Document DDbZ0RL4NZ0bjpnZzJnRb4KKn

RETURN TO ISSUE PREV POLICY ANALYSIS NEXT Get e-Alerts Are Fluoropolymers Really of Low Concern for Human and Environmental Health and Separate from Other PFAS? Rainer Lohmann*, Ian T. Cousins, Jamie C. DeWitt, Juliane Glge, Gretta Goldenman, Dorte Herzke , Andrew B. Lindstrom, Mark F. Miller, Carla A. Ng, Sharyle Patton, Martin Scheringer, Xenia Trier , and Zhanyun Wang Cite this: Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020, 54, 20, 12820-12828 Publication Date: October 12, 2020 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c03244 Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society Request reuse permissions Article Views Altmetric Citations 44554 159 95 LEARN ABOUT THESE METRICS Share Add to Export RIS PDF (934 KB) Abstract SUBJECTS: Cations, Fluoropolymers, Industrial manufacturing, This website uses cookies to improve your user experience. By continuing to use the site, you are accepting our use of cookies. Read the ACS privacy policy. CONTINUE  Fluoropolymers are a group of polymers within the class of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). The objective of this analysis is to evaluate the evidence regarding the environmental and human health impacts of fluoropolymers throughout their life cycle(s). Production of some fluoropolymers is intimately linked to the use and emissions of legacy and novel PFAS as polymer processing aids. There are serious concerns regarding the toxicity and adverse effects of fluorinated processing aids on humans and the environment. A variety of other PFAS, including monomers and oligomers, are emitted during the production, processing, use, and end-of-life treatment of fluoropolymers. There are further concerns regarding the safe disposal of fluoropolymers and their associated products and articles at the end of their life cycle. While recycling and reuse of fluoropolymers is performed on some industrial waste, there are only limited options for their recycling from consumer articles. The evidence reviewed in this analysis does not find a scientific rationale for concluding that fluoropolymers are of low concern for environmental and human health. Given fluoropolymers' extreme persistence; emissions associated with their production, use, and disposal; and a high likelihood for human exposure to PFAS, their production and uses should be curtailed except in cases of essential uses. This publication is licensed for personal use by The American Chemical Society. 1. Introduction Jump To The class of per- and polyuoroalkyl substances (PFAS) consists of polymers and nonpolymers. (1) Most regulatory and academic attention so far has focused on the nonpolymeric PFAS, either peruorinated or polyuorinated alkyl substances. Within the groups of polymeric PFAS, there are uoropolymers, side-chain uorinated polymers, and poly- or peruoropolyethers. This website uses cookies to improve your user experience. By continuing to use the site, you are accepting As dened by Buck et al., o"uruuosreopofoclyomokieerss."RreeapdrethseeAnCt Sa pdriisvaticnycptosliucyb.set of uorinated polymers, based on a carbon-only polymer backbone with F atoms directly attached to it, e.g., polytetrauoroethylene (PTFE); thougChOsNoTmINeUEuoropolymers also have Cl or O directly attached to the backbone. (1) In this analysis, we focus on uoropolymers, but do not assess concerns about other uorinated polymers, namely, side-chain uorinated polymers, and poly- or peruoropolyethers. Previous studies have already documented that side-chain uorinated polymers can decompose and release nonpolymeric PFAS to the environment; (2) otherwise, they present similar challenges as discussed for uoropolymers below. The group of uoropolymers is dominated by PTFE; combined with uorinated ethylene propylene (FEP), peruoroalkoxy alkanes (PFA), ethylene tetrauoroethylene (ETFE), and other tetrauoroethylene-copolymers; they account for around 75% of the uoropolymer market. (3) Other important uoropolymers include polyvinylidene uoride (PVDF), polyvinyl uoride (PVF), and uoroelastomers. One additional uoropolymer that is discussed in this policy analysis is the functionalized uoropolymer Naon (produced by Chemours), which is a tetrauoroethylene-based uoropolymer-copolymer incorporating peruorovinyl ether groups terminated with sulfonate groups. A review by Gardiner includes a more complete overview of the different types of uoropolymers. (4) Industry produced 320 300 tonnes of uoropolymers in 2018, (5) and production is steadily increasing. (4) By 2018, the global uoropolymer industry was expected to be at $10 billion per annum. (4) Here, we evaluate the evidence regarding the environmental and health impacts of uoropolymers. Our analysis was prompted by a recent suggestion that uoropolymers should