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U J Ho. ................. 1 .............. 2 ................. 3 ................. 4 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 ................ 18 ................ 19 ............T............2201 .............. 22 .......... 23 ..................24 .................. 25 ................ 26 V.. 27 ..i....... 28 ................. 29 ...................30 MEMBERS 1000 or more Each $0.11 .17 23 25 28 o 99 copies), i and 27. ICO 11. ILL. 2Ml56o: TRANSACTIONS VOLUME 13 Current Topics in Industrial Safety as presented in the Subject Sessions at the 43rd National Safety Congress Accident Control--Phase One, Administration............................. 5 Organization--'Hie Key fMcGowan)................................................................... 5 Accident Control--Phase Two, Cost.............................. Getting the Cost Data--and Using It (Johnson).............................. American Society of Safety Engineers: Annual Meeting.. What Is Ahead for Engineering? (Rettalhta)............................. Are Your Employees Falling Down On the Job?............... Falls from Portable Surfaces (Ladders and Other Portable Surfaces) (Potter}............................................................... {Continued on next poge) NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 425 North Michigan Avenue Chicago 1UII. .Atomic Energy is In Industry........................................................... 23 New Uses for Isotopes, Reactors and Associated Developments (Manotrrtz) ..................................... ......................................... What Are the Safety Problems in the Atomic Energy Business? (Hoyts).. What Are the Health Problems? (Quigley).................................................. 23 26 30 Effective Reporting ....................................................... Get Your Program Off "Dead Center" (Zeilinger).......................................... 36 How to Prepare and Present Reports to Management and Supervisors (Ridiager)............................................................................... 37 "Progress Indicator"--A New Technique in Reporting (Jenkins)................. 40 Handle Your Chemicals and Industrial Wastes Safely.................46 New Chemicals and New Uses of Chemicals' Present m ^ New Problems (Fawcett)................................................................................... 46 Corrosive Irritants (Garrett)................................................................................... 49 Industrial Waste Disposal--The Problem and Its Control (Warrick and McCabe)..................................................................................... 55 Illumination and Safety................................................................. . 64 Glare (Fry) ...............................................................................................................'64 Muscle Tension, illumination and Safety (Meed).................. ........................ 67 Noise--What You Can Do About It............................................... 74 Measuring the Noise Exposure (Crouch)......................................... 74 Methods of Reducing Noise (Rodcliffe)............................................................. 77 Planning an Audiometric and Ear Protection Program for Plants in Small Communities (Maas)............................................................. 83 Off-the-Job Safety--An Important Held for Management...... 88 Do It Yourself--But Do'It Safely (Berk)........................................................... U Fact Finding--Off-the-Job Accidents (Albhser)............................................. 93 Dividends On the Job from Off-the-Job Safety Programs (Tyret)............... 95 Offices Have Accidents, Too.............................................................. 99 Offices Have Accidents, Too (Barber)................................................................. 99 Safety Is a Way of Life.................................................................... 102 How Do We Get People to Recognize and Accept the Value of Intangibles -How to Sell an Intangible (Riadlaub)......................... ....... 102 How to Sell Intangibles in life Insurance (Todd)........................... ........... 105 (Continued on next page) 36 Current Topics in INDUSTRIAL SAFETY Continued from page 2) Safety Services to Industry By the States and Provinces...............108 The Ideal State Safety Program and How the U. S. Department of Labor Can Help (Gante).......................................... 108 .The Florida Training Program (McIntosh)........... .......................................... 113 British Columbia's Complete Safety Service (Fronds).................................... 115 Safety Training--Down the Line...................................................... 121 Green Hands--What Training Should Be Given to New Employees? (Stalling)...................................................................... 121 Supervision Needs Special Training in Job Safety Instruction Methods (Gallagher) ................................................................................... 124 What Shall We Teach the Safety Engineer of Tomorrow? (Itenner)......... 130 1 The Human Element in Industrial Accident Prevention.... ,,... 134 The Human Element in Industrial Accident Prevention (Panel Discussion).. 134 "ZI6.I" The yardstick of Safety Performance.............................. 140 The Origin of the Standard and Recent Revision (Miller)............................ 140 Its Application (Daffes)......................................................................................... 142 Mating Interpretations (Lamb)............................................................................. 144 An Old Concept Each edition of the Transactions is a collection of the latest ideas and experiences of the top men in the accident prevention field. Then what's this about an old concept? In this atomic age, progress has made obsolete the barriers of time and distance, and has drawn the people of the world physically closer together. It follows, then, that for peace and survival there eventually must emerge a spiritual closeness--a realization that each has a moral responsibility to respect and protect his neighbor. A new concept? No, one of the oldest, "Be Your Brother's Keeper." In safety, as in other of today's world problems, a rebirth of this basic rule of life can bold great and optimistic hope for the future. The National Safety Congress Transactions are published in volumes, 'each covering a phase of the safetypicture, along with a General Sessions and Detailed Index to all volumes. The 30 volumes-of the 1955 Congress Transactions are listed on the last page of this volume. In preparing these Transactions, the proceedings of the Congress have been condensed and edited for reference purposes. Complete original manuscripts, with any charts or illustrations which were used, are available in National Safety Council files. Views expressed at the Congress or in this record are those of the Congress participants and are not necessarily those of the National Safety Council. ASSE SUBJECT SESSIONS This volume is a record of the subject sessions sponsored by the American Society of Safety Engineers at the 1955 National Safety Congress. The conduct of these Congress sessions each year is only one of the many cooperative activities which the ASSE carries on in behalf of its members, and for the benefit of accident prevention work in industry generally. Accident Control--Phase One, Administration Organization--the Key By FRANCIS T. McGOWAN Safety Dir., The Borden Company, New York, N. Y. Organization--the key to improved safety performance. .* I wish -I could announce to you that my company--Borden's--has found the perfect solution to the accident problem. like other companies, we, too, have been searching for the magic formulae^ that combination of activities which would provide a con trolled accident frequency. I can report, however, that the organiza tion type of approach we have been using has given us many benefits--for example, lower accident frequency rates and an improved cost experience. We're confident we are on the right track. We intend to move .ahead, adjusting our program as we move to meet changing conditions. Everyone agrees that best results in safety work come when accident prevention efforts are built into or blended with normal operating procedures and executive deci sions. Our fleet safety program now closely approaches this objective. Our industrial program is in the final development stage. So you may better understand why we selected the organization type of approach, let me briefly explain our activities and structure. 1. The Borden Company's assets make it one of the 100 largest manufacturing corporations in the country. 2. In sales, Borden's is the fourth largest food company. It is the nation's largest fluid milk distributor and the second largest ice cream manufacturer. Borden's is a major figure in the cheese and evaporated milk industries and in the production of various food products, including instant coffee. We are also active in chemicals, plastics and animal and poultry feed sup plements. 3. We have more than 32,000 employees in 750 locations in both the United States and Canada. We operate 10,000 vehicles in excess of 135 million miles per year. 4. It has been estimated that our total exposure to accidents and claims is com parable to that of a small insurance com pany. We are principally self-insured. In a large, diversified and completely decentralized company such as ours, unusual problems and difficulties arise. Diversifica tion requires radically different types of administrative, production, and sales organi zations within the company. Decentraliza tion complicates the problem even more, because of the several hundreds of opera tions, large and small, from coast to coast Geographical differences, added to the diffi culties of communication and interpretation of safety policies and procedures, prevent us from having anything but the most flexible type of safety program. Our pro gram has been so designed that it com pensates for these' particular problems by recommending policies and procedures, mechanics and techniques in such a manner that they can be built into normal organiza tion procedures in any operation, anywhere in the company. Company safety policies are determined by a committee of vice-presidents at top level. Interpretations of such policies and the procedures by which they can be put into effect, at district and division level, are determined by a committee of top operating executives at that level. Deter minations by this group constitute district and division policy, which is passed on to each plant or branch manager for applica tion. Of importance in this type of organiza tion structure are the two-way lines of communication that have been developed. Not only does safety information, statistics and know-how pass from top level straight down through organization channels to each 6 1955 National Safety Congress local manager or superintendent; monthly More than 40 key operating men with reports on activities, problems or successes safety responsibilities at district and divi move right back to the top. Each district sion level attend these annual meetings, or divirion safety man, or we in New York; plus representatives from all the service are always in the position to make a safety departments of the company. In all, 27 performance measurement of any operation, work or operating classifications are repre anywhere in the company at any time. sented. Every district, divirion or major What I have given you is a skeleton out segment of the company sends a delegate line of the safety organization structure in You can see, we have a true cross-section The Borden Company. Let me briefly explain of our company, reviewing and discussing how it operates. Let ns take pre-employment the company's safety problems, policies and physical examinations as an example. Giving control measures. pre-employment physical examinations has We are most fortunate in haring keen been a policy in our company for more executive and top operating management than 20 years. interest and support in our accident pre When it was determined that there was vention efforts. Aride from the humani a need for a company-wide policy on this tarian aspects (and we consider our em subject, the matter was first discussed with ployees the most important asset we the medical director. The mechanics of have), there is the full realization of the a proposed plan and all related facts were impact accident costs have on operating collected and presented to our accident pre- _ expense, and profits. , vention committee in New York, comprising For example, the cost of an average all the rice-presidents in charge of the accident takes the profit from 87,000 quarts company's activities. When agreement was of milk. Putting it another way, it takes readied and the area of activity defined, the profit of 87,000 quarts of delivered milk the procedures by which this policy could or six months' profit from an average be put into effect were outlined. route to pay the expenses of an average The entire story was then passed on to accident This is not because accident costs the top executives at district and division are unusually high, but because the profit level. With the help of their own top-level margin on a quart of milk is very low. accident prevention committee; of which Is there any wonder, then, that safety their safety man is secretary, the subject performance and accident costs are on the is studied, plans and outline reviewed. At agenda of every meeting of our top execu this point, they determine what modifica tives, at every board of officers' meeting, tions, if any, are necessary to put the plan at district and division level and at produc into effect in their area. Local managers tion and sales managers' meetings at local are then advised of the new policy and level? Safety is even discussed at meetings informed when and how it is to be put of plant engineers. into effect. As conditions require; the dis At this point, I would like to give sub trict or division safety man visits local stance to the organization type of approach operations to interpret; advise and assist we are using in safety work. Perhaps I in its application. Actually, this procedure can lay the basis for it by explaining how is identical with that normally used in all it came about other departments of the company's activi-- - Some time ago, we were asked to attend ties. a meeting of executives and department Coordination is of vital importance in heads. As is usually the case before such the organization type of approach to acci a meeting gets under way, there was some dent control. Over-all coordination in our good-natured bantering going on--first one, total safety effort is obtained principally then another was placed under the spotlight through an annual, three-day Borden Safety At one point; the head of our real estate Round Table Meeting. department was on the spot because of At these meetings, we review our accident some property acquired in one of our experience trends and costs, evaluate- the southern states. Convinced that he had effectiveness of our existing activities, re made a sound decision, he brought the affirm our objectives and, in general, agree joking to an abrupt halt with this observa on a course of action that is to be followed. tion: "Gentlemen, there are only three l men with '! divi- ali Jetings, the service In aH 27 is are repre>n or major s a delegate cross-section id discussing . policies and having keen management icddcnt prtthe humanider our em it asset we ation of the sn operating an average 87,000 quarts vay, it takes divered milk an average an average icddent costs se the profit rery low. that safety s are on the tr |on exeater' leering, id .- producings at local l at meetings to give sub: of approach i Perhaps I plaining how feed to attend 1 department before such tre was some on--first one, the spotlight ir real estate : because of one of our that he had brought the this observa: only three Industrial Safety 7 things to consider when buying property-- basis that the management function in the first is location; the second is location, safety is just die same--getting control of and the third is location." accident-producing conditions through the .This reminded another that when he was efforts of other people. studying engineering at the university, the We have no trouble obtaining agreement instructor kept repeating, over and over that the management function can be di again, "When building a road, there are vided into three parts: planning; control three important things to remember. The and supervision. Planning for production first is drainage; the second is drainage, means deciding what people are to accom and the third is drainage." plish and, to do this, they have to make These two stories, started us wondering an evaluation of needs, establish objectives, what the three roost important factors in develop the procedures to accomplish these safety work were. Such segments as man objectives and finally assign the responsi agement support, supervisory participation bility to individuals or groups of individuals and employee cooperation occurred to us to see that the work is performed. as being of extreme importance. Were these With respect to planning a safety pro items, then, more important and of more gram, all we are asking is that management value than planning, know-how or a con do the same things that induce and stimu crete plan of prevention and control? late people to work together in accordance After playing with this apparently un with a production or sales program, to work important problem for some tune, it oc together in accordance with a safety pro curred to us that the three most important gram. Just as in production, they have to factors in successful safety work were-- make an evaluation of their safety needs. first, organisation, second, organisation, and They have to make a determination of how third, organisation. It seemed obvious that extensive an organization will be needed. any one or all of the factors we employ, They will have to establish safety objectives regardless of their individual importance; and, finally, they must assign the responsi are, in substance, component parts of the bility for application and development to whole. Standing alone or in groups of three, members of their management team. What they would accomplish nothing; but; com we hope to have eventually is a miniature bined and placed in proper sequence, they of an operation's over-all safety program would accomplish the desired objective. in each department of that operation, a Without organized effort, individuals and safety program accepted by supervisors and functions would be free to move in opposite employees as a normal part of their operat directions. With organization, individual and ing procedures. group effort, functions and activities would Much of our present program is the re all move in the same direction toward a sult of a study made several years ago. common goaL In that study, we teamed that some opera In selling this approach to our people, tions, for some reason or other, never we stress the fact that building an organiza seemed to get their accident problem under tion for safety is comparable to building control. The managers of these operations an organization to produce a product. or didn't openly refuse to cooperate, but neither proride a service. The purpose of both did they extend themselves to any extent is to enable groups of people- to work, to improve thrir record. We drew the con together as a team as effectively as they clusion that; in these operations, manage work alone. To establish this relationship ment had not given serious consideration between building an organization for pro to their accident problem. They knew they duction and one for safety, we point out were having a few accidents, but tins was that such planning involves the same facili a matter for the safety- committee. It was ties, the same processes, the same employees, apparent that such managers had about the same supervision and the same man convinced themselves that they were doing agement direction. They know that the everything possible to control accidents. management function in production is, ex pressed in simple terms, getting things done through tu? efforts of other people. We are selling the organization approach on the In the normal course of events, we knew that, under such conditions, we would find only a minimum of safety activities, a mini mum of safety supervision, a safety com- 8 1955 National Safety Congress mittee that limited itself to the correction phase of their program, are able to work phase of safety, operating without any plans out a satisfactory solution. or program, and, finally, we knew that the From an awareness of these three types activities being carried on were not co of situation, when added to the other facts ordinated. collected by our study, we drew this firm When all the facts were collected and conclusion. First; the extent of accident analyzed, here's what we found to be the prevention work carried on in any of our trouble. What appeared to be lack of co operations depends almost entirely on the operation and a lack of effort to do some latitude of the manager toward safety and thing constructive about the prevention and the amount of knowledge he has of accident control of accidents was, in reality, a lack prevention methods and techniques. Second, of understanding about the seriousness of where management was familiar with safety the problem and a lack of knowledge of policies and procedures and determined to what to do about it control accidents, he was successful in We learned a tew other things, too. For stimulating this activity among his foremen example, we found that safety work in and supervisors and, through them, to his Borden's followed a set pattern. employees. In plants where the accident frequency If this was a correct conclusion--and rate was favorable and costs under control, we had every reason to believe it was-- safety work was found to be functioning it was obvious that we had to redesign the smoothly. There was good management application phase of our program. What we interest support and direction. The result had to "do was this--place in the hands was that managers, supervisors, safety com of local management the necessary knowl mittees and employees knew their problems edge `in the form of safety know-how, and were working together, doing something plus the tools and equipment that would constructive about it. permit them to apply and carry on effective In operations where the frequency rate safety work in their operation. We were was average and in line with the district confident such an approach would over or Borden Company rate, there was some come wliat was then an impossible situation management some supervisory and some --a situation where we were asking our employee interest but not enough. On the operating people to do something they didn't whole, one would get the impression that know how to do. If we were successful, while preventing accidents was important we could be assured of improved safety other matters, such as production or sales, performance all along the line. were of more importance. The end result Our first step in -redesigning our pro was that their frequency and cost experience gram was to establish the specific areas of clearly reflected the extent of their effort activity in the safety program among four And then there was that small group groups: management, supervisors, the safety where little or no safety work was being committee and the employees. The focal carried on, as previously explained; fre point, of course, was the manager. Each quency rates were high, interest in safety other group had areas of responsibility low. and accountability for the results obtained. These three types of situations indicated that accident occurrences had a different meaning to different people at management level. Some sit tight, not realizing a prob lem exists, doing nothing. Others do a little tinkering. Having a vague idea that something is wrong, they proceed on a We have found that, by outlining for man agement the several things they should do to develop and promote safety in their operation, they would give us their coopera tion and support. The first thing we sug gested was that they adopt and enforce a safety policy for their operation, some hit-or-miss basis, with only half-hearted what along the following lines: effort, and they obtain half-hearted results. 