Document K6ZK00vpO89je87DGG6z0mRer

Asbestos-Related Lung Disease KATHERINE M.A. O'REILLY, M.D., Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, United Kingdom ANNE MARIE MCLAUGHLIN, M.B., St. Vincent's University Hospital, Dublin, Ireland WILLIAM S. BECKETT, M.D., and PATRICIA J. SIME, M.D., University ofRochester School ofMedicine and Dentistry, Rochester, New York The inhalation of asbestos fibers may lead to a number of respiratory diseases, including lung cancer, asbestosis, pleu ral plaques, benign pleural effusion, and malignant mesothelioma. Although exposure is now regulated, patients con tinue to present with these diseases because of the long latent period between exposure and clinical disease. Presenting signs and symptoms tend to be nonspecific; thus, the occupational history helps guide clinical suspicion. High-risk populations include persons in construction trades, boilermakers, shipyard workers, railroad workers, and U.S. Navy veterans. Every effort should be made to minimize ongoing exposure. Patients with a history of significant asbestos exposure may warrant diagnostic testing and follow-up assessment, although it is unclear whether this improves out comes. Patients with significant exposure and dyspnea should have chest radiography and spirometry. The prognosis depends on the specific disease entity. Asbestosis generally progresses slowly, whereas malignant mesothelioma has an extremely poor prognosis. The treatment of patients with asbestos exposure and lung cancer is identical to that of any patient with lung cancer. Because exposure to cigarette smoke increases the risk of developing lung cancer in patients with a history of asbestos exposure, smoking cessation is essential. Patients with asbestosis or lung cancer should receive influenza and pneumococcal vaccinations. (Am Fam Physician 2007;75:683-8, 690. Copyright 2007 American Academy of Family Physicians.) Patient information: A handout on asbestosis, written by the authors of this article, is provided on page 690. sbestos, a crystalline mineral that rise through this decade.2,3 The incidence Aoccurs in deposits throughout of malignant mesothelioma in the United the world, is the smallest nat States was thought to peak at 2,000 cases urally occurring fiber. Because per year from 2000 to 2004; another study of its flexibility, durability, and ressuisgtgaenscteed there would be a yearly average to heat and chemical corrosion, it obfec3a,2m0e0 deaths from asbestos-related lung widely used in industry. The inhalation of cancer from 1985 to 2009.4,5 asbestos fibers was first linked to the devel opment of lung disease in 1890, and the Asbestos-Related Lung Disease first deaths attributable to asbestos exposure Inhalation of asbestos fibers can result in were reported in 1907. Legislation control a number of distinct pathologic processes ling exposure was introduced in the United (Table 1 )N5 These include the develop Kingdom in 1931, but the United States did ment of pleural-based abnormalities such not enact its first legislation limiting expo as benign plaques, benign pleural effusions, sure until 1971. and malignant mesothelioma. In addition, The peak global incidence of asbestos- new cases of asbestosis, an important pneu related disease is expected to occur 30 to moconiosis, and many asbestos-related lung 40 years after the period of peak usage cancers continue to occur. Most patients (i.e., the 1960s and 1970s). For diffuse with asbestos-related lung disease have a malignant mesothelioma, the condition strong exposure history; however, significant with the longest latency, the incidence is disease can occur with minimal exposure expected to rise in Europe until 2020.1 and, rarely, with unknown exposure. The prevalence of asbestosis in the United Although occupational exposure is now States is not known, but in 2000, there were regulated in the United States, past expo an estimated 20,000 hospital discharges sure must be recognized. It is important with this diagnosis and 2,000 deaths with to take a comprehensive occupational and asbestosis as the underlying or contributing environmental history to identify persons at cause, and these numbers are expected to risk because of previous exposure. Factors Downloaded from the American Family Physician Web site at www.aafp.org/afp. Copyright 2007 American Academy of Family Physicians. For the private, noncommercial use of one individual user of the Web site. All other rights reserved. Contact copyrights@aafp.org for copyright questions and/or permission requests. SORT: KEY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE Clinical recommendation Evidence rating References Risk of asbestos exposure should be assessed with occupational history. Screening should