be considered as polymers of low concern (PLC). (3) According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), "polymers of low concern are those deemed to have insignicant environmental and human health impacts." (6) The PLC status of a material leads to exemptions for manufacturers from requirements under the legal chemicals management frameworks in some jurisdictions. (7) In recognition of the potential risks posed by PFAS-related polymers, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has denied PLC exemptions for side-chain uorinated polymers but has not acted on uoropolymers per se. (8) We here distinguish between uoropolymer substances, uoropolymer products, and uoropolymers in nished articles. A uoropolymer substance such as PTFE, FEP, and PFA is a material of known chemical structure. A uoropolymer product is the actual material produced and sold by a chemical manufacturer (e.g., Chemours, Solvay, Daikin, Asahi Glass, etc.), it comes in different grades (e.g., Teon-granulate, Teon-ne powder, etc.), and may contain impurities from the production process. These uoropolymer products are sold to manufacturers of nished articles (e.g., PTFE tape, waterproof clothing with a PTFE membrane, PTFE-coated cookware, etc.) who incorporate the uoropolymer products in their nished articles. The distinction is important, as there are many different processes of making uoropolymer products. For example, some uoropolymers do not require PFASbased processing aids in their manufacture by suspension polymerization (e.g., granular PTThiFsEw)e, bwshiteeruesaess cootohkeierstuooimropproovleymyoeurrsus(eer.ge.x,penrieenpcoew. BdyecroPntTinFuEingantoduPseVDthFe)saitere, ymouaanruefaacccteuprteindg our use of cookies. Read the ACS privacy policy. using PFAS-based processing aids during emulsion polymerization. Fluoropolymers are also diverse in how they are produced (as granCuOlaNteTsIN, UnEe powders, or aqueous dispersions, through emulsion or suspension polymerization, with different grades), shipped, and used, which renders generic judgements on their behavior and characteristics dicult. Recently, polymers have been under increased regulatory scrutiny. In 2019, the industry-led European Centre for Ecotoxicology and Toxicology of Chemicals (ECETOC) developed a Conceptual Framework for Polymer Risk Assessment ("CF4Polymers") (9) and, in 2020, the European Commission contracted a study to propose criteria for the identication of polymers requiring registration (PRR) under REACH ("the Wood report"). (10) CF4Polymers provides guiding elements to be considered in assessing potential ecological and human health hazards and risks posed by polymer substances. Unlike the PLC concept, CF4Polymers also considers specic life cycle stages of polymer products and their associated routes of exposure. CF4Polymers thus appears suciently exible to allow consideration of potential chemical hazards at each life stage of a uoropolymer. However, the authors of the CF4Polymers framework support the PLC approach as a means of streamlining polymer risk assessments. They specically support the ndings of Henry et al. (3) and state that they are "...unaware of scientic evidence to justify generally assigning uoropolymers the same level of regulatory concern as other PFAS." (9) The Wood Report notes that side-chain uorinated polymers "can potentially lead to the formation of PFAS substances as a result of degradation," but considers uoropolymers as PLCs, following the recommendations of Henry et al. (3) The PLC concept is currently derived from the characteristics of substances and articles but does not cover problems occurring during production and disposal. Specic uoropolymer articles could hence technically meet the denitions of a PLC, but still pose signicant concerns to human health and the environment due to emissions occurring during the life cycle (Figure 1). A well-known case where this occurs is the release of processing aids during the manufacture of some uoropolymers (such as PTFE, FEP, PFA, PVDF, and some uoroelastomers). The pollution caused by emissions of low-molecular-weight PFAS used as polymer processing aids (i.e., emulsiers, dispersants, and surfactants at large) for the manufacture of some types of uoropolymers has received considerable attention. (11-13) Figure 1 This website uses cookies to improve your user experience. By continuing to use the site, you are accepting our use of cookies. Read the ACS privacy policy. CONTINUE  Figure 1. Conceptual diagram of PFAS emissions during uoropolymer production, product manufacturing, and disposal. In this article, we identify concerns for environmental and human health resulting from emissions during uoropolymer production, processing, and disposal. We rst review the link between some types of uoropolymers and PFAS emissions and then turn to more general concerns associated with (uoro)polymers. 