific South Asia Birds -- . - - East Asian seas---- -. Southwent2stralia .--- I Northeast Padflc ,TT Cadbtiean 4 North Atlantic Arctic Kuwa - marine - i Mediterranean area -. - Sea Rwl Gulf SofeAadaennd - South '- Asia Nohhwest South Pacific Panfic_SOUth west Atlantic Central Africa ast Africa East Asian Antartica Southern Afnca Shrimps and Lobsters uthwesta1I PHILIPPE REiPACEWiC?. MARCH 2002 Note: Data have been modified to show the species diversity of each region as a fraction of the most species rich region. The maximum number of marine mammals species in a region is 52, sharks 140 molluscs 1114, birds 115, and shrimps and lobsters 210. Source: World Resources Institute (WRI), Washington DC, 1998, based on data from UNEP-WCMC. '4 cc Ui zLU cc z --J C') 35 7128 Changes in Marine Sp9ces Popuation8 Indices 1970-1999 140 120 100 80 I - North Pacific 0 , 40 - -- South Pacific - North Atlantic U) South Atlantic '- '---- 20 Indian Ocean -- Southern Ocean _ U Marine Species Population Index 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 lal DELPO1NE n,Gour 'it C' WEV 2002 Source: J. Loh (ed), Living Planet Report 2000, World Wide Fund for Nature (VhWF). Marine Species Population Index Between 1970 and 1999, the Marine Species Population Index recorded a decline of about 35%. The Marine Species Population Index provides an assessment of the average change over time in the populations of 217 species of marine mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish. The index represents the average value of six regional ocean indices. More pronounced declines are seen in the southern oceans, which is attributed to the fact that major losses and degradation of marine ecosystems in the industrialised world took place prior to 1970. Marine species are generally more difficult to monitor than terrestrial ones. Assessments are therefore based primarily on fishery catches, and the monitoring of land breeding species (eg. turtles, birds and seals). However, these species are over-represented in the index, which should have a far greater proportion of invertebrate species. Source: Loh, 2000. Limited information is available on species diversity and the condition of coastal and marine ecosystems (Burke et al., 2001). There is growing evidence that many marine species are less widely distributed, and therefore more vulnerable to extinction, than previously thought (GESAMP 2001a). The protection and sustainable use of marine resources and biodiversity are governed by several international conventions, including the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). In this framework, sustainable use is defined as "the use of components of biological diversity in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity, thereby maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations" (CBD, 2001). Global Distribution of Coral, Mangrove and Seagrass Diversity 132 J Coral \ ("f Distribution d;. \ - Divefty Low Mangrove Distribution High r /I Diversity , Low High I Seagrass Distribution Diversity L\I:F' , Low High Source; UNEP-WCMC, 2001. LEWZ There are two distinct regions in which coral reefs are primarily distributed: the Wider Caribbean 36 (Atlantic Ocean) and the Indo-Pacific (from East Africa and the Red Sea to the Central Pacific Ocean). The diversity of coral is far greater in the Indo-Pacific, particularly around Indonesia, the C) Philippines, and Papua New Guinea. Many other groups of marine fauna show similar 0 patterns, with a much greater diversity in the Indo-Pacific region. cc Although they possess a smaller number of species the corals of the Atlantic are still C) unique, with few common species between the two regions (Spalding et al., 2001). > Mangrove forests cover less than 8% of the global coastline, and comprise of only a few species. Although their distribution is relatively homogenous, there are two distinct regions with completely different floras: the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean (West Africa and the Americas). Similar to corals, the region of greatest mangrove diversity is in Southeast Asia, particularly around the Indonesian Archipelago (Burke et al., 2001). Mangroves are vital for coastal protection, water purification, and for absorbing CO 2 , and provide important breeding and nursing grounds for many commercially valuable fish species. Despite their importance, however, mangrove forests are experiencing increasing pressure from timber industries, as well as conversion to agriculture and aquaculture. There are three distinct areas of seagrass diversity in the Pacific region: the Indo-Pacific (areas around Indonesia, Malaysia, and Papua New Guinea), the seas around Japan, and southwest Australia (Spalding et al., 2002). Seagrass beds cover less than 10% of the world's shallow coastal waters, but are important nursing grounds for commercial fish species. They also provide coastal protection and water purification, absorb CO 2 , and stabilise sediments (Spalding et al., 2002). Seagrass ecosystems host a rich diversity of species, including threatened species such as dugongs and seahorses. Seagrass beds are under threat from dredging for harbours, ports and shipping lanes, fishing by benthic trawling, conversion to aquaculture, coastal pollution, and clearance for beaches and tourist facilities (Spalding et al., 2002). Global Capture Fisheries and Aquaculture Production, 1950-1 999 tonnes (Mt) 40 pill CNP Source: The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2000, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAa). The levelling off of the global fisheries catch reflects a growing Inland and marine aquaculture production grew by about 5% decline in most malor fishing areas. Today, most fishing areas annually during the 1950s and 1960s, by about 8% per year 37 are producing lower yields than in the past, and it is unlikely that during the 1970s and 1980s, and by some 10% per year during substantial increases will ever again be possible (FAQ, 2000). the 1990s (FAQ, 2000). Most aquaculture is developed in C') 0 freshwater environments, primarily in Asia. The development of I inland aquaculture is seen as an important source of food security 0 I in Asia, particularly in land-locked countries. Co I LU -J > Changes in Catch Ratios of Predatory and Plankton Feeding Fish indicating structura' changes in the marine ecosystem Ratio 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 Three-quarters of fish stocks are currently exploited to the maximum extent, if not excessively (FAQ, 2000). This exploitation has had the following impacts: A growing variety of fishery products are being exploited. Commercial fishermen are targeting progressively smaller species at lower levels of the food chain as the main predator species are being depleted. Most of the world's main fishing areas are close to full exploitation. The Eastern Indian Ocean and the Western Central Pacific Ocean are the only areas that still show little sign of stress, and which exhibit a potential for continuing growth (FAQ, 2000). The Northeast Atlantic Ocean continues to exhibit declining catches, as well as a shift towards fish at lower levels in the food chain. Indices developed to monitor changes suggest that continued heavy fishing may lead to irreversible ecological change. Rivers, lakes and wetlands, which account for less than 1% of the world's surface, but at least 8% of its fisheries production, are under mounting pressure from the growing human population (FAQ, 2000). 