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i. >r muM ot me element* in inc con- dvjintagcous to the rapid development of tei ic periodic ublc. such as the transi life, is not justified. tion elements. Finally, when the ionic Amos 8am* potential it high (> 10) the positive ion ap propriates one or more oxygen ion. freeing Jerzy Navuot Department ofSol! and Water Sciences. the hydrogen and forming an oxyttnion, which it generally soluble this it charac Hebrew University ofJerusalem. Rehovot. Israel teristic of the nonmetals in the upper right comer of the periodic table. [f life began in the primitive terrestrial oceans, elements whose abundances in the aqueous phase are high should have a high representation in living material. In Fig. I, the enrichment factor for a number of ele ments--that is, the ratio of the concentra tion of the element in an organism to its concentration in the earth's crust {7)--is plotted against ionic potential. A similar curve is seen for alt major groups of orga nisms. as wc proceed up the evolutionary scale from bacteria to fungi to plants to land animals, and for the ocean (Fig. 2). A general pattern is observed for all living organisms: (i) For dements of low ionic potential values (IP < 3) the log of the enrichment factor (EF) is in the range of-I to +1 indicating small enrichment or small depletion relative to the crust (ii) For intermediate IP values (3 < IP < 10) log EF is -3 to -4 indicating large de pletion in living organisms, (iii) For Urge IP values (IP > 10) log EF increases as the ionic potential increases and varies from -4 to +4. It should be noted that the ele ments mentioned by Crick and Orget as showing anomalous distribution patterns-- LOO IONIC POTENTIAL Fig. 2. Elemental enrichment factors in seawa ter. related to the ionic potential of the elements. may be taken as a clue to a more exact lo cation for the origin of life. It can be specu lated that life began at the interface of the primitive atmosphere and the ocean, in the thin microlayen at the surface of the ocean where large enrichments of the atmo spheric constituents (mainly nitrogen and carbon at that stage) may occur. Various other elements may also be concentrated in these microlayers because of the effects of surface-active materials, surface tension, and the transfer processes between the liq uid and the gaseous phase. In any event, it is evident that a chemical environment similar to the earth's ocean is sufficient to explain the elemental abundance relation ships in living materials. A nonterrestrial adttnmnt N t. S. Arrhenius. Woridt In the Utkins (Htrctr k Row, New York. I9W). 2. F. H. C. Crick ta4 L E. Orgtl icana If, Ml (l*7Jk 3. W. R. Chappell R. R. MegIts, D. D. Runndli, m. It, 513(1974). 4. T. H. Jukes. Ibid.,p.516. J. l.EOrjeLfM4.p.}l*. 6. K. 8. Krauskopf, Introduction to Gtoektmittry (McGraw-Hill New York. (9651 7. Dura on concentration napes snd mesn vtlucs of clemcaul abundances were comptlod from the faL lowtnf sources: (Earth's crust) S. R, Tsvktr, Geoekim. Cosmoekim. Acta 13.1280 (1964). (Sraw*. tor) f. P. Riky snd G. Skirrow, Frit.. Chemical Oeconofrapky (Aesdcmie Press. New York, 196$k rol t. pp. 164-165. (Stctcna snd fungi)), R. Porter. Bacterial Ckemistry and Fkytiolory (Wiley. New York, 194*1 p. 365; W. S. Speetor, Ed- Handbook of Blobfical Data (Saunders, PtuUdetphia. 1956k pp. **-*9: C. Loo*. Ed- Biocktmita' Handbook (Spon. London. 1961). pp. 1050-1052. (Plants) H. D Chspnuta. Ed.. Dialrustic Criteriafor Plants andSoils fUntv. of Csuforsia Press. Berkeley. 1966k p. 793. (Land ani mats) H. J. M. Bowen. Tract Elements in Bio chemistry (Academic Press. London, 1966k pp. 174-Zltk A. Banin and i. Ntvrot. Common. Soil Sei. riant Anal. X 177 (1972k Where available, data for a nope of concentrations were 1 to calculate a range ofenrichment floors for a gtoup of organisms, when only the mean concentration was available, only one enrichment factor value was |iv<a. The ionic potential was calculated uring crystal radius values given by L. H. Ahrens {Cro ck:m, Cosmoekim, Acta 2, 155 (1952)). For tiemenu appearing in various ottidsiion states the most abundant form was chosen. 