2. History of Pollution from Fluoropolymer Production Is Closely Tied to Use of PFAS as Polymer Processing Aids Jump To Low-molecular-weight PFAS have been used for decades as emulsiers in the polymerization of some types of uoropolymer substances. The resulting long-term exposure of production workers, the environment, and nearby neighborhoods to high levels of PFAS polymer processing aids by uoropolymer manufacturers is now well documented and has driven much of the initial action on PFAS control. (14-21) HThisistowreicbasiltley,utshees mcoooksiteswtiodiemlypruosveedyopuor luysmereerxpperoriecnecses.iBnygcaoindtsinuwinegretotuhseeathme msitoe,nyiuoumarseaaltcsceopfting peruorooctanoic acid (PoFuOrAus)eaonfdcopoekriesu.oRroeandotnhaenAoCiSc aprcividac(yPpFoNlicAy.). (22,23) The majority of PFOA and PFNA now in the global environment is a result of the historical use of salts of these substances as processing aids. (22C,2O4N) TAIsNaUEconsequence of human and environmental health concerns, under the U.S. EPA 2010/15 Stewardship Program, eight major manufacturers phased out PFOA/PFNA in their uoropolymer production. (25) Many other manufacturers, though, still utilize PFOA as a processing aid; PFOA emissions have, for example, now widely polluted the Asian (especially Chinese) environment. (26) These Asian emissions are being discharged into the atmosphere, rivers, and oceans in large quantities and are causing additional global-scale pollution. (26) 3. Substitute Fluoropolymer Processing Aids Raise Similar Concerns Jump To Fluoropolymer producers in industrialized countries have moved to substitute PFOA and PFNA in polymer production with structurally similar alternatives such as per- and polyuoroalkylether carboxylic acids (PFECAs). (23,27,28) These PFECAs are not technically classied as "long-chain" peruoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) like PFOA and PFNA, but they have similar physical and chemical properties (including surfactancy and resistance to degradation) when compared with the original emulsiers. (28) One example is the substitution by Chemours of the ammonium salt of PFOA with the ammonium salt of hexauoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA, CAS 62037-80-3, or GenX; Figure 2a) for PTFE production. When released into the environment, the ammonium salt of HFPO-DA dissociates to HFPO-DA, which due to similarly high persistence and mobility as its predecessor PFOA, accumulates in surface water, groundwater, and soil. (29,30) HFPO-DA has also been observed in surface water and drinking water in areas where it is produced, e.g., in North Carolina (31) and The Netherlands. (14) HFPO-DA does not bioaccumulate in animals to the same extent as PFOA (32) but has been added to the E.U.'s Candidate List of Substances of Very High Concern (SVHC) due to an equivalent level of concern about its very high persistence, mobility in water, potential for long-range transport, accumulation in plants, and observed effects on human health and the environment. (33) Figure 2 This website uses cookies to improve your user experience. By continuing to use the site, you are accepting our use of cookies. Read the ACS privacy policy. CONTINUE  Figure 2. Structures of replacement uoropolymer processing aids detected in the environment. (a) Ammonium salt of hexauoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA, CAS 62037-80-3, or "GenX") detected in the environments of North Carolina and The Netherlands. (b) Functionalized PFPE reported in Wang et al. (CAS 329238-24-6) now observed in the Bormida River (Italy) and New Jersey. Note, the e = ethyl group can range from 0-2 units and p = propyl group can range from 1-4 units with the ethyl group most likely being closest to the chlorine. Additionally, the chlorine can be on the terminal carbon as shown or on the C2 position as CF3CF(Cl)CF2-O. (c) Peruoro{acetic acid, 2-[(5-methoxy-1,3-dioxolan-4-yl)oxy]}, ammonium salt (CAS No 1190931-27-1; cC604), now observed in ground- and surface water in the Veneto region (Italy). https://echa.europa.eu/substanceinformation/-/substanceinfo/100.207.411. (d) Ammonium 4,8-dioxa-3H-peruorononanoate (CAS 958445-44-8; ADONA) detected in the Rhine River and serum samples. In another example, PFNA or, more specically, its ammonium salt, has been substituted with salts of another PFECA (CAS 329238-24-6; Figure 2b). (28) The dissociated PFECA has since been detected in the surface water near a uoropolymer production facility in Italy (34) and in the soil, (35) surface, and groundwater near a similar PVDF facility in West Deptford, NTheiws wJeebrssiteeyu(sUes.Sc.o).o(k3ie6s)toAnimoptrhoevre ryeopulraucseemr eexnpet rpieonlcyem. Beyr cpornotcineusinsgintoguasied,thceCs6it0e,4y, oisu tahreeaccepting ammonium salt of [peruoourrou{aseceotficcoaokciieds,.2R-e[(a5d-mtheetAhCoSxyp-r1iv)a]c(yFpigoulicrye. 