0 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 i'\FP Source: John F. Caddy and Luca Garibaldi, Apparent Changes in the Trophic Composition of Marine Harvests: the Perspective from the FAQ Capture Database, Ocean and Coastal Management 43(8-9), 2000. According to the Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection (GESAMP), the crisis in capture fisheries stems from three main causes: Free and open access to fishing areas, particularly the high seas, which encourages over-fishing without concern for stock sustainabi I ity; Subsidies for fishing fleets, estimated at up to US $20 billion a year, which encourage unprofitable fishing; Non-compliance of seasonal closures of fisheries or fishing limits, which, although designed to conserve stocks, are countered by fishermen working harder during the periods when fishing is allowed. Unless governments and the fishing industry take effective action, over-fishing and long-term declines in catches will invariably continue. At the moment, the major fisheries bodies and agreements are not particularly effective, with their members exhibiting little commitment to cooperating on the conservation of stocks and failing to fulfil previously made commitments (GESAMP 2001a). Aquaculture is having several detrimental long-term enviro tal impacts, among them: Increased releases of nutrients, pathogens and potei hazardous chemicals into coastal waters; Salinisation of groundwater and nutrient pollution of ways, resulting from the creation of shrimp farms; The clearing of mangroves for shrimp farms. It is estim that 60% of all Asia's mangroves have been converte aquaculture farms (UNEP 2002). Besides the well-known economic value of fisheries, there a several other activities generating significant revenues in coast and marine areas. Tourism has become one of the world's fastei growing industries, providing a significant proportion of the GDPs Sf many developing countries. Small island states are particularly reliant on coastal and marine tourism. In the Caribbean, for example, the industry accounts for a quarter of the total economy, and a fifth of all jobs. However, the very areas that attract tourists are also coming under increasing pressure from the damage and pollution caused by tourist facilities and the supporting infrastructure (GESAM F 200 la). Benefits from Marine and Coastal Ecosystems and Activities Coastal tourism Trade and shipping Offshore oil and gas Fisheries 38 The volume of giobal Since the 1950s, the Since gasohne was first Between 1950 and 1997, tourist arrivals increased annual volume of shipping used in California a global fish production from U) 0 more than 20 times and seaborne trade has century ago, the oil and capture and cuiture I between 1950 and 1995, risen sisfoid, to more than naturai gas industry has fisheries grew from 20 0 making tourism the world's 5 billion tonnes of oil, dry skyrocketed to meet million tonnes to 122 of fastest-growing industry. bulk goods and other soaring energy demands. million tonnes, with the per (0 The present number of cargo. In 1995, there were Today, about 20% of the capita supply doubling U) tourists is espected to 27,000 freighters over world's oil and natural gas from 8kg to 15kg. Over double by 2010- 1,000 tonnes in operation. comes from offshore 200 million people rely on particuiarly in the Industrial countries drilling installations in the fishing for their hvelihoods, Caribbean and Asia- account for 50% of the Middle East, the united with more than 80% of all Pacific regions, where cargo loaded -- and 75% States, Latin America, and fish (by value) sold in > much of the industry is of that unloaded, the North Sea. industrial countries. concentrated in coastal areas. $ 161 billion $ 155 billion $ 132 billion $ 80 billion Estimated Mean Value of Marine Biomes 4000 8000 12000 16000 20000 24000 us dollars per hectare per year Estuaries Seagrass/algal beds Mangrove/tidal marshes Coral reefs Continental shelves DID Open ocean DELPH!NE DFGOUt MAY 2002 Source: Anne Piatt McGinn, The Health of Oceans, Woridwatch paper 145, Woridwatch Institute, 1999, Washington DC (www.worldwatch.org ): Costanza, R., et al, The Value of the World's Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital, Ecoiogical Economics, 1998. arid's oceans also provide for a major global shipping industry, N has recorded significant growth in recent years. Between 5 and 2020, the volume of international trade is expected to according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric inistration (NOAA), with up to 90% of it travelling by sea inn, 1999). rig for sand, gravel, coral and minerals has been taking place allow waters and continental shelves for decades. Offshore ig now supplies a substantial proportion of the world's oil natural gas, and the offshore industry is expected to grow ficantly in the coming years (Stark & Chew, 2001). lthough marine products such as seafood, sand and oil have aen valued for decades, it is only recently that we have begun appreciate the oceans' vital services in maintaining ecological versity and regulating climate. recent calculation, based on more than 100 studies over the past two decades, suggests that ocean services are worth US $23 trillion a year - only slightly less than the world's total GN P It is estimated that the seas and oceans provide two-thirds of the value of all the natural services provided by our natural environment (GESAMP, 2001a). Damage caused by the introduction of non-indigenous organisms to coastal and marine environments totals hundreds of millions of US dollars (GESAMP 2001b). Urgent Actions for Controlling Land-Based Activities At the technical, management and policy levels, the most urgent actions for controlling land-based activities, in order to improve the quality of the marine environment, are: - Preventing habitat destruction and the loss of biodiversity through education, combined with the development and enforcement of legal, institutional and economic measures appropriate to local circumstances; Establishing protected areas for habitats and sites of exceptional scenic beauty or cultural value; Devoting primary management attention to the control of pollution