Document DGg9z6E8jmK2ReK8gKLNvbzQd

BY A. KARIM AHMED The accumulation continues T A. KARIM AHMED is a staff scKntiSt for the Natural Resources Defense Council in New York City. 6 POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCBs) were first introduced into commercial use more titan 45 years ago, and for a long time the widely used industrial chemicals were considered to be relatively non toxic. Their potential threat to the environment, however, was recog nized in 1966, when the Swedish scientist, S. Jensen, observed the presence of the compounds in fish and wildlife samples while analyzing for chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticide'residues.1 ,J Since that initial discovery. PCBs have been detected in numerous aquatic and animal species and have been found in high concentrations in industrial waste discharges, river-bottom sediments, food packaging materials, and in foods such as poultry, fish, and dairy products. Detectable levels of the chemical substance have been found in marine life ranging in size from small (plankton and zooplankton)3'4,5 to large species (tuna).4 High levels of PCBs have been found in fish-eating and predatory birds.7'8,9,10 demonstrating the process of concentration of the sub stance along the food chain from lower to higher animals.1 1 a process which unfortunately has become all too well known in the era of modern industrial and agricultural activity. Relatively large concentra tions of PCBs also have been discovered in tne eggs of wild birds.6,9'12 During the past ten years, PCB residues have been analyzed in wild life and fish samples in Holland. Germany, and the Baltic Sea.7,13 Off the coast of Scotland, PCB residues have been found in several marine species, the contamination presumably having arisen from sewage wastes dumped into the open sea.14 Nevertheless, despite global inci dence of the chemical in the environment, residues are generally found mostly in regions of the world where there is intense industrial and urban activity. In the U.S., PCBs in increasing amounts have been detected in the eastern and western coastal regions, in highly urbanized areas (for instance, in and around the Chesapeake Bay, Sun Francisco Bay, and Puget Sound), and in regions where industrial discharges are known to occur, such as Escambia Bay. Florida, and the Hudson River.'5,14-17 The environmental accumulation of pen residues continues despite attempts by both industry and the federal government to improve the situation. As will be explained, industry's countermeasures have been DSW 033919 Mjrcn 1976 STLCOPCB4017881 limited, and government action has been hesitant. In the U.S., the impact of pens on the environment is best illustrated by ever increasing contamination of sport and commercial fisheries in the Great Lakes region and elsewhere. According to data from the Michigan Department of Natural Resources, levels of I't'Us in lake trout and Coho salmon from Lake Michigan showed a sharply increasing trend since 1972. By 1974, the values ranged from more lhan 10 to nearly 25 parts per million (ppm), well above the present Food and Drug Administra tion's (FDA's) maximum allowable concentration of 5 ppm for fish and shellfish.111 In sharp contrast, DDT levels in the same species of fish showed a declining trend since 1970, when DDT consumption in the U.S. was curtailed.1' Not only are the eco logical consequences of continued ecu contamination ominous, but the poten tial economic implications are serious, since the total annual value of sport fishing in Lake Michigan is as high as S46.5 million.1' In addition, the com mercial catch of fish is now worth about S2.5 million each year.20 The Michigan studies are supported by studies made by the Wisconsin De partment of Natural Resources. Fish samples collected in 1974 showed ex tensive contamination.11 Affected types included Chinook salmon, Coho salmon, brown trout, tiger trout, lake tTOUt, whitefish, and carp. Generally, the residue levels ranged well above 5 ppm, with lake trout (up to 43.8 ppm) and carp (up to 51.6 ppm) showing the highest concentrations. In the Upper Fox River, samples taken at one station by Wisconsin re searchers in 1975 showed high concen trations of PCBs in white suckers (32.7 ppm), carp (average 35.9 ppm), and northern pike (average 15.4 ppm). Samples from several areas of the Mis sissippi Rjver analyzed by the depart ment in 1973 showed similar residues of PCBs in walleyed