2c). cC604 has been detected in surface and groundwater in the Veneto region in Italy. (37) Also, ammonium 4,8dioxa-3H-peruorononanoate (CAS 95844C5O-4N4T-I8N, UAEDONA; Figure 2d) is a PFECA processing aid that has been detected in the Rhine River in Germany (38) and in the blood of individuals living near a uorochemical production facility in this area. (39) These examples demonstrate the similar concern between legacy and replacement uoropolymer processing aids mentioned above in terms of environmental exposure, bioaccumulation, and toxicity (see also section 6 below). (40,41) Many more PFAS with similar structures have been patented for possible use as uoropolymer processing aids. (42-44) Thus, even if individual processing aids are banned, many other PFAS are available with the same functionality and similar concerns with respect to persistence and human health effects. 3M claimed that modern containment technologies recapture approximately 98% of polymer processing aids such as PFOA and others, (45) but losses of 2% are still of concern given their persistence and related properties. Moreover, independent data are not available to support this claim. 4. Monomer, Oligomer, and Synthesis Byproduct Emissions during the Production of Fluoropolymers Jump To Fluoropolymers are made of one or several types of monomers. During the synthesis, incomplete polymerization will result in residual monomers and oligomers and smaller "polymers" with up to about 100 monomer units. These and other synthesis byproducts are not bound to the polymers and may be released to air upon heating during manufacturing and processing (including sintering) and to water through wastewater streams. (11,15) For example, a series of polyuoroalkyl carboxylic acids were discovered near Decatur, Alabama (U.S.), each differing by one 1,1-diuoroethene, CF2CH2, unit, which was likely used as a building block for production of PVDF at that site. (15) Chemours discovered more than 250 unknown, potentially unique, PFAS in their wastewater in North Carolina. (46) Many ultrashort-chain uorinated byproducts are highly volatile and therefore dicult to remove in lters or liquid scrubber baths. An example is triuoromethane (CHF3), which has a boiling point of -82.1 C and belongs to the group of hydrouorocarbon (HFC) gases (HFC-23); it has a 100-year global warming potential of 12 400 relative to CO2. (47) Little is known about emissions of airborne uoropolymer particles and oligomers, another potential source of PFAS in the atmosphere. Henry et al. specied the particle size in uoropolymer powders to vary between 50 and 250 m, larger than the harmful particle sizes of PM10 and PM2.5 (10 and 2.5 m) in terms of harm caused by inhalation. (3) However, uoropolymer particles vary in size (48) and may contain and transport residual monomers/oligomers long distances from their emission sources. This website uses cookies to improve your user experience. By continuing to use the site, you are accepting Various PFAS oligomers wouerreusreecofecnotolykiedse.tReceateddthienAtCheS sptriavcackyepmolicsys.ion samples collected from a uorochemical production site. (49) A wide range of byproducts of the functionalized uoropolymer Naon have been observedCOinNthTeINeUnEvironment, sh, (50) and birds (51) downstream of this facility. Moreover, a recent study involving the residents of Wilmington, North Carolina found that the majority have Naon Byproduct 2 (99%) and other related PFAS in their blood serum as a result of consuming contaminated drinking water in this region. (52) These Naon-related compounds could be the result of manufacturing discharges (12) or losses resulting from Naon use over time. (53,54) It is noted that Naon probably does not meet the PLC criteria because it has a reactive functional group that can be lost under its harsh use conditions. 5. Leaching of Low-Molecular-Weight PFAS from Fluoropolymers during Processing and Use Jump To Linked to the use of PFAS as production processing aids (see above), there are concerns regarding the remaining low molecular weight PFAS in uoropolymers after production. For example, Henry et al. argued that uoropolymers are not toxic, based on a data set that was restricted only to a few uoropolymer substances, typically >100 000 Da. (3) Concentrations of leachable components reported for those specic uoropolymer products, particularly a PTFE ne powder, were labeled "very low" at 1 ppm (i.e., 1 mg/kg), (3) though earlier studies reported concentrations of 1-10 ppm in PTFE ne powder and much higher in PTFE aqueous dispersion (see SI in Wang et al. (24)). Similar levels of PFAAs (0.3-24 ppm) were found in personal