from sewage, nutrients (especially nitrogen) and sediment mobilisation; Designing national policies that take account of the economic value of environmental goods and services, and provide for the internalisation of environmental costs; and Integrating the management of coastal areas and associated watersheds. Source: GESAMP 2001b. it has been estimated that about 80% of all marine pollution found along the United States shoreline of the Gulf of Mexico, originates from land-based activites. It reaches the ocean directly, which receives large volumes of fertilizer from the Mississippi 39 via rivers, or through atmospheric depositions. River system (Harrison and Pearce, 2001). Inputs of nitrates to the North Sea, for example, have risen - The collapse of the Baltic Sea cod fishery in the early 1990s four-fold, and phosphate inputs eight-fold, since the 1970s, is blamed on oxygen loss in deep waters due to eutrophication, causing eutrophication and tides of toxic algae that have killed which interfered with the development of cod eggs. stocks in offshore fish farms (Harrison and Pearce, 2001). Eutrophication can also cause Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB5), Severe eutrophication has been discovered in several enclosed which can harm fish and shellfish, as well as the people who or semi-enclosed seas (UNEP 2002). consume them. Some algae can cause negative effects when Eutrophication has been linked to the formation of dead zones' they appear in dense blooms, while others have potent on the ocean floor. One of the largest known 'dead zones' is neurotoxins and need not be present in large numbers. Losses Caused to Fisheries and Aquaculture by Harmful Algal Blooms Date Location Species 1972 1977 1978 1978 1979 1980 1981 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1989-1990 1991 1991-1992 1996 1998 Japan Japan Japan Korea Maine, USA New England, USA Korea Long Island, NY USA Chile Japan Norway and Sweden Norway Puget Sound, WA USA Washington State, USA Korea Texas, USA Hong Kong Source: Vital Signs 1999 in GESAMP, 2001a Yellowtails Yellowtails Yellowtails Oysters Many species Many species Oysters Scallops Red salmon Yellowtails Salmon Salmon, rainbow trout Salmon Oysters Farm fish Oysters Farm fish Loss (Millions of US$) 47 20 22 4.6 2.8 7 >60 2 21 15 5 4.5 4-5 15-20 133 24 32 CO LAJ F- z cc cc There is a strong link between areas with high densities of currently delivered by rain and the fallout of nitrogen compounds industrial activity and zones of seasonally oxygen depleted from the atmosphere. GESAMP recommends that atmospheric H- waters. In recent years, there has been an increasing focus on nitrogen must be included among the nutrient sources assessed cc treating and reducing municipal and industrial wastes, and on as part of the management of coastal water quality. Political factors reducing nitrogen levels in agricultural runoff. However, less are also of major significance, as the primary causes of attention has been paid to the continually increasing nitrogen atmospheric anthropogenic nitrogen result from energy generation 40 emissions into the atmosphere. It is believed that between 10% and transportation, and thus from society's economic and social and 70% of the fixed nitrogen input in many coastal regions is activities (GESAMP 2001b). I cc cc cc cc cc Industrial Areas and Seasonal Zones of Oxygen Depleted Waters T36 uJ F- cc . f ) > i . . . t J_I - $ P Ocean .- T( T. :) indian Ocaan . '4.:) Industrial areas Seasonal zones of oxygen depleted waters NI I' Source: D. Malakoff, 1998, after R.J. Diaz and R.Rosenberg, 1995; ESRI,1990. / -_ .. / prLPPE REKF-E,ICZ PhysiaI alteration and destruction of hatsitats are now considered one of the njlost important threats to coastal Half of the world's wetlands, and even more of its mangrove fore ;ts, have been lost over the past ce .tury to physical alterations, with ac celerating social and economic d veIopment and poor-planning being ajor causes (UN EP, 2002) There are currently about one billion /pesop.le living in coastal urban areas. It is estimated that almost 50% of the world's coasts are threatened by development-related activities. The intense pressure on coastal ecosystems calls for preventive and protective action at all levels: local, national, regional and global, Human Actions Leading to Coastal Degradation T3 7 Estuaries Inter-tidal Wetlands Open Ocean Cause of degradation - Drainage of coastal ecosystems for agriculture, deforestation, and mosquito control measures Dredgingandchannelisationfornavigationandfloodprotecflon Solid waste disposal, road construction, and commercial, industrial or residential development Conversion for aquaculture Construction of dykes, dams and seswalls for flood and storm control, water supply and irrigation Discharge of pesticides, herbicides, domestic and industrial waste, agricultural runoff and sediment loads Mining of wetlands for peat, coal, gravel, phosphates, etc. Logging and shifting cultivation Fire Sedimentation of darns, deep channels and other structures Hydrological alteration by canals, roads and other structures Subsidence due to extraction of groundwater, oil, gas and other minerals Common and major cause of degradation J Present but not a major cause N El' 'a Absent or uncommon 41 Source: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 0 The Case for Integrated Coastal Management af Integrated Coastal Management (1CM) is increasingly being To address this situation, 1CM recommends the following LJ recognised as an effective method for managing and protecting actions: the marine and coastal environments and associated freshwater Governments should adapt national legal instruments to con- F- catchments. It merits wider application, both for resolving form to the provisions of internationally endorsed agreements; > existing problems and for dealing effectively with new ones. National and international attention should focus on compliance with existing international agreements rather than the develop- 1CM incorporates and promotes the following actions: ment of new ones, unless they have compelling justification; Promoting coordinated, cross-sectoral and holistic approaches Governments must adopt a consistent and coordinated to the management of environmental resources and amenities, approach in dealing with different international organisations taking full account of environmental, public health, economic, and agreements; social and political considerations; International bodies responsible for the implementation of Conducting environmental impact assessments, risk global environmental agreements should improve the co- management, and cost-benefit analyses in all decision ordination of their secretariats and governing bodies to this making processes, and incorporating the value of ecosystem end; and services wherever