1. That accidents are a by-product of Finally, there is that group which realizes production and of distribution and, there they have an accident problem; they col fore, an operating problem under the control lect and study the facts, compare their and the responsibility of management - record with that of previous years and, 2. That accident prevention work takes by evaluating the effectiveness of each up no more and no less time of the manage- able to work se )e types he umer facts Irew this firm t of accident n any of our itirely on the trd safety and tas of accident iques. Second, ar with safety determined to successful in g his foremen : them, to his inclusion--and ieve it was-- o redesign the am. What we in the hands :essary hnowlty know-how, it that would ry on effective on. We were would overssible situation -e asking our ing they didn't ire successful, proved safety mt Jur proedfic areas of n among four ors, the safety s. The focal anager. Each responsibilitysuits obtained, ning for manlev should do fety in their their cooperathing we sug- and enforce eration, somes: by-product of m and, thereler the control agement a work takes if the manage- Industrial Safety 9 ment team than do other operating problems One of the main reasons why many of of equal importance. our safety programs failed to produce 3. That supervisors should consider the results in the early days was that manage promotion of safety education and safe ment had placed full responsibility for the practice in their departments as a normal prevention and control of accidents squarely function and a part of their daily work. on the shoulders of the supervisors, without 4. That supervisors will be held respon giving them adequate tools or instructions sible and accountable for conditions that on getting the job done. result in accidents to employees under then- We have taken the position that ade supervision. quate safety training of employees and the In the application of such a policy, we application of a safety program at depart encourage managers to provide executive ment level hinges on the recognition by leadership and direction in safety work to management of the fact that safety work the same degree and in the same manner is only one of a supervisor's many duties; that they provide leadership and direction that there are certain necessary things he in production and sales matters. cannot do unless local company policy en Next; we ask our managers to clarify the functions of the supervisor in the saiety program. We point out that if employees are to work safely and be able to recognize and avoid accident hazards, the training, instruction and guidance that will encourage them to do this can only come courages him to do them and that he definitely requires help from above. As to job conditions, management should encour age supervisors to eliminate and control job hazards and provide them with the necessary safeguard!, proper equipment and clear-cut instructions to get the job done. to them through the supervisor. In order Regarding all other phases of the safety for the supervisor to include safety in his program at department level, supervision job function, it is expected that the manager should only be expected to execute a safety acquaint the supervisor with his safety program planned by others and so designed responsibilities along the following lines: that it ties in with the operation's over-all 1. The manager should tell all supervisors his attitude on the importance of accident prevention work and the need for improved safety performance in his department. 2. He should instruct them in what they are to do, why it is necessary, how. they are to do it and when they are to do it. 3. He should require a report of investi gation on each accident. 4. He should insist that adequate safety effort. Only after these steps have been taken, should management hold supervisors responsible and accountable for the accidents and safety performance record of their departments. Another part of our organization type approach are our safety committees. These safety committees are looked upon as the heart of local accident prevention activities and one of the keystones of our whole program. When they function correctly as training be included in the new employees' an advisory function to management on all induction training program. phases of the aeddent problem, they are 5. Management should insist that super the watch-dog on aeddent trends; the visors follow through on selective enforce guiding force in building safety programs ment. Here is an area where the supervisor and in recommending ways and means in should know just how far be can go in the which safety can be incorporated into exist application of discipline for repeated viola ing induction and job training procedures. tions of safe practice rules. The last time we measured, approximately _ `We made a strong point of the fact that 3,000 Bordenites were taking active part in if the mere issuance of policies, instructions local safety committee activities. and procedures would induce people to do Our entire aeddent prevention effort, the as they are supposed to do, supervision organization type of approach, has only would not be necessary; that the function of supervision in safety was the same as the function of the supervisor in production --to dose the gap between desired perform-- one purpose--to readt down through all levels of the company to the individual employee who is exposed to aeddent and injury. What we are trying to do is to ance and actual performance. develop safe thinking and safe work habits 10 1955 National Safety Congress among our people. We want them to be 1. Since we have adopted this approach, able to recognize and avoid accident haz our compaity-wide accident frequency rates ards. What we are trying to accomplish dropped 35 per cent--from an all-time high through education, instruction and super to an all-time low. Each year since 1949 vision is recognition by each individual that we have had consistent improvement in both safety is a personal responsibility. Our veMde and employee injury aeddent fre management wants its employees to look quency rates. upon their plants* safety activities as a friendly medium that encourages and per mits each individual employee to work with the company in promoting Ms own safety and that of his fellow workers. I wish time would permit me to give you the story in greater detail--the suc cesses we have had, the problems we have overcome by using management's own posi tive type of approach for getting results. We're not out of the woods by a long shot, but we can now see daylight What we have 'been doing, with some measure of success, is bu dding or blending accident prevention thinking * and accident prevention effort into normal operating pro cedures and decisions at executive and operating level. We have been placing in the hands of the people to whom we look for results, information and know-how on accident prevention methods and techniques. We have established lines of coordination, cooperation and communication at all levels. We have been as successful in selling our program upward to top level as we have been downward to employee leveL We believe in the organization type of approach. It has produced results for us-- it will for you. Just as organization is the key to improved performance, here are necessary keys to organization: 2. Aeddent costs, too, have shown sub stantial improvement At the dose of the 1954 year, our insurance department de clared an additions! 20 per cent dividend which was returned to every district and division in the form of adjusted accruals (lower sdf-insured premiums). 3. Two of our operations, each employ ing dose to 100 men, completed a million man-hours without a lost-time aeddent It took them five years to accomplish this record. Both received the National Safety ConndTs Award of Honor and our Presi dent's Award for Outstanding Safety Per formance--one in 1953, the other in 1954. While on the subject I want to point out that our East Detroit branch, which won one of these awards, was the first fluid milk operation in history ever to complete one million man-hours with a lost-time aeddent. 4. Of greatest satisfaction to us is the realization that our executives and operating people, as never before, appreciate the valu able contribution a good safety program makes to production and sales performance, and that aeddent control is an important factor in controlling production and de livery expense. The level of importance of safety work 1. Top level control and direction. 2. Qear-cut outline of policies and pro cedures. 3. Placing of responsibility on line or ganisation. 4. Accountability for results on manage ment team, 5. Providing factual information and statistics. 6. Indoctrination of program at all levels. in The Borden Company, in relation to production or sales or other Company activity, was established some time ago in a talk by our president, Theodore G. Montague, The following statement, taken from that talk; supports the organization type of approach to aeddent control, and is printed on the bottom of all safety depart ment letterheads. It reads: "Good safety performance; like good production or good sales performance, is an essential part of 7. Direction and application. good management" 8. Employee participation. 9. Discipline. I hope you will agree that the organiza tion type of approach is really the key to 10. Awards. improved safety performance and worthy In doting, let me point out four major of your consideration. We are confident tiungs that the organization type of ap it will continue to produce results for us proach has done for us: as we continue to perfect organization. this approach, rwjr ''ey rates t i\ jbe high ar since 1949 ranent in both acddent {re- * shown subi close of the epartment de ceit dividend y district and usted accruals ). each etnployeted a million time accident ccomplish this atiooal Safety sd our Presig Safety Perother in 1954. t to point out h, which won the first fluid sr to complete t a lost-time to us is the and operating date the valuifety program > `annance, a- Jtportant rtionand de- f safety work in relation to her Company e time ago in Theodore Gatement, taken s organization control, and is safety depart"Good safety tction or good ential part of the otganizaUy the key to : and worthy are confident results for ns Saturation. Accident Control--Phase Two, Cost Getting the Cost Data--and Using It By LEE B. JOHNSON Chief Safety Eng., Northrop Aircraft, Inc., Hawthorne, Calif. Industry today is placing emphasis on "cost reduction" in manufacturing opera tions. Thus the use of acddent control cost reports in safety engineering is a "must." wdl as all retreatments or redressings. All man hours which are lost through industrial injuries are charged directly to the indi vidual department involved. This does not mean that the board of di rectors has had a change in attitude toward the well-being of thdr subordinates--they _ remain humanitarian, but, in addition,, they desire a lean, hard-hitting acddent cost re duction program from their safety engi neering department. The board of directors is primarily inter ested in maintaining a favorable financial report through an effident operating indus trial management. The safety engineering department is in an excellent position to place a larger figure under the assets column of the annual financial report rather than in the liabilities column. Knowing that our busy plant executives today use the financial report as thdr first line of communication, why shouldn't the safety engineer add his safety record, interpreted in dollars and cents, as a supplementary part of the assets column in the financial report? There are various methods for obtaining acddent cost data, and unlimited ways in presenting your findings to management Let us elaborate on just one method, which appears to be a workable plan for industry. This paper will be presented in two parts: 1. Getting the Cost Data. 2..- Using Cost Data to the Best Advantage. Part One Getting the Cost Data In obtaining cost data, first we must standardize what kind of aeddents are to be charged. All industrial aeddents resulting in injury must be charged, including firstaid, doctor-treated and lost-time cases, as Historically speaking, too many sins can be committed when intangible cost figures are added to the direct cost loss of aeddents. Avoid charging the supervisor's time, etc, which is involved in the investigation of the acddent. This is "intangible cost," and it is difficult to get department beads and top management to accept same You may be asking yourself: why charge minor first-aid cases and redressings? It has been proven in many plants that in order to present a true cost picture of aeddents to management, time lost due to first-aid treat ments is essential. This type of cost analysis is not reflected in the Workmen's Compensation Insurance data on the monthly report It is a true pic ture of what all industrial injuries cost the company in dollars, cents and man hours lost In obtaining cost data for reporting pur poses, every effort should be made to obtain actual rather than the estimated costs. At present, many such reports fail to indude'travel time in estimating acddent costs. The amount of man hours expended due to travel time to and from, the hospital is staggering. For example, if you had 1,000 first-aid cases treated last month, at an average of 10 minutes travel time to and from the hos pital, a total of 166 hours would have been consumed. I f eadi acddent required an average of one and one-half treatments, or 250 man hours, the total man hours lost through travd time would be 416. This should prove how important it is to include travel time when computing cost data. 12 1955 National Safety Congress Computation 1,000 injuries 10 minutes travel time 10,000 minutes each case 10,000 minutes _ 60 minutes. --166 hours lyi treatments -- 15,000minutes _ "66"minutes"230hours 166 hours 250 hours Total ........ 416 hours expended Travel time can be accurate or estimated, but, for the best results, accurate time should be obtained. There are tour ways that this can be accomplished for inter-plant reporting. 1. Use of "Employee Pass" to be* issued by the department clerk or members of supervision, noting time out and in. The hospital to record-on the slip time^in and out of the hospital Forms should be made out in triplicate--copies for de partment foreman, hospital and safety department 2. Issuance of necessary pass by timekeep ing department said pass to include the same information as outlined in Item One. (These two methods will cost the company more time in keeping records than the following methods Three and Four.) 3. Travel time to be set up by the safety department by estimating the time ex pended from the department to the hospital Note: The use of estimating the time should be discouraged, unless time studies of travel time can be kept up to date. 4. Setting up a standard time charge for all travel time to and from the hospital. This is a fiat time charge, regardless of the location of personnel from hospital or first-aid "stations. (The last two methods will require less time and cost, but again they are estimated and not actual cost figures.) Travel time for outside medical treatment is controlled by use of the hospital out-pass. All industrial injuries should be reported to the safety engineering office by the fol lowing methods: (1) Daily injury and illness hospital re ports made out on all first-time injuries. (2) Daily redressing reports by the hospital (3) Weekly first-aid box treatments reports forwarded by the departments. Note: In remote areas, where there are less than 100 employees, the recording of all first-aid treatments is the responsibility of the operating supervisor. When starting a cost-collecting data pro gram, the forms now in use will serve the purpose by the employment of a rubber stamp over the face of the form. The rub ber stamp we use says: Cost of Accident 1. Machine Damage Cast $ 2. Material & Tool Damage Cost $ 3. Lost time (in man hours) of employee to date At this point, the travel time slips and hospital reports are sent to the tabulating department,, from which information that department makes up a tab run and for wards the run to the safety department The tab run sets forth: (a) Number identification of each depart ment (b) Number of injuries per department (c) Number of redressings per depart ment (d) Time spent in hospital (e) Travel time. . The cost factor is now computed for all injuries. We must use the average shop rate and supervisory rates to determine travel time and lost time injuries, and this information is obtained from the monthly current rates forwarded to the safety de partment by Wage and Salary Administra tion. In the following example, we shall use hypothetical costs to outline the entire scope of cost data: Mary* Jones, a shop employee; (aver age $2.00 per hour), was injured, and the injury required three retreatments. Travel time, hospital costs and time spent in hospital will have to be in cluded in the computation: 1. Travel time (four trips) --10 minutes per trip, or 40 minutes ......................$03 2. Initial time in hospital--. 12 minutes ...................... .40 iy the hospital tmr `* reports mi } Note: there are less cording of all : responsibility or. ting: data prowill serve the of a rubber inn. The rub- t 3ost $ i of employee ixne slips and the tabulating Urination that run and forpartment The f each depart- :r department, s per depart- npf `'(for all aw ^ge shop to determine tries, and this i the monthly he safety dey Administra- we shall use le entire scope ployee, (aver; injured, and retreatments, fits and time ive to be in- ps) or ...$U3 il--. ... .40 Industrial Safety 13 3. Three retreatments at five minutes ............................ .50 Travel time............... ....$ 22i 4. Hospital costs--four calls at $3.50 each............................ 14.00 Total costs.................... .$16.23 The result--for just the time factor in volved--a total of one hour and seven minutes or $223 expended for one mi nor injury. The above sample case, costing $1623 for four trips to the hospital, includes the initial treatment cost of $4.05 per trip. This $4.05 cost per trip for firstaid treatment can be used as a start toward formulating an average cost index figure for each visit to the firstaid dispensary. However, many cases ` would have -to- be studied-eaeh year in order to obtain an accurate annual cost index figure to be applied for obtaining total cost of all first-aid cases. Charges for first-aid treatment and re dressings are furnished by the cost account ing department. These are average costs and are applied to the noted sample case in order to arrive at actual costs. The insurance carrier, or, in the case of a self-insured company, the safety engineer ing department, provides a monthly break down ou outride medical costs alter the actual costs on the reserve cases have been dosed. Compensation and medical costs on reserves are not included in the monthly analysis report, but are withhdd for the annual cost analysis report sent to top man agement. First-rid box injuries are estimated by the safety engineering department as to travel time and treatment time by use of an estab lished index. _ The medical costs should be furnished by the finance division and shall include band ages, medications, and so forth. When com puting operational cost of first-aid stations or hospitals, one should only consider cost used for treating industrial injuries. Today, many large industrial plants show that the nan-industrial type of treatments or calls to the company hospitals account for better than 50 per cent of the total hospital visits. Therefore, apply only that portion of the hospital cost of bandages, drugs, nurses and doctors' salaries that are used for treating industrial cases. A fairly accurate annual hospital cost in dex figure per case can be established if the hospital operating cost is figured for a 12-month operating period. The established annual hospital cost index figure per treat ment will save untold expenses in keeping cost accounting records on first-aid cases. Part Two Using Cost Data To portray a complete picture, the above outlined ``cost data" must be used to the best advantage; for if we fail to use this data effectively, to see the report, we have ac complished nothing. There are unlimited ways of issuing this information of accident costs. An effective way to sell a cost data program is to channel the information to every person in an organ ization. This is accomplished by using the basic information in tailoring a report for a three-level approach--(1) management re port, (2) foremen and supervisors report, (3) shop and office personnel report It is essential to emphasize four major points: (1) lost roan hours due to injuries, (2) current cost of industrial injuries, (3) methods used to reduce the above mentioned points, and (4) actual machine; tool or parts damage. A. Management Report: This is a short, concise report outlining the actual costs of industrial accidents. Financial Number of industrial injuries... 1,000 retreatments 2,500 Total injuries and retreatments.3,500 Travel time (10 minutes each trip)-- 35,000 minutes _ , 3,300 X 10 = 60- minutes " 583 hours 583 hours at $2.00 per hour =----- $ 1,166 Initial hospital time at 12 minutes per case: . .> 12,000 minutes 1,000 X 12 - --60-^nmes - 200 hours 200 hours at $2.00 per hour =___ 400 Retreatments at five minutes per case ___ 12,500 minutes _ 2.500 X 5- go minutes =208 hours 208 hours at $2.00 per hour = 416 Hospital costs at $3.50 per case 3.500 X $3.50 =............................. 12250 Inter-plant industrial injury costs-- 3,500 treated cases..........................$14,232 14 1955 National Safety Congress Per Capita Cost of Industrial Injuries (Industrial plant of 20,000 employees) *1955 current month's company per capita cost................................... $ .71 1954 average monthly company per capita cost........................................ 85 Method for computing formula: Time period--one month Total accident costs for above period--$14,232 Current month personnel strength--20,000 Formula: $14,232 X 1 = $ .71 20,000 This monthly report can be projected for use as a forecast as to what the total indus trial injury cost will be for a full year, if the injuries continue to occur monthly in the same number. U. Foremen and Supervisors Report: This report shows the lost man hours and costs for his department. It should also set forth a safety-educational program for shop and office personnel. Department 5503 Mat-1955 Industrial injuries reported. ..100 retreatments___ 150 Total injuries and retreatments----- 250 Travel time (10 minutes each trip) 250 X 10 -- 2.500 minutes "60" minutes = 41 hourE 41 hours at $2.00 per hour --............$ 82 Initial hospital time at 12 minutes per case: 100 X 12 = 1.200 minutes 60 minutes, -- 20 hours 20 hours at $2.00 per hour --.......... 40 Retreatments at five minutes per case 150 X 5 -- 750 minutes 60 minutes '1 our' 13 hours at $2.00 per hour =.......... 26 Hospital costs at $3.50 per case 250 X $3.50 =................................... S75 Total cost for industrial injuries........$1,023 Per Capita *1955 current month's department per capita cost...................................$1.71 Method for computing formula: Time period--1 month Total accident costs for above period--$1,023 Current month personnel strength--600 Formula: $1,023 X 1 = $1.71 600 1955 current month's company per capita............................................ $ .71 1955 curroit month's department per capita............................................ 1.71 This monthly report can be projected for use as a forecast as to what the total indus trial injury cost will be for a full year, if the injuries continue to occur monthly in the same number. C. Shop and Office Personnel Report: This could be the most important of the three if used correctly. The positive ap proach can be beneficial in this type of report. Cine method of giving recognition to the shop level personnel is by comparing your organization with other comparable indus tries. whose frequency rates arc higher than yours, and show them tangible results such as: A six months' savings in man houtp through reduction of lost time accidents pro duced this airplane. The use of educational posters can be -used to build employee's attitudes to assist in the reduction of operational cost in injury. An employee is a credit to his community when he thinks, acts and works safety. If he doesn't, he becomes a liability to his community. Summary We might summarize this discussion by stating that the very foundation of a suc cessful program for Getting the .Cost Data --and Using It lies in a well-planned and well-conceived practical reporting procedure If such a program is so conceived and is operated intelligently, results must follow. Accident control through cost control data reporting is the affirmative side of safety. That is the businessmen's approach. The time, money and effort we expend in apply ing this approach is an investment which pays dividends--by getting executive deter mination to stop accidents. TO? lula: ...