pike, largemouth bass, northern redhorse, and carp. An interagency task force on PCBs, formed of federal and several 'state agencies of Minnesota and Wisconsin, sampled fish in the Mississippi River during the early summer of 1975 and again found similar levels of PCBs in several fish species.11 Elsewhere, the Division of Fish and Game of the Commonwealth of Massa chusetts has in the past detected high PCB levels in fish in several rivers and streams in the state.11 From other data collected by the agency, it is clear that in 1972 there was extensive con tamination of u large variety of fish species in nearly all the rivers which were sampled in the state, with mean Environment, Vol. IB. No. 2 STRUCTURE OF PCBS Polychlorinated biphenyls (pcas) is a generic term used for a number of synthetic organic compounds that possess the fol lowing chemical structure: Cl Cl Cl Cl PCBS are a mixture of different chlorinated biphenyl homologs (very closely related chemical substances). Thus, different pcb formulations or products may contain mix tures of biphenyls which have different percentages of the many possible chlorinated homologs, each containing a dif ferent number of chlorine atoms per biphenyl molecule. Monsanto Company, the sole U.S. producer of pc as, sells its product under the trade name Aroclor. This product is sold under different formulations: Aroclor 1268, 1262, 1260, 1254, 1248, 1242, 1232, 1221, 1016, and so on. The last two digits in this biphenyl series denote percentage of chlo rine in the mixture. Aroclor 1016 is an exception to this nomenclature, since it contains 41 percent chlorine and is. in fact, very similar in composition to Aroclor 1242. Trade names used by foreign manufacturers include: Phenoclor and Pyrelene (Prodelec, France), Kinnechlor and Santotherm (Kanegafuchi Chemical Company and Mitsibushi-Monsanto. respectively, Japan), Clophen (I. G. Farben-lndustrie A. G-, Germany), Fendor (Caffaro, Italy), and Sorol (U.S.S.R.). PCB residue levels ranging between 1.11 and 197.0 ppm. To date, however, the most contami nated fish in the U.S. have been found in the upper reaches of the 'Hudson River, near and below two General Electric plants in the Fort Edward- Hudson Falls area in the upper Hudson River more than 40 miles north of Al bany. The two plants manufacture electrical capacitors in which PCBs are used as insulating fluids. In 1974, sampling by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) showed yel low perch and shiner minnows to con tain average PCB residues of 17 and 78 ppm, respectively, with one rock bass sample containing 350 ppm,14 It ap peared that the two General Electric plants hud been discharging approxi mately 30 pounds of PCBs into the river each day; in recent months, this amount seems to have declined to less than 10 pounds per day. Fish samples collected in 1975 by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation confirm the earlier find ings. The composite PCU averages in fish caught near one plant show typical values well above 20 ppm, with one American eei sample yielding residue values of 403.4 ppm (concentration measured as Aroclor 1016/1242).25 As large amounts of pcbs were being discovered in the upper Hudson River, New York State Department officials also were finding high residues of pcbs in fish species of recreational and commercial importance farther south in the Hudson River.1* Striped bass caught near the Albany area showed total PCB residue values of between 11.08 and 89.76 ppm. Fish caught in the lower reaches of the river had a relatively higher concentration of an older PCB formulation (Aroclor 1254), indicating long-range transport of pcbs discharged by industrial activi ties in the past. Striped bass sampled near the West Point and Tappan Zee area of the Hudson River (50 miles north of New York City and several hundred miles south of the Fort Ed- ward-Hudson Falls area where the Gen eral Electric plants are located) had total PCB residues of from 1.16 to 7.54 ppm. Similarly, a sample of American shad in the Poughkeepsie area showed PCB residue levels of 9.0 ppm. Disruption of the striped bass com mercial fishing industry on the Hudson 7 DSW 03392G STLCOPCB4017882 3 High Jtvtit of PC9i hv bn oatecttd in aquitlc t>trd. River would have serious economic consequences, since the value of the annual commercial catch appears to be about SI.2 million.16'11'1 In addi tion, the annual take of striped bass by sportsmen exceeds