care articles that contained PTFE ne particles (assuming the cosmetics contained 1% PTFE, the range of leachables is 0.3-24 ppm; if the total organouorine measurements represented PTFE ne powder, then the range of PFAA-leachables is 15- 1000 ppm). (55) Residuals of 1 ppm may have signicant toxicological relevance, given the recently proposed drinking water guidelines for some PFAS set at 10-100 ng/L in different countries. (56,57) The levels of leachables (e.g., processing aids, synthesis byproducts and oligomers) in individual uoropolymer substances and products depend on the production process and subsequent treatment processes; a comprehensive global overview is currently lacking. Fluoropolymer-coated food contact materials (e.g., metal cookware), if not properly pretreated, could lead to the leaching of nonpolymeric PFAS residuals into food during the use phase. Processing aids are known to leach from uoropolymer articles, for example in chromatographic instrumentation, causing a consistent background signal in analytical chemistry at the ppt level (58,59) Further, Henry et al. state that the low residual levels found in the nished PTFE products that they tested are due in large part to "aggressive" steps taken to wash out residuals and drive off volatiles. (3) Such aggressive treatment raises the question of how these residuals aTnhdis vwoelbastiitleeussaerseccooakpietusrteodimapnrodvtehyeoiurrreusleear sexepsecrieonnctero. Blleydcoonrtinifupinrgotdouucsteiothnebsyitpe,royoduucartesabceccepotminge air or water emissions witohurpuosteeonfticaolofkoiersh. uRmeaadntheexApCoSsuprriev.aTcyhpeorleiciys. evidence that the drying step (sintering) of uoropolymers has led to substantial emissions to air of processing aids CONTINUE at sites of PTFE production (West Virginia (US) (29) and The Netherlands) and use sites in the US (North Bennington, VT; Merrimack, NH; Hoosick Falls, NY). (60-62) 6. Toxicity of Fluoropolymer Processing Aids, Monomers, and Oligomers Jump To Legacy processing aids (i.e., PFOA, PFNA) used to manufacture uoropolymers are linked to a wide range of health effects in experimental animal models (causative) and humans (associative), including certain types of cancer, immunotoxicity, reproductive and developmental toxicity, liver toxicity, and thyroid disease. (63) The production of many uoropolymers still requires the use of PFAS as surfactants or as monomers, which causes releases to the environment during manufacture, and thus may pose a risk to human health and the environment (see also point 9 below). A replacement processing aid, HFPO-DA, shows a similar toxic potency in rodents to that of PFOA, (41) but its pharmacokinetics in humans is less certain. (64) Few reviews have been published regarding the potential toxicity of other replacement PFECAs, such as ADONA (65,66) or the PFECA CAS 329238-24-6, (67) but these replacement chemicals need to have similar properties to work and are as environmentally persistent as the original polymer processing aids. (40) 7. Penetration of Cell Membranes by Macromolecules Jump To While not specic to uoropolymers, the PLC status is partially based on a mass-based cutoff for cellular uptake (MW of >1000 Da or 10000 Da, depending on reactive functional groups). This was summarized by Henry et al., who advocated for the PLC status of some uoropolymers by suggesting "polymers are too large to penetrate cell membranes." (3) This position is not currently supported by the scientic literature related to the bioavailability of similarly sized micro- and nanoplastics of uorine-free polymers. Nearly a decade ago, Jiang et al. showed that polystyrene nanoparticles of about 100 nm diameter are easily able to enter stem cells. (68) Similarly, Pitt et al. reported that 42 nm polystyrene nanoparticles were present in tissue and organs of maternally and coparentally exposed F1 embryos/larvae, proving membrane crossing capabilities of polymer nanoparticles. (69) Polymer nanoparticles with molecular weights between 12 000 and 21 000 Da have been used to deliver chemotherapeutic drugs to cancer cells, (70) and those on the order of tens of nanometers in size have been found to enter cells and eventually even cell nuclei. (71,72) Furthermore, Geiser et al. showed that inhaled spherical microparticles of Teon were able to migrate into the surface lining layer of hamster alveoli, where interactions with lung cells cTohuisldweobcscitueru. s(e7s3c)oMokaiensytouimoproropvoelyyomureursseur bexsptaerniecnecse.aBrey cmonatrinkueintegdtoinustehethefosrimte, oyofusaursepaecncsepiotinngs with submicron uoropolyomur eursepaofrtciocolekiessiz. eRsea(dsethee, eA.CgS. privacy policy. https://www.teon.com/en/products/dispersions), thus, release of bioavailable uoropolymer particles is plausible. On thCeObNaTsiIsNoUfEsuch