$1.71 15 American Society of Safety Engineers: Annual Meeting .71 tent i projected for the total indusa full year, if monthly in the onr.el Report: portant of the e positive ap- this type of ignition to tlie omparing your iparabie indusirc higher than le results such in man hou^s a jnts /'ro osters can be dcs to assist in cost in injury. his community rks safety. If lability to his >st control data tide of safety, ipproadi. The :pend in applycstment which cecutive deter- What Is Ahead for Engineering? By JOHN T. RETTALIATA Pres., Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, 111. The rapid advancement of scientific and America's engineers and scientists have technological knowledge has enlarged the made this nation the greatest power on potentialities so greatly as to almost stagger earth. Our technology has given us the the imagination, for in modem science and highest standard of living ever known, engineering we have the means of turning lightened our physical burdens while reduc into reality practically whatever the mind ing our hours of labor, sustained the de is capable of conceiving. fense of the nation against its foes and For more than -trHraifcentury, the-iili- made the United States a bulwark ofnois Institute of Technology has been con . strength of the free peoples of the world. cerned with safety and the prevention of With little more than six per cent of the disaster. In 1903, officials of the Armour earth's population and land area, we enjoy Institute of Technology, a predecessor of an abundance greater perhaps than all the Illinois Tech, in response to a need for rest of the world combined. And in creat qualified personnel in the insurance busi ing this material abundance, we have not ness. established what is now known as the neglected the other things which make for Department of Fire Protection and Safety- a better and fuller life. Engineering. It offers the nation's only degree-granting fire protection and safetyengineering program and the Midwest's More young men and women are attend ing colleges and universities in the United States than in any other nation; we have only- complete property- insurance educational more charitable institutions, more libraries, program. Hundreds of graduates of the more hpspitals than any other country*- We department have taken major places in the ever have been ready to share our plenty insurance business and in industrial safety- with the less fortunate of the earth. Amer work. ica stands before the world as an example A tremendous job has been done in all of what men can accomplish under a free types of safety. Our great cities stand as enterprise system which encourages them a tribute to the progress which has been to pursue ideals and ideas. made in controlling the destructive power of Ere, and the advancement of industrial safety is reflected in the decline in the number of deaths resulting from work acci dents, and improvement in the injury fre quency rates over many years. Engineering is entering an era of achieve ment that will dwarf prior accomplishments, great though they* have been. Our rapidlyrising population, the exploitation of new areas of scientific development, and the continuous necessity to maintain the techno Unfortunately-, the slaughter on the high way continues, despite the best efforts of engineers, the automotive industry and the logical supremacy of our national defense will End useful work for all the engineer ing talent we can muster. many agencies engaged in safety educa I cannot emphasize too strongly the im tional work. National Safety Council rec portance of maintaining the superior tech ords show that last year approximately nology- that, more than any other factor, 36,000 persons were killed in traffic acci has been the deterrent to aggression by the dents in the United States. There is some enemies of freedom. Let us not be deluded measure of consolation in the fact that this or confused by the professed friendly atti total was some 2,300 fewer than in 1953. tude and seeming interest in promoting fell 4 16 1955 National Safety Congress world peace emanating from the Kremlin These factors alone contain a challenge to these days. Let us stand ready to grasp the the productive ingenuity of American in hand of friendship when offered in sincerity dustry- They promise a tremendous stimu and backed by convincing action, but, mean lant to economic activity which can be met while, we must not drop our guard. only by continuous technological advances There is evidence that the Soviet Union, despite these gestures, is still hard at work seeking supremacy over the United States to increase the output per man-hour. Meet ing this challenge will be the responsibility of the engineer and the scientist in atomic weapons, guided missiles, long New families will need homes and every range bombers and other weapons. To that thing that goes into them. Even now, hous end Russia is directing every effort to over ing is woefully inadequate and half of the come America's present advantage in tech houses are more than 30 years old. There nological manpower. is widespread need of redevelopment of At present, the United States appears to have an advantage of some 100,000 engi neers, but in the five years ending in 1954, Russian colleges turned out a reported 154,000 engineering graduates, compared with only about 118,000 in'this country. For 1954, comparable figures were 54,000 and 22,000. great sections of the cities to eliminate slums and provide for more decent living for all of the people. Yet, there is a seri ous shortage of people qualified in urban and regional planning. There trill be a need for more hospitals, stores, churches, schools, water, food, electricity and many other things necessary to sustain life and TM0uir engineers and scientists constitute expand further the standard of living. die hard core of the national defense. They trill continue to carry this responsibility, ever devising more powerful and effective weapons, until the need finally shall have passed. Our roads are overcrowded and unsafe, and we are confronted by the prospect of several million more automobiles and a 50 per cent increase in traffic over the next decade. It has been said that the highway Consideration of the future domestic needs program which was proposed by President of the country leads to the conclusion that Eisenhower would require the employment new technological advances will be more of some 32,000 engineers that are not now necessary than ever before. Population in available. creases and rising incomes will swell the demand for goods and services, and the facilities of production, distribution, trans portation and communications must be in creased to meet these demands. Broadening technology in the fields of atomic energy, automation. and electronics - will create new demands for engineers and scientists, the extent of which is largely yet unknown. It is reported that the Atomic According to the Bureau of the Census, Energy Commission could use another 40,000 in 1965--just 10 years from now--there will engineers and scientists, ii they could be be close to 190 million Americans. There hired. No one has estimated the number of are 165 million today. new technical jobs bring created by the There will be some 56 million households, fast-spreading automation. Certainly, re nearly a fifth more than we have today. It search in these fields will lead us to a is estimated that the disposable personal higher professional plane and stimulate cre income will rise by more than $400 a per ative qualities to a far greater extent- son, or nearly $1,400 per household. Almost every business will be influenced It is further estimated that in terms of current prices, durable goods expenditures-- for such things as washing machines, auto mobiles, television sets, electrical appliances, and so forth--will be about 40 per cent higher per family in 1965. Clothing and by nuclear energy*. The Atomic Energy Act of 1954 removed many of the restraints on dissemination of technical information, and gave industry an opportunity to study the significance of nuclear energy on its operation. non-durable goods expenditures are expected At present, major attention is centered on to be up about 30 per cent per capita, and the production of electric power using spending for services, including education, atomic energy as fuel. The incentive to use is placed at almost 25 per cent higher per this kind of fuel derives from the fact that person. the energy in the country's reserves of challenge to Inf an inndl /stimui can be met al advances hour. Meetresponsibilitv ist s and everyn now, hous- half of the i old. There elopment of to eliminate iecent living re is a scri ed in urban : will be a ts. churches, y and many ain life and f living. and unsafe, prospect of es and a 50 er the next the highway by President employment are not now he fields of i e,-'-tronics ng. Js and h -largely t the Atomic lother 40,000 ey could be e number of ated by the mainly, re ad us to a dmulate cre. extent. ie influenced tnic Energy he restraints information, ity to study ergy on its centered on ower using strive to use die fact that reserves of Industrial Safety 17 I uranium and thorium is 20 to 30 times that I represented by the fossil fuels--coal, oil I and gas. so-called space barrier, again reminding us that in the language of the scientist or engineer the word "barrier" has only tem I It is expected that power plants employing porary significance. I fossil fuels will be with us for some rime Until now, I have spoken largely of the to come, however, as more development will opportunities that lie ahead for engineering be required before nuclear plants will be and suggested areas in which the profession economically- competitive. Even then, since can utilize its talents to the benefit of the the electric utilities plan to double their human race. But engineering, which has present capacity of 102,000,000 kilowatts played so prominent a part in creating the within the next decade, there will be need complex civilization of today, is facing ad for both lands of plants. ditional calls the world is making upon it So far the application of nuclear energy ' to electric power production has employed the fission process as used in the A-bomb. A much more difficult achievement, but one which would increase many rimes our en ergy reserve potential, would be the appli cation of the fusion process, the kind found in the H-bomb. One of the major difficul ties in theJatter process is that it requires extremely high temperatures, many millions of degrees, to bring about the reaction. American technology--its engineering skill --will be intimately associated with the continuing effort to harness the hydrogen bomb to provide vast resources of cheap power. And as the land resources diminish, the oceans become man's largest, last, and as yet largely untapped, resource. The vast sheets of water'which cover so much of the globe hold great reserves of many lands --oil. minerals, drugs, chemicals and foods --awaiting conversion to the use of man kind. Exploitation of these resources will be necessary if we are to support a population of approximately one-quarter of a billion American people predicted for the beginning of the 21st century. In the sides, technology has' enabled America to develop and produce the best aircraft in the world. Prior to 1950, it was ' coneeded-generally- that the British led in jet engine developments. Since then, how The first of these, and perhaps the most important, is that of leadership, a role which I believe tire engineer is pre-eminently fitted to fulfill. The foundation of our abundant economy is, without question, science and technology. And at the center of things is the man who is a combination of both scientist and tech nologist--the engineer. There have been changes not only in our processes and products, but in our organi zational structures, in growing corporate complexity, in methods of financing and selling, in the relations of business with labor and government, in concepts of busi ness ethics and in the laws under which business and industry operate. The changes will affect everything the engineer does. Upon him, in increasing measure, business and industry will place greater reliance. He will move more and more into the broader spheres of manage ment as a whole. It is the engineer s knowledge and skills, his foresight, judgment and derisions that weigh heavily in* the successful outcome of the primary aim of the industrial corpora tion, namely the earning of a profit. As management at the policy level grows more complex and difficult the engineer in ever growing numbers will be called upon to as sume functions far beyond engineering itself. ever, the United States has taken the lead- From a fractional representation a few . ership, particularly in the category of high decades ago, a recent Columbia University thrust engines--10,000 pounds and above. survey showed that today 40 per cent of in Widespread commercial use of turbine- dustrial management Is engineer-trained. The powered aircraft can be predicted for 1960. engineer is replacing both the lawyer, the The implications of government-announced plans to launch an artificial satellite some time during the International Geophysical Year--July, 1957, to December, 1958--are tremendous. A successful satellite would mean that technology has conquered the banker and the financier in the top industrial posts of the nation. If the engineer is to be counted upon more and more to share the helm, to have a larger sphere of influence in keeping mis high paced, dynamic economy going, two things IS 1955 Xalional Safely Congress must happen. (1) The ranks of the en gineering profession must be continually re inforced and replenished. (2) The educa tional process for the engineer must en compass vastly more than the imparting of scientific knowledge and technical skills alone. The task of making the engineer increas ingly useful to society devolves primarily upon the engineering colleges. We who rep resent the engineering educational institu tions know that the embryo engineer must be exposed to economics, history- psychology, political science, to law and literature. terest more young men and young women in the profession, to give them compelling motivations for entering the field. You can help in discovering and encourag ing high school students with natural abil ities for engineering careers to pursue such studies at the higher level. I would call to vour attention the striking tact that onl\ six out of every ten of the top five per cent of high school graduates go on to college. There is a tremendous loss there, to en gineering. and other fields, of America'; brightest youth. It merits the considered thought of jour society. The young engineer must be made aware of the cost factors in productivity, the labor factor and marketability. He must be made conscious of consumers, advertisers, sup pliers and customers. And all this beyond a deep and solid grounding in the basic prin- dples of-Jtis chosen cngincerinc held, ft is a tremendous responsibility, thi- preparation of the engineer for a world of new and vital comprehensions. I think I may assure you tliat the prob lems of engineering education arc keenly recognized by the leading technological col In attracting to engineering those youth; with the greatest potentialities for it, the provision of financial inducements, in the form of scholarships, would help enor mously. I hope that we, in the field of en gineering education, can count upon you, a; individuals, upon the corporate and indus trial enterprises with which you are asso ciated. and upon your society, to help the educational institutions build up the nation's resources of engineers--men who are tech nologists of the finest kind, to be sure, but who will be able ur meet, as they progres- leges of the nation. Speaking for my own institution, we have steadily been effecting changes and extensions aimed at greatly broadening the base of engineering educa tion and of building into the engineer the potentialities of widest usefulness in our industrial civilization. The task of our technological institutions and rise in their careers, the growing de mand upon them for broadened perceptionand high potentialities of leadership. Let me touch briefly upon two other callupon the engineering profession for the benefit of posterity. First, wc are, as a na tion. a fair island in a world sea of priva tion and want. We have sought, for hu however, is not simply turning out a finer manitarian reasons and for mutual security product. We must educate enough of them, and safety, to come to the aid of the peoples the right ones, and educate them superla of the less-developed areas of the earth. Wc tively well. It is a tak which educational have poured out our wealth, in .prodigious institutions alone cannot achieve. They must have help. And it is here that you. vour American Society of Safety Engineers and other pro amounts, in efforts to bolster and assist. Perhaps that has all been wise as well as necessary, in the initial stages, due to calls by weaker nations upon our strength. fessional organizations of engineers, can play a vital part. One of the new calls upon you is to help us in the task of education. If the demand for more and finer en gineers is to be met, there is an urgent need for a greater effort to reach into the high schools and bring engineering as a splendid career strongly to the attention of American But temporary and emergency measures must finally be replaced by more fruitful, long-term forms of assistance. The less happy regions of earth must become their own sources of abundance and reliance. In tltat important process, it is American skills that can contribute most to the remedying of their ills. youth. Our government is increasingly recogniz The shortage of engineers, as you know, ing its responsibility in this quarter. But it is acute in all fields. The challenge before is an effort that cannot be left to officialdom you is to intensify the effort greatly to in alone. Joined with it must be the private young women ai?i 'ipelHni; and encouragnatural abii- 3 pursue such would call to act that onh > five per cent an to college, there, to enot America'.: ic considered those youths s for it, the nents. in the ! help enore field or enupon you, as e and indusou arc asso- to help the > the nation's .ho are tecli- be sure, but they progress growing dcd perception' rship. o other call' ion tor the ar "l a nasca /privaght, for huitual security t the peoples ic earth. We n -prodigious * and assist, e as well as due to calls rength. icv measures ore fruitful i The less become their reliance. In terican skills e remedying fly recognirtrter. But it o officialdom the private Industrial Safety 19 efforts of individuals, of private organiza tions, of corporations, and of organizations such as your own, in the full knowledge that such service represents the highest kind of contribution to the welfare of all mankind. Finally, there is the call to conserve. It is hard for Americans, long accustomed to ideas of boundless American resources, to think of ourselves as a nation whose re sources are running out. Yet in ever-sharper measure our attention is bring called to the growing problem of shrinking stores of natural national wealth. The time has come when we must be truly scientific about the utilization of our resources. Our hope for the future in this respect lies with the engineer and scientist, not only to husband our resources, but to prevent in every way, as your society does, the need less destruction of our national wealth, and the useless loss of life among our people, who are our nvst precious resource. I have sought to suggest a few aspects of what is ahead for engineering--its oppor tunities for service and the responsibilities it must recognize and accept. I am confident the continued prosperity of our nation and its security are in the hands of our most capable people. 20 Are Your Employees Falling Down On the Job? Falls from Portable Surfaces (Ladders and Other Portable Surfaces) By R. L. POTTER Supvr., Industrial Safety, American Airlines, Inc, Tulsa, Okla. There is probably little question in your minds as to what constitutes a safe ladder or portable workstand for any given job in your industry'- We usually know exactly the type of equipment that is needed for our operations. We provide such equipment I am sure there are few management groups that fail to proride what they consider to be safe equipment a quick job to do tliat is just out of reach from floor level, he is likely to use the nearest and handiest object that will provide the desired elevation. Those of you who are in the construction industry will readily think of nail kegs and dynamite boxes in this regard. Those two demons, particularlyTM,,., the former, caused me endless worry during the. ten years I spent in construction safety. At this point I would like to say that There was one incident I will never such organizations as the American Stand forget. It was during the war, on one of ards Association, Metal Ladder Manufac the large government contracts. We had turers Association, the Association of Casu an iron-dad rule that nail kegs were to be alty and Surety Companies, National Safety demolished when empty of `bar original Council, and others, have done a wonderful contents. But, like so many other such job of providing ladder standards. Their rules, there was the occasional slip in its specifications are good. Manufacturers of enforcement and eventually (usually sooner) ladders are cognizant of our problems and a tall resulted. are building safety into their products as prime selling points. In other words, it I was driving down a road one morning isn't too difficult to buy a good ladder that ' and saw a carpenter standing on a nail keg is suitable for most jobs. while nailing a scaffold member to the side If you have a specialized problem where ladders are not the answer, portable workstands which comply with recognized stand ards are used. But regardless of how much care is used in the selection of ladders and of a building. Immediate corrective action was in order, but I was in a hurry and did not stop. A few minutes later that car penter was on his way to the hospital with a broken pelvis. portable workstands, we will continue to He later told me that he hadn't wanted have accidents if: to waste the time getting a ladder to do a 1. They are not used for their intended purpose. 2. They are used improperly. 3. They are not properly maintained. job w'hidi would only take a minute... 1 ... think the man was conscientiously trying to save time. He had not, however, been properly educated in safe practices. And there is something you might say about We have closely analyzed several hundred fall incidents where portable workstands and ladders were involved and failed to find a single instance where good, properly used, properly maintained equipment was the cause. his supervision. I had my say at the time. Now that I have drifted into the super visory aspects of accidents, I would like to say that if we are to prevent falls or any other type of accident, we can do so only with intelligent first line supervision. The term "portable workstands" can cover Getting these people interested in accident a multitude of neck breakers. If a man has -prevention is one thing, educating them to 3T) Ob? cmd u : out of reach y to use the at will provide of you who ry will readily mite boxes in is, particularly worry during ruction safety. I will never ar, on one of cts. We had gs were to be "heir original y other such lal slip in its suallv sooner) <L morning on ^aail keg er to the side rective action hurry and did iter that carhospital with hadn't wanted adder to do a a minute. I "usly trying to owever, been radices. And ht say about y at the time. ito the super1 would like went falls or xe can do so t supervision, d in accident ating them to Industrial Safety 21 the point where they can prevent accidents Our foremen training must be intensified is another. Here is an example: and it is cur job--yours and mine--to see Several years ago on a construction job, we had a very reckless individual employed to it that accident prevention is a part of such a program. as a carpenter foreman. He was an excellent It is not my intention to change the sub mechanic but lacked supervisory experience. ject of this discussion from ladders and The result was sub-marginal work, and workstands to supervisory training. I am accidents involving members of his crew merely attempting to point out the fact that, were frequent in my opinion, falls or any other accident I spent a lot of time with this fellow, and, in time, he became enthusiastically persistent in his efforts to prevent accidents. He insisted upon the use of personal pro tective equipment; he urged his men to purchase safety shoes. These were the super situation cannot be effectively prevented ex cept through the efforts of first line super vision. It is our firm conviction that situa tions which cause accidents should be corrected immediately. If the foreman observes improper use of ficial aspects of the safety program that any type of equipment, he should tell the were within the scope of his capabilities. offender as quickly as possible. If he sees or One morning I got a call from the dis pensary and was advised that one of his men-bad suffered a broken leg. Immediate investigation of the incident disclosed a perfect example where a supervisor's en thusiasm to do the correct thing, minus technical knowledge; equals disaster. is told that a piece of equipment is in need of repair, he should remove it from service at once and have it repaired. Those are cardinal points in our program, and the fore men who practice them spend little time writing accident reports. In aircraft maintenance and operation, we have multitudes of ladder and workstand The injured man had been descending a problems involving a great variety of special ladder into a 12-foot pit in which concrete ized equipment. forms were being placed. The ladder, com plete with hand Tails, was set at a 45s angle. The foreman was very proud of the ladder, pointing out to me the added safety of the hand rail. The results, of course, were obvious. Everyone used the ladder as they would normally use stairs. It was in use less than two hours when the accident occurred. A tremendous amount of our maintenance work is done from portable stands and lad ders and it takes a variety of such equip ment to service a four-engine aircraft which requires service checks from floor level to the top of the vertical stabilizer--30 feet tip. The presence of various types and sizes of stands presents problems. It leads to mis use. In other words, stands of insufficient This was a case of a man who had a height are sometimes used when it seems "smattering of ignorance" about accident inconvenient to walk a short distance to get prevention. He was sincere in his determin the proper size. (Remember the nail keg ation. He had heard a talk at a safety meet incident?) ing on requirements for handrails on scaf folds, stairs and platforms. Why not put hand rails on the ladder, he thought Wouldn't that make it safer? No one had taken time to teach him the basic difference between stairs and ladders, or the critical angles of each. Even with our high exposure to the haz ards, only two per cent of our reportable ip.