the annual commer cial catch.111 Furthermore, the overall problem is serious in its relation to re production in striped bass. The striped bass is a minatory fish which has slock that intermingles in various loca tions such us the Chesapeake Hay, the Delaware River, and the Hudson River regions. As a result, fill contamina tion may affect a large segment of the entire North Atlantic stock of striped huss. Bottom Buildup Of equal concern is the accumulation of fells in river-bottom sediments, fi lls, like most chlorinated hydrocar ' buns, are highly insoluble in water and tend to settle and then be adsorbed on silt and line panicles on the bottom.' * Djla collected by the U.S. Geologi cal Survey tusis) on the Hudson River during the years 1973 and 1974 show the presence of fills in the water and in the bottom sediments of ltie river."1 Values ranging between 0..' and 3.0 parts per billion (ppb) ivus have been reported in water sam ples collected at several stations on the Hudson River'. The sampling sites in clude locations near Poughkeepsie, Waterford. Chelsea, and Rhinebeek. In contrast to water samples, flit concentrations analyzed from the liver- PCBs, like most chlorinated hydrocarbons, are highly insoluble in water and tend to settle and then be ad sorbed on silt and fine particles on the bottom. bottom sediments showed considerably higher values characteristic of the insol uble nature of fills. The USDS data are summarized below:lv flit Concentrations in Hudson River. Sediments. Uses Date Station I'CH in Sediments (ppb) 7/74 Chelsea 7/74 Poughkeepsie 7/74 Waterford 7/74 Winebrook Hills 9/74 Chelsea 9/74 Poughkeepsie 9/74 Waterfo rd 8/75 Roger's Island, south of Glenn Falls 3,200 1 1,000 13,000 0.1 1,800 3,600 640 18,000 More recently, the i:pa conducted water and sediment analyses for'fills in 1 be vicinity of Ford Edward, Now York, near one of tile General Electric plants. Water samples collected directly south of the plant's waste-water dis charge pipes had fill values of 2.2 lo 3.1 ppb. Nearby sediments, m contrast to the water, contained 540.000 to 2.980,000 ppb (540 to 2,980 ppm), with 6,600 ppb being detected several miles downstream of the discharge pipes.14 These concentrations obvi ously are much larger than those at the more distant sites checked by usGS personnel, even though (lie latter con centrations are themselves excessive. One immediate practical problem is that the largest concentration of fins is likely lo exist in the deep navigation channel of (lie Hudson, and dredging in lhis channel will further disperse the material.'5 JU Toxic Effects of PCBs Based on tile high lethality ol fills to marine and freshwater aquatic species, the National Academy of StiencesNattoual Academy of Engineering Committee made the following recom mendation:' 1 "Aquatic life should be protected [that is, safe fiom toxic effects| where the maximum conccnlialion of total flu in mi filtered water does not ex ceed 0.002 microgram per lilcr 10.002 ppb) at any time or place and ihe resi dues in the general body I issues of any aquatic organism do not exceed 0.5 microgram per gram [0.5 ppm|." These levels obviously are exceeded In areas of the Hudson River and else where. The danger to aquatic lite is a warn ing of Ihe danger to human life. In fact, the toxicity of fins lo humans has been clearly and tragically demon strated. In 19hK. a severe form of skin disease was diagnosed in Japanese fami lies who consumed rice oil contami nated with Kaneclilor 400 (I'lU with 48 percent chlorine content).3''31 The disease, known as ihe "Yusho syndiome," is characterized by swelling of the upper eyelids, visual impairment, acne-like formations, and heightened pigmentation ol the skin,31 and a total of 1,057 poisoning cases have been recuided to date in Japan.13 Patienls with this disease also have exhibited neurological disorders and have shown signs of hearing loss. Btfbies born to several patients had many of the symptoms of the disease, indicating a placental transport of fins; most fetuses of the victims were smaller than the national average. Another dis turbing feature of the disease was the observation that most patients recov ered very slowly, which suggested that fills weie retained in their bodies over a very long period.'13 fins have been delected in human adipose tissue (con nective tissue in Hie body containing stored cellular lat) in such widespread occurrence that over 40 percent of the U.S. population contains one part per million or more.3'1 A number of studies have conclu sively shown the effect of flits on the reproduction processes of some birds and animals, including mon- keysii,Jt,.MU.,..