possible; Further attention should be devoted at the regional level to Seeking the active involvement and participation of all major harmonising national approaches and measures, and to cost- stakeholders (local authorities, private sector and interested effective collaboration; the full potential of voluntary commit- public) in the design and implementation of 1CM; ments and targets should be explored, including with the Conducting regular reviews of management systems and private sector; and further legally binding instruments should their implementation, and adjusting priorities, targets and be developed. methods where necessary; and Strengthening institutional capacities through training and The need for globally integrated freshwater, coastal and marine retraining programmes. assessments facilitated the development of the Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA) together with a request If existing global and regional environmental agreements had from the UNEP Governing Council to conduct a feasibility study been implemented as intended, coastal areas would not be in for the establishment of a regular process for assessing the their current precarious state. In many countries, legislative state of the marine environment. frameworks to achieve national goals and implement multilateral agreements are weak and inadequately enforced. Source: GESAMP 2001a; UNEP 2002. Coastal Populations and Shoreline Degradation T38 Unsurprisingly, the coastal areas with the greatest population densities are also those with the most shoreline degradation. The areas surrounding the Black Sea, the Mediterranean Shoreline . and Southern Asia have the highest None - Most altered proportion of altered land, while the Less than 30% Altered coastal zones of the Arctic, Northeast (11 Li H- NIP 30 to 70% More than 70% - LeastAltered Selected coastal cities of more than one million people Pacific, South Pacific, West and Central Africa, East Africa, the Red Sea/Gulf of Aden, and Kuwait have Li z Source: Burke et al., World Resources Institute, Washington DC, 2001; Paul Harrison and Fred Pearce, AAAS Atlas of Population the highest proportions of least cc and Environment 2001, American Association for the Advancement of Science, University of California Press, Berkeley. modified land. 0 z -J F- 139 42 I 0 s'ac,ric . cCc Ocean . cLcu io -J I- > . .: .--- -. .;S.. I . ' . 0 Pacific Ocean ? . ' . . Categories Major Threats to Reefs Destroyed Coral Reefs In % 60 Tourism Poison fishing Overexploitation Sedimentation C Coral haesting Dynamite fishing Pollution Overexploitation Coastal development - Inland pollution _ Madne-based pollution ,J Medium threat 0 High threat 10 20 30 % of reefs under threat Pacific .... Ocean ' 7% tabbean an.ct 40 Atlantic Opedn 2Z.% 59 0/0 50 40 30 20 10 0 34% Source: Bryant et al., Reefs at Risk: a Map-Based Indicator of Threats to the World's Coral Reefs, World Resources Institute (WRI), Washington DC, 1998. The global warming that the world is beginning to experience will Feasibility of a Global Marine Assessment likely, have a major impact on coastal and marine environments. The sea has an enormous capacity to store heat. Warmer water, At its 21st session in February 2001, the UNEP Governing Combined with anticipated changes in ocean currents, could Council (GC) adopted a decision to investigate the feasibility have a devastating impact on marine ecosystems and biodiversity. of a "Global Assessment of the State of the Marine Environ- , One potential result could be a reduction in the upwelling of ment" (UNEP GC Decision 2 1/13). ! nutrients, which would in turn reduce productivity in key fishing / areas. During two subsequent consultative meetings, it was recognised / Decreased growth may also be seen in coral reefs, with high that a global marine assessment (GMA) was needed and concentrations of CO2 in the water impairing the deposition of feasible. The scope of an assessment process was outlined limestone required for coral skeletons (UNEP 2002). and it was agreed that GMA activities should include socio- economic considerations, together with the relevant work, A significant sea level rise is one of the major anticipated approaches and experience of national, regional and global consequences of climate change. This will cause some low-lying organisations. The global assessment component of the GMA coastal areas to become completely submerged, while others will process will guide the timing and facilitate the development increasingly face short-lived high-water levels. These anticipated of regional or thematic assessments on specific issues. changes could have a malor impact on the lives of coastal populations. The small island developing states (SIDS) will be These recommendations and other suggestions, including especially vulnerable to the effects of sea level rise, and to changes institutional mechanisms and operational arrangements, will in marine ecosystems, because of their major dependence on be presented and discussed at the UNEP Governing Council marine resources (UNEP, 2002). in February 2003. The first step in the GMA process will be to evaluate existing assessments of the state of the marine The extent of future sea level rise will depend on a multitude of environment, and to identify the scope, status and timing of (/2 factors, and is therefore extremely difficult to predict. While rising forthcoming assessment activities. w F- sea levels will be exacerbated by thermal expansion of the warming oceans, and the melting of land ice, they will be partially offset Source: www.unep.org/marineassessment w z by increased precipitation over Antarctica (Met Office UK, 2001). Pc 0 z PC T40 What Causes the Sea Level to Change? PC F- 'I) 0 Terrestrial water storage, extbruaicldtiionngooffgrerosuenrvdowirast,er, 43 changes in runoff, and Surface and deep ocean circulation changes, and storm surges seepage into aquifers (/2 (2 IExchange of water I stored on land as 0 Subsidence in river delta regions, glaciers and icecaps 0 land movements, and Warming ocean causes the water to expand with ocean water Ui tectonic displacements Components of Mean Sea Level Rise Metres for the Scenario Al Fl 0.61 2100 0.4 2100 0.2 j'"' 1 U 0 2100 2O50 2050 o._2050I U Total Greenland Glaciers Expansion -02 Antarctic 2050 2100 The Al scenario family describes a future of rapid economic growth, a global population that peaks in the middle of the 21st century and then declines, and the rapid introduction of new and more efficient technologies. The major underlying themes are convergence among regions, capacity-building, and increased cultural and social interaction, with a substantial reduction in regional differences in per capita incomes. The Al scenario family develops into three groups with alternative directions of technological change according to their energy systems: fossil intensive (Al Fl), non-fossil energy sources (AlT), or a balance of both (A1B) UN I P PHELIPPE PEKACEMcZ 2O12 - Source: David Griggs, in Climate change 2001. Synthesis report, contribution of working groups I, 0 and Olto the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press , 2001. References Annan A. K., We the peoples: the role of the United Nations in the 2 1 11 Century, 2000. United Nations Department of Public Information, NY. AMAR International Conference on Freshwater, Iraqi Marshlands: Prospects, 2001. AMAR International Conference on Freshwater, London, United Kingdom. Boswinkel J. 