-., juries during the past two years were due to slips and falls from portable stands and ladders. We feel that this is a fine record, although we know that just a little extra effort would have made it near perfect I Similar incidents were commonplace dur say "near perfect" because I do not think it ing the wartime building emergency when is possible to win the battle against falls good supervisory talent is spread too thin. completely. My reasons are: Those of us in rapidly expanding industries today are facing similar problems. Promo tions into the supervisory ranks are faster than men can be trained to assume the re sponsibilities. L Gravity--Falling is simple because it is given a big assist by one of nature's con stant laws. Gravity is a strong thing. It is constant Most other types of ac cident situations require greater con- 22 1955 National Safely Congress tributions from the participants than shifting one's center of gravity a fraction of an inch too far in the critical direction. 2. Physiological Factor--Some individuals have near-perfect equilibrium. Others lack it to the extent that they experience difficulty in walking a straight line, even without benefit of stimulants which nor mally produce such action. Athletic coaches will tell you that good balance is a prime requisite tor superior athletic abil'ty. This is also true of aircraft pilots. There is little question that the same rule would hold true in any activity which requires muscular coordination. Certainly, working at heights on ladders and stands requires excellent balance. We can do nothing about gravity, but we can certainly keep an eye out for the fellow whose balance is poor and keep him on the floor. Perhaps the reason that we liave had no general sessions on falls since 1938. is that it is difficult to develop a fresh approach to the subject. Nothing that I have told > is new. As a matter of fact, we can use the time worn Rules for Tools and convert them to ladders and stands: 1. Use the right tool (ladder). 2. Be sure it's in good condition. 3. Use it properly. Here is a poem, published last spring, in one of the National Safety Coundl's Neves Letters and credited to E. Fred Shipman. Industrial Products Co_ Flash-O-Cram. "The Shortest Route" Now, the shortest way to heaven Is by climbing up a ladder That isn't resting firmly on the floor. If the ladder isn't level You may visit with the devil Who can always make room for just one more. You may go to see St. Peter Who is still official greeter If you climb a ladder which has lost a rung. If you're careless in descending You may have a sudden ending To the tune of angel music sweetly sung. If you don't watch how you're climbing Church bells o'er you may be chiming And it's up to you to see which way you'll go- If you're good you'll just climb higher And if not they'll light your fire "**' For a hot time in that city far below. If the ladder isn't steady Both the places will be ready So you'll forget the things you've left be hind. You may go to meet your Maker Cr become a brimstone-breaker If the ladder isn't properly inclined. It you carelessly keep standing On the ladder, you'll be landing Very likely in a quiet family plot And since you have no selection Of your ultimate direction Play it safe and keep the only Iiic you've got. tie" ve\ / : floor. for just one is lost a rung. S >S reedy sung. re climbing chiming ich way you'll b higher re .......... r below. ou've left be- ker er idined. 'g ..., >lo- } >n jly life you've Atomic Energy Is In Industry New Uses for Isotopes, Reactors and Associated Developments By BERNARD MANOWITZ Project Eng., Fission Products Utilization Project, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, L. I, N. Y. Necessity is the mother of invention. A tential of atomic power. The principle on need first exists, and a new industry is de which atomic power is based is that every veloped to .meet that need. Atypicallv, a new mode of power is being born, and uses for this power are being sought after. The power is that of the fis sioning atom. Its power to destroy is awe- and fear-inspiring, and amply evident. Its power to benefit mankind is the chal lenge that faces mankind. time an atom of fissionable material ex plodes, approximately 200 million electron volts of energy are released. When the 200 million electron volts of energy are con verted to their heat equivalent, the argu ment is established that fissionable material (1 pound UssZlO* pounds coal) is a highly concentrated fuel. Prodigious efforts arc being made to har ness the atom for the production of conven tional electrical power. Less attention has been paid to the radiation assodated with the fission process. However, it is this very radiation that may pay off in new technol ogy, new products, and new benefits to mankind. Nuclear radiation is an insidious kind of power. You cannot see it, hear it, smell it, touch it, or feel it But every' time an atom However, when the fission process occurs, not all of -the 200 million electron volts are immediately converted to heat. Over five per cent of the energy of fission at equilib rium is dissipated in the form of penetrat ing beta and gamma rays. Even more than five per cent of the power of fission may be used for ionization purposes, but this figure is a fair one, I believe, for our first crude estimate of the availability of radiation power. of uranium is split, copious quantities of radiation are emitted, and their effects can be felt in many* ways. Thus a good deal of radiation power is being generated today in the Atomic Energy Commission's nuclear reactors, but it is all Radiation can kill men, but it can also kill insects and bacteria. Radiation can penetrate steel. Radiation can initiate chemical reactions. Radiation can cause flu orescence and ionize gases. Radiation can being wasted by being absorbed in the huge concrete shields that surround present-day reactors. Nuclear reactors of the future, however, can easily be designed to optimize the extraction of radiation power, produce new strains of disease-resistant wheat and com. With these many possibili ties radiation may yet find its place in the industrial family. "But," the practicalminded industrialist asks, "just how much of this radiation is available? How much will it cost? How can we handle it? What will it do that I can't do with more conven tional methods?" The potential availability of radiation power is closely linked with the future po What then is the future for nuclear re actors? A great many people, including my self, are convinced that we are now entering the Atomic Age. America's power needs are expanding. Her supplies of fossil finds are being depleted. The American govern ment for its own defense* and for the ulti mate conservation of its resources has poured billions of dollars into the develop ment of atomic energy. American industry, sensing the birth of a great new industry, 24 1955 National Safety Congress lias made rapid strides in the advance of a The main feature of the problem is that new technology. radiation and radioactive materials are bi This country now has nearly 100 thousand megawatts of conventional electrical gen erating capability--about 40 per cent of the electrical power of the world. Do we not have enough confidence in ourselves to say that within our lifetime at least one per cent of our present capacity will be replaced by nuclear power? That is, after all, only ological hazards, and operating personnel and the public in general must be protected both from the penetrating radiation and from the remotest possibility of ingestion of radioactive material. Basically, we must learn to live with the atom while we use it, and keep it from harming us, just as we have learned to live with fire. 1,000 megawatts--the equivalent of the out Industry is replete with examples of how put of Grand Coulee dam, and surely within hazardous materials have been handled be the integrated combined ability of American fore. Explosives, adds, high voltage,* bac government and American industry'. tericidal agents, have been confined where But if we have 1,000 megawatts of nu clear electrical power, we must have gen erated even under favorable thermal effi ciencies at least 3,000 megawatts of heat power, and therefore at least 150 megawatts of radiation power. 150 megawatts of radia tion power is really quite a tremendous amount of this unique type of power. A one-watt bulb gives a barely perceptible amount of light. Yet, exposure to 1 watt of gamma rays would loll a man within less than one hour. Ten kilowatts of radia they will do their work without barm to the user. Indeed, we are more fortunate than the organizers of earlier industries who used hazardous materials, in that a governmental agency' has already set up a wise and far-sighted policy governing the handling of radioactive materials, and has already developed the technology for im-'*": plementing that policy. The question remains--what advantage does the use of radiation have over the use of more conventional methods? To gain a tion power would be enough to pasteurize the average food requirements of an army division. One megawatt of gamma power could polymerize as much styrene as is now bring produced by other means throughout the entire country. For average applications, 10 kilowatts would be sufficient radiation power to equal typical production capaci ties. On the average, then, 15,000 factories better insight into possible unique applica tions, we must first look a bit more deeply into the fundamentals of what radiation is and how it interacts with matter. Radiation can initiate chemical reactions much in the same way that a catalyst can. Quite a few such chemical reactions have already been under investigation and are the basis for the growing science of radiation chemistry. or applications could be maintained by our Although radiation can be used to effect projected national capacity of 150 mega simple chemical reactions, such as degrada watts. tions, the yields are ordinarily so low as to I, for one, am convinced that the limiting factor to the successful industrialization of radiation power will not be a matter of supply, and will probably' not be primarily a matter of cost either. Radiation power make this application obviously uneconomi cal. For instance, the use of radiation as a brute force to rearrange molecules is not going to replace thermal cracking in the petroleum-industry. ....... will always be a by-product or waste prod Most of the work in the field is being uct of atomic power, and as such its cost done on the use of radiation to trigger will be adjusted to meet market demands. chemical chain reactions, where radiation If supply and cost are not the limiting factors, how.about the problem of handling radiation power? This is indeed a problem, has to supply only a small amount of initial energy to start the reaction, and chemical energy carries it the rest of the way. one certain to add to the cost of our proj Polymerizations are systems of this sort ect. That the problem can be surmounted is Bretton at Yale and Martin at the Univer attested to by the considerable success the sity of Michigan have demonstrated that A.E.C. has had in operating and maintain ethylene can be polymerized at potentially ing its facilities. commercially significant rates and at low iroblem is that itefMs are big jmneland pi<,.<xted both ion and from tf ingestion of illy, we must rhile we use it, as, Just as we amples of how m handled bei voltage; bacronfined where thout harm to nore fortunate iier industries als, in that a eady set up a governing the ;rials, and has .TM~jftlogy tor im-. hat advantage x over the use Is? To gain a mique applicait more deeply at radiation is itter. tncal reactions a catalyst can. reactions have io: ^ are the X radiation used to effect ch as degraday so low as to sly uneconomiradiation as a alecules is not raddng in the field is being ion to trigger 'here radiation ootmt of initial and chemical the way. is of this sort at the Univerlonstrated that at potentially s and at low Industrial Safety 23 pressures. This may be a new way of man ufacturing polyethylene--a very important polymer. Biological applications of radiation repre sent another phase of this fascinating new business. 'Some Brookhaven work has demonstrated The basic facts of radiation biology seem that important physical properties of some to be that the more complex the biological polymers may be changed by radiation. Poly- organism, the easier it is to destroy by radi vinylpyrollidone is a blood plasma substi ation. Thus it takes a whole body dose of tute. The present commercial variety has about 400 R to kill a man, about 23,000 R to the disadvantage that a high molecular kill insects, and about 2,000,000 R to kill weight fraction does not pass through the bacteria. Behind this rough generalization kidney wall and is not metabolized. Radia lies a tremendous amount of not yet under tion. can polymerize this material at higher stood mechanism. than the present commercial rates and form a polymer of such molecular weight dis tribution that the plasma properties are re tained, but the high molecular weight frac tion is not formed. A large part of AEC effort in radiation biology is an attempt to evaluate the mech anism of the interaction of radiation with a seemingly endless variety of systems. There is also the blunt empirical approach Graft copolymers can be made by radia tion techniques. This is a method of joining or grafting polymers together in such a way that some of the physical properties of the product are better than the individual properties of each polymer. For instance, vinyl acetate and acrylonitrile, two cheap on systems that apparently would have some practical value. For instance, the food tech nology groups at M.I.T,, at the University of Michigan, at Columbia, and at otheysites, have been trying for years to find if one can practically sterilize foods at low tem peratures by the use of radiation. plastics, can be grafted to form a copolymer What have they found out to date? that can resist boiling water. We may yet First, it is possible to sterilize any food see hot water pipes made of tins material. by the use of radiation. The crosslinking of macro molecules de Second, the nutritive value of foods is serves some further discussion. General affected only in a minor way by the amount Electric has marketed what seems to be the of radiation necessary for sterilization. first practical application of intense fields of radiation. This is a material called irrathcne or irradiated polyethylene. The com pany has claimed that crosslinkage by high speed electrons has produced a material that las more thermal stability and more me chanical strength than the unirradiated va riety, and is offering the material as tem perature stable electrical tape. Third, it appear that all food products undergo some degree of flavor change at the sterilization dose. Not all foods are as sensitive--milk is very sensitive; meat and fish moderately sensitive; cereal and bread are relatively insensitive to flavor change. However, today the major problem in the broad application of ionizing radiation to the treatment of foods, appears to lie in Possible use for crosslinked polymers this flavor change. Many attempts are being range from plastic bottles that can with made to minimize off-flavors, and of these, stand commercial sterilization temperatures pasteurization rather than sterilization seems to plastic blisters for jet aircraft that may . to be most successful - -------- maintain rigidity at ultra high speeds. Fourth, workers have observed that dos The chemist will recognize that only a ages of tite order of 5 to 30 times that re 'bare beginning has been made in finding ap quired to destroy bacteria by radiation are plications for this new mode of energy. Gan required to destroy enzymes. limited we beneficially effect oxidations, sulfona- studies have indicated that the enzymes in tions, halogenations, animations, etc.? Gan meats, although still chemically active, do you depolymerize protein molecules? Can not produce significant .deterioration upon you degrade sugars? Can you supply free storage at room temperature as would be radicals for low temperature reactions in ordinarily expected. Generally speaking, non-aqueous solvents? These and many however, food products treated will have to mote such questions have yet to be answered be enzymatically controlled in some other by enterprising experimenters. manner. 26 1955 National Safety Congress Fortunately, many of the problems of food sterilization do not exist in drugs. We do not expect drugs to taste good, for ex ample. Many years of work at the Upjohn Co., the Scliering Corp,, and some recent work at Brookhaven have indicated that it is indeed feasible to sterilize heat-sensitive drugs with radiation. Whether or not it is practical depends primarily upon the avail ability and cost of suitable commercial equipment. The use of light doses of radiation for useful biological reactions may find yet earlier application. Drs. Sparrow and Christensen at Brookhaven have found that doses of 10,000-20,000 R are effective in in hibiting the growth of sprouts on potatoes, thus greatly prolonging the storage life of the potatoes. Drs. Hassett and Jenkins of the Army Chemical Center have reported , on the use of radiation for insect control. They have found that doses of 65.000 R are quickly and completely lethal to a large variety of insect pests and thus would stop the dam age of heavy infestation. Light infestations can be controlled by doses of lesser intensity which would stop reproduction. This opens up the possibility of control ling insect infestation in food, clothing and wood products, a potentially valuable use indeed, since estimated yearly damage to stored products in the United States alone is over one billion dollars. A Teactor itself may be housed on a rail road box car. The reactor is non-critical in transit and must be shielded in transit only for the decayed fission products contained therein. The reactor consists of a one-foot sphere in a moderator through which a solution of enriched uranium is circulated. By rapidly removing the fission gases, about 1 per cent of the power of the reactor can be extracted as radiation power free from neutrons. The gases are circulated through the slab bisecting the rest of the car to pro ride a slab source of radiation. In transit the slab would be surrounded by two movable lead walls. In use the car would be shuttled into a tunnel, the irradia tor shield removed, the reactor brought up to criticality, and materials to be treated brought through a labyrinth entrance in and out of the radiation field on a monorail system. If ihcrc ream^js,,io be a new radiation industry, a tremendous task still lies ahead. Basic research information on the inter action of radiation with chemical and bio logical systems is needed. Considerable de velopment work trill be required before commercial sources of nuclear radiation trill be available. Even then operating personnel must learn the intricacies of remote control and remote maintenance. I am confident, however, that these tasks will be accomplished and a place in America's industrial family will be found for these non-power applications of atomic energy. What Are the Safety Problems in the Atomic Energy Business? By D. F. HAYES Chief, Safety and Fire. Protection Branch, Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, D. C. The atomic energy business is replete with problems of many kinds--some never thought of before! Safety problems in this new industry are not the least. I have selected some to discuss which would appear to me to be of interest to you. Reporting Radiation Injuries. The first of these is a problem which has bothered safety engineers in other fields. The addi tion of ionizing radiation as a new common industrial hazard emphasizes the existing in adequacy' of a reporting system that will allow a measure of exposure, as distin guished from injury. This problem exists wherever injury is of a chronic nature rather than acute or traumatic. non-critical in a only jc{ jmtained of a one-foot ugh which a is circulated, n gases, about te reactor can ,*er free from dated through he car to pro- >e surrounded n use the car si, the irradia>r brought up to be treated itrance in and >n a monorail new radiation dll lies ahead, on the imertical and bionsiderable dejuired before radiation will tel must learn ol and remote however, that :d and a place w5,'*~V found mil ) atomic a ssion. Is. The addinew common te existing inem that will e, as distinroblem exists ironic nature Industrial Safety 27 \V'e do not have a very good index for to the same degree that other industrial con measuring the slow accumulation of injun taminants or materials have been related. caused by an industrial contaminant. Our Limits for both external and internal most widely accepted standard for measur . radiation exposure have been set, and care ing accident prevention effectiveness is the is exercised so that persons working with "American Standard Method of Recording radioactive materials will not come into an and Measuring Work Injury' Experience," environment sufficiently severe to cause in ASA Z16.I. With it we record injuries to jury. How this is accomplished involves the people to tell whether our accident preven whole story of the preventive measures in tion efforts are effective in actual experience. active practice. The introduction of radiation which does not affect any of the human senses makes injury as now defined in Z16.1 useless. In addition to this, the hazard is cumulative above certain levels of energy, so that time is an added element. Known, reported, and documented cases of actual injury having a causal relationship Over-exposure to radiation in the human body means that it has been subjected to quantities of alpha, beta, gamma, or neutron radiation above those which have been set for safe operation. The limits set for regu lar working conditions have in them con siderable safety factors. Over-exposure, therefore, does not necessarily mean injury. with exposure to radiation in atomic energy ,, The basic daily safe working dose has activities since 1945 are as follows: been set at 3/10ths R per week. Immediate One person died of radiation in an accident at Los Alamos on August 21, 1945. ` One person died, one suffered serious bums, and another received slight bums in a similar accident at Los Alamos on May 21, 1946. One person received a bum on the leg while handling containers which had not been thoroughly cleaned and were still wet. Some of the material soaked onto his trousers which he wore for the rest of the day, resulting in the bum to his leg- Four persons received Beta bums to their hands as a result of handling filter papers without protection of gloves which had been provided but not worn, when samples of fission products were collected on filters from drone planes during a bomb test. or even long-range physiological .effects are not observable when the value is up to ap proximately 25 R. 25 R is the value dis cussed in the National Bureau of Standards Handbook 59, "Permissible Dose From Ex ternal Sources of Ionizing Radiation," as the maximum safe emergency dose; if a dose this large is experienced, no further exposure is allowable. Therefore, even if a worker were exposed to 25 R or more, it cannot necessarily be assumed that he has been injured. From die point of view of damage to the worker, over-exposure means only that the individual has been subjected to radiation which might, in some people, result in physi ological changes. Some idea of the rela tionship between 3/10ths R, the working value, 25 R, the emergency value (which may create some observable effects in some people), and the actual exposure which pro duced fatal or serious accidents may be These were cases in which the injury gained from a statement of the quantities was evidenced by- observable physiological of radiation which resulted in the deaths changes. Not included in this list are the and injuries of the persons mentioned in injuries resulting from the bomb explosions the first two accidents. at Hiroshima and Nagasaki which cannot The estimated doses of several radiation be considered accidental, and are excluded energies which produced fatalities and se from any consideration of atomic energy rious injuries in these- cases were in the as an occupation. The accidents involving hundreds of gamma and X radiation to the Japanese fishermen during the tests in 1953 whole body and in the tens of thousands to are also not included. the hands. Cases where there has been over-exposure but no observable injury are omitted also since the relation between exposure to given amounts of radiation has not been evaluated (In one case, a combination of 480 roentgens equivalent 80 KV X-ray plus 110 roentgens Gamma' ray, plus 20,000 to 40,000 roentgens : f FTf ; i <!:; ! equivalent soft X-ray on hands; in 59. Until this definition of reportability has another case; 1,930 roentgens equiv been tested by use and medical experience alent 80 KV X ray, plus 114 roent the practicability of recording radiation gens Gamma ray, plus 13,000 to Work injury will be a problem. 