-ao j, js jmpor. taut to note dial fills with lower chlorine content may have a greater cited mi reproduction tlun biphenyls with higher chlorine content, even though the former substances are now being snggesled as substitutes for tile latter. In a recent review article on the toxicology of Pius. Renjie Kimbrough of the Center tor Disease Control in Atlanta. Georgia, slated:1' "Ihe results obtained trom Ihe re production studies in birds particularly seem lo indicate that the lower chlori nated biphenyls affect icpiodudion more than Hie higher chlonnated bi phenyls. and tt is very impoitanl to doIciminc whether the luma clilunnulcd biphenyls (hut have been suggested as replacements lor presently employed chlorinated biphenyls have an ell'ect on 8 MjfCls 19 76 DSW 033921 STLCOPCB4017883 reproduction." The recent Pen toxicity tests in monkeys are particularly relevant to human health consideration!. In un ex tensive series of tests carried out by James Allen and hit colleagues at the University of Wisconsin School of Med icine. ncus in the diet of rhesus mon keys caused significant effects thut mimicked both the symptoms of known human toxicity and reproduc tion failures in experimental animals. When female rhesus monkeys were given 25 ppm of Aroclor 1248 for a period of two months, severe symp toms of facial swelling and skin erup tions were manifested? At lower die tary levels (5.0 ppm and 2.5 ppm) of the same substance, similar clinical symptoms were observed after a few months; more significantly, these low levels of pcbs had a marked effect on reproduction. After three mating! with male monkey:, only 12.5 percent of the 5 ppm pcb dietary group and 37.5 percent of the 2.5 ppm group were pregnant a! compared to 90 percent pregnancies in a comparable control group?' At the tame time, offspring were significantly smaller in site; their health was further threatened since they continued to ingest high pcb levels from the nursed milk of their mothers.40 One notable consideration related to the experiments in monkeys is that the present FDA tolerance limit of 5 ppm41 for PCB residue in fish and shellfish is based on the assump tion that toxic effects occur at levels much higher than is actually the case. On this basis, then, the FDA tolerance limit is too high. Also, of serious concern is a recent study conducted by a group of re ' search investigators at the Center for Disease Control in Atlanta, the EPA, the National Cancer Institute, and the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine.4' They observed that when experimental female rats were fed a diet containing 100 ppm of pcb (Aro clor 1260) for about 21 months, 26 of 184 of the experimental animals exam ined had malignant liver tumors^Hepatocellular carcinoma), whereas only 1 of 173 control animals had the disease. At the same time, 146 of the experi mental and none of the control ani mals had tumorous lesions (neo-plastic nodules) in the liver. Other effects of pcbs that have been reported in fhe scientific litera ture include: (1) increased production of certain enzymes in (he livers of hu man beings and laboratory rats, (2) in duction of liver porphyria in several animal species, (3) interference with the immune defense mechanisms in rabbits, (4) neurological disorders in rats, (5) increased rcu residue in fatty Environment, Vol. IS, No. 2 tissues, serum, and milk, and (6) toxic effects in chick embryos?3 J4 There lias been some concern that reported PC u effects may be attributed in part to the presence of chlorinated dibenzofura ns as a contaminant in I'CU mixtures.11 Chlorinated dibenxofurans have been shown to he acutely embryoloxic and have been detected in sev eral PCB preparations tCloplien A 60, Phenoclor DP-6, Aroclors 1248, 1254, 1260)?5 Recent reports by M. Kuratsune and his associates have indicated that the "Yusho" patients apparently lud been exposed to ecus in rice oil contaminated with chlorinated dibenzofurans and showed detectable levels of this compound in their body tis sue?