emerging evidence from environmental and medical research on diverse macromolecules, (74) a blanket statement that polymers cannot enter cells is factually inaccurate. It is recognized that the global production of uoropolymers (though not insignicant at 320 000 tonnes in 2018, (5) and increasing (4)) is relatively low in volume (at 0.1%) compared to global production of plastics (300 million tonnes in 2018 (75)). However, detection of PTFE microparticles in Mediterranean sh and remote Arctic Ocean sediment samples demonstrates their global presence, albeit representing a small fraction of all detected microplastics. (76,77) We note that the occurrence, exposure to, and toxicity of nanoplastics is an area of ongoing research with many unknowns. (78) 8. Persistence and Disposal of Fluoropolymers Jump To Fluoropolymers are extremely persistent under environmental conditions, (45) which, in the same way as for other polymers, can lead to a wide array of issues, particularly with respect to disposal of uoropolymer-containing wastes and products. (79) Current concern over microplastics present in the oceans provides an example of why the manufacture of polymers likely to be released into the environment should ideally be curtailed. (80) Hence, production of persistent polymers, such as the highly persistent uoropolymers, should occur only in time-limited essential use categories, i.e., critical for the safety, health, and functioning of society. On the industrial scale, recycling of clean PTFE waste or scraps generated during production is already happening, often by converting these into PTFE micropowder (so-called uoroadditives) and then using them to reduce wear rate and friction. (81) This has the unintended consequence of spreading uoropolymers into more uses, and complicating any efforts of controlling and reducing their losses from the technosphere. More recently, a pilotscale industrial high-temperature recycling process (vacuum pyrolysis) to regenerate gasphase monomers from end-of-life industrial-scale uoropolymer products has been established. (82) On the other hand, the recycling of uoropolymers in consumer articles is not well established, as those uoropolymers are typically contaminated by other substances and llers, which makes recycling dicult. (82,83) Fluoropolymers applied to metal articles (e.g., nonstick frying pans) might end up in metal recycling streams, leading to their uncontrolled breakdown in metal smelters at high temperatures. Commercial bakeries regularly remove uoropolymer coatings from their baking forms after 12-24 months of use either via burning or blasting, with unknown emissions of PFAS and uoropolymer particles to air, water, and soil, and then have the forms recoated. In Sweden aTlhoisnew,efbosriteexuasmespcloeo,keievsertoy iymeparorvseoymouer 2us0e0r e0x0pebraieknicneg. Bpyancosnatinreuin"rgetcoouasteetdh"ewsiitteh, yaoutoatrael abcackeipntigng our use of cookies. Read the ACS privacy policy. surface of 500 000 m2. Stripping the old coating is performed by either "burning off" at 450 CONTINUE C for 4-5 h to "break down" the coating followed by grit blasting or by water blasting at 1500 bar; it is unclear whether emissions are controlled. (84) Landlling of uoropolymers leads to contamination of leachates with PFAS and can contribute to releases of plastics and microplastics. Even with an exceptional chemical and thermal stability, uoropolymer particles will be disintegrated into microplastics by weathering and physical stress, which enables further dispersion and increased bioavailability. (85,86) Storage in abandoned mines and oil extraction elds is an option not routinely explored (except when court-ordered, see below) but is costly and logistically complicated. The remaining option for the disposal of uoropolymers is incineration; its effectiveness to destroy PFAS and the tendency for formation of uorinated or mixed halogenated organic byproducts is not well understood. (87) Tetrauoromethane and peruoroethane have been identied as very stable combustion byproducts from the incineration of uorine-containing waste, but given the extra stability of peruorinated radicals, larger molecules might also be formed as a result of incomplete combustion. (87,88) PTFE can produce PFCAs (including triuoroacetic acid (TFA)) and other uorinated compounds when heated to temperatures between 250 and 600 C (relevant for uncontrolled burning). (89-91) Myers et al. identied multiple thermal decomposition products of polychlorotriuoroethylene (PCTFE), a common uoropolymer, including 29 perhalogenated carboxylic acid groups and 21 chlorine/uorine-substituted polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon groups, such as mixed halogenated benzenes and naphthalenes. (92) It is currently unclear whether typical municipal