30,000 roentgens equivalent soft X-ray on the hands; and, in the third case, 390 roentgens equivalent 80 KV X-ray, plus 36.4 roentgens Gamma ray, plus 400 to 600 roent gens equivalent soft X-ray on the hands.) It probably has to l*c accepted that for a long time in industry, assuming that the same care is exercised as is presently ex ercised in respect to protection against overexposure to radiation, there will not be a sufficient number of actually damaged hu man beings to determine just what differ entiates any exposure from one resulting in injury'. This demonstrates the paucity of injury data and why exposure data is relatively Safety Education. A second important problem will be to educate people in prac tical work with radiation hazards so that the business can proceed without hindrance due to fear, misunderstanding, and lack of skill. There are two parts to this objective; first, to tell what the hazards are, and sec ond, what they are not. From the day the first newspaper headlines announced that the equivalent of 20,000 tons of TNT had been dropped on Japan, fear, both justifiable and unjustifiable, has accompanied this business. Many of the peculiar ideas and miscom prehensions originating from that day continue-witli obstinate persistence. Many of the concepts are new and hard to under stand. People have a tendency to resist inadequate at present. Complete records of exposure are kept on each worker by means of controls inherent in the prevention effort change, and the security requirements which have hedged the business have frequently given them something to hide behind, when It has been necessary to give the operating at least partly subconsciously they are back personnel and those interested in the safety ing away from the mental effort required to of the worker some starting point on which to predicate the protective measures. The present experience with exposure with in jury is admittedly incomplete because the operating levels have been kept low. comprehend new ideas. Recently, in a state legislature, a proposal was actually introduced which would- give certain local authorities the same powers to incarcerate a person who had become con Section 5.13 "Hospitalization for Observa taminated with radiation as they have to tion." in the ASA Standard Z16.1, is the * confine one who is mentally deranged (and only nearly applicable rule. The AEC has, presumably a menace to the public). for want of something better, adopted the following rule: "Nuclear radiation of per sonnel resulting in over-exposure suffi ciently serious to warrant' hospitalization for observation or treatment . . ." Since this definition was adopted in September, 1934. where sttrh hospitalization for observation has ta-en required, the records show no <a-=cs of discernible permanent effects and no injury- It will take a lot of effective training and education to dispel the notion borne of fear or ignorance that this is not a reasonable precaution to take. The proposal sounds ridiculous to those who know that, if a person's body were exposed to sufficient radiation to make him radioactive, he would be dead before a Justice of the Peace could write up the order of incarceration (and, if the person became so irradiated from a One cannot sav that the individual has not bomb during a war, the Justice of the Peace liecn injured but neither can one say that he would probably be dead too, or contaminated Has. until some more years of experience himself). have been accumulated. One can only say that he has been exposed to an amount of radiation which is above an arbitrary safe limit. To familiarize workers with the fact that radiation is hazardous like gasoline or elec tricity but can also be handled safely, will take time and effort and the expenditure oi Nothing which has been said here can be that time and effort is a proper problem foi without reference to a much more complete safety engineers. The safety engineer him set of criteria published in NBS Handbook self will have to learn the proper perspec- jpoytability has ics^ jperience. dinte radiation xmd important people in pracazards so that hout hindrance ig, and lack oi this objective; Is are, mid secjm the day the ounced that the TXT had been i justifiable and d this business. is and miscomt that day contnce. Many of hard to underlency to resist oiremcnts which have frequently ie behind, when v they are hackffort required te nure. a proposal lich would- give same powers to iadK*coinc cons C / have to ? dti dnged (and e public), tive training and m borne of fear iot a reasonable proposal sounds mow that, if a sed to sufficient jactive, he would the Peace could ceration (and, if adiated from a tice of the Peace . or contaminated rith the fact tliat gasoline or elecidled safely, will ie expenditure of oper problem for :ty engineer him: proper perspec Industrial Safety 29 tive in which to place the radiation hazard before he can help the technicians, physi cians, and health physicists to do their jobs. Closely allied to this will be to work out appropriate procedures for the crafts who will be required to maintain facilities where the hazard exists. This is particularly true where alterations construction work is to be carried on. Reactors. Another problem of safety in the atomic energy industry' will be to make sate reactors and fission product separa tions plants. The safety aspects in the first of these--reactors--is largely in their design and their jdesign is in the hands of highly trained technical people (of whom, inci dentally, there are not enough). The AEC has set up rigid requirements to assure that a reactor will not be involved in an accident which might have serious consequences. Before one is approved, a complete study of every conceivable fault leading to possible damage is made. This is submitted to a committee of the best ex perts available who review the protective measures devised. It they are not satisfied that all precautions have been taken, they will not approve until they are satisfied. There are other precautions. A license is required by the operator. Certain restric tions may be placed. Up to now, no two reactors have been alike, and so each one is separately evaluated. It will probably be a long time before safety engineers will actually lave a direct part in the reactor safety field. But there are incidental aspects which he will be able to influence. The general safety conscious ness of all, the electrical systems affecting the reactor and its related equipment, the material handling, shipment safety, and all of the hazard-producing situations found in normal activity which must be reduced be cause of their effect on the reactor. It is not probable that the fission product safety problem will be general in the near future. The AEC will probably continue this part of the operations until the problem of waste disposal is solved. New Materials. There are a large num ber oi new materials closely allied with the atomic energy industry, particularly where high energies will have a relationship with those materials. Sodium, NaK (sodium potassium), zirconium, uranium, thorium. hydrogen, boron, hafnium, fluorine, and beryllium are examples. Some of these have dangerous inherent characteristics, such as zirconium and uranium, which are pyro phoric in their normal state, and others will be particularly dangerous because of their application. liquid metals are being used as heat transfer agents. They, in themselves, are dangerous in their normal state with an added hazard when radiation is involved. There are also the normal mechanical hazards which accompany higher tempera tures and higher pressures which will be made possible by tbe great energy available. The simple storage and handling problems are magnified because uranium, the princi pal fuel, is the heaviest element known to man, and accidents because of the unex pected weight. have_stfread>\ occurred, in AEC contractor operations. Accidental Nuclear Fission. Fission is the nuclear phenomenon which is atomic energy. When a sufficient quantity of fissionable material is brought together under the proper conditions, the atoms break up with the emission of heat and radiation. As a result of the ever-increasing use of fissionable materials, the responsibility for avoiding nuclear accidents no longer re mains with a few individuals. The factors which influence nuclear safety are accord ingly of increasing interest. In operations with fissionable materials, such as processing, transporting and stor age, it is necessary to ensure that the mate rials shall not reach a critical configuration. A just-critical configuration is attained in a nuclear reactor operating in a steady-state where the rate of neutron-linked fissions is held constant by sensitive controls. With onlyja small increase in reactivity over the just-critical state, th'e system becomes essen tially uncontrollable, and a nuclear accident will occur. The mass of active (fissionable) material, in a particular configuration and set of cir cumstances which is critical is referred to as a critical mass for that particular system. Obviously, the margin of safety in any op eration with fissionable material is estimated by comparing the actual mass with the esti mated critical mass under the most unfavor able conditions that might conceivably exist, as for example, from an operating accident. 30 1955 National Safety Congress The most difficult step in establishing a realistic nuclear safety margin is anticipat ing the extreme unfavorable conditions which might occur. The following questions illustrate conditions which may have a pro found influence upon critical mass. Can a piece of Uranium-235 metal be flooded if a water line breaks? Are manipulations such that a batch of plutonium salt can be dropped into water? Can a thin column of Uranium-233 solution change to a more compact shape as the result of vessel break age? Furthermore, how well can one estab lish the upper limit to the mass of material involved in an accident? Probabilities of double-batching, analyti cal error, and accidental grouping of units (as in a transportation accident) must be evaluated in answering this question. In establishing nuclear safety restrictions, it must be borne in mind that the easy way out, to. allow over-generous margins of safety, can add enormously to the expense of operations. The specific factors which are most likely to influence nuclear safety are now rather well known, but not widely known to other than the specialists. The effects of a critical mass accident are often speculated upon, and many have heard some rather wild guesses. But it appears, essentially, that such an untoward incident would be a `local mess." Nearby property, within a few feet, might be damaged. The immediate environs, many yards, might be heavily contaminated. More distant effects would be air borne contamination by fission products or dissipated fissionable material. The arrival of such contamination would take time, depending on wind, and permit evacuation of exposed personnel. What Are the Health Problems? By DR. JOSEPH QUIGLEY Medical Din, National Lead Co. of Ohio, Cincinnati, Ohio The atomic age, which had its beginning ologists in the country on matters of radia here in Chicago 13 years ago, has been tion protection and the foremost safety- unique in many respects. Time will not per engineers on both construction and operation mit us to make a complete comparison of. phases. its introduction and development with that The Atomic-Energy Commission and its of steam power, electricity, the automobile contractors have continued this policy. As a or any of the other* major developments of result, the safety record of this compara recent times. tively new* industry is one-of the best in the From the point of view of safety and nation. health, however, a brief comparison is war Ten years hare gone by since atomic ranted. An understanding of the safety and energy was first put to use to stop a major health problems introduced by* steam power, war. It has continued to be a great deter electricity, and so forth, developed slowly rent to war since that time. Progress to with the development of these new forces wards constructive, peaceful uses of this new Adequate protective measures were devel force has been tremendous during this ten oped even more slowly, and their acceptance years. met considerable opposition. During this period, the lay press has fea The Corps of Engineers of the Army, tured many stories on the destructive force who, through its Manhattan Project and its of atomic energy*, and, as they would have contractors, introduced the atomic age on us believe, the almost insurmountable haz the large scale, placed paramount importance ards associated with any work with radio on the health and safety of their employees. active materials. Scientific.publications have Safety was considered in the earliest phase also featured this type of story. Possibly, of planning, and protective measures were the security* restrictions placed op much of introduced from the outset. This was ac the work have contributed to this attitude complished by consulting the foremost radi through fear of the unknown. is margins ot toexpense are most iikely ire now rather blown to other iss accident are any have heard But it appears, roward incident earbv propertj-, damaged. The ards, might.be distant effects ation by fission mable material, lunation would nd, and permit inel. 0 alters of radiaoremost safety n and operation miu. M and its lis polity. As a this compara' the best in the y since atomic to stop a major ! a great deter1 Progress touses of this new during this ten r press has feaestructive force hey would have mountable hazark with radioublications have story. Possibly, ted on much of to this attitude n. Industrial Safety 31 I believe that this general attitude is and anhydrous HF. The product of this wrong! It is certainly not the one that pre plant is then converted to uranium metal in vails at our plant the metals production plant, and the raw Handling high-voltage electricity most cer tainly presents serious hazards. At our plant electricians replace fluorescent bulbs every day. They also work in electrical substa tions handling 13,200 volts with no fanfare I am sure that you all feel that this is all metal is then converted to ingots in vacuum furnaces. In the metals fabrication plant these ingots are rolled into billets and next into rods, which are eventually converted to fuel elements by the use of automatic screw machines and centerless grinders. right. It is possible, however, only because In addition to the above process, there is the hazards of both 110-volt and 13,200-volt a hexafluoride reduction plant-which con electrical circuits are understood and ade verts uranium hexafluoride into green salt quate protective measures are taken in both and a scrap plant which converts various instances. types of uranium scrap into feed for the There is no question that large doses of refinery. external radiation can cause serious injury To summarize briefly the hazards which or death. With the proper understanding of exist at Femald: handling of large quanti the hazards involved and the utilization of ties of nitric add, tributyl phosphate (which adequate protective measures, there is no causes severe dermatitis), hydrogen, anhy need for anyone to be more fearful of han drous HF, and reduction and induction fur dling radioactive materials than working on naces using, a large amount of electrical electrical circuits. It is important to remem power; the hazards associated with a rolling ber that since the use of the atomic bomb mill and the automatic screw machine; the in Japan, radiation has caused only two ac handling of quantities of uranium hexa cidental deaths in the United States. This fluoride; which is a very soluble uranium- becomes even more significant when we con bearing material. sider that the contractors of the Atomic Energy Commission presently employ over 82,000 people hr development, research and production operations. - We have extensive materials handling problems which arc more serious than those of the average chemical or metals plant be cause of the high specific gravity of the Our discussion this morning is based to material involved. In addition to the haz some extent on our experience at the Uni ards inherent in the process, many radiation versity of Chicago, Hanford, and the AEG sources are used in densitrons as fluid level hut to a large degree on our experience at gauges. die Femald plant of the Atomic Energy Commission. This is a Seed materials pro duction center, which is operated for the Commission by my employer, the National Lead Company of Ohio. In summary, we have the usual hazards encountered in chemical plants and in metals plants, plus the special hazards induced be cause much of the material is radioactive. All of these problems warrant special con There are seven main production plants sideration because of the quantities of ma plus other associated units, such as mainte terials involved. nance; power house, substations, and so forth, at Femald. The primary function of the_plant is to convert uranium-bearing ores to fuel elements for nuclear reactor piles. Ore concentrates, to a lesser degree radiumbearing ores, are crushed and pulverized in the sampling plant to provide refinery feed. In the refinery, the ores are digested with nitric add 'and the uranium extracted in Our discussion this morning is to deal specifically with the health problems. As I see it,"these are-four in number: (1) ex ternal radiation, (2) internal radiation, (3) chemical problems, and (4) all other prob lems. Problems (1) and (2) are possibly new to many of you, but problems (3) and (4) may deal with subjects with which you are already familiar. a TBP-kerosene solution as uranyl nitrate. This is then convoShd to uranium oxide (UO,). f External Radiation For practical purposes, we can divide ex In the Green' Salt plant, the uranium ternal radiation into two types: (a) pene oxide is converted to uranium tetrafluoride trating radiation, as for example, gamma, in a process involving the use of hydrogen neutrons and high-voltage x-rays, which 32 1955 National Safety Congress penetrate deep into or through the body; It is important to remember that each and (b) soft or relatively non-penetrating organ of the body is made up of a very radiation, as for example; alpha, most beta, large number of cells so that considerable and some x-rays, -which can penetrate only . doses of radiation can be withstood with- the superficial layers of the body. We shall out serious effect The dose estimated to dispense with definitions of alpha, beta, produce death in 50 per cent of an exposed gamma, and so forth, since many of you group--the so-called LD-50--is from 400 to are already familiar with them. In any 450 R for humans. It is probably impos case, we are more interested here with their sible to detect any changes in the body effect on humans. from a whole-body dose of less than 25 R. Effect: To understand the action of ex ternal radiation, we can best compare it with light or possibly with ultraviolet light The source may be at varying distances from the body. Its effect on the body will depend upon the distance and upon the intensity of the radiation. In fact whole-body exposures of 100 R will produce radiation sickness in only about 10 per cent of the individuals. The symp toms of radiation sickness--nausea, vomit ing, bleeding from the mucous membrane, anemia, leukemia, and so forth, will there fore be seen only after exposures to very large doses of radiation. The effect which external radiation has When one considers that the maximum on the body depends upon its property of permissible dose for penetrating radiation is producing ionization in or near the indi 3 R per week, it is readily seen that sub vidual cells of the body. If only,,a. small jective symptoms or even clinical findings amount of ionization results from the pass-' could only occur following some unusual age of radiation through a cell, there may incident It is for this reason that routine be no harmful effect or only slight damage. blood counts have been dispensed with as The damage may be very, slight and recov a part of the health control of exposed ery may occur; on the other hand, the individuals. damage may be permanent or a cell may even be killed outright. The ability of ion izing radiation to produce cancer possibly depends upon* its ability to cause permanent change within a cell without affecting the cell's power to divide and reproduce itself. Soft or non-penetrating radiation: Its effect is exerted primarily on the skin since most of this type of radiation is sapped by a few millimeters of tissue. Its effect can. therefore, be compared with that of sun' light or ultraviolet light In large doses it In the case of penetrating radiation, the can cause severe bums; in smaller doses a effect may be exerted on the blood-forming mild reddening of the skin; and in still organs which are concentrated to quite a degree in the flat bones, such as the ribs, sternum, vertebrae, and so forth. This may lead to the production of anemia, leukemia or other blood dyschiasia, such as some of the hemorrhagenic diseases. It may also affect the reproductive organs, causing ster ility. A great deal has been written about the ability of ionizing radiation to adversely ahect coming generations. smaller doses no visible effect Maximum Permissible Doses: Maximum permissible doses have been established for each type of radiation, depending upon the specific ionization which it can induce in tissue. These doses are presently estab lished in the United States by the National Committee on Radiation Protection and appear in Handbook 59 of the National Bureau of Standards. The National Com I think it is important to point out, how mittee on Radiation Protection is made up ever, that most of the harmful changes , of foremost radiation experts in the United which can occur to reproductive cells are States. Many of the standards presently so-called "lethals," that is, they tend to recommended in Handbook 59 have been cause the death of the individual cell so in use for a number of years, and experi that the tendency to produce monsters is ence to date indicates that these maximum controlled to some degree by nature itself. permissible doses have been established at Ionizing radiation can also affect any of safe levels. I believe that all of you should the other cells of the body, such as the liver, fed that they can be accepted without ques spleen and intestine, and the symptoms and tion, just as you would accept maximum findings will depend upon the tissue most allowable concentrations for toxic gases in seriously damaged. air. It is important, however, to point out iber that cadi up ^f a very at{ jaderabie riths,ood withe estimated to of an exposed is from 400 to robably impos; in the body ess than 25 R. ! of 100 R wiU in only about Is. The sympnausea, vomit* Dus membrane, rth, will thereosures to very the maximum ng radiation is seen that snbIinical findings some wmisnal m that routine leased with as ol of exposed radiation: Its i the skin ance n is sapped by Its effect can. i that of sun- large doses it imalkr doses a t; i j in still icti - ' ses: Maximum established for tiding upon the can induce in resently estab* iv the National Protection and : the National National Comion is, made up s in the United lards presently 59 have been rs, and experiihcse maximum established at t of you should d without ques-cept maximum toxic gases in tr, to point out Industrial Safety 33 that these doses are maximum. Every ef rial within the body. The mode of entry fort should be made to keep all exposure into the body is through the respiratory to both penetrating and non-penetrating ra tract Particles which are inhaled will be diation at the lowest levels possible. deposited along the respiratory tract or in Protective Measures: To maintain indus trial employees at or below the maximum permissible dose for external radiation, cer tain protective measures must be under stood and followed. The intensify of light diminishes as we get further from its source. The radiation dose likewise dimin ishes as we get further from the source of the lungs. Particle size, of course, will determine the amount which will eventually reach the lung tissue. Larger particles are filtered out by vibrissae, or hair, in the nasal passages and on the mucous membrane lining the throat and larger air passages. Much of this material will be sneezed or coughed from the respiratory system. radiation. Distance or space from a radia Particles below five to 10 microns will tion source is, therefore; our "number one" remain airborne and reach the lung in protective measure. relatively large numbers. This material will The density of air is quite low. By inter posing any material of greater density be tween the source of radiation and the hu man body, the distance may be reduced. The greater the density of the interposing material, the greater may be the redaction in the safe distance from the source. As you all know, lead is ideal shielding mate gradually be coughed up and swallowed, and 3. portion of it will be absorbed from the intestinal tract Soluble materials, such as uranium hexafluoride, however, may be absorbed into the blood stream directly from the lung. Except for soluble mate rials; very little absorption occurs from the lung. rial Uranium, because of its higher den Regardless of the mode of entry, these sity, produces an even better barrier. Wood, radioactive materials circulate in the blood steel, water, and concrete all form excellent and will be incorporated into new cells be shielding materials. Given the intensity of ing produced within the body. Some metals, the source, it is but a simple mathematical such as uranium and radium, will be depos problem to determine the thickness of any ited in the bone; other substances, such as shielding material which is necessary to cre polonium, will be deposited in the liver or ate satisfactory working conditions in die spleen. Since these substances are radio vicinity of the source. active, they will then act as radiation sources Methods of Measurement: There are many methods of measuring the radiation dose. within the body. They will produce their effect on a 24-hour basis. Ionization chambers, such as Junos or any Maximum Allowable Concentrations: As of the large number of GM instruments on in the case of external radiation, maximum the market; will provide accurate methods allowable concentrations have been estab of measurement It is important to remem lished for almost all radioactive elements in ber, however, that these instruments must breathing air. These maximum allowable be calibrated frequently to provide reliable concentrations have been established by the results. National Committee on Radiation Protection Personnel monitoring devices which re and appear in Handbook 52 of the National cord the dose received by each individual Bureau of Standards. As in the case of may be used. These consist of film .badges ... external radiation, it is important to rememor pocket dosimeters which are small, port ber that these standards are maximum, and able ionization chambers. There are several every attempt should be made to maintain companies in the United States which pro airborne radioactive material at the lowest vide film badge service at a nominal charge possible level. per badge. It is probably not economically sound to provide your own film badge service unless this type of dosimeter is required by 800 or more employees. Protective Measures.