be considered in patients with a high risk of exposure. Chest radiography and pulmonary function testing should be performed every three to five years in patients with asbestos-related disease. Smoking cessation should be encouraged. Influenza and pneumococcal vaccines should be given to patients with asbestosis or cancer. C C A C 2 7 3, 9,12 12 A = consistent, good quality patient-oriented evidence; B = inconsistent or limited quality patient-oriented evidence; C = consensus, disease-oriented evidence, usual practice, expert opinion, or case series. For more infor mation about the SORT evidence rating system, see page 603 or http://www.aafp.org/afpsort.xml. to establish include the specific occupation (Table 2), the duration of that occupation, and the intensity of exposure (e.g., was the dust visible or not). A significant exposure can be defined as at least several months' exposure to visible dust that began more than 10 years earlier. Although much atten tion is focused on industrial exposure, envi ronmental sources also play a role. These include residence near asbestos or vermiculite mines and prolonged exposure in build ings with open sources of contamination.6 Undisturbed insulation in good condition is not hazardous.7 Screening for asbestos-related disease may be appropriate in persons with a his tory of significant asbestos exposure; how ever, screening of the general population is not warranted. If a person with a history of significant exposure reports exertional dys pnea, the initial assessment should include spirometry and chest radiography in addi tion to a history and physical examination. If there is no evidence of abnormalities, TABLE 1 Symptoms, Prevalence, and Treatment of Asbestos-Related Lung Diseases Disease Asbestosis Lung cancer Mesothelioma Presenting symptoms Dyspnea, dry cough Chest pain, cough, dyspnea, hemoptysis, weight loss, fatigue, symptoms caused by metastases and direct invasion Chest pain, cough, dyspnea, weight loss, fatigue, pleural effusion, symptoms caused by metastases, pericardial invasion, esophageal compression, superior vena caval invasion Prevalence* Approximately 200,000 patients with asbestosis and 2,000 deaths annually Estimated 2,000 to 3,200 lung cancer deaths annually related to asbestos exposure Approximately 2,000 deaths annually; incidence and mortality rate are the same Pleural plaques Usually asymptomatic, incidental finding on chest radiography; may cause grating sensation associated with calcified plaques Among exposed persons: 3 to 58 percent; general population: between 0.5 and 8 percent Treatment No specific therapy; general measures outlined in the article; surveillance for lung cancer; smoking cessation Multimodality treatment including surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy Multidisciplinary approach focused on supportive care; multimodality treatment including surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy (clinical trials ongoing); radiotherapy for localized pain and metastatic spread occurring along a biopsy tract; chemical or surgical pleurodesis for pleural effusions Smoking cessation; withdrawal from further exposure; management of concurrent and other respiratory diseases *--Prevalence varies widely in different regions and relates to individual exposure history. Information from references 2 through 5. 684 American Family Physician www.aafp.org/afp Volume 75, Number 5 March 1, 2007 Asbestos-Related Lung Disease high-resolution computed tomography (CT) may be considered because this may reveal pleural-based plaques and is more sensitive than chest radiography at detect ing these lesions and mild fibrosis. The presence of plaques indicates significant asbestos exposure. Full pulmonary func tion tests, including measurement of lung volumes and diffusion capacity, should be performed in patients with abnormal spirometry results, imaging abnormalities, or suspected asbestos-related conditions.7 Symptomatic patients may be entitled to workers' compensation if there is loss of employment or functional impairment. The presence of asbestosis is an indepen dent risk factor for the development of lung cancer. Thus, the appearance of symptoms such as dyspnea, cough, chest discomfort, or weight loss necessitates a prompt and full assessment. Current recommendations sup port lifelong surveillance for persons with a significant exposure history or ongoing exposure. The American Thoracic Society recommends performing chest radiography and pulmonary function testing every three to five years in patients with disease.7 There is no good evidence that screening improves outcomes, although it may help identify lung cancer earlier. Screening for mesothelioma is not helpful. LUNG CANCER Asbestos exposure