* However, it was not determined from this study whether the contami nation occurred during manufacture of the PCBs or during the use of the PCB mixture as a heat exchange fluid in the rice oil plant, since high temperatures may have led to its formation through the hydroxylation and oxygen ring bridging of chlorinated biphenyl mole cules. At present, the possible link of PCD toxicity to the presence of chlori nated dibenzofuran contaminants re mains highly speculative, as there ap pears to be no direct experimental evidence that dibenzofuran derivatives have .long-term chronic effects similar to those which have been amply dem onstrated with PCBs?1 46 Control of PCBs The attack on PCB contamination has taken two forms, one a voluntary re sponse by manufacturers of the sub stance and the other a response by var ious government bodies. Both re sponses have been inadequate, as will be shown in what follows. In 1971, over 106 million pounds of PCBS was produced in the industrial countries of the world, with a third of this, nearly 40 million pounds, being manufactured in the U.S? 7 During the late 1950s and into the 1960s, U.S. domestic sales of pcbs increased nearly threefold, reaching a peak of approxi mately 72 million pounds in 1970? Prior to 1970, about 60 percent of PCB material sold domestically in the U.S. was used for closed electrical systems such s$ capacitors and trans formers. Another 25 percent was used as plasticizers and in the production of carbonless duplicating paper?4 In Sep tember 1970, Monsanto Company, the sole manufacturer of PC Us in the U.S., restricted its sale of I'CUs because of environmental contamination by the chemicals. This restriction consisted of limiting sales to those materials ear marked for closed electrical systems. Thereafter, U.S. consumption was re duced considerably. It is important to note, however, that these reductions occurred mainly in the use of pc us as plasticizers and as hydraulic and lubri cating fluids, since the bulk of PC Us (60 percent), as mentioned above, had been used in electrical systems. This chemical substance is still being used almost exclusively as the insulating fluid for large, high-voltage capacitors (as well as for certain small ones) and for electrical transformers. In addition, the EPA estimates that approximately one-half million pounds of PC us is being imported into this country each year4' and presumably is being used in products other than electrical equip ment. As to government response to the I'CU problem, a federal Interdepart mental Task Force was convened in 1972. The group concluded that be cause of the highly persistent nature of PCBs and their bioaccumulation in the food chain, these chemical compounds posed a serious threat to human health. The group recommended re striction of the use of Pcus to closed electrical systems such as electrical transformers and capacitors?3 How ever, since Monsanto Company actually had already begun restricting domestic sales in this fashion, it is not clear whether the task force's recommenda tions, issued a year and t half after Monsanto's action, had any influence on the company's decision (although this has recently been suggested by a federal official)?0 In July 1973, the FDA established PCB tolerance limitations in a variety of food products, as follows?' FDA Tolerances for PCBs in Food and Food Packaging (ppm) Milk* Dairy products* Poultry* Fish and shellfish** Eggs Infant and junior food Complete and finished animal feed Animal feed components Paper food-packaging material 2.5 2.5 5.0 5.0 0.5 0.2 0.2 2.0 10.0 *On fat basis **Edible portion Toxicity data obtained during the past year showing severe reproductive failure with low concentrations of PCBs in primates (5.0 and 2.5 ppm) and the recent demonstration of car cinogenicity with rats4,'4J indicate the need to substantially revise the present FDA tolerance limitations of PCUs in foods. Although the present tolerance standards are deficient, the FDA has in recent months taken sei zure action based on these standards 9 DSW 033922 STLCOPCB4017884 against several fish shipments ear marked for commercial markets in Lake Michigan, since l*cu concentra tions in the fish exceeded the present 5 ppm guideline,*1 Similarly, the t da seized a shipment of carp this summer in Lake Pepin on the Mississippi River.51 In view of a recent legal de cision that apparently allows the l'DA to define pesticide residues in foods as an indirect food additive, the PDA is expected to enforce its guidelines more forcefully in the future. PDA officials in the Great Lakes region have warned that shipment of chubs, Coho salmon, and lake trout may be disallowed in uiterstate commerce, since