* Protective measures against airborne radioactive material should consist primarily of the removal of the material at its source of 'generation. This Airborne Radioactive Materials requires the application of adequate venti lation at all points where radioactive mate Effect: The health problem in this case rial may become airborne as a dust, mist or results from the deposit of radioactive mate fume. The principles involved in removing 34 1955 Xational Safety Congress nuisance dusts in general apply in this in such chips into the reservoir where they stance. However, because of the compara will be promptly extinguished. tively low maximum allowable concentra tion--50 mg/M* of air for uranium--it is usually necessary to make extensive use of hoods over machines or to carry on opera tions in a ventilated dry box. Methods of Measurement: It is not at all difficult to measure the amount of radio active material which becomes airborne in the production area. By using a small elec tric pump, through which the flow of air It i important in designing ventilation can be determined, it is possible to obtain equipment to size the ducts adequately so filter paper samples on which the radioactive that the material will remain airborne until material is deposited. Because the material conveyed to an adequate dust collector. is radioactive, the amount deposited on the For this reason, and because of the value filter paper can be readily determined with of the material, it is desirable to design an standard counting equipment. At our plant, adequately balanced system. If dampers are wc collect two types of samples in making used, the material will be deposited on or a survey of the work environment. near the dampers. Breathing zone samples are taken in the Less desirable as a means of protection is vicinity of the operator's nose and mouth the use of respirators. Although there are while he is operating his equipment. A time many respirators approved by the Bureau study of the actual time spent in operating of Mines for use in dusty atmospheres, we equipment is also made. General air samples at Fentald have found-them lo be inade- - are obtained in the area adjacent to the quaic. There is no question that, properly individual pieces of operating equipment, in used, these respirators would be satisfac the washroom, change facilities, cafeteria tory. Experience, however, has shown us and other places, such as smoking areas, that the average individual will not prop where the man may be engaged during the erly apply a dust respirator with the result day. Time studies are also made in each that a ialse sense of security may result. of these other operations. Frequently, if you ask an employee to re move his mask, his face and nose will show evidence that the respirator has not been fastened tight enough to his face to give adequate protection. This we have con firmed by findings of uranium in employee's urine. By tabulating the results of these two methods of sampling, a weighted daily exposure to the radioactive material may be computed. This should always be kept at or below the maximum allowable concentration for the particular radioactive material. 'A third type of sample is also collected Within the last year we have, therefore, when breathing zones are found to be above recommended the use of airline respirators. desirable limits. These are termed "Proc These have been installed from a central air ess" samples. In this instance, samples are system at sites where such protection is fre collected at various points about the equip quently required for maintenance jobs. At ment to determine the source of the radio sites where less frequent use occurs, port active material, so that ventilation may be able tanks of breathing air are used. applied to remove the material at its source Of equal importance to the above protec of generation. tive measures is the training of the oper Where operations have become stand ators to do their work in such a manner as ardized, surveys of this type can be made to cause the least amount of material to infrequently. It is important, however, that become airborne. An example of this is new surveys be made each time changes in provided where a lathe is used to cut ura the equipment or operating procedures are nium metal. The chips produced arc nor- made. i mally flushed by coolants into a reservoir Chemical Problems at the bottom of the machine. Certain materials, when introduced into Frequently, burning chips will hang up the body, have a toxic effect--for example, on parts of the equipment. As these chips mercury and carbon tetrachloride. It is burn, a large amount of fumes and uranium important to remember that many radio oxide may become airborne. With adequate active materials may also have a toxic effect training, the men may be taught to knock Their action in the body from a toxic point sir where diet ed , Ii hot at all tount of radiones airborne in tg a small elfeclie flow of air ssible to obtain t the radioactive ise the materia] leposited on the letermined with . At our plant, iples in making ntment. re taken in the lose and mouth ipment A time ait in operating eral air samples idjacent to the g equipment, in ilities, cafeteria smoking areas, aged during the i made in each ; of these two weighted daily naterial may be ys be kept at or le concentration e r*~teriaL s - ,/ collected und to be above termed "Procce, samples are bout the equip* of the radiotilation may be ial at its source become stand can be made ; however, that time changes in procedures are sms introduced into t--for example, shloride. It is it many radioe a toxic effect m a toxic point Industrial Safety 35 of view will be the same as their non radioactive isotopes. All Other Problems Earlier we enumerated the many health and safety problems which we encounter in the operations at Femald. The problems of high-voltage electricity, materials handling, the use of quantities of adds, and so forth, are problems with which you are all familiar. Conclusion In dosing. I would like to reiterate that the problems involved in the handling of radioactive materials need cause no one alarm. These problems are well understood and adequate protective measures have been devised. It is no more difficult to under stand these problems and operate a plant within safe limits than it is to operate a plant not handling radioactive materials. I would suggest that any of you who are to become involved in the handling of radio active materials obtain the advice and assist ance of a competent industrial hygienist, and if the size of the operation warrants, add one of these specially trained individ uals to your staff. Analyze your hazards and potential haz ards before the engineers go to work. Plan in advance to eliminate or at least control all hazards. After you are in operation, check and recheck by the use of survey equipment and personal monitoring devices, such as film badges. Effective Reporting Get Your Program Off "Dead Center" By A. a ZEILINGER Consultant, Charles L. Baker & Co., Management Consultants, Estes Park, Colo. I see no better way of approaching this "dead center." Merely holding the line will subject than by bang' frank. By being never win a war. We must get out of the trank I do not mean unfriendly or tactless, trenches of complacency and move forward. but to call a spade a spade. Complacency is not only one of the To explain one implication of the term greatest enemies to better safety, but to ``dead center," may I refer to one of my early experiences. As a youth I worked in a stone quarry. The crusher was driven by an engine which had only one cylinder. The engineer always tried to stop the engine in shutting dowm so the crank pin would not be in dead line with the piston end, all our freedoms and to all human progress and welfare as well We forget that our enemies never sleep, and what they can't accomplish by a frontal attack, the}* will attempt by stealth from within. It is a highly dangerous sense of security to fed we have done pretty well to hold the line. but some times he was not successful. In Another reason we're on dead center is those cases we had to bar or jack the fly our lack of enthusiasm. Safety is a selling wheel around a distance to get off dead job, and a good selling job is not possible center, because no matter how much steam without enthusiasm. was turned on there would be no motion Elbow grease is another ingredient that as long as the engine was on dead center. , is needed in larger measure if we'd get of? So, "dead center" means "stalled." It is dead center in our accident prevention. The apparent our safety isn't going ahead like will to work is one thing that must be in it should. It's on dead center. Perhaps we any undertaking if we would accomplish need a bar or a jack. all that we are capable of accomplishing. Speaking of dead center, let's see why You can't get off dead center with your that subject comes up. More than a quarter feet on the desk top. ox a century ago when I came into safety ' We've been examining you. Let's examine work; one of the first things I did was to your safety program a bit now and see take a look at the toll of accidents. Here's what can be done there to get off dead what I saw: 100,000 deaths, three or four center. millions crippled to some degree, six or Is your safety program popular? It it eight million others receiving injuries from which they fully recovered as working units. That was the annual human toll of accidents, most of which were pre ventable. To all that, we must, of'course, add a property loss of some five or six isn't, you'd better change, for safety can't be rammed down the worker's throat With a popular program and with intelligent vigorous and continuous leadership, much can be accomplished to keep things going forward. Remember, the same old. program billions. that was good enough for father and Today we see nearly the same picture. mother is not good enough for you. Of course, there are those who will say: Do you get the participation of the "Well, with the greatly increased exposure, individual? You know full well that if a we have done well to hold the line in the person takes part in anything, he is more war against accidents." interested and he'll try harder to succeed. My frank opinion is that we haven't done Get everybody into'the game. There's no as well as we should because we have so fun standing on the sideline. much more in the way of tools, skill and Everybody has one or several strong know-how to work with. So holding the points. If you can emphasize those in your line is not good enough--that's being on accident prevention program, your accident Industrial Safety 37 Park, Colo. tg the line will get out of the move forward. f one oi the safety, but to lutnan progress forget that our rhat they can't tack, they ithin. It fe a ^curity to ted , hold the line dead center is :ety is a selling is not possible ingredient that if we'd get off prevention. The hat must be in mid accomplish accomplishingnter with your prevention will keep improving. So. don't permit that factor to get on dead center. There must be an opportunity for people to see results. That keeps people going. We are apt to get discouraged if we don't; and discouragement must never be permitted to rear its ugly head. That is one tool the devil will never give up. and he isn't inter ested in preventing accidents. He's interested only in our downfall. I want to go back and emphasize one point a bit more. I said something about elbow grease; a common term for hard work. Accidents are like ills--there is something wrong, and I know no ill that hard work won't cure. Others feel the same my. I once heard a works manager say to his safety men: "Go up to plant 4A'. See what those fellows are doing to prevent actidents and then come down and go to work." Yes, work will get you off dead center and it will keep you going. Take, a tip from the U. S. Post Office Dept. "Neither wind nor rain nor snow nor cold nor dark of night shall keep these couriers from their appointed rounds." Why? Because they keep cin working. May I also add, "Let neither time nor age interfere in your safety building. Forget self and think of the other fellow." Why? Well, perhaps the answer is in this little anonymous poem: "The Bridgebuilder" An old man going a low highway. Came at the evening cold and gray To a chasm vast and deep and wide. The old man crossed in the twilight dim. The swollen stream had no fear for him. But he turned when safe on the other side. And built a bridge to span the tide. "Old Man," said a fellow pilgrim near, "You're wasting your strength with building here! Your journey will end with the ending day. Yon never again will pass this way; You've crossed the chasm deep and wide. Why build this bridge at evening tide?" The builder lifted his old, gray head; "Good friend, in the path I have come," he said, "There followed after me today A youth whose feet must pass this way. The chasm that has been as naught to me. To that fairhaired youth, may a pitfall be; He, too, must cross in the twilight dim; Good friend. I'm building this bridge for him." u \^A examine t now and see 0 get off dead popular? If it tor safety emit r's throat. With with intelligent, sadership, much ep things going me old.program for father and for you. jpation of the well that if a ing, he is more rder to succeedme. There's no several strong re those in yovi your accident How to Prepare and Present Reports to Management and Supervisors By J. L. RIDINGER Director, Safety & Plant Protection, Inland Steel Co., East Chicago, Ind. This subjectis of vitaL interest to-all of us. Are we misting the boat with reports whose contents are too lengthy and over done, instead of being clear and to the point? Today every business is report conscious. Good reporting is essential to good manage ment. It is a "must"-to have good up and down communications to all levels of man agement Reports should be properly pre pared to contain words and figures that explain to, rather than confuse the reader. What Is Good ReportingT It is simple, pertinent Information that management and supervisors need in order to be- properly informed. Safety is just one phase of any business. Management must be kept informed of all phases. Their time is at a premium, current and future business problems must be proc essed daily. Voluminous and complicated reports are frequently passed over lightly, or set aside for future reading' Management and the supervisory group, like their employees, tire of safety reports that never change. In order to attract thenattention and keep them posted, we have 38 1955 National Safety Congress found it helpful to adapt our reports to forms and terms used by them in their daily business transactions. First, there is the morning report for front office, department superintendents and assistant superintendents. This report cov ers the events involving accidents, injuries and fires for the previous 24 hours. It is made up by the safety division and the cen tral duplicating section. The report is avail able to the general superintendent's office at 9:00 am. and sent out to the department superintendents in the morning mail. At times this report will have a picture story of an accident or fire. When no pictures are used, the report is typed on a multilith mat with a multilith typewriter ribbon. The mat is put on a multilith machine and the necessary number of copies run off. When pictures are used, the print is proc essed by a Kodak process. You will note we have five groups: pri mary production, flat products, shapes, oper ating services and services. The report shows the number of minor and disabling injuries to date this year compared to the previous year for each group. It also shows the number of tons shipped per minor and disabling injury to date this year compared to a year ago. When you compare injuries with tons 'shipped you are speaking the operator's language. This report also shows the number of am bulance calls to date. If you have a plant ambulance, I am quite sure you will find that 50 per cent of your ambulance calls are for non-industrial conditions, such as heart attacks, diabetics and gastro-intestinal up sets. Whenever our fire trucks respond to a firer-it-is-deseribed in the morning report Also listed is the resume report of an acci dent or disabling injury. W;e have found this report to be effective in keeping department heads and supervisors informed on a daily basis. It also minimizes the abuse of facts, frequently a part of "grapevine communications." Tcic-Communicator. Another media of communications is a tele-communicator. We have dial phones. By dialing Number Seven you are able to hear'the1 message of the day. Safety messages are prepared weekly. In addition, any mishap of general interest is recorded and put on the communicator for immediate use. This can be done by going to the recording room or by dialing a special number and recording the message from your desk. Messages are generally limited to one minute. The communicator is also an excellent media for recognizing and announcing safety accomplishments for a department or a sec tion of a department, such as a department that has worked a million or more man hours without a disabling injury, or a large section of a department that works a month or more without a minor or disabling injury. It is also helpful for spot announcements to explain changes in your safety program. Monthly Unsafe Acts Report. This re port is made up by the safety division. Copies are sent to the front office, depart ment superintendents, assistant superintend ents and all foremen. Its primary use is for supervisors' meetings with the workers. Each of our safety engineers is required to submit in writing a minimum of five un safe acts that he has observed during the preceding month. Our safety engineers must also report unsafe acts immediately to the foreman involved. In the report, the unsafe acts are listed under specific headings such as Trucks Sr Tractors, Cranes Sr Cranemen, Running & Jumping, Safety Equipment, Personal Hazards, Short Cuts, Pinch Points, Railroads, Piling, Signs and Barricades. This report is given considerable attention by all department superintendents, assistant superintendents and foremen. Because it is given plant-wide distribution, supervisors and workers do not want adverse publicity. We do not concentrate on one department, but try to cover the entire plant This avoids supervisors' feeling that we are trying to criticize one department more-than another. Graph Reports. Graph reports permit you to relate a long and informative story on one sheet of paper. For example, one graph covers 41 years of injury experience, 19131954, and shows the net tons shipped per disabling injury. In 1913 we shipped 1,500 tons per disabling injury. In 1954 we shipped 30,000 tons per disabling injury. Graph reports based upon the ASA Z16.1 formula for frequency of disabling injuries are of interest to management You can compare your own experience over a period ene^linterest ai jmicator 1 bv. done by ir by dialing a ; the message are generally an excellent oundng safety nent or a seca department ir more mantry. or a large t-orks a month sabling injury, ounccments to y program. ort. This reifety division office, departt superintendary use is for the workers, is required to a of five uned during the Engineers must diately to the >rt, the unsafe headings such & Cranemen, y Equipment, F j Points, Ba.-Jades. ruble attention lents, assistant Because it is X supervisors rerse publicity, le department, it This avoids are trying to than another. rts permit you stive story on pie, one graph perience, 1913s shipped per shipped 1,500 954 we shipped ty. he ASA Z16.1 abling injuries mt You can over a period Industrial Safety 39 of years, compare your experience with other companies in the industry, or compare yourself with the average for your industry. but. the frequency of each section as well, such as Rolling, Finishing, Mechanical, Elec trical and Labor. The department in each Demonstration -- Frequency -- Severity. Even though we have been trying to edu cate our department heads and supervisors since 1945.about the meaning of frequency and severity, we are still not sure they have a dear understanding of the ASA Z16.1 code. Perhaps some of you are in the same predicament. Recently we developed a simple graphic demonstration which we have found to be hdpful in explaining the formula for fre quency and severity. We use a laboratory scale. Our plant works a little more than 3,000,000 man-hours a month. Our objective is a frequency of One. As you know, the formula for frequency is the number of disabling injuries, times a million, divided by the man-hours worked. In this demonstration we illustrate this ob jective by placing three blocks, each repre senting one million man-hours worked, on one side of the scale. On the other side we use three blocks representing three disabling injuries. The pointer on the scale is set to point to the figure one. Then we show our actual frequency experience for the previous mouth or year to date. section competes against its previous fouryear experience, which we call a "norm." A department or section that does not have a disabling injury and reduces its frequency over a four-year norm by 25 per cent is eligible for safety smokes. A package of cigarettes, a cigar, or a candy bar is given out as a token award. We believe it important to report the fre quency of minor injuries as well as disabling injuries. The most important part of our safety program is based upon the elimination .of unsafe acts. We agree with Heinrich's theory that unsafe acts beget minor injuries and minor injuries beget disabling injuries. Our true injury frequency rate contains minor and disabling injuries. Frequency rates that only include disabling injuries in our opinion represent the first stage of severity. Supervisor's Safety Boards. We have special injury boards located in each section of a department. These boards show the minor and disabling injury experience for each foreman's crew. The board shows the monthly score and the accumulative score to date. To demonstrate severity (days lost times a million divided by the man-hours worked) we place three blocks again, each block representing one million man-hours worked, on one balance of the scale. On the other balance we place a block representing the actual days lost during the month. Our objective in using this type of board is that comparing foremen chi various turns of the same section inspires the general foreman and the foremen to improve their safety performance within the section. The department head also uses these boards in rating his department by sections. Weighted charges are represented by blocks in the form of figures. A casket is used for a fatality, which represents 6,000 days. Other figures are those of fingers, toes, hands, feet, arms, legs and eyes, with the corresponding weighted charges. IVhat Happened--How Injury Was Pre vented. We have found picture stories of incidents where protective equipment has prevented injury helpful in selling our work ers on the value of using or wearing pro tective equipment Our"objective tsto Save less than 500 How It Happened and How It Can Be days lost per million man-hours worked. We Prevented. We also use picture stories that remove the necessary blocks so that the pointer indicates our objective on a back ground chart. The figure representing weighted charges is very vivid and demon strates how serious injuries create handi capped workers. Total Injury Experience. Each month we make up a total injury frequency report for each department This report not only shows the frequency of injuries for the department tell how injuries happened and how they can be prevented. We use these reports to' impress workers that safety devices are of no value to the worker unless