significantly increases the risk of developing small cell and non-small cell lung carcinoma.8 A number of studies suggest an increased incidence of non-small cell lung carcinoma in patients with asbestosis compared with those who have been exposed to asbestos but do not have asbestosis.8 Lung cancer can occur in nonsmokers exposed to asbestos; however, the risk is magnified several-fold by smoking.9-11 All patients who smoke cigarettes must be warned about this risk, and every attempt should be made to assist patients with smoking cessation. Nonmesothelioma asbestos-related lung cancers are indistinguishable clinically from lung cancers related to smoking alone. Thus, evaluation of a new noncalcified pulmonary nodule is similar in patients with or without a history of asbestos exposure. Patients with lung cancer should receive influenza and pneumococcal vaccines.12 ASBESTOSIS Asbestosis is a fibrotic lung disease, or pneu moconiosis, resulting from the inhalation of asbestos fibers. In many patients, it is charac terized by a very mild and indolent fibrosis that usually produces relatively minor symp toms. In general, the latent period between TABLE 2 Potential Sources of Occupational and Environmental Asbestos Exposure Asbestos-containing products Asbestos-containing flight materials: exposed workers may include aircraft mechanics and those involved in aerospace and missile production and aircraft manufacturing Asbestos-lined electrical products: exposed workers may include electrical workers (e.g., electricians), electrical linemen, telephone linemen, and power plant workers Asbestos shipping materials: exposed workers may include product shipyard workers (e.g., insulators, laggers, painters, pipe fitters, maintenance workers, welders), Coast Guard personnel, merchant mariners, longshoremen, U.S. Navy personnel, asbestos manufacturing plant workers, insulators, machinists, persons working at packing and gasket manufacturing plants, pipe fitters, and power plant workers Brake linings and clutch pads: exposed workers may include auto mechanics, those involved in brake and clutch manufacturing, and assembly workers Building materials: exposed workers may include building engineers, cement plant production workers, building material manufacturers, construction workers (including insulators, boilermakers, steelworkers, ironworkers, plumbers, steamfitters, plasterers, drywallers, cement and masonry workers, roofers, tile/linoleum installers, carpenters, and welders) Other asbestos-containing products: exposed workers may include railroad workers, steamfitters, refinery workers, sheet metal workers, refractory products plant workers, rubber workers, and warehouse workers Asbestos removal Removal of insulation, asbestos removal, and waste handling Building demolition and ship breaking Environmental exposure Asbestos in public buildings (e.g., hospitals, libraries, schools); occurs when the asbestos is disturbed during building or maintenance work Family members of persons exposed occupationally Asbestos production Asbestos mining; textile mill workers who weave asbestos into cloth Asbestos transport Packing and handling of asbestos March 1, 2007 Volume 75, Number 5 www.aafp.org/afp American Family Physician 685 Asbestos-Related Lung Disease the peak asbestos exposure and diagnosis is 20 to 30 years. Complaints of exertional dyspnea associ ated with auscultatory crackles on physical examination should prompt further inves tigation. The first changes in pulmonary function may be decreased diffusion capac ity and exertional oxygen desaturation. As the process becomes more advanced, pul monary function tests will reveal a restric tive pattern with a decreased total lung capacity and vital capacity. Chest radiography typically demonstrates increased interstitial markings, usually more prominent in the lower lobes, and often pleural plaques. Typical findings on high- resolution CT of the chest include increased interstitial markings, predominantly at the bases; later, honeycombing may be appar ent (Figure 1). In many respects, asbestosis is clinically similar to idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, but asbestosis usually progresses slowly, whereas idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis has a rapidly progressive course. No current treatment effectively alters the natural course of asbestosis. Patients will benefit from influ enza and pneumococcal vaccines.12 Given a history of significant occupational asbestos exposure and typical high-resolution CT findings, surgical lung biopsy rarely is needed to establish a diagnosis.13 For patients in whom surgical lungbiopsyis performed, the pathologic pattern is that of usual interstitial pneumonia. This is the same pathology