solid waste incinerators can safely destroy uoropolymers without emissions of harmful PFAS and other problematic substances. (87) There is evidence that PFOA itself is not thermally stable at elevated temperatures (93) or produced in high-temperature (>1000 C) incineration of uorotelomer based articles. (94,95) Combustion within an optimized waste incinerator (870 C, 4 s residence time of 0.3% PTFE by weight), as opposed to the less strict 850 C and 2 s required in the E.U. for municipal solid waste incinerators (96) yielded inconclusive results with respect to stack emissions of PFAS. (97) PFOA was regularly detected in the exhaust, but the study was marred by elevated blanks. The authors were only able to account for 56-78% of the uorine mass balance during incineration, meaning that a wide variety of other PFAS could have been released. (97) In any case, municipal waste incinerators can only tolerate limited amounts of uoropolymers due to the corrosive nature of the hydrogen uoride released during the uoropolymers' thermal decomposition. (45) 9Th.isCweabsniteFusleus ocorookieps too limypmroveeyrosur uBseer eCxpeoriennscei.dByecroentidnuing to use the site, you areJuamccpeTpoting our use of cookies. Read the ACS privacy policy. Separately from the Use of PFAS as Processing Aids? CONTINUE For current manufacturing processes, it has not been clearly demonstrated that those uoropolymer products that are made using emulsion polymerization (in contrast to suspension polymerization) can be produced without the use and emissions of PFAS as processing aids. For example, after discovery of widespread PFAS contamination of the Cape Fear watershed resulting from the use as various PFAS, including HFPO-DA, as processing aids in the production of uoropolymers, a "zero" emission policy to water was mandated in North Carolina. (13) This includes the capture of PFAS-containing liquid processing waste, which is now moved out of the state for deep well injection, (98) merely relocating the environmental concern and creating the possibility of spills and leaking. In Dordrecht (Netherlands), regulations exist for air emissions (which are now restricted to 450 kg/y), direct (surface water) emissions (recently restricted to 5 kg/y), and indirect emission to a local waste water treatment plant (recently restricted to 140 kg/y, it was 2 tonnes/y in 2018 and 6 tonnes/y in 2017). (14) A report to the Nordic Council compiled additional production and release estimates for various per- and polyuoroalkylethers. (99) Emulsion polymerization processes with much reduced PFAS use, (100) or without the use of PFAS, (44,101) as processing aids have been developed, but it is unclear whether they will be implemented industry-wide. A phase-out of all PFAS as uoropolymer processing aids would be a vast improvement but would not address the current problems associated with impurities, as well as a lack of recycling and disposal. 10. Are Fluoropolymers Polymers of Low or High Concern? Jump To The concerns we present above suggest that there is no sucient evidence to consider uoropolymers as being of low concern for environmental and human health. The group of uoropolymers is too diverse to warrant a blanket exemption from additional regulatory review. Their extreme persistence and the emissions associated with their production, use, and disposal result in a high likelihood for human exposure as long as uses are not restricted. Concluding that some specic uoropolymer substances are of low concern for environmental and human health can only be achieved by narrowly focusing on their use phase, as was done by Henry et al. (3) Ideally, the assessment and management of uoropolymer products would consider the complete life cycle including associated emissions during production and disposal, as described above (see also Figure 1). The ECETOC CF4Polymers was an improvement over the early OECD PLC criteria by introducing life cycle considerations in polymer risk assessment, and it is recommended that these approaches are applied rather than focusing nTahrisrowweblysiotenutshees cuosoekipeshatosiem.pMrooveniytoourirnugseermexispesriioenncseo. Bf yhacormntifnuulinvgotloatuislee athnedsiptea,rytoicuualareteacPcFeAptSingat manufacturing and incineoruartiuosne sofitceosokisieus.rgReenadtlythneeAeCdSepdr.ivFaucyrtphoelircmy.ore, mapping of all industrial activities that produce, process, and dispose/incinerate uoropolymers would CONTINUE Iqr ACS Publications Most Trusted. Most Cited. Most Read. Q from discussions of other PFAS as a class or in terms of their impacts on human or environmental health. The conclusion that all fluoropolymers are of low concern, simply based on tests on limited substances of four types of fluoropolymers, .