8. A. I. Oparin, in Exobiohsy. C. Ponnimpcruma. Ed. (North-HolUnd, Amsterdam. 1972k p. 11. 9. For coostmciivc criticism of this manuscript we extend our thanks to J. Kronfdd snd i. Cohen. Mo, Ni.and Cr--also follow this general explanation, especially one that has in- tl March 1975 pattern. Specifically, Mo does not show any significant enrichment in living organ isms a? compared to the earth's crust Obviousfy, taking each element and each Exposure to Asbestos in the Use of Consumer Spackiing, group of organisms separately, we may ex pect many exceptions to the rules; still, Patching, and Taping Compounds the general pattern is strikingly similar for all the groups of organisms investigated. According to Oparin (<?), some com binations of biochemical reactions are Abstract Analysis ofrepresentative samples ofspackiing, patching, andjointing com pounds. purchased at retail stores in the New York City area, has shown that some con tain asbestos minerals as well as other biologically active substances. Measurements sug characteristic of all contemporary orga gest that home repair work involving the use ofsuch materials may result in exposure to nisms. These are combinations of patterns dust at concentrations sufficient to produce disease. acquired by the emerging living matter in its very early stages of development, before Spackiing and drywall taping com Fifteen samples of consumer spackiing further specialization and differentiation pounds consist of extremely fine-grained and patching compounds were purchased took place. Thus the basic similarity of the white powders or premixed pastes. Plaster at hardware stores in the New York City elemental composition pattern of all groups of living organisms (Fig. 1) in dicates that the pattern was determined at the initial steps of the development of life. of Paris is supposedly the major constitu ent, but other light-colored materials in cluding clays, micas, quartz, talc, and ground limestone, supplement or replace the plaster in many formulations. Chryso- area, four in 1972 or earlier and the re mainder in January 1974. We analyzed the samples for mineral phases by polarized light microscopy, x-ray powder diffraction, and transmission electron microscopy, It should be noted that in the range of tile is added to some products, apparently with particular attention to quantitative ionic potentials higher than 10. where the major biochemical dements sulfur, car bon. and nitrogen arc found, organisms ha.*^ a very significant enrichment of 10 to 'because these minute fibers act as rein forcing agents. The presence or amphibole asbestos in some products results from its natural occurrence in talc, carbonates, and determination of asbestos minerals. The spackiing and taping compounds consist mainly of particles smaller than 3 >un in average diameter or length (Fig. 1). Par most 10.000 relative to the ocean. This other rocks used as raw materials (l). ticles of this size arc generally too small to .5 AUGUST 1975 Table I. Mineral content of coniumcf spackling and o*idling compound* and industrial drywitl taping compound*. Frequency of occurrence of mineral phase* weight basis. Diagnostic reflections for each of the asbestos minerals were select ed. These reflections were step-scanned by x-ray diffraction at increments of 0.02* 21, where # is the dispersion angle, over a Mineral phase Chrysolite Tremolite Anthophyllite Tile Quartz Feldspar Pyrophyilite Mica Kaolinite Caldte Dolomite PlasierofPari* lo 15 consumer In 10 spackling Industrial and patching drywall taping compounds compound* J (5-10%) I (4- 6%) 1 (10-12%) 2 9 (5-70%) 1 2 8 5 II 3 7 9(5-12%) 1 {$- 7%) 2 6(10-30%) 9 7 4 4 6 goniometric interval sufficient to define a peak-to-background ratio for the diagnos tic reflections. A digital printout of elapsed time in a fixed-count determination was used to prepare precise positions and pro files of the diagnostic reflections. The area above background, determined with a compensating polar pianimetcr, was taken to be proportional to the concentration. Details of the method have been presented elsewhere (2). Samples of spackling and taping compounds were prepared, ana lyzed, and measured under the same condi tions as the dilution