occur ring in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and may also be seen in pulmonary fibrosis associated Smoking increases the risk with collagen vascular diseases of lung cancer in patients (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis).13 with asbestosis. Asbestos bodies are identified by special iron staining of tissue, and the number of these bodies correlates with the severity of fibrosis. Their presence in the lung tissue confirms the diag nosis of asbestosis. BENIGN PLEURAL DISEASE The most common pathologic pulmonary response to asbestos inhalation is the devel opment of pleural plaques (Figure 2). Over time, collagen is deposited in the pleura Figure 1. Computed tomographic scan of the chest demonstrating severe asbestosis. There is marked parenchymal remodeling and tis sue destruction ("honeycombing" [arrow]), leading to restrictive lung disease (forced vital capacity: 56 percent of predicted) and decreased oxygen exchange. Figure 2. Chest radiograph of a patient with previous asbestos exposure who has devel oped pleural plaques (arrows). These plaques are characteristically located symmetrically along the lateral chest wall but also may occur on the domes of the diaphragm. and may calcify. Most plaques are completely asymptomatic, and there is no evidence that plaques transform into malignant lesions. Plaques occur in approximately 50 percent of persons with heavy and prolonged exposure to asbestos and are, therefore, a marker of asbes tos exposure.7 Plaques are not always visible on plain chest radiography, but high-resolution CT will identify up to 50 percent of plaques 686 American Family Physician www.aafp.org/afp Volume 75, Number 5 March 1, 2007 Asbestos-Related Lung Disease found at autopsy. However, chest radiography usually is adequate, and the use of high-resolu tion CT is reserved most often for diagnostic uncertainty or confirmatory testing.7 Benign asbestos pleural effusions, usually unilateral, are the most common manifes tation of asbestos-related pleural disease within 10 to 20 years after exposure.14 When followed over time, effusions may wax and wane. The development of any new pleu ral effusion mandates a thorough evalua tion, including tuberculosis skin testing and diagnostic thoracentesis. Asbestos pleural effusions are exudative.7 However, in cases of exudative pleural effusions, a pleural biopsy may be needed to evaluate for tuber culosis and malignancy. Furthermore, pleu ral effusion with pleuritic pain may be a manifestation of malignant mesothelioma.15 Therefore, benign asbestos pleural effusion is a diagnosis of exclusion. DIFFUSE MALIGNANT MESOTHELIOMA Diffuse malignant mesothelioma is an aggres sive tumor derived from mesothelial cells, most commonly of the pleura. It is uniformly fatal, with a median survival time of six to 18 months from diagnosis. Among persons who have worked with asbestos, the lifetime risk of developing mesothelioma is high, although the condition is relatively uncommon, with approximately 2,000 new cases per year in the United States.4 However, even relatively low-level exposure has been associated with an increased risk of developing mesothelioma.13 The presenting symptoms of malignant mesothelioma are vague (Table 1), which often leads to a delay before the patient seeks care. Similarly, the nonspecific nature of the symptoms makes the diagnosis difficult. Chest pain and dyspnea are common initial complaints.16 Chest radiography most often will reveal a large, unilateral pleural effu sion. Chest CT will demonstrate the same features; however, irregular thickening of the pleura also may be visible. In more advanced disease, there may be superior vena cava syndrome, Horner's syndrome, dysphagia, or other complications resulting from the propensity of mesothelioma to invade neighboring structures. Pathologic diagnosis can prove difficult, and many cases are misdiagnosed initially. Palliative radiation therapy can be effec tive in reducing symptoms, especially from metastases. Current clinical trials emphasize a combination of surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, but no regimen has yet been clearly shown to improve survival rates. Recent study has focused on the identifica tion of serum markers (e.g., serum mesothelin-related protein, osteopontin) that may prove useful as screening tools.17,18 The Authors KATHERINE M.A. O'REILLY, M.D., is a pulmonologist at Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, United Kingdom. She received her medical degree from McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, and completed a residency in internal medicine and a fellowship in pulmonary and critical care medicine at the University of Rochester, N.Y. ANNE MARIE MCLAUGHLIN, M.B., is