properly used. Report of Man-Hours and Days Worked Without a Disabling Injury. Another report we find to be of interest to management and supervisors shows man-hours worked by each department without a disabling in- 40 1955 National Safety Congress jury. Departments are grouped under their respective assistant general superintendent. The report shows the mnhber of man-hours worked during the month by each depart ment, the number of disabling injuries dur ing the month, the number of days since the last disabling injury, and accumulative man hours since the last disabling injury. This year four departments and one sec tion of a department passed -the million man-hour mark without a disabling injury. Last August, our tin mill passed the two million man-hour mark, without a disabling injury. Employees in departments that work a million or more man-hours without a dis abling injury* are given token awards. Report of Formal Investigation of Dis ailing Injuries. One of the problems con fronting every safety engineer is reports of formal accident investigations. Our prindple concem is preventing a recurrence. We have found a form effective which requires that the department superintendent list the following: Date of last safety instruction given injured, who conducted the investiga tion, details of the accident, cause of the accident, who was responsible, discipline, if any, explanation of action to be taken to prevent a recurrence of accident, when ac tion will take place, person or persons re sponsible for follow-up, mid action enforce ment. This report nails down the important facts necessary to correct an unsafe condi tion or procedure. Superintendent's Interviezo with Injured Employee. Tins report is a companion re port of the department superintendent's for mal investigation report. Frequently, the injured employee is not able to be present at the formal investigation. When he is able to return to work, he must'first report to his department superintendent's office, where the interview is conducted. This meeting affords the superintendent the opportunity of getting the injured's story first hand. He can also check to find out whether or not the recommendations made a; the formal investigation are being complied with. Injury Cost Reports. Monthly cost re ports are submitted to top management and department superintendents. These reports show the amount of compensation paid ior injuries and occupational diseases for the , previous month, year to date, and for the same period a year ago. The report also shows our compensation | cost based on a hundred dollar payroll and i compensation cost per ton of steel shipped. From time to time we remind management and supervisors, that the indirect cost oi : injuries and diseases are four times the medical and compensation costs. Pin Pointing Safety Reports. To point up safety messages and post pictures or. bulletin boards, we have used two gadgetwith considerable success. A manikin prop erly dressed for whatever department he i? to be used in points to a bulletin board Attached to the manikin is a Mohawk mes sage repeater. Thirty or 60-second messages can be used on the tape recorder. The message is repeated when anyone steps or. the trip mat as they pass by. This is one of the many uses to which we put our mani kin and message repeater. Briefly, to summarize the subject of pre paring reports; it is important to remember. (1) Safety reports are selling aids for your safety program. (2) Always use language in comparison to that which is common in your industry. (3) Avoid complicated re ports, keep them short. It is better to issue several short reports tbat will be read than a lengthy detailed report that mil be sc: aside for future reading. "Progress Indicator"--A New Technique in Reporting By ROBERT L. JENKINS Chief, Safety Div., Office of the Chief of Engineers, Dept, of the Army, Washington, D. C. The progress indicator is a method devel- safety program. The objective of this oped and used by the Office of the Chief of method is to tell the chief of engineers Engineers for gauging progress of the whether the performance of his safety pro- superintendent : ijf ipTs ston ed J find oat dations made a; being complied antfaly cost relanagement and These reports tsation paid ior iseases for the te, and for the tr compensation liar payroll and f steel shipped. id management, direct cost of four times the ns. orts. To point )st pictures on ed two gadget* * manilda propepartment he is bulletin board, i Mohawk mcsiecond messages recorder. The nyone steps on iy. This is one e put our mani- sv 3Jt .of pre- at to remember, g aids for your s use language i is common in complicated re; better to issue ill be read than tat will be set leporting Army, ective of this f of engineers his safety pro- Industrial Safely 41 gram is better or worse, how each of his installations are contributing to the overall performance and the fundamental reasons why performance is better or worse. For example, the accident experience for the first six months of the current year is compared to the same six months of the pre vious year. As additional data develops, it This, method is not intended to replace systems for computing injury and accident rates but is rather a means of adding them all together in a systematic fashion. To this total are added those most important ele ments, die reason why accidents occur and will be possible to use the average experi ence for the identical periods in two or more previous years, giving a normal based on a wider scope of activity. This method de parts from using zero as a base, as is cus tomary when computing conventional rates. tvhat command has done to control the Within the brackets, data originate from causes. current accident experience. The symbol A signifies accidents and denotes the total num Figure -Vo. One ber of accidents times 160/300 over the man Progress Indicator hours -worked. The total number of acci PI = N--(A+DL+PD+RC+CD-rS) A method of utilizing accident re port data to evaluate progress of a safety program. dents is the sum of ail reportable accidents occurring on work or operations under the jurisdiction of the Corps of Engineers that it is reasonable to expect to be within the immediate resources of the installation com The progress indicator is expressed by the formula shown in Figure No. One. An im portant point to remember is that all data used in the formula are obtained from acci dent reports (DA Form 285). These re ports are evaluated as submittal by the field with nothing added or deleted in the Office of the Chief of Engineers. Accidents and their consequences which arc beyond a commanders' immediate re sources to correct are not included in the PI method of evaluation. Examples of ex cluded accidents are those involving naviga tion structures caused by vessels other than Corps of Engineers, drowning of a member of die public visiting one of our reservoirs, a private motor vehicle striking a fixed Government structure; acts of God such as tornado, hurricane, and. so forth. mander to correct. DL denotes days lost and is developed by multiplying the total number of days lost by 1,200 and dividing by the manhours worked. The total number of days lost is the sum of all days lost as a result of injuries to civil ian, military and contractor on duty person nel and are compiled in the conventional manner of adding together time lost due to temporary total injuries and fixed charges (days lost) for fatalities and permanent impairments. PD denotes property damage and is the amount of damage in dollars multiplied by 230 and divided by the manhours worked. This damage is from any source and applies to contractor as well as Corps of Engineers. Other Federal and public property damage are not used in this computation. The first element in the formula is a normal whose symbol is N. The normal represents performance during a previously selected-period. The normal is computed by applying the portion of the.formula within the brackets to accident reports received during the period selected for comparison. RC denotes reason for cause and is the number of units assigned multiplied by 500,000 and divided by the manhours worked. A unit is assigned to each instance where a supervisory deficiency and/or physical de ficiency, either Government or contractor, produce the accident cause. The PI is used to compare current safety performance of an installation with its own performance over a previously selected pe riod. In other words, is performance better, Physical deficiencies are defined as those accident factors which stem from poor con struction practice, maintenance, layout or equipment worse or about the same as it was for the previously selected period? . At OCE, the accident experience for the. same period of the previous calendar year is used for de veloping the normal. Supervisory deficiencies are defined as those accident factors which stem from failure of supervisors at job level to direct, inspect, instruct and place the working force in a manner conducive to safe operation. ttj ill 5* 5fi flji >? i t; i .H 1 42 1955 National Safety Congress These definitions make it obvious that commander's understanding of the problems either one, two or none may be assigned a involved and his acceptance of responsibility single accident Selection depends on which to clear them up. Obviously' this is the hub factors, if any, are predominant around which the Corps of Engineers safety- For example, if a man falls from a scaf fold not provided with a guardrail, a phys ical deficiency is assigned. If a man falls program revolves and therefore must be a principal consideration in evaluating safety performance. from a scaffold while using the cross mem When reports are evaluated in OCE a bers as means of access when adequate command deficiency is not assigned when the access has been provided by means of suit district engineer corrects a deficiency oc able ladders or stairways a supervisory curring at project level or the division engi deficiency is assigned. neer corrects one occurring at district level. If a piece of equipment is wrecked be cause of brake failure while bong operated at excessive speed both a physical and super This is one reason why a district's PI as determined by a division will rarely be the same as the district PI developed by OCE visory deficiency are assigned. When neither 5 denotes a surcharge which is developed of the two reasons for cause are involved by multiplying the total number of perma no consideration is given to failure of the nent impairments and fatal injuries, and the individual--for example, a man turning his number of accidents involving over $lfi00 ankle when he stepped on a pebble. by 5fi00fi00 and dividing by the manhours CD denotes command deficiency which is developed by multiplying the number of accident reports which involve such a de ficiency by 12fl00fl00 and dividing by the manhours worked. A command deficiency is assigned to an accident report when the report indicates, on the part of Corps of Engineers command, an apathetic review, a poor grasp of the facts involved, and inade quate directions to correct deficiencies. A command deficiency is also assigned to a report involving a fatality, permanent impairment or property damage over $1,000, where such incidents occur in a district or separate. installation due to repetitive cause. For example, if a man loses a finger operat ing a power saw without a guard, and, afterwards, another man loses a finger by the same cause, a command deficiency' is assigned. If a fire occurs caused by an unattended salamander with resulting dam age of over $1,000, and another occurs, cause the same, with over $1,000 loss, a command deficiency is assigned. worked. S was made a weighty factor in the evaluation because such serious incidents must Be effectively controlled before the safety program can be considered as making progress. It is conceded that, in some instances, severity of an injury or amount of property damage is a matter of chance. However, experience of the Corps establishes that most of our fatals, permanent impairments and large dollar losses are foregone conclusions if certain incidents occur. For example, when a man falls from a considerable height the severity of his injuries are extreme The same holds true if he is in contact with equipment which engages a power line When valuable property is stored without segregation of combustibles or providing fire protection, or when heating and wiring arrangements are dangerous, the fire losses are usually large Since the severity of incidents of this nature are largely- predictable and--since practical controls are well publicized the occurrence of such accidents must have spe The symbol CD represents a weighty fac cial consideration when measuring perform tor in the evaluation, which is evident from ance the large constant in the numerator of the formula. This is weighty because it is a determined evaluation of report data in terms of application of policy and instruc tions issued by the Chief of Engineers to his field commands. Assuming that reports tor the five dis tricts of a division have been reviewed and coded, the tabulation looks as shown in Figure Two. Note that the performance of each'district is compared against itself. By totaling respective items of data, computing Section II of the accident report (DA the PI factors, the average of all districts Form 283) is regarded as a certificate of the is obtained. In OCE each installation is the problems r<f isibility tis ... the hi* jineers safetyre must be a uating safety I in OCE a ned when the lefidency ocdivision engidistrict level, strict's PI as rarely be the ped by OCE is developed rr of permairies, and the aver $lfi00 he manhours factor in the >us incidents l before the ed as making ne instances, t of property' e. However, hes that most ailments and e conclusions ror. example, erf jheight scti^.je. The contact with power line. 3red without >r proriding l and wiring te fire losses ents of this I and since rblidzed the ist have speing perform- ihe five dis'eviewed and s shown in formance of st itself. By t, computing all districts istallation is Industrial Safety 43 DIST. A B C D E AVE. Figure Two Progress Indicator N -- (A+DL+PD+RC+CD+S) = PI 397--(2.0+Z1+0.8+57+ 17+57)= +237 44.4--(37+2.4+1.9+45+ 3.6+77)= +205 217--(27+1.1+37+6.7+ 27+47)= + 1.4 24.4--(1.9+47+47+87+12.1+67)= --1Z9 19.1--(1.4+1.6+2.1+97+11.0+6.1) = --12.6 29.9--(27+2.4+27+67+ 6.1+5.9)= + 4.0 compared with itself and the average for all is shown. At this point the tabulation is not yet in the form of a good report. If relative num bers are used they can very well divert the attention of command from the real purpose of this system. This is particularly true of those, districts or installations whose per formance is getting worse but whose acci dent experience may be considerably better than that of the district making the greatest improvement For example, you can see how the people in District E might easily convince them selves' that they are better than District A. In reports to command, the percentage of progress or retrogression is shown. This is accomplished by dividing the PI result by the normal. In the Progress Indicator report as com mand sees it, all districts whose bars are on the right side of a median line are doing all right and to the degree indicated by per centage. The bars on the left of the median line represent the districts that are doing poorly and to what degree. One other thing that command wants to know is why these districts are doing better or worse. At OCE, in reports to the Chief, this is accomplished by a short statement For example. District A shows a pro gression of 58 per cent due to reduction in fatalities, (two during the first three months of 1954 against none for the same period of 195j) and improvement of command (57 for 1954 against 17 for 1955). This typical short statement pertaining to. District A tells the Chief why this district shows a progression of 58 per cent. This quickly indicates that command of District A is on the ball and turning in a commendable per formance. Another example: District D shows a retrogression of 53 per cent due to reason for cause (47 in 1954 compared to 87 in 1955) and command deficiencies (67 in 1954 against 12.1 in 1955) and excessive property damage. Some radical changes must be brought about in this district as soon as posable to bring it more in line with the average performance of all districts. The progress indicator is of course geared, to Corps of Engineers organization and op erations and is designed to highlight those factors that are believed to control the Corps accident experience. It was developed as a means of posting the Chief of Engi neers as how elements of his command are performing safetywise. It is apparent that this method of utilizing accident data to evaluate progress of a safety program has many advantages to field installations. An interesting feature of the formula is the flexibility offered by adding or removing elements For "within the installation" pur poses such things as promptness 'or com pleteness of reporting or violations of safety requirements or any other circum stance that impedes progress can be in cluded as factors in the formula. The appli cation as presented here is that version winch meets the needs of the Office of the Chief of Engineers. The way is clear for the field to apply it as their needs indicate. In the short time that the PI has bqen used by* OCE, there has been much en couragement. Commanding officers are per sonally reviewing and signing all accident reports, and command deficiencies are be coming more and more infrequent The resultant command actions are decreasing the number of reason for cause factors. It must be remembered that the progress indicator is not reducing accident prevention to a formula; it is not a substitute for safety' engineering; it is not an accident rate; mad it is not intended as being a means of com paring one installation with another. It is 44 1955 National Safety Congress only something that tells us if the perform Group Two factors are the dynamic fac ance of the safety program is getting better tors drawn from experience, disposition of or worse and why. which spells out degree of competence in Development of the Formulas dealing with the future. Since Group Two factors largely control Groups One and Selection of factors and relative weights. Three in subsequent periods, it is the most Factor Weigh1 important one in determining safety prog Accidents ............................ 2 ress. Again, through experimentation, 3 Group Days lost.................................2 group weight of around 50. per cent of the One Property damage.................... 2 total was found fair and in balance. The Group Reason for cause......................5 Two Command deficiency.............. 6 Group Fatals and permanent Three impairments .......................... 23 Property damage over $1,000.. 1.5 Group One factors are entirely historical, those from which traditional injur}' and accident rates are developed. Each factor is all-embracing, Le^ includes all accidents, group weight of 11 was distributed to give "command deficiency" the largest unit value since command action is the most important element in making safety progress. Group Three factors separate extreme consequences from those which may be termed the ordinary. It is argued that the chance element governs degree of conse quences. This is no more true than to argue that chance is the governor of acci whether fire, motor vehicle, injury, aircraft,, dent occurrence. By extensive study of marine, and so forth.!? accidents in which these factors were in Group Two factors are those from which control of future accidents is developed. Group Three factors are those which rep resent extreme accident consequences. volved, it was found that circumstances in volved usually predicted the consequences. The control of extremes is obviously an important element in gauging progress. The remaining weight of around 20 per cent was The six factors are those which are in given this group with the preponderant escapable when considering safety perform factor weight bring assigned to fatals and ance. They sure grouped as to their inter permanent impairments. relationship, so that the weight value deter mined for each group is a fair and proper Development of Constants representation of its importance. In developing the formulas for each of It will be noted that the total of all weights was arbitrarily set at 21. This num ber has no significance except to keep the weights as closely as possible in small round numbers. The weights assigned to each group however, are of very special signifi cance in measuring our safety performance. Group One factors are a partial measure of past safety actions and activities. By evaluating changes periodically, some reason able assumptions may be drawn about the effectiveness of the program. However, these factors give no consideration to cause and consequence which are a result of chance or otherwise beyond reach of the safety pro gram to control. In experimenting with ac cident data for several years, it was found that weight of Group One factors could not exceed 30 per cent of total without diluting the factors in the Progress Indicator, it was necessary to first select a denominator. Due to the wide differences in activities, values of property and equipment, and relations of expenditures to work performed,- the num ber of manhours worked was selected as the simplest and best common denominator. The relation between some factor and manhours could be questioned at a particular installa tion, but since that installation's perform ance is compared to its previous records; -- the whole set of formulas evens out the evaluation. With the common denominator and the desired relative weight established, the for mula for each factor was a simple matter. Taking the factor "Accident," for example, with a relative weight of two; the formula becomes: the value of sincere preventive effort with Number of Accidents X C = 2 intangibles. A total weight of six was Manhours therefore assigned to Group One with equal ___ 2 X Manhours distribution of two to each factor. -- No. of Accidents Industrial Safety 45 e jt*->aiBic iac. < Isirion of cbiupetence in ice Group Turd nips One and It is the most g safety pfogsrimentarion, a per cent of the i balance. The ributed to give gest unit value most important ogress. >afate extreme vhich may be irgued that the pree of conse- true than to rernor of acdsive study of ctors were inmmstances in: consequences. > obviously an progress. The !Q per cent was : preponderant 1 to fatals and istants .s/- \each of 3<C^ Jr, it was lommator. Due divides, values nd relations of med, the mnnselected as the lominator. The and manhours ticular installaion's perfonn. eyious records, evens out the inator and the ished, the forsimple matter. " for example, x>; the formula The constant, C, was determined on the basis of the previous experience of the entire Corps of Engineers. The formulas for acci dents, days lost; dollars of property dam age, fatals, permanent impairments and num 269. The two-year total was 352 defi ciencies. Manhours of employment for the two years were about 763,000,000. C = ~5--X----7"63^,0*0"0=.040056.776 ber of accident losses over $1,000 are based on Corps-wide experience for the years e. Command Deficiencies 1952, 1953, and 1954, a three-year average. The number of command deficiencies The formulas on reasons for cause and command deficiencies are based on Corpsaide experience for the years 1953 and 1954 only, since accident reports for years prior to 1953 were not evaluated under the PI system. It will be noted that using Corps-wide charged in 1953 was 262, and in 1954 the number charged was 96, or a total of 358. During the two-year period there were 22 repetitions, making a total of 380 command deficiencies. C = 6 X 7-63-'.j0f00f.0-00 = I047,368 experience for computing formula constants affords some comparison between the instal lation and the average experience of the Corps. Although progress is measured by the .previous performance of the installa tion, the constants emphasize any condition which results in one of the factors bring much worse than the Corps average. a. Humber of Accidents In the three-year period the total acci dents was 15,995 with approximately 1,258,000,000 manhours of employment. ,, _ 2 X 1,258,000.000_________ C---------------15,995"- l37'299 b. Humber of Days Lost A total of about 2,139,000 days were lost f. Surcharges (1) Fatals and permanent impairments: There were, in the two-year period, 208 fatals and permanent totals and 178 per manent impairments, a total of 386. C = 2.5 X 763,000,000__ 4,941,709 386 (2) Property damage over $1,000: Dur ing the two-year period, there was a total of 222 accidents where property damage exceeded $1,000. ___ 1JX 763,000,000 .... ............... C-----------------222----- 5,155,4ft> It will be noted that the computed values tor C arc not in round numbers. The desir ability to have them rounded off to facili due to injury, including rime charges for tate use of formulas is obvious.. Since it permanent impairments and fatals, in the was found that rounding them off to the three-year period. nearest convenient value had so appreciable ____ 2X 1,258,000,000 influence on the final result it was so done. 139,000 ~l'l/0 The adjusted formulas are as follows: c. Property Damage Number X 160,000 The property damage loss over the Accidents -- Manhours three-year period amounted to about $10,- Number X 1,200 557,000. Days Lost: Manhours -- _ 2 X 1,258,000,000. L 10^57,000 ` 23S __ Amount X 250 Property Damage - d. Reason