standards. Com parison of the results of known dilution Fig. I Electron photomicrograph of a cons, ,-n spackling product. Large number* of chrysoti fibers and fiber bundles are present Granule particulates are clay, mica, and carbonate mieral*. standards with the samples permitted the amounts of asbestos to be estimated with stituent in two samples and pyrophyilite i be individually studied by polarized light approximately 20 percent reproducibility. two. The crystal structure and physic, microscopy, and identification is further The presence ofcertain minerals may in properties of pryrophyllitc are almos confounded because these compounds terfere with the detection or quantitation identical to those of talc; pyrophyilite ma commonly arc mixtures of four or more of chrysolite in spackling and taping com be considered the aluminum analog of tal different materials. The analytical use of pounds. For example, chiysotile and Its biological activity is presently ur the optical microscope with its limited res* kaolinite have similar crystal structures known. Quartz was a major constituent i olution allows large numbers of fibers to and consequently similar x-ray diffraction seven of the samples, and it was presenti go undetected. The asbestos minerals, in patterns (J). However, electron micros two others in lesser concentrations. On t> particular, are usually too fine-grained to copy can be used to corroborate the re basis of the x-ray intensities of several m: identify. In such circumstances, x-ray pow sults of x-ray diffraction and to directly jor quartz reflections, including those . der diffraction may be used to identify and estimate the asbestos content of materials, 4.26, 3.34, and 1.817 A, the amount c quantify the individual crystalline phases since each mineral type has a characteristic quartz present is estimated to be greatr present in the mixtures. morphology and electron diffraction pat than 10 percent in the seven samples. Opi In this investigation the amounts of as tern. cal and transmission electron microsco' bestos present in speckling compounds was The results of the analyses of 15 con have shown essentially all the quartz to 1 determined by comparison with dilution sumer spackling and patching compounds of respirable size (< 5 Mm). Both qua' standards (2). Binary systems of chrysolite, are given in Table I. Three of the samples and talc can produce pulmonary fibres tremolite, and anthophyllite asbestos in were found to contain chrysolite asbestos, (silicosis, latcosis) (4). One sample co: plaster of Paris (CaSO '/jH20) were pre and two others contained tremolite and an sisted largely of quartz whh lesser amoun pared at varying dilutions on a weight-to- thophyllite asbestos. Talc was a major con- of feldspar and anthophyllite. This may ii dicate that the source material for th product was an anthophyllite schist. T1 Table 2. Asbestos fiber concentrations during use of taping compounds containing asbestos miner als Multiplication of the number of fibers per milliliter by 10* gives the number of fibers per cubic meter of air, an amount which may be inhaled during 1 hour. An unstudied proportion ofthese fibers is retained and other* arc ext tied Current (interim) regulations of the OSHA prohibit concentra tions of 5 fibers per millitite: ir more, longer than 5 urn, as a time-weighted average for workerv Concentrations above 2 fibers per milliliter wilt be flfcgal-after 1976. Current regulations set a ceil ing concentration of 10 fibers, I inger than 5 ian, per milliliter of air. _____ ________ ________ combination of talc with some tremoli and quartz in another sample represents common mineral association typical commercial talc ore bodies. Both optical and electron microsco: analyses showed that the asbestos fibc Peak fiber concentration present in the samples ranged in lent Operations Number of samples (fibers per milliliter) Mean Range from 02S to 8.0 pm. Most were shor than 5 >un in length, which is respirat size, yet they were not generally detect Pole-sanding (1 to 1.5 m) Background (24 m), same room Backgi ound (74 m), adjacent room Hand-sanding (1 to 14 m) Background (24 m). same room Background (4.5 m), adjacent room ... Dry mixing (1 to 14 m) Background (3 to 6 m), same room Background (S to 10 m), adjacent room .. ' to 3 2 11. 