the fish continue to contain high residue levels of plus.51 It is apparent that with a more thorough monitoring and surveil lance program, many species of fish in the Great Lakes region and in several rivers in the East Coast area will be essentially unavailable for human con sumption for many years. One of the great ironies of the pres ent situation is that more than three years ago the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (pwpca) directed the fed eral government (specifically the F.PA) to take swift action to reduce the dis charge of PCBs and other toxic water pollutants to safe levels. The fact that today there is no meaningful national program to regulate PCB discharges is a result of the federal government's fail ure to carry out the act as written. The congressional authors of the pwpca believed that the "hazards posed by toxic substances" made their effective regulation "especially ur gent.''53 Accordingly, (hey established in the act a "national policy that the discharge of toxic pollutants in toxic amounts be prohibited"54 and added to the act a far-reaching special pro vision, Section 307(a), to ensure that litis goal was fully implemented. If the section's mandatory deadlines had been met, toxic pollutant effluent standards covering peus and other toxic pollu tants would have been promulgated by the PPA roughly two years ago and complied with by dischargers about one year ago. Yet, to date, the EPA has failed lo promulgate a single stan dard under this provision. Despite shortcomings in federal en forcement, several states have taken ad ministrative and legislative initiatives to control the discharge of pc os into lakes and rivers. Earlier this year, the Michigan Natural Resources Commis sion endorsed the recommendation of the Uikc Michigan Toxic Substances Committee, calling for a ban on pcb imports and their use in the U.S. and lor a rapid replacement of PC us in eiect'rical capacitors and trans formers.*' At the same time, a bill has 10 ' been introduced in the state legislature to place strict control on the use and sale of 1'cus in Michigan.51 In Wisconsin, the Division of Health of the State Department of Natural Resources has issued warnings on con sumption of large lake trout and salmon from Lake Michigan and the upper Mississippi River. In August 1975, the department held a hearing with a view to developing a strategy to control the sale and distribution of PC Bs within the state.*1 In Minnesota, an Interagency Task Force was estab lished, principally to broaden the mon itoring of pc us in fish in several rivers and streams in the state.32 In terms of administrative remedies, the strongest action was taken this year in New York state, after it was discovered that the two Genera) Elec tric plants on the Hudson River ap L4r9* amount* of PCB* hav* bean found in f)*h in the Hudion River, especially in those of recreational and commercial value. peared to be the major dischargers of PC Us in upper regions of the river. On September 73, 197S, the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation issued an abatement order requiring the General Electric plants to achieve zero discharge of PCBs by September 30, 1976. Admini strative hearings were begun on Octo ber 6, 1 975. 5 At the same time, Ogden Reid, commissioner of the de partment, publicly warned consumers against eating striped bass from the Hudson River and salmon caught in Lake Ontario.54 On the international front, the Or ganization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) a few years ago recommended that its member countries which are involved in PCB production (including the U.S., West Germany, France, the United King dom, Japan, Italy, and Spain) restrict the commercial use of PCBs to closed systems.57 Only Japan has taken fur STLCOPCB4017885 ther strict measures to completely eliminate the use ot' l-Ctts in all com mercial applications, including capaci tors and transformers. Japan also pro hibits the import and export of the compound, and, since September 197 2, there has been a virtual elimination of almost all applications of I'CDs in that country.50 Most recently, following the Na tional Conference of I'CDs which was held in Chicago on November 19 to 21, 1975, the KI'A on December 22, 1975, announced a far-reaching federal policy of "totally eliminating the use of polychlorinated biphenyls (re Ms) as rapidly as possible" in the U.S.',,'s In a more specific action, the l:l*A has ordered the two General Electric plants on the Hudson River to achieve zero discharge by June 1 977.50 It is clear front these actions that the federal gov ernment has recognized the gravity of the l-CU issue and at last has taken definitive steps to address the problem. 