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WRI, UNEP UNDPi and World Bank, World Resources 1998-99 A Guide to the Global Environment 1998. Oxford University Press, New York. This is a joint publication of the Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA) and the Division of Environmental Policy Development and Law (DPDL) of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), published as part of UNEP's global water policy and strategy. The publication was developed in close collaboration with the UNEP Centre, GRID-Arendal, in Norway. Credits Please quote: UNEP (2002), Vital Water Graphics - An Overview of the State of the World's Fresh and Marine Waters. UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. ISBN: 92-807-2236-0 Text Salif Diop, Patrick M'mayi, Dennis Lisbjerg. Maps and Graphics Philippe Rekacewicz, assisted by Delphine Digout and Hugo Ahlenius (GRID-Arendal). Editor Ralph Johnstone. Support Team David MacDevette, Tim Foresman, Halifa Drammeh (UNEP). Web Site Team Eivind Holt, Brian Lucas, Teslin Seale. Acknowledgements Many people assisted in the compilation of data and provided useful comments and suggestions in the preparation of this publication: Johannes Akiwumi, Alex Alusa, Lauretta Burke, Amy Cassara, Marion Cheatle & the GEO team, Munyaradzi Chenje, Gerard Cunningham, Nikolai Denisov, Dominique Del Pietro, Andy Fraser, Ed Green, Pamela Green, Leo Heileman, Lawrence Hislop, Kelly Hodgson, Beth Ingraham, Bob Kakuyo, Grace Kamala, Bakary Kante, Johnathan Kool, Yumiko Kura, Christian Lambrechts, Brian Morris, Theuri Mwangi, Edith Mussukuya, Emmanuel Naah, Takehiro Nakamura, Nick Nuttall, Thierry de Oliveira, Joakim Palmqvist, Hassan Partow, Doug Percival, Marie Prchalova, Walter Rast, Elina Rautalahti-Miettinen, Carmen Revenga, Audrey Ringler, Richard Robarts, Megumi Seki, Igor Shikiomanov, Ashbindu Singh, David Smith, Anna Stabrawa, Thomas Tata, Sekou Toure, Dan Tunstall, Svein Tveitdal, Isabelle Vanderbeck, Ron Witt, Eric Wolanski, Kai Falck. We apologise to anyone whose name may have been inadvertently omitted from this list. a-. , Vital Water Graphics An Overview of the State of the WorlUd Fresh and Marine Waters ISBN 92-807-2236-0 I- (5 (5 C -- (5 _(5 (5 ). :0 C . -(5I-0 U) c wE > 0) E --c wU) 0) (0 C ,)O3 Cl) LL- 0_c cc U,. Oct '5 Cl) CS .o0 '5 U) u (cv0, Co 0 -- Ca) uJ c0o C 0 OF. z(0 -ca) C -o C Co 9) .0 a) a) IL mi C/) a) (,) C Co C-) - I .c Co > C/) uJ CO Z Ep o -- <C 0 o C/DO 2 Global Freshwater Resources Quantity and Distribution by Region Glaciers and permanent ice caps (km 3) North Ac-' 90000,- - I '-- Greenland 2 600 000 South America 900 / Euope 18-216 Africa 0.2 Asia 60984 -, r Australia, : 180 / Groundwater (km-) North America 4300000 urop. 1600000 Asia 7800000 South America 3000000 Afirles 5 500 000 AustlIa 1200000' Wetlands, large lakes, reservoirs and rivers (km3) North America 27003 Europq 2529 Asia 30 622 South America 3431 km 3 30000000 - Africa - 31776 ''---. 8000000 4000000 3000000 1000000 300000 - -- Note: Estimates refer to standing volumes of freshwater. Source: Igor A. Shiklomanov, State Hydrological Institute (SHI, St. Petersburg) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, Paris), 1999; World Meteorological Organisation (WMO); Internafional Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU); Wod Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS); United States Geological Survey (USGS). 3 Major River Basins of the World 01 IE DIGOUT . 2002 North Amrlca I Yukon 2 Mackenzie 3 Nelson 4 Mississippi 5 St. Lawrence South America 6 Amazon 7 Paran Europe 25 Danube Africa and Wut Asia 8 Niger 9 Lake Chad Basin 10 Congo 11 Nile 12 Zambezi 26 Orange 24 Euphrates and Tigns Asia and Australia 13 Volga 14 Ob 15 Yenisey 16 Lena 17 Kolyma 18 Amur 19 Gariu and Brahmaputra 20 Yangtze 21 Murray Darling 22 Huang He 23 Indus Source: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP); World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC); World Resources Institute (WRI); American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS); Atlas of Population and Environment, 2001. 4 The Major River Basins of Africa 20W 10W 0 - 10E 20'E WE WE WE 40N 3010 Tropic of Cn8, 20N Senegal - 1010 Eq -, Volta , Niger - - Lake Chad -- Nil.Na - Lake Juba Shibell :ooue Con 3N 2010 Eguator 205 Tropic ol CaprIcorn River basin boundaries 250Cm 1 500 iii 100Cm 50Cm 200 m lOOm 0 Zambezl Okavango , - Limpopo '. - orange - - 30 S -.4- $ 0 soo i000 isoo 2000km -- I -1 1010' 0. 10E 20E 30E 40E WE Source: Aaron T. Wolf et al., 1999; Revenga et al. Watersheds of the World, World Resources Institute (WRI), Washington DC, 1998; Philippe Rekacewicz, Atlas de poche, Livre de poche, Librairie generale franaise, Paris, 1996 (revised in 2001). The World's Water Cycle Global Precipitation, Evaporation, Evapotranspiration and Runoff Vapour transport I 4 Precipitation 9000km 3 Precipitation 110 000 km3 Precipitation 458 000 km3 Evaporation 000 km3 - Infiltration I Evapotranspiration 65200 km3 * River runoff 42 600 Area of internal runoff \., 119 millIon km2 - Groundwater flow 2200km Area of external runoff 119 mIllion km 2 Note: The width of the blue and grey arrows are proportional to the volumes of transported water Evaporation 502 800 km3 - __10 11 i I \ Oceans and seas Estimated Residence Times of the World's Water Resources Biosphenc water Atmosphenc water I 15 wEEKS River channels 1 2 WEEcS Swamps IITO' ES Lakes and reservoirs m 'fE Soil moisture I tEE' 'E Ice caps and glaciers Oceans and seas Groundwater 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000years \Fr JP9 ACW Source: 19cr A. Shiklomanov, State Hydrological Institute (SHI, St. Petersburg) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, Paris), 1999, Max Planck, Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg, 1994; Freeze, Allen, John, Cherry, Groundwater, Prentice-Hall: Engle wood Cliffs NJ, 1979. 