2 2 2 3 2 10.0 8.6 4.8 5.3 2.3 4.3 47.2 5.8 2.6 1.2 to 19.3 34 to 19.8 0.7 to 8.8 1.3 to 16.9 2.1 to 24 14 to 7.1 35.4 to 59.0 0.5 to 13.1 XI to 3.1 by optical microscopy. The possibility of asbestos exposure d ing home construction and repair is dicatcd by the fact that drywall constr tion workers are exposed to significconcentrations of asbestos air c lamination. Mineralogicai analyses of industrial drywall taping compounds s: Sweeping floor (3 to 15 m) 15 Minutes after sweeping 35 Minutes after sweeping 1 41.4 1 26.4 that nine contain chrysotile. in concen tions ranging from 5 to 12 percent weight) (Table I). 5S2 SCIENCE. VOL We made measurements or peak as bestos air concentrations in the breathing zone of drywall construction workers, uti ing had ceased. Personal air samples were taken after sanding was completed. The floors of the rooms and hails were swept fore. recommended that potentially toxic or hazardous materials be eliminated from consumer spackiing, taping, and wall lizing the standard technique of the Na with a hand broom, which raised a cloud of patching compounds as soon as feasible. tional Institute for Occupational Safety dust. Fiber counts could not be made on As an interim measure, labels should be re and Health (NIOSK) for asbestos sam floor sweeping samples because the filters quired on such products stating their con pling and analysis (phase-contrast optical were too heavily laden to count. Samples tent and providing instructions for the use microscopy at x 430) (J), These air sam were taken after 15 minutes had elapsed, of appropriate respirator protection and ples were also analyzed by transmission and, in one case, IS m away in another for safe cleanup procedures, including the electron microscopy. Air samples were room, Measurements showed that signifi disposal of waste materials. taken at various building jobs and job sites cant concentrations of asbestos remained A. N. Rom. and included such operations as hand- suspended and could pervade living quar A. M. Lange* sanding. pole-sanding, mixing of dry spackle with water, and sweeping after completion of such operations. Personal ters for a considerable duration of time af ter sweeping had ceased. In summary, our analysis of 15 repre I. J. OELIKOIT W. J. Nicholson Environmental Sciences Laboratory, air samples were also taken in adjacent sentative samples of consumer spackiing, Mount Sinai School ofMedicine, City areas; such air samples, taken in the patching, and taping compounds has University ofNew York. New York 10029 breathing zones of the operators, consti tute measurements of their exposure to dust. Table 2 shows that airborne concentra tions of S fibers per milliliter of air or more, longer than 5 ^m. are common dur ing the use of drywall taping compounds containing asbestos. This exceeds the inter im legal standard excursion set by the Oc cupational Safety and Health Administra tion (OSHA) of the U.S. Department of Labor. The OSH A standard calls for an 8hour time-weighted average. The discon tinuous nature of these operations suggests that the 8-hour sampling is inappropriate in that peak exposures in the present in stance, under a range of application and cleanup operations, greatly exceed the maximum allowable excursions of 10 fi bers per milliliter for a 15-minute interval. shown that five contained appreciable amounts of chrysotiic or other asbestos minerals. Many contained substantial amounts of quartz, talc, and other miner als with disease potential. Optical micro scopic analysis of personal air samples Ob tained during the use of asbestos-contain ing compounds showed concentrations frequently in excess of the current oc cupational standard of 5 fibers per mil liliter. longer than 5 pm. Use of these ma terials in home repair work (for example, mixing, sanding, and cleanup) may expose the user (and other members of the house hold) to significant concentrations of as bestos. Even more important none of the 25 in dustrial and consumer spackiing and tap ing compounds examined had warning la bels or indication that they might contain Kiftmmnl Neln 1. M. Rod, W. L. Smith. W. Athlon. Am. Mtneni. S3.751 (I96k W. A. Dr. R. A. Howie, j. Zuumn. Rock Forming Minerals (Wiley. New York. 1942), voL 2, pp. 223-262; H. S. Yoder, Am.J. Set.. Bowen volume (1952). n. 569. 