77ie title of this article as originally submitted was "A Review of Federal and State Government Roles in Con trolling Impacts of I'CDs on tlic Envi ronment. " The Publisher and Editors of Environment ore responsible for the published titles and subtitles, selection of photographs and lead-in excerpts, photo captions, and preparation of most graphs and illustrations which appear in Environment articles. NOTES 1. Jansen, 5.. "A New Chemical Hazard," New ScUntilt, 32:615, 1966. 2. Wldmark, G., "Possible interference by Chlorinated Biphenyls," Jour. Ann. offlc. An*!. cnaro., 50-.1069, 1967. 3. Rlietorough, R.W., et al., "PCB Residues In AtUnMc Zooplankton," Bull. Envlr. ConUm. TomIooI.. 6.345. 1972. 4. Glam, C.S., et aiM "Chlorinated Hydrocar. bom in Plankton from the Gulf of Mexico and Northern Caribbean," Bull. Envlr. Con* Um. TokIcpL, 9:376, 1973. 5. Ware, D.M., and R.F. Addison, "PCB Residues in Plankton from the Gulf of St. Lawrence," Natura, 246:519, 1973. 6. zttko, v,, and P.M.K. Choi. "RC8 and Other Industrial Haiogenatec Hydrocarbons In me environment." Fish. Res. 9d. of Carv* ada Technical Report 272, 1971, o. 1. 7. Jensen, S.. ft al.. "DOT and PCB *n Marine Animals from Swedish Waters," Nature, 224:247, 1969. 6. Ritebrough, R.W,, et al., "Polychlorinated Biphenyls in the Global Ecosystem," Nature. 220:1098, 1968. 9. Prestt, i., N.w. Moore, ana O.J. Jeffries, "Polychlorinated Blpnenyis m Who Biros in Britain and their Avian Toxicity," Envlr. Poll., 1 i.l. 1970. 10. Koaman, J.H., "PC8 in Mammals and Birds In the Netherlands," PCB Conference tl, 5. Lunastrom, ed., Notional Swod. Envir. Prot. Bd. Pub. 4E, 1972, P. 35. 11. Water Quality Criteria. Report of the Committee on water Quality Criteria, Env. Studies Bd., NAS-NAE, Washington, D.C., 1972. Environment, Vol, 16, No. 2 12. Grelchut. V.A., A. Greichus, and R.j. Emcrick, "insecticides. Polychlorinated 81phenyls, and Morcury in Wild Cormorants, Pelicans, Their Eggs, Food, and Environ* meni," Bull. Envlr. Contam. ToxicoL, 9:321, 1973. 13. Koeman, J.H., M.C. TenNoever, and R.H. DeVot, "Chlorinated Biphenyls in Fish, Mussels, and B*rds from the River Rhine and the Netherlands Coastal Area." Nature. 221:1126. 1969. 14. Holden. A.V., "Source ot Poiyeniorjnated Biphenyl Contamination in |ho Marine Environment," Nature, 228:1220, 1970. 15. Maryland Dept. Nat. Res. and Westing* houso Elec. Co.. Chester River Study, An* napolis, Md.. Nov. 1972. 1G. Stalling, D.L., and F.L. Mayor, "Toxici* ties of PCBs to Fish and Environmental Residues," Envlr. Health Perspcct., 1:159, 1972. 17. Duke, t.w., j.i. Lowe, and A.J. Wilson, Jr., "A Polychlorinated Biphenyl tAroclor 1254) in the waier. Sediment, and Biota of Escambia Bay, Florida." Bull. Envlr. Contarn. Toxicol.. 5:1 71, 1 970. 10. Heiso, J.L., Contaminants In Great uakes Fish, Michigan Dept. Nat. Ros. Start Report. June 1975, 19. Michigan Dept. Nat. Res., Michigan Great Lakes Trout end Salmon Fishery, 1969*1972, Fisheries Mgmt. Report No. 5, June 1973. 20. Hesse, J.L., and N. Fogle, Fishery Div., Michigan Dept. Nat. Res., private communi cation. 21. Degurse, P., and V. Outer. Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Residues (n Fish from Major Waters pf Wisconsin, Wisconsin Dept. Nat. Res., Bur. Fish and Wildlife Mgmt. Report No. 79, Madison, Wls.. July 1975. 22. interagency Task Force on PCBs. Prelim* Inary Report on the Polychlorinated Bi phenyls in Mississippi River and Lake Pepin, Minn. Poll. Cont. Ag., St. Paul. Minn., Aug. 1975/ 23. Palermo, P.J., Progress Report. Massachu setts Pesticide Monitoring Program, April t, 1972 to March 3t, 1973, Div. Fisheries and Game, Commonwealth of Mass., Boston, Mass., 1973. 24. Nadeau, R.J., and R. Davis. Investigation of Polychlorinated Biphenyls in the Hudson Riven Hudson Falls-Fort Edward Area, EPA, Region II Report, 1974. 25. Bur, Envlr. Prot., Div. Fish and Wildlife, New York Dept. Envir. Conserv., Monitoring of PCBs In Fish Taken from the Hudson River, Albany, N.Y., Oct. 1975. 26. National Marine Fisheries Serv., U.S. Ocpt. of Commerce, Fisheries Statistics of the United States,2971. 27. Deuel, D.G., 1970 Salt-Water Angling Survey, NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Serv., U.S. Dept, of Commerce, Current Fishery Statistics No. 6200, 1973. 