1.1 The World's Surface Water Precipitation, Evaporation and Runoff by Region Precipitation (km 3 ) Evaporation (%) Runoff(%) Asia 32 200 km 3 I 1 55% North America 18 300 km3 55% South America 28 400 km3 S1 701 JfiO Africa 22 300 km3 80% Europe 8 290 km3 I 65 .?I - T - - / J I j_43% jl Jceaa )can Australia and Oceania - 7 080 km3 65% Source: Peter H. Gleick, Water in Crisis, New York Oxford University Press, 1993. PHIUPPE R(ACEWCZ MARCH 2002 .4 2 LC) a--co -- Wc4 () 0 1 4, wo oE II 1... CIA (I) 0 \k \\ \ \\\ S V ' 21 -- a, -- a.. 1 71- Icn C C) (I) I I I I G) Q c' c c Q C) C) C) C) C) CD C) C) C) . W (0 L() 't C') CN C a. I h s MO) / ___________ " CY) G) C co - o W W -=01) Cl) - LcMc w w EE Wd1) co __ -a0) C= -ow CI) (DC!) . LU Q. ii CN 2 - CU LO - a)C.) E E! <C) CO US 'H o Z (CNp (N 0 NJ 0 w 0 w a: waa0 0) a) U) U) > CD CD CO C, Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), 1976-2000 BOD in mgIL concentrations 1976-1990 1991-2000 I P NO 10 A5 - / - -, rT1r dfl o I. / a P61 - Ocean -. tndian Ocean tr315 - ikA5 oi / VEP PHILIPPE REKACEWICZ. MARCH 2002 Source: Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS), Freshwater Quality Programme, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2001, Freshwater Alkalinity, 1976-2000 rTi9'1- N 240 , 160. europe pig)1i6i - A01 160 CaCO3 concentrations 1976-1990 1991-2000 -J C Q 80. ! 80 0L 0 Oce; Indlar I Ocear - - :NEP PHILIPPE REKACEWICZ, MARCH 2002 Source: Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS), Freshwater Quality Programme, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2001. 10 G$obai Average Nitrate Levels Ccncenaticns at Major RIve.r Nmths .1 1976-1990 Global Dissolved Phosphate Levels Con entrations at Major River Moihs 1976-1990' k l 1991-2000 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 NO3 -N mg/I. Insufficient data for analyses _______________________ or region not included In study / I' ,1 1991-2000 lnsijtflCrent data for analyses '' 05 region not included in study 1 0.2 0.3 0,4 0.5 PO-P mg/L Decreased tenets - High j Medium Low / . . .. I I" No change Increased tsvel , Medium , - High Insufficient data for analysis Changes Between 1976-1990 and 1991-2000 or region nor included in study , ' , Decreased tenets High Mach irs Low - No change , Increased tenets . .... , . \ , ium '.' - High Insufficient data for analysis - or region not included in study Chan9es Between 197-1990 and 1901-2000 Sosrce: Iinded Nations Environment Frngramme (UNEP)- ChEat Ennuorenerl Mointoisrg System (GEMS) WaIst Prngiamma. Sours Unged Nabons Enneorirriert Frogenone IUNEP/. Glabet Envbcmnerl Morutamg System (GEMS) Water Proarrane. 2001 National Water Research InsUtute Environment Canada. Ontario. 2001 2001 National Waler Research Institute Enveonrseirt Canada. Ontario, 2001. 11 I: 4k h Hi JIll! I'IJ hihUt illilli hi Ii!! iLhJU Ep I1 fl tf Ill flU Ull d Hh UHH Cl) = lIt HO fill liii hiltil hR j Mum 1111111 IIU liii IRiffi Cl) w Cl) C-) CD C I 1,1 0 Iij ilJ 1 .1 MH J k II ' h Ib U iil Uili SH fill h wo Jig 1 hPD1 !fl iflIlRl j' Ifli -5 1jS 12 Global International Water Assessment Tools for Better Monitoring of the World's Water Resources The GIWA Assessment Methodology Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis Scoping and Scaling Identifying Issues Environmental impact Soclo-economic impact 'Ir Detailed Impact Assessment Assessing Situations Environmental impact assessment Socio-economic impact assessment 4, Causal Chain Analysis Constructing the Causal Chain By following the most significant successive causes of environmental degradation, a causal chain is constructed to discover the root causes of the problems. n Policy Option Analysis The evaluation of alternative scenarios follows various projections developed on the basis of actions to address the societal root causes of environmental degradation. These analyses consider methods for evaluating the environmental impacts of various options for water use, before weighing the costs of measures designed to modify unsustainable developments. + Better action in the field UNEP Source: Global International Water Assessment (GIWA), 2001. GIWA's Five Major Concerns i1ur Freshwater shortages Reduction of stream flows Lowering of water tables Pollution of existing water supplies . P1 - Pollution Microbiological pollution, eutrophication Chemical pollution Suspended solids, solid waste Thermal pollution Radionuclides Spills HabItat and community modification Loss of ecosystems or ecotones Modification of ecosystems or ecotones Unsustainable exploitation of fisheries and other living resources I nappropnate harvesting practices Resource/habitat ohanges Habitat alteration or destruction Decreased viability of stock through contamination or disease Reduction of biodiversity Global change Changes in hydrological cycles Rising sea levels Increased UV-B radiation as a result of ozone depletion Changes in ocean carbon dioxide source/sink function 13 Driving Forces - The DPSIR Framework (Dhving forces-Pressures-State-Impacts-Responses) Socio-economic and soclo-cultural forces driving human activities, which increase or mitigate pressures on the environment, Pressures Stresses that human activities place on the environment (eg. wastewater). .9, Responses I Responses by society to the environmental situation (eg. cleaner production, regulations). State of the Environment (SoE) The condition of the environment (eg. the assessment - of air or water quality). Effects of environmental degradation (eg. biodiversity loss, economic damage). imPacts UNP Source: Global International Water Assessment (GIWA), 2001: European Environment Agency (EEA), copenhagen. lACit2!2 14 CJ CL ' c c a, -- tg u, I= to ill To liii I \ LL CL - cc - cn ! ! ! I CD : ti V LU iz- N 1' )\ .cc 2 OE z CD E'CD oQ- 0 00 V0 (Do CD co U) 2 0- Sao - = u E U) Ou,(D ZO - .C) c -4 C) .0 .. - 0) U) . E --COO I C C) - U) o CD o LU.) =>' (C 43 > E Eo o 0 0) () 0 I 15 3200 2 800 2400 2000 1600 I 'Mn - Assessment Agricultural I 800 400 Forecast Evolution of Global Water Use Withdrawal and Consumption by Sector Assessment Domestic Forecast Assessment Industrial Forecast --w Assessment Reservoirs Forecast 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 2025 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 2025 Withdrawal Consumption Waste M Withdrawal Consumption - Waste 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 2025 11011 Withdrawal MM Consumption M Waste 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 2025 M Evaporation () Note: Domestic water consumption in developed countries (500-800 litres per person per day) is about six times greater than in developing countrIes (60-1 50 litres per person per day). Source: Igor A. Shiklomanov, State Hydrological Institute (SHI, St. Petersburg) and United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, Paris), 1999. Industrial and Domestic Consumption Compared with Evaporation from Reservoirs km3 per year 300 250 200 150 100 50 ral 1900 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1995 2000 2010 i.jEEOZ Source: Igor A. Shiklomanov, State Hydrological Institute (SHI, St. Petersburg) and United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, Paris), 1999. 