2. A. N. Rohl -ind A. M. Linger, Environ. Health Ftnptet.% 95 (Doc. 1974). J. G. W. Brindley, in X-ray Identification and Crystal Sinecures of Clay Minerals, G. W. Brindley, Ed. (Mincrotogictl Society. London. 1951), pp. 32-75. 4. For example, tee M. KlemfekL J. Metule. A. M. Uneer. Environ. Res. . 132 (I973X M. Kleinfeitf, 3. Motile. O. Kooynus. M. Zaki. Arek Environ. Health 14,641 (1967k W. G. B. Graham and E. A. Oleaster. Med. Thome. 22,590(1965). 5. S. G. Bayer, T. A. Brown, R. D. Zumwtldc (Docu ment TR-S4. US. Department of Health. Educa tion. and Welfare, Public Health Service. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cacinnati. Ohio, 1975). 6. Supported by National Institute of Environmental Health Sciencea (NIEHS) Center pram ES 0092* and by New York City Health Research Council mat LI-2331. One of ui (A.M.L.) wishes to acknowtcdfc support under a Career Scientist Award from the NIEHS (grant ES 44*12). We thank K. Martin, R. Klimenlidis. and P. Formby for technical istisunec These concentrations, determined by the toxic or hazardous materials. It is, there 7 March 1975 NIOSH method, are only suggestive of the total asbestos exposure. Comparison of optical microscopic and electron micro scopic analyses of asbestos fiber counts of Water Wells as Possible Indicators of Tectonic Strain identical samples showed that, for every fi ber visible by light microscopy (x400 mag Abstract. Coseismic water level changes associated with the Izu-Hamo-oki earthquake nification). there were from 200 to almost of9 May 1974 were recorded in 59 among 95 observation wells located in the districts of 1000 that could be seen only at electron Tokai and Kanlo, Japan. The spatial distribution of wells in which the groundwater level microscopic magnifications of X25.000. rose or fell is rather systematic. The areas in which these wells are located closely coin The background measurements in Table cide with the areas ofcontraction and dilatation expected by the faulting. This strongly 2 suggest that in home repair work in suggests a possible correlation between the observed changes in groundwater level and volving sanding of spackiing compounds, the tectonic strain. The results may indicate that the water level of wells is able to monitor members of the entire household or other at least acute coseismic strain changes. occupants of a building may inhale as bestos fibers. This could occur during mix A destructive earthquake occurred on Coseismic changes in groundwater level ing, sanding, or cleaning up of debris. Dur the southern lip of the Izu Peninsula, Ja caused by the earthquake were examined ing mixing of drywall taping compounds, pan, at 08:33 hours on 9 May 1974. The in 95 observation wells (J), located 50 to spackle is gradually poured from a bag seismological data (/) arc: epicenter, 34* 2 to km from the epicenter. These wells into a bucket of water and the mixture is 34'N, 138*48'E; depth of focus, 10 km; were drilled originally for the protection of stirred until the desired consistency is at- - and magnitude, 6.9. The focal mechanism groundwater resources and measurement tained. Fiber counts measured during mix of the earthquake was a quadrant type of land subsidence. Most of the wells range ing were found to be from 7 to 12 times with the maximum pressure axis in a near in depth from 100 to 300 m, the shallowest greater than the current occupational ly north-south and horizontal direction. and the deepest being 35 and 2150 m deep, standard. Detectable fiber concentrations Distinct earthquake faults appeared along respectively. Groundwater level changes were found in adjacent rooms during the preexisting, dcxiral strike-slip faults were continuously monitored, in most mixing, and fibers were still suspended in trending in a northwest-southeast direction casta, with recorders manufactured by the (he room air at least 15 minutes after mix (2). Nakaasa Sokki Co. The practical sensitiv- 15 AUGUST 1975 553