26. Consolidated Edison Co. of New York, Inc,, Final Environmental impact Statement, Operation of Indian Point Nuclear Gener* atlng Station, Feb. 1975. 29. Turk, John, U.S. Geological Survey, Albany, N.Y., private communication. 30. Munson, Thomas, westmghouse Ocean Research Lab., Annaoolis. Md., Drivate com munication, Also, prelim, draft Upper Chesa peake Bay study. 31. Kimbrough,R.D., "The Toxicity of Polychlorinated Polycyclic Compounds and Related Chemicals." CRC Critical Reviews In Toxicol., Jan. 1974, p. 445. 32. Kuratsune. M.. et al.. "An Epidemioiogi. cat Study on 'Yutho' or Chiorobiphenyis Poisoning," Fukuoka Acta Med., 60:513, 1969. 33. Kuratsune, M., et al., "Epidemiological Study of Yuino, a Poisoning caused by in gestion of Rice Oil Contaminated with e Commercial Brand of Polychlorinated Bi phenyls," Envir. Hiatth Perspect., Apr. 1972. 34. Price, H.A., and R.L. Welch, "Occur rence of PCBs in Humans," Envlr. Health Peripect., Apr. 1972. 35. Platonow, N.S.. and L.H. Kamad, -`Die tary Effects of Polychlorinated Biphenyls on Mink," Canadian Jour. Comp. Med., 37:391 1973. * 36. Dahlgren. R.B.. R.L. Linder, ana c,w. Carlson, "Polychlorinated Biphenyls: Their Effects on Penned Pheasants," Cnvir. Health Perspect., 1:89, 1972. 37. Keplmger. M.L., O.E. Fanchtf, &nd J.C. Celendra, "Toxicologic Studies with Poly chlorinated Biphenyls." Toxicol, and Appi. Pharmacol., 19:402. 1971. 38. Allen, J.R.. L.A. Carstent. and O.A. Barsotti, "Residual Effects of Short-Tem, LowLevel Exposuro Of Nonnuman Primates to Polychlorinated Biphenyls." Toxicol, and Appi, Pharmacol., 30:440, 1974. 39. Allen. J.R-. "Rosoonse of the Nonhuman Primate to Polychlorinated Biphenyl Expo sure," Federation Proceedings. 34.1675, 1975. 40. Allen, J.R.. Reg. Primate Res. Ctr.. Untv. of Wis. Mod. Sch., Madison, Wis., private communication. 41. Federal Register, 38(129): 1 B096. July 6, 1973. 42. Kimbrough, R.D,, et at., "induction of Liver Tumors In Sherman Strain Femaio Rats by Polychlorinated Biphenyl Arocior 1260," preprint of study obtained from R.D. Kimbrough, Ctr. for Disease Contr., Atlanta, Ga. 43. interdepartmental Task Force on PCBs, Polychlorinated Biphenyls and the Environ ment, Washington, D.C., May 1972. 44. Alien, J.R., and D.H. Norback, "Poly chlorinated Biphenyl and Terphenyi-lnduceo Gastric Mucosal Myoerpiasia in Primates," Science, 1 79:498, 1973. 45. Bowes, G.W,, et al., "identification of Chlorinated Dibenzofurans in American Polychlorinated Bipnenyls,*1 2 3N4 a5 t6u7r*9, 10 11 256:305, 1975. 46. Kuratsune, M., y. Masuda. and J. Nagayama, "Some ot the Recent Findings Con cerning Yusho," paper pres, at Nat. Cont. on Polychtor. Biohenyls. Chicago, I'.L, Nov. 19-21, 1975. 47. Environment Directorate, Otg. tor Econ. Coop, and Oevei., "Poiychiof ina tea Bi phenyls: Their Use and Control," Paris, Nov. 1973. 48. `'Polychlorinated Biohenytj -- Environ mental Impact," Review by Panel on Haz ardous Trace Substances, Envir. Res.. 5:249, 1972. 49. Train, Russell E., admin., Envir. Prot. Ag., in background written statement ores, at Press Conference on PCBs, Washington, O.C., Dec. 22, 1975. 50. Schweitzer, G.E., dir.. Off. of Toxic Sub stances, Env. Prot. Ag., in statements made at hearing on PCBs held by Wis. Dept. Nat. Res., Madison. Wis.. Aug. 29. 2975. 51. Hesse, J.L., "Summary of Regulatory Efforts of the Great Lakes Region Toward the Environmental Control of PCBs (Poly chlorinated Biphenyls)," speech pres, to Governor's Great Lakes Regional interdis ciplinary Pesticide Council, Chicago, ill., Sept. 18, 1975. 52. "Mondale, HHH Center PCB Fray," Minneapolis Tribune, Aug. 26, 1975, p. IB. 53. Senate Report, No. 92-414, 92nd Con gress, 1st Sossion, 1971, p. 61. 64. Title 33 United States Code. S2 251 (a)(3) [FWPCA S101 (a)(3): $307 (a)(4)). 65. New York State Dept, of Envir. Cons., complaint issued against General Electric Co., Flie No. 2833, Sept. 23, 1975. 56. "State Sayi Some Striped Bass and Salmon Pott a Toxic Peril," New York Times. Aug. 8, 1975, p. 1. 67. Or9. for Econ. Coup, and Devei., De cision ot the Council on Protection of the Evironment by Control of Polychlorinated Biphenyls, adopted Feb. 13. 1973. 68. "Train Announces Plan to Control PCBs." Envir. Prot. Ag.. press release, Wash ington, D C., Dec. 22, J975. 59. Frye, Ricnard, Icqal staff. Env. Prot. Ag., Region If, Now York, N.Y.. private com munication. 11 DSW 033924 STLCOPCB40