16 Freshwater Withdrawal by Sector in 2000 / - v ., - - I - . 3ecdic __JPercentage 31to47 47 to 63 63 to 79 79to 100 Ati Agriculture IRV I ALiai1ac OGW I) 1n, Oc.&' 1' J industry Percentage Otol6 _J - 32 to 48 p. )cear - 48 to 64 - 64 to 80 - 80 to 100 /2 - - Percentage r / _ 1 _J0to15 - - I J , __J A 30 to 45 ,/J / -cd,c 45 to 60 60 to 81 3can - j/ ThCO/.f. Ocean CO) Domestic use MARCH2002 Source: World Resources 2000-2001, People and Ecosystems: The Fraying Web of Life, World Resources Institute (WRI), Washington DC, 2000. C., U E 0 cc CI--c . C., U) Le C 1.1.0 0 (5 O uw) 0 0 C) 17 h C 'I C ik - C . U) - .-. 2 QU) ts E ID . 0 C C0 - . . o V c . .a a) V V C C U) I !R Ill -i V U) ii i 11111 Ill 18 cc LM w CD CD cc CD Lm c.,l a,> C 0 C C () 19 .2 I I cc c C,) cc C C5 0 CD VII C,) CD U~e-1 c1 0 a, I I 0 U) > 0. 0. Cl, I C 0 a) 0 C C LU C4 0 co a) V Lu C Co La4-J C) a) V C 0 C Co Co C/) C (0 0) 0 Co (2) Ctf I-. -D I- 0 0 CL (1) cr- C\JC.sJ CD LL LLJ C/)Z OLL U a) COD) CO U . COW . . . II I I I 0 QU) 0(0 19 The World's Freshwater Supplies Annual Renewable Supplies per Capita per River Basin IA"a Alt# . A 1995 r 04 4 4 e.. tf Projections for 2025 4. 500 1 000 1 700 4 000 10 000 m3 per capita Scarcity Stress Sufficient quantities North America 1 Yukon 2 Mackenzie 3 Nelson 4 Mississippi 5 St. Lawrence m3 per capita per year 1249832 408243 15 167 8 973 9 095 South America 6 Amazon 7 Paran 273 767 8 025 Europe 25 Danube Africa and West Asia 8 Niger 9 Lake Chad Basin 10 Congo 11 Nile 12 Zambezi 26 Orange 24 Euphrates and Tigris m3 per capita per year 2519 4 076 7 922 22752 2207 - 1 050 2 189 Asia and Australia 13 Volga 14 Ob 15 Yenisey 16 Lena 17 Kolyma 18 Amur 19 Ganges and Brahmaputra 20 Yangtze 21 Murray Darling 22 Huang He 23 Indus m3 per capita per year 4260 14937 79083 161 359 722 456 4917 - 2265 - 361 830 Source: Revenga et al. 2000, from Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems: Freshwater Systems. 20 An Urban Dilemma Groundwater Pollution by Canal Seepage in Hat Yai, Southern Thailand Chloride Concentration, mg/L 140 1 12 3 120 Chloride (Cl) Potassium Concentration, mg/L 16 Potassium (K) 14 2 I 100 12 r. 10 L J 8 ME 1 I 6 I I I I 40 S 4 / 20 2 I I 0 20 40 60 80 100 Degree of mixing expressed as % of canal seepage 0 1 1I I 0 20 40 60 80 100 Degree of mixing expressed as % of canal seepage Mixing of groundwater and polluted canal water Water not or little mixed with canal water 2 Water mixed with canal water 3 Groundwater and canal water completely mixed Mixing of Unpolluted Groundwater and Canal Seepage Hat Yai and its suburbs Unconfined aquiter Serni-coflned N K Sources: Fosteretal., 1998. . Poor quality water - - E'eLz9metric surtace_.... - y y y 'v y y Zone of maximum leakage 5IrI(J NH.k 1 C k . :iQ K DELPHINE DIGOUT MAY 2002 Freshwater Stress and Scarcity in Africa by 2025 Mdr000 I.. / - Algeria Libya Egypt Cape Verde Burkina Faso Ghana Togo Niger Nigeria Water scarcity in 2025 less than 1 000 m 3/capita/year Water stress in 2025 11 000 to 1 700 m3/capita/year AOL Billions of people affected 7 6 High Medium 3 Low 'Entrea Djibouti 4 EthioPia) Rwanda Burundi Uganda Kenya Tanzania Sof - Malawi Comoros que Zimbabwe 0Z waziland JJMauritius otho a. 1995 - 2050 Population projections Stress Scarcity NFP Source: United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA), Addis Ababa; Global Environment Outlook 2000 (GEO), UNEP, Earthscan, London, 1999; Population Action International. 'I 22 Turning the Tides Regulation of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers BLACK SEA GEORGIA ARMENIA Yerevan AZERBAIJAN Baku Nakhiche van TURKEY 1 (Azerbaijan) EA KABAN KARAKAYA Lake V8f1 -. Urmia / ATATURK - OLKY ( .. j TABKA ''KI MOSSOUL ) BAXHMA Mossul BAMA 4 'DUKAN \ ,' Kirkuk IRAN SYRIA 'P JORDAN RAWA HADITAH SAf KAHN BAGHDADI., RAMAD1. ,I)IYALA WEIR .JKHAN BEN SAAD Baghdad IRAQ Kaaia Nadj SAUDI ARABIA I Forest and grazing land Rain-fed agriculture: grains, vegetables, fruits Irrigated crops (saline soils) I Alluvial plains: potential for irrigation Dry lands, mainly used for pastoralism Kuwait City I Regions influencing the flow of the Tigris and Euphrates Main dams Swamps Horticulture 0 200 400 km I- I Source: Le Monde diplomatique, Paris, 1994, updated in 2001. 23 cc a) C, 2 LL ____ cc .2U - cc U C, E a) cc LM U- C, t 1# p cao) a) Cfl.E E a,2 0= CO cv5 =wo c c, rJ 0 cli w 0 c.'l C C. w wa. LL Co Q (N 0 (0 C) C) C) (N 0 0 0 0) C cn a r V C')- --.! -- > cc cu (O cQ) V cn C.)o Zo cr- cn cu 9 ~7 24 z ZZ C41 CO E 0 >::- w 0 C.) 0 I ma 0 Cl) a 0, Cl) Co (0 0) z 0) 'I- 0 a) - he Cl) 0) - I- cn co L a.)C C-) uJ c'J 0 CCDD c'J w ow 0 U) 0 U cx E w 0a- c 0 -J I cu z -f Cl) z w I- ci) Co U) wc '-'Co '-Co U) cu V.9' 1:: cDCD c c,) ci- 0 0 E Co 0 0. U) Oc LL i1 1~ C H co co z uj a) Co C) I- > Co a) 0 (I) c u- o o N 0 C) 0I- . u_c V - U) 0 .? uu.. ~1\\\ I * a) V U) U) Co I;- o cr .- co 0- U) oc 00 cocD --c-CCoN cu O) 0- r 0 - - Ca)o.--.- CN cu ("a) (al)) CO CO 1 N CO --C) C) 0 (0 Cl) a)CO o.2 52 (1)1- ;11k4 C-oU) cn cc f1> -- cflE cc --U) -- -- -Uc) I-' a, a, 0 CL U) Cu CD $ cli Imp 0 0 04 co cc co - CD cz wC) 3 C C) Ct LI0 LLJ U nn -T tfl 0) 2 cs1 - co. C--M.Z 0 0 CM \*U 423.t 04 26E C.1/ U, C) rJ a E C a, -c CL o E 2 LLL 0 CIA ( 1 cCoD CD F- 0 II Cj C C - G) _CI) Q) Cl)CI) ci 26 n (5 2 LI -= I.-. J ? CY -,---. (V( Cana - "4 to E m m : N I J / 7 Ct - Cc cc cc C, cu cS iL I CLI I21 LLI (V - c-E ' CD CD - Lu - z 0 co cu 0 ' U H (V .L) J! CD - cc CD f . cn - ca cu ca cu cur- lv, CC.D) to - '-' Cc 05 z, CO - 0 C -c CD - ca CD 4) . CD .(cV OC/)QC/) I11I1 Co U, C]) - i 00 co 1*1... - 2 o D C-) - _I cc - >rt C 27 - (1 Ct? J 2 -- - cu W /70 .) Z - CD cm U. > ! 11 Caf)lcoD - - (D CL t U)0) -5 C -. cc> 2 , 5 0 '.--D Q) -rQ - cZ - ca -a .-- U) 41. > cm .Q.E 0) -- = FOLL 2 0 0 (0 cc co o 0 cc Z z z 28 Cl) 75 S cc Cl) u, .E 4 4 4 e 4. 4. 4. 4. 4. a 1 Ii C) C) C(sJ) L) C) C) -D C C CC)) 0 C) cu T 0 0 L0C0()) Ir- / CO Cl) C) o_- --_ QQ QU) Qco_Cc 0 0 00 CIr-) -- -- -- L) CO N- 0000D0 CO 0) C) Z Cl) C/) 1 C) F- C) cD C'.J C) Cco) C) (0 C) C\J Ir- suo,eindod S8!OedS F- 0 uJ Cc'D1 LIJ rf. CO z 70 LL a, C) C) 1 ,--J c LOW 1 4. SI - C) 0) cc AW 0 cc 75 C0)) CL 0) L() I CD 00 0) 0 flU) C) 0) 0) )C. Q) fs V E E t 2.S2.s 0) CL Cco) C1 to NC-) -C1) U) CI.) 111111 0)C) N- E CC\DJ CC)) C00) C) C) C) 1-1 suoijelndod seioedg I Cl) E 0) Cl) Cl) 0) e-e I,. - Cl) 0) LM U. > 0) 6 Cl) Iz 29 - i-'.' / __ wE - _4 \ \ I(D H. . cn co 0 a, E - . CD C') cn _______- . . cu CD V of / C0D ) > ry 30 .c_ CD -- -- 00 I C) ) CD - -a a) U, (C) N 0 0 I I Cl 00 0 U, d --. Q - cn 0 d ON 'I) a) a) u rC) a) -- C) -a a) . C.) 0 (I) - Z 111111 Cl) 0) -- Cl) -E L1 0 o El - -- CL cc cc CD , w >- C F-I r 0 0 (4 C-) a) a) C/) Cl) Cl) C) U- aj ai 0) 00) 31 Species Diversity in the World's Seas, 1990-1 998 are 4J4HC N Pacific- - ' I South Pacific SoUtheast SouthWeSt Speoes Numerous Species LfJP L Westand Kuwait Central Africa East Afnca 1rstI East Asian seas_-- Southern Africa Marine Mammals Southwestraa Nost k hbC Mtjfl I _' South Pacific hbbean - Southeast Southwest and Westand Central Africa UGulf of Aden - - East Africa Southern Africa '- - Sharks - Northwest Pacific - East Aw seas S&ithwestMtitFaha I I Northast Paflc South Pacific - - - U--I-- --T;i1 I I Southeast :. Southwest 0Arctic North Atlantic --1 Medftnean Kuwait _Ianne - Ic - fted'Seaand Gulf of Men uth Asia West and 1 _/ ________ CentralAtrica astAfrica Antarctica Southern Afnca Molluscs -t:UNorthwest I - Pactflc - -- - - EastAsian--seas uthwestir Northet acifi South Pacific ' Arctic F Kait - marine , North Atlantic Meduteiranean Sea --- - Canbbean Re Sea and - GultolAden - West and - Central Africa f--ast Afnca Southeast ./ - Southwest Pacific Atlantic Antarctica Southern Africa Soutfr Asia .