a pulmonary fel low at St. Vincent's University Hospital, Dublin, Ireland. She received her medical degree from University College Dublin, Ireland. WILLIAM S. BECKETT, M.D., is a professor of medicine and environmental medicine at the University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry. He received his medical degree from Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, and completed fellowships in pulmonary medicine and occupational medicine at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. PATRICIA J. SIME, M.D., is an associate professor of medicine, environmental medicine, an oncology at the University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry. She received her medical degree from the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, where she also completed a resi dency in internal medicine. Dr. Sime served a fellowship in pulmonary medicine at McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Address correspondence to Katherine M.A. O'Reilly, M.D., Respiratory Medicine Department, D Level West Wing, Mailpoint 48, Southampton General Hospital, Tremona Road, Southampton SO16 6YD, United Kingdom (e-mail: kateindub@yahoo.co.uk). Reprints are not available from the authors. Author disclosure: William S. Beckett, M.D., is supported by NIEHS P30 ES01247 and the New York State Occupational Health Clinics Network. Patricia J. Sime, M.D., is supported by NIH RO1HL075432, NIH K08HL04492, and NIEHS P30 ES01247. REFERENCES 1. Peto J, Decarli A, La Vecchia C, Levi F, Negri E. The European mesothelioma epidemic. Br J Cancer 1999;79:666-72. March 1, 2007 Volume 75, Number 5 www.aafp.org/afp American Family Physician 687 Asbestos-Related Lung Disease 2. Work-Related Lung Disease Surveillance Report 2002; Division of Respiratory Disease Studies, U.S. Depart ment of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, DHHS (NIOSH) number 2003-111, May 2003. 3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Chang ing patterns of pneumoconiosis mortality--United States, 1968-2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2004;53:627-32. 4. Price B, Ware A. Mesothelioma trends in the United States: an update based on Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program data for 1973 through 2003. Am J Epidemiol 2004;159:107-12. 5. Lilienfeld DE, Mandel JS, Coin P, Schuman LM. Projec tion of asbestos related diseases in the United States, 1985-2009. I. Cancer. Brit J Ind Med 1988;45:283-91. 6. Peipins LA, Lewin M, Campolucci S, Lybarger JA, Miller A, Middleton D, et al. Radiographic abnormalities and exposure to asbestos-contaminated vermiculite in the community of Libby, Montana, USA. Environ Health Perspect 2003;111:1753-9. 7. American Thoracic Society. Diagnosis and initial man agement of nonmalignant diseases related to asbestos. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004;170:691-715. 8. van Loon AJ, Kant IJ, Swaen GM, Goldbohm RA, Kremer AM, van den Brandt PA. Occupational exposure to carcinogens and risk of lung cancer: results from The Netherlands cohort study. Occup Environ Med 1997;54:817-24. 9. Boffetta P. Epidemiology of environmental and occupa tional cancer. Oncogene 2004;23:6392-403. 10. Liddell FD. The interaction of asbestos and smoking in lung cancer. Ann Occup Hyg 2001;45:341-56. 11. Berry G, Liddell FK. The interaction of asbestos and smoking in lung cancer: a modified measure of effect. Ann Occup Hyg 2004;48:459-62. 12. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Counseling to prevent tobacco use and tobacco-caused disease: rec ommendations statement. Accessed October 3, 2006, at: http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/3rduspstf/tobacccoun/ tobcounrs.pdf. 13. Craighead JE, Abraham JL, Churg A, Green FH, Kleinerman J, Pratt PC, et al. The pathology of asbestos-asso ciated diseases of the lungs and pleural cavities: diag nostic criteria and proposed grading schema. Report of the Pneumoconiosis Committee of the College of American Pathologists and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1982;106:544-96. 14. Wagner GR. Asbestosis and silicosis. Lancet 1997;349:1311-5. 15. Robinson BW, Lake RA. Advances in malignant meso thelioma. N Engl J Med 2005;353:1591-603. 16. Antman KH. Natural history and epidemiology of malig nant mesothelioma. Chest 1993;103(4 suppl):373S-6S. 17. Robinson BW, Creaney J, Lake R, Nowak A, Musk AW, de Klerk N, et al. Mesothelin-family proteins and diag nosis of mesothelioma. Lancet 2003;362:1612-6. 18. Pass HI, Lott D, Lonardo F, Harbut M, Liu Z, Tang N, et al. Asbestos exposure, pleural mesothelioma, and serum osteopontin levels. N Engl J Med 2005;353:1564-73. 688 American Family Physician www.aafp.org/afp Volume 75, Number 5 March 1, 2007