(3)_ ignores major emissions linked to their production and large uncertainties regarding their safe end-of-life treatment. In addition, there is only very limited information on the compositions, grades, etc. of the fluoropolymer products on the market. Not all fluoropolymer products meet the OECD PLC criteria, as suggested by Henry et al. in the conclusions of their paper; for example, functionalized fluoropolymers do not meet the criteria (e.g., Nation) due to the presence of reactive functional groups. It would anyway be impossible to verify if all fluoropolymer products were PLC or not with the information available in the public domain. If PLC is part of a regulatory framework, PLC assessment should be performed on a product-by-product basis because various grades and commercial products of fluoropolymers may or may not meet the PLC criteria. For example, a PTFE product made in China cannot be assumed to be equivalent to the PTFE products tested by Henry et al. .(3). Our recommendation is to move toward the use of fluoropolymers in closed-loop mass flows in the technosphere and in limited essential-use categories, unless manufacturers and users can eliminate PFAS emissions from all parts of the life cycle of fluoropolymers. Author Information Jump Tom Corresponding Author Rainer Lohmann - Graduate School of Oceanography, University ofRhode Island, Narragansett, Rhode Island 02882, United States; http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8796-3229; Email: @uri.edu Authors Ian T. Cousins - Department ofEnvironmental Science, Stockholm University SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden; oh http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7035-8660 Jamie C. DeWitt - Department ofPharmacology and Toxicology Brody School of This website uses cookies to improve your user experience. By continuing to use the site, you are accepting our use of cookies. Read the ACS privacy policy. CONTINUE Dorte Herzke - NILU in Fram Centre, Troms, Norway; Institute for Arctic and Marine Biology, The Arctic University of Norway, Troms, Norway Andrew B. Lindstrom - Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States Mark F. Miller - National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences and U.S. Public Health Service, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States Carla A. Ng - Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, United States; http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5521-7862 Sharyle Patton - Health and Environment Program Commonweal, Bolinas, California 94924, United States Martin Scheringer - Institute of Biogeochemistry and Pollutant Dynamics, ETH Zrich, 8092 Zrich, Switzerland; http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0809-7826 Xenia Trier - European Environment Agency, Kgs. Nytorv 6, DK-1050 Copenhagen K, Denmark Zhanyun Wang - Chair of Ecological Systems Design, Institute of Environmental Engineering, ETH Zrich, 8093 Zrich, Switzerland; http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9914-7659 Notes The authors declare no competing nancial interest. Acknowledgments Jump To This article has been supported by the Global PFAS Science Panel. We would like to thank the Tides Foundation for support (grant 1806-52683). In addition, R.L. acknowledges funding from the U.S. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (grant P42ES027706), J.C.D. from the US Environmental Protection Agency (83948101) and the North Carolina Policy Collaboratory, and C.A.N. from the National Science Foundation (grant 1845336), and D.H. thanks the Norwegian Strategic Institute Program, granted by the Norwegian Research Council "Arctic, the Herald of Chemical Substances of Environmental Concern, CleanArctic" (117031). J.G. acknowledges funding from the Swiss Federal Oce for the Environment. 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Read the ACS privacy policy. 95. Ian T. Cousins, Jamie C. DeWitt, Juliane Glge, Gretta Goldenman, Dorte Herzke, Rainer Lohmann, Carla A. Ng, Martin Scheringer, Zhanyun Wang. The highCpOerNsisTtIeNnUceEof PFAS is sucient for their management as a chemical class. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts 2020, 22 (12) , 2307-2312. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0EM00355G Download PDF Partners About About ACS Publications ACS & Open Access ACS Membership ACS Publications Blog 1155 Sixteenth Street N.W. Washington, DC 20036 Copyright 2023 American Chemical Society Resources and Information Journals A-Z Books and Reference Advertising Media Kit Institutional Sales ACS Publishing Center Privacy Policy Terms of Use Support & Contact Help Live Chat FAQ Connect with ACS Publications This website uses cookies to improve your user experience. By continuing to use the site, you are accepting our use of cookies. Read the ACS privacy policy. CONTINUE