-- - --_. Nohwest Pacific . IL - - -- ----.-_- EastAsian seas---- --. -- - -- ---j Southwestislraha Black South p aci- IC earibbean - ) Southeaef Southwest Atlantic Anica ----- I VGulfSea and of Aden Weal and Central Africa - EastAfrica SouttiernAfnca Shrimps tT South Asia -- -. -_. East Asian seas and Lobsters t uthwestsaii ,upm euCuwZ Note: Data have been modified to show the species diversity of each region as a fraction of the most species rich region. The maximum number of marine mammals species in a region is 52, sharks 140, molluscs 1114, birds 115, and shrimps and lobsters 210. Source: World Resources Institute (WRI), Washington DC. 1998, based on data from UNEP-WCMC. 32 Global Distribution of Coral, Mangrove and Seagrass Diversity 7 Coral Distribution / - Diversity Low High Mangrove Distribution / Diversity Low Hh Seagrass .1.' ' Distribution (9) / Diversity Low High Source: UNEP-WCMC, 2001. ) ) 7\ )-. J ,J1 I " IA cJ ' __ PHILIPPE REKACEWICZ MAY2002 33 C) C) C) U I4 C) .2 C., 2 C- . C Cl, 0, - Cl) LM CccL C-, oa -Q 0 4, co0) 0) CO C C 0 C.) 0 I- 0. I- 75 C.) a. 0 0 0 U) C) C) C) It, C) 0) CD 0) 0) I - L I. a U a U a I I I I a U U I I U, 0 0 0 0 (0 U, co 0) co C) U) tl- C) CD F.- C) It) 10 C) It) U, C) CD It) 0) 0 - 34 Changes in Catch Ratios of Predatory and Plankton Feeding Fish indicating structural changes in the marine ecosystem Ratio to we M I [iJ 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 FEBRUARY 2002 Source: John F. Caddy and Luca Garibaldi, Apparent Changes in the Trophic Composition of Marine Harvests: the Perspective from the FAO Capture Database, Ocean and Coastal Management 43(8-9), 2000. 35 Benefits from Marine and Coastal Ecosystems and Activities Coastal tourism Trade and shipping Offshore oil and gas Fisheries The volume of global tourist arrivals increased more than 20 times between 1950 and 1995, making tourism the worlds fastest-growing industry. The present number of tourists is expected to double by 2010particularly in the Caribbean and AsiaPacific regions, where much of the industry is concentrated in coastal areas. Since the 1950s, the annual volume of shipping and seaborne trade has risen sixfold, to more than 5 billion tonnes of oil, dry bulk goods and other cargo. In 1995, there were 27,000 freighters over 1000 tonnes in operation. Industrial countries account for 50% of the cargo loaded - and 75% of that unloaded. Since gasoline was first used in California a century ago, the oil and natural gas industry has skyrocketed to meet soaring energy demands. Today, about 20% of the worlil's oil and natural gas comes from offshore drilling installations in the Middle East, the United States, Latin America, and the North Sea. Between 1950 and 1997, global fish production from capture and culture fisheries grew from 20 million tonnes to 122 million tonnes, with the per capita supply doubling from 8kg 1015kg. Over 200 million people rely on fishing for their livelihoods, with more than 80% of all fish (by value) sold in industrial countries. $ 161 billion $ 155 billion $ 132 billion $ 80 billion 0 Estuaries Seagrass/algal beds Mangrove/tidal marshes Coral reefs Continental shelves Open ocean Estimated Mean Value of Marine Biomes 4000 8 000 12 000 16000 20 000 24 000 us dollars per hectare per year Source: Anne Platt McGinn, The Health of Oceans, Worldwatch paper 145, Worldwatch Institute, 1999, Washington DC (www.worldwatch.org ); Costanza, R., etal, The Value of the World's Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital, Ecological Economics, 1998 3 N0 J LLj LU cL Alma L m. \ 1 - C) ca C1) o ' : p' 'c,u '::.... '-.---.. . 1 o ( - I I . ,1 f . , * , . I___ -1i SN cc - \ .. . 11 it ; f co -c CL cu -S I) cc CD co co 00 cu - Human Actions Leading to Coastal Degradation Estuaries Inter-tidal Wetlands Open Ocean L7 Drainage of coastal ecosystems for agriculture, deforestation, and mosquito control measures low --,jJ - Dredging and channelisation for navigation and flood protection Solid waste disposal, road construction, and commercial, industrial or residential development Conversion for aquaculture j Construction of dykes, dams and seawalls for flood and storm control, water supply and irrigation Discharge of pesticides, herbicides, domestic and industrial waste, agricultural runoff and sediment loads Mining of wetlands for peat, coal, gravel, phosphates, etc. 3 Logging and shifting cultivation Fire J Sedimentation of dams, deep channels and other structures Hydrological alteration by canals, roads and other structures Subsidence due to extraction of groundwater, oil, gas and other minerals 4 Common and major cause of degradation Present but not a major cause J Absent or uncommon Source: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 3 J DELPHINE DGOUT APRIL2002 2' (5 (1 5 0) CO cc CL CL cc 38 F 4' 5.~ CO QQ) '-J - I- o 9- 0 U) - a) 4- a) 00) Ci) ' -lC) crO) (i)Q $E -0 a) -aI) cu Cl) w 0 0 U, cDc Cl) 0 V ( a) 0F ;i5 Va) V a) < -- c: Q 0 Cl) -- C 5C -J W CO 4_ 00 2 LL a) c Coa 9- 00 C) CN5 -- CC.0, -.0 C o 0- 0 cu M 2 '- a) C . 0 W C) Z _J C') - -- 1 I 1UI D) cl)- 0 -- 4- (n o CIA CU (0I) .S2 a)Q) U0 _ - . . = S S V , goes a 0 'S. 3 'a S 17 e 0 LLJ w U) C cts cc r0 LU I, JR 0< 0- 0 Cl co Ll cc o arcC .2 .2 2 - . . .9 ( 5 0 0 110 1II tiCL 0 Cl) 0 40 a) CD (.) 0 w w --J CD w Cl) w IM c Rh ___ 0)0 Cu U . C) () G) 0) Cd) C a)'- U0 O a)C cu C) C QC o .0 Cu a) 00 00 C.) C.) a)a) -- o >._. cu 0 0 > - C) Co ' ' . a) a) a) C.) Cd) 0 .0 Do > S aC , Cu o -- -Q a, v - 0 E c w o CU) Cu C 0 - a, Ca) o EE o -- _ CD '. E >1 C>0u V C 00 _ 0) CC _ Q E 0 U.. Cu C U) -.- 42 C) 0 0aC) U) cc . -- C C, E C'Cu) a, ca . (' Cu -- V Cl) C . E P 0 C o a, C C 8 C > IC) > a, 0) ._ co -C 2c2 0 0 =0 U) C ._ a, - C 0 C Cu U) a, -- U CL Cau - 0 0) 0) o o (0 0 Cc U) ,I2 I L' Cl 400 C) 04 co o E 0) 0 CECC 00))00) C) -C C) 0 .c0o $0 Cu 0Cu o .... .... ... ... ... ... .. r (. I Vital Water Graphics An Overview of the State o the Worlds Fresh and Marne Waters ISBN 92-807-2236-0 1~