for Cause The deficiencies charged in 1953 were 1,804 physical and 3,279 supervisory, or a total of 5,083 on 5,543 accidents. In 1954, there were 1,185 physical deficiencies and 084 supervisory deficiencies, or a total of _ Number X 500,000 Reasons for Cause Manhours ______ Number X 1000,000 Command Deficiency=-------- ,,. _ Number X 5,000,000 Surcharges----------- Manhours. C C=2 nts I i:^ if! : ttl ! Handle Your Chemicals and Industrial Wastes Safely New Chemicals and New Uses of Chemicals Present New Problems By HOWARD H. FAWCETT Safety Eng., Research Laboratory, General Electric Co., Schenectady, N. Y. "No substance is so hazardous that it can not be used if sufficient knowledge of .its action has been made available; similarly, no substance is so non-hazardous that it should be used without regard to caution." This statement; borrowed from Dr. James A. Sterner, originally referred to toxicity. We have substituted the word "hazardous" for "toxic," and broadened the scope of its meaning. Tins revised statement will serve as the theme of this paper. To make, handle, use and dispose of sub stances safely, we must: 1. Have an exact and complete knowledge of their hazards; and 2. Every person handling the substances must apply this knowledge at all times. Most chemical accidents are due to a lade of complete knowledge. This paper will try to point out "booby-traps" that have oc curred, as examples of how we may profit in the future. Incomplete knowledge, where one type hazard so completely overshadowed another that the second was completdy overlooked until serious injuries occurred, was illus trated in a class of compounds which had reached the idiot plant stage. These mate rials were known to be highly combustible and to have an extremely high Same veloc ity. Impure materials were -00111010017 known to be spontaneously flammable in contact with air. A pilot plant facility was built with the flammability of the material in mind. Oper ations began and proceeded without major incidents from fire. However, personnel began to feel peculiar when .doing mainte nance work on the system. The symptoms were those common to central nervous sys tem disorders. Two individuals, who ap parently were unusually susceptible, became sufficiently ill that any doubts were removed that the physiological effects were real and had been caused by the compounds in volved. Animal experiments finally showed the toxicity of some of these materials was similar to that of phosgene, a highly toxic compound. (Maximum allowable concentra tions fisted today for these materials is only one part per million.) A drastically revised ventilation system, a simple, continuous air monitoring test, plus religions use of gas masks, prevented future exposures by the personnel involved. The fire hazard was known and recognized from the beginning; the toxicity hazard was not appreciated until much later. Both hazards were important to the success of the project. Incomplete appreciation of the role which liquid oxygen can play in liquid nitrogen (sometimes erroneously referred to as "li quid air") prompted an investigation of the contamination of liquid nitrogen by liquid oxygen.1 It has been found that the 13* Kelvin difference in boiling points between liquid oxygen (91 *K) and liquid nitrogen (7S*K) is sufficient that impure liquid nitrogen will become significantly richer in oxygen, since the vapor leaving the con tainer by evaporation is always"richer in nitrogen than the liquid left behind. In other words, the oxygen percentage in creases in the residue. Liquid nitrogen con taining less than 03 per cent mol per cent oxygen has been stored for a week without showing any noticeable increase in oxygen, whereas liquid nitrogen containing 15 per cent mol per cent oxygen overnight has enriched itself so the remainder analyzed 32 mol per cent oxygen. If a material of the latter composition were used in a trap where contact with combustible substances. Itid deals r, N. Y. ptible, became were removed were real and xnpounds in itially showed materials was -i highly .toxic ble concentraterials is only lion system, a ing test, plus vented future ivolved. The ognized from zard -was not Both hazards >f the project ie \ whid> jut^ ^Jtrogen ed to as "li gation of the ;en by liquid that the 13* lints between pud nitrogen npure liquid itly richer in hg die con-ys~ richer in behind. In rcentage in titrogen connol per cent veek without e In oxygen, ning 15 per rernight has ler analyzed material of sd in a tray t substances, Industrial Safety 47 such as hydrocarbons or other reducible opened by application of only a reasonable substances could occur, an explosion is highly pressure, the cylinder should be returned to probable. the manufacturer accompanied with full in This is not quite the whole story, however. formation. Even liquid nitrogen with a 997+ per cent Hydrogen gas in cylinders at 2,000 p.s.L parity, can be hazardous if air is allowed is handled in large amounts without inci to condense out in traps open on one ride dent However, hydrogen at high pressures to atmosphere. Such condensed "air" is very passing through aq orifice can sdf-ignite, high in oxygen, and explosions can result probably due to static electridty. One should from this "liquid'' in contact with flam* be alert for such ignition and be prepared to mables, such as hydrogen or other easily turn off the gas, if possible. oxidized gases or vapors. In such systems, die continual flow of dry nitrogen gas through the system, so no oxygen-containing air may enter, is recommended. If hydrogen cylinders are known or sus pected of bang contaminated with air (or oxygen), extreme care most be exercised in disposing of the cylinders. Two incidents While considering "booby-traps" in oxy have occurred in recent years where con gen and nitrogen, the use of air-line res taminated hydrogen cylinders exploded while pirators which utilize "plant air" systems trained personnel tried to vent them to air. should be mentioned. Unless the air supply In both cases, detonations of high order is absolutely fool-proof, both with respect occurred. It appears that such disposal to ml, dirt, carbon monoxide and moisture, should be assigned to experienced explosives and no cross-connections with other gases, engineers, with no attempt to salvage either such as nitrogen, hydrogen, or natural gas cylinders or contents. can occur, the "plant air" should not be Perchloric add explosions continue to be used for breathing reported, as the power of hot concentrated Another gas which is now increasingly available in a liquid form is hydrogen. Liquid hydrogen is extremely cold, boiling at 20 above absolute zero or --422*F. In properry designed and operated systems, perchloric add on organic or other oxidizable matter is rediscovered. A non-porous stone hood with built-in facilities for wash ing down the duct as wdl as the hood itself, is available commercially. liquid hydrogen evolves hydrogen gas at a Anhydrous magnesium perchlorate, used slow rate which can be easily vented. In as a dessicant especially where organic mat event of an unconfined spill, however, an ter and heat are involved, continues to cause expansion of 777 times occurs in volume trouble. In a recent case, dehydrfte (mag between the Iiqmd compared to the gas (or, nesium perchlorate) was used to dry an one liter of liquid becomes 27.5 cubic feet organic liquid instead of drierite (caldum of gas). It is obvious that the manufac sulfate).1 The error was discovered and the ture and use of liquid hydrogen must be perchlorate carefully- removed by filtration. carefully engineered Near the end of the subsequent distillation, Hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen chloride and chlorine are three gases which are bong widely used in cylinders ranging in size from one-pound lecture bottles to ton tanks. smoke was observed, followed by a violent explosion accompanied by a yellowish-white flash and a considerable volume of smoke and fumes. - __ These gases are in a group which have an The small quantity of magnesium perchlo affinity7 for the valve packing commonly rate remaining in solution apparently reacted employed, and on standing the valve stem violently as it was concentrated with the ntiy "freeze/^/ organic matter at high temperatures. Far A number of serious accidents have oc curred when persons tried to open or close these "frozen" valves. It is good practice to see that valves are opened and dosed by less costly would have been disposal of the liquid as soon as the error was recognized. Magnesium perchlorate should not be used where organic matter and heat are involved. competent, experienced, properly-protected Another perchloric add use which is personnel at some remote location immedi far from harmless is in electropolishing ately before the cylinders are delivered in mixtures. A few years ago, a statement side a building. If the valves cannot be appeared in a reputable journal that electro- \ f; ft 48 1955 National Safety Congress polishing electrolytes containing low concen Application of plastics as material of trations of perchloric add with organic construction for chemicals should be noted matter are "completely harmless." Taken at as involving potential hazards.* In the lab its face value, this gave the impression no oratory, polyethylene has been widely ac hazards existed since cold dilute perchloric cepted, first as a container for hydrofluoric add is not an oxidizing agent. However, a add, and, more recently, for general labora detailed study of a typical solution of this tory use in place of glassware. We have type (6-2 per cent perchloric add, 70 per noted wi(h interest the limitations of poly cent ethanol, 10 per cent butyl cellosolve, ethylene and can summarize cautions to be and 13.7 per cent water) showed that a fire employed in its use: hazard, an eye hazard and an explosion hazard (the latter if the solution were evaporated on a hot-plate, not a rare oc currence in metallurgical laboratories) ex isted.* 1. Polyethylene softens when heated near the temperature of steam. Irradiation of the polyethylene raises the softening tem perature so sterilization in a steam auto clave is possible; Another powerful oxidizing agent is red 2. Polyethylene becomes brittle and may- fuming nitric add. In view of its potential crack without warning at low tempera energy, it has been proposed as an oxidant tures, such as at the temperature of for propulsion systems. Titanium and other liquid nitrogen;* metals have beat considered for construc tion of systems involving titanium and red fuming nitric add (RFKA). Although the 3. Polyethylene is unsuitable even at room temperatures for certain chemicals, and., at de\ated temperatures it can be at chemist directly involved was injured, he tacked by even more;* survived, but a second chemist, who was exposed to nitric add fumes during the ensuing rescue and first-aid operations, died three weeks later from pulmonary edema and confluent broncho-pneumonia. The ox ides of nitrogen, formed when nitric add decomposes, are powerful lung irritants and whenever encountered, adequate respiratory' protection or ventilation must be used to prevent lung damage. 4. Polyethylene performance in the envir onmental stress cracking test may be greatly improved by irradiation. Irradi ated polyethylene is now commerrially avariable; 3. Polyethylene bottle cap inserts decrease the leaking danger of the bottles, but also may introduce a hazard when they stick as the cap is removed. If pressure inside the bottle is greater than atmos Decomposition of substances under condi phere, the contents may spray out as the tions that may not be obviously hazardous, ' polyethylene insert is. pryed up. Face have been reported. Inert-arc welding, in protection, plus opening the insert on which the metal is shielded by an inert gas the opposite side of the bottle so the (such as helium or argon), produces radi spray will be in the other direction, is ant energy of wave-lengths which can de obviously indicated. compose even low concentrations of tri chloroethylene vapors, in air into toxic decomposition products a considerable dis tance from the welding site. In view of this, the recommendation has been made that vapor degreasers should be located so their vapors cannot enter the area of the welding arc* One other point which should be made regarding chemicals, both old and new, is that we must keep diem out of contact with persons who will misuse them. The pois oning of children, especially under six years, has shown a rising trend in recent years.* It has been noted that a two- or three-yearold child will eat (or attempt to eat) almost Halogenated compounds, such as carbon tetrachloride trichloroethylene and the var ious Freons are known to decompose when heated. This may create hazards where such substances are heated,' either by an open flame as in welding or brazing, or where heat is applied to vaporize the sol anything, and substances like lye, kerosene and cleaning solvents must be kept from prying hands. It is just as unthinkable to allow a child to drink kerosene as it is to use kerosene to freshen a dying fire, but fatal results have been reported many times from both. vent and dry the work to prevent corrosion We must learn to look for the "booby- from moisture. traps" our increasingly complex dvilizadon as material of shp- - ' be noted is.-. ) the lab*en widely* acEor hydrofluoric general laboravare. We have tations of poly- cautions to be en heated near . Irradiation of : softening temn a steam auto- rittle and may t low temperatemperature of : even at room chemicals, and it can be at- ; in the envir; test may be iiation. Irradir commercially nserts decrease he bottles, but ard when they sd. If pressure er than atmosprjf yt as the ytv Jp. Face the insert on bottle so the er direction, is iould be made d and new, is }f contact with an. The poisinder six years, recent years.' or three-yearto eat) almost : lye, kerosene be kept from unthinkable to tne as it is to lying fire, but ed many times ir the "boobylex civilization Industrial Safety 49 creates, and to report them so that others mar profit by'the information and experi ence Poisonings Admitted to Ellis Hospital, Schenectady, N. Y., Ages 1 through 6,1948-54 Chemicals 11 Kersosene 5 "Geaning fluids" 1 Gasoline vapors 2 Ant buttons (As) 1 Camphor cube 1 Easter egg dye (green) .1 Furniture polish 1 Elraino (lye) 1 Chlorox 24 "Chemical" Drugs and Medicines 6 Aspirin 9 Assorted drugs 1 Ex-Lax1 Dog medicine (Strychnine) 1 Aminophylline* 18 Drugs Fail m 12 hours. All other cases recovered about incident, within ooc week. References * Tie Contamination of Liquid Nitrogen Bj Oxygen of tie Ah. by L. V. McCarty and E. W. Bills. Ctem. & ep. Netes, 27. 2612 (Sept. 12. 1949) : see also D-Cbem. JO. Liquid Oxygen. Indnstnal Data Sheet. National Safety Council. 42J N. Michigan Avenue, Chicago 11, Illinois. - Case History No. 243, Report for the Month of July 1955. Manufacturing Chemists' Association, Inc., 162J Eye Street, N.W., Washington 6, D. C. 1 Pertiloric Acid-Ethyl Alcohol Electropolishing Mixture, by H. H. Fawcett, Report No. LL 1185, October 1954. Class 1, Research laboratory. Gen eral Electric Co.. Schenectady, New York. * Insestigotion of Accident Inrolrtng Titanium and Red faming Nitric Acid, December 29, 1953. Information Circular 7711. U. S. Bateau of Mines, 4800 Forbes Street. Pittsburgh 13. Pennsylvania (March 1955); see also injury and Death from Red Fuming Nitric Acid, by A_ J. McAdams. Jr., and S. Krop. J.A.M.A. 1}8. 1022-1024 (July 23. 1955). 1 Recommended Sait Practices for Inert-Gas MetalArc Welding (Tentative). A6.1-55T. American Welding- Society. 33 West 39th Street. New York 18, New York. Price 50c Plastics as Materials of Construction--A Sympo sium. Indust. & Engr. Chemistry. 47, 1292-1358 (July 1955). * Chemical 6 Engineering Netrt, 32, 1824 (Slay 3. 1954). * Chemical Resistance of Polyethylene To Variant Reagents at 70* and 14Q'F., Will Corp.. Roches ter 3, New York. ' * Let's Stop Killing and Crippling One Children, by H. F. Dietr'.n. Ladies' Home Journal, L3CXH. No. 9. p. 84. September 1955 : Common Household Poisons and Their Antidotes. I8-pagt booklet on household poisons and their antidotes, reprinted from the Connecticut Health Bulletin. 69, 7 (July 1955) ; available from Con necticut State Department of Health. Hartford, Connecticut. Flammahle Liquid Trade Name Index, N.F.P-A. No: 325A. Jnly 1954; National Fite Protection Assn., Inc.. 60 Battetymarch Street, Boston 10, Massachusetts. Price $1-25. Accident Pretention in Childhood--The Ktrottnt Hazard, by Hugh A. Carriers. J.A.M.A. 159, 109-111 (September 10. 1955). Corrosive Irritants By JACK T. GARRETT Industrial Hygienist, Monsanto Chemical Co., St. Louis, Mo. "Primary irritants" are materials which, from the standpoint of chemistry, would be considered corrosive. These materials act by injuring .the sldn, eyes, and, if inhaled, the. surface tissues of the respiratory tract. This may lead to inflammation of the air passages and possibly the lungs themselves. The effects of the 'various irritants vary somewhat due to differences in solubility, physical state (solid, liquid, gas) and por tion of the body exposed. In any discussion concerning chemical ir ritants. some mention must be made of so-called "secondary irritants." -Some^dennitions would therefore be in order. A primary irritant is a material that causes little or no systemic toxic effect in the concentrations that bring on injury or death due to its local action. This means that the corrosive action is the primary hazard. An example of this type substance would be hydrochloric add. A secondary irritant is a substance that, while being an irritant to exposed tissue -surface, exhibits a greater hazard from 50 1955 National Safety Congress systemic effects. An example of a secondary and reducing salts, and many organic salts, irritant is hydrogen sulfide. such as organic adds, anhydrides, haloge- Irritants can be classified rather loosely by nated organics, and many others. their physical form such as liquid, solid, or gas. Liquid Irritants It is not of interest here to list all of the possible liquid irritants. It suffices to point out the preceding examples. 1. General. Primary irritants may act on die skin rapidly or slowly depending on their concentration and length of contact The more concentrated the irritant and the longer the contact the more rapid and in tense is the resulting inflammatory process. These irritants act directly on the sldn either by chemically reacting with it by dissolving or abstracting from it some of its essential components, by denaturing the pro teins of the skin, or by disturbing the mem brane equilibrium or osmotic pressure of the skin cells. These processes pertain to all irritants, regardless of their physical form. However, liquid irritants are by nature in the best physical form to cause immediate damage. It is, therefore, generally conceded that the liquid irritants are the most hazardous of all the irritants as far as external injury is con cerned. This general class of materials causes the greatest number of. chemical burns and chemical eye accidents in industry today. 2. Examples of Liquid Irritants 1. MINERAL ACIDS 3. Monsanto Experiences Most bums received from liquid irritants in our company have been caused by some accidental occurrence, such as ruptured lines, spills, and so forth. These accidents are held to a minimum. Where they do occur, we have employees who are disabled in one form or another from the action of liquid irritants. When an employee in the performance of his normal operating duties handles or comes in contact with any liquid irritant, he is provided with protective equipment, such as rubber gloves, boots, and proper respiratory protection, if necessary, since many of the liquid irritants become gasebus irritants at elevated operating temperatures. We pro vide emergency equipment in areas where potential hazards from liquid irritants exist These will include air supply respiratory equipment, protective clothing, and canister type gas masks wherever applicable. Because of the vast possibilities of con tact with liquid irritants, we have found that the best program to eliminate this type of exposure within our operating plants is (a) Nitric Arid a strong educational program carried out by (b) Sulfuric Arid our safety engineers after thorough indoc (c) Hydrochloric Arid (d) Hsdroflupric Arid (e) Phosphoric Arid trination from the operating supervisors and foremen of the respective operating units. The fruits of this program are apparent 2. ORGANIC ACIDS (a) Formic Add Cb) Acetic Arid (c) Chloroacedc Acids (d) Cresylic Arid 3. ORGANIC SOLVENTS (a) Petroleum Solvents (b) Coal Tar Solvents (c) Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Solvents (d) Most liquid Esters and Ketones (e) Most of the Alcohols (f) Carbon Bisulfide (g) Turpentine and Terpines The above irritants are all liquids in their normal physical state. However, many cases of irritation occur from solutions of solid from the very few cases encountered in plants that handle millions of pounds of liquid irritants each year. Concerning first aid procedures, we rec ommend immediate flushing of the affected skia or eyes^witfar copious quantities of water. We recommend this procedure for at least 15 minutes for eye contact and then the patient should be referred to a physician immediately. In many cases, the use of neutralizing solvents or solutions would be advantageous but we have found that operators can waste critical time seeking these solvents and, in general, the flushing will perform the same function even though it takes some what longer. We, in many cases, do not irritants such as the caustics, the oxidizing recommend the use of solvents for this rea- rgamc salts, def Jdoge- st all of the ces to point uid irritants ed by some ptured lines, tridents are y do occur, ibled in one m of liquid Fonnance of ies or comes t; he is proit, such as respiratory tany of the irritants at . We proireas where itants exist respiratory ind canister tble. ies of con* have found te this type ig /-*''ats is ri- ht by nign indocTvisors and ating units, e apparent wintered in pounds of s* we reche affected antities of dure for at t and then a physician teutraliring fvantageous can waste vents and, trform the ikes some* es, do not >r this rea Industrial Safely 51 son and our experience has borne out the soundness of this polity. Solid Irritants 1. General. The solid irritants depend largely on their action with moisture on the skin or other surfaces. These irritants can cause serious damage to the skin, both from their corrosive action and from their ther mal heats of solution. This class of irritants is probably the least hazardous of all the materials handled because normally a worker has sufficient time to remove this material from exposed body surfaces before serious irritation occurs. However, in many cases the irritant is a liquid slurry of organic materials and in this case, the potential irri tation is as bad as in liquid materials. Solid irritants can cause delayed irritation. This can occur when" a worker gets solid material on his skin without his knowledge or from carelessness in removing this mate rial Solid irritants, such as the caustic al kalies, are not immediately painful like the adds and if left in contact with the skin until pain is felt, serious burns may result 2. Examples of Solid Irritants 1. CAUSTIC ALKALIES (a) Alkaline Sulfides (b) Sodium Hydroxide (c) Sodium Carbonate (d) Sodium Silicate (e) Potassium Carbonate (f) Ammonium Hydroxide (g) Ammonium Carbonate (h) Barium Hydroxide (i) Barium Carbonate (j) Trisodium Phosphate (k) Lime (both hydrated & dehy. drated) (l) Galdum Carbonate (m) Caldum Cyanamide Z ELEMENTS AND SALTS (a) Elemental Sodium (b) Elemental Potassium (c) Elemental Phosphorus ' (d) Antimony and its salts (e) Arsenic and its salts (f). Chromium and the Alkaline Chro mates (g) Copper Sulfate (h) Copper Cyanide (i) Mercuric Salts (j) Zinc Chloride (k) Silver Nitrate Probably the most serious of all of this group of solid irritating materials are the caustic alkalies,- because of the very wide application of these materials throughout the chemical as well as many other indus tries. This list does not by any means in dude all caustic alkalies. It indudes the most commercially important ones and'the most severely corrosive. A second group of solid irritants indudes some of the elements and salts. This group contains many oxidizing agents, reducing agents, and demental materials that produce irritation by thermal burns. Solutions of these materials probably pose the most serious problem. However, fine dusts of any of these solid materials will sometimes cause severe chronic irritation, particularly in cases where workers perspire fredy. This wouldindude working in areas at derated temperature antTsummer opera tions almost any place in the country. 3. Monsanto Experiences. Monsanto's ex perience in handling solid irritants is similar to handling liquid materials, with the excep tion that solid materials in a finely divided state frequently cause chronic irritation. Dust control is a necessary adjunct to findy divided irritant handling. In the chemical industry, in almost every case where findy divided solid irritants are handled, exhaust ventilation is provided. Employees working in areas that handle solid irritants within our company are provided with gloves, res pirators, and generally protective dothing as the necessity arises. In some cases where findy divided irri tants are used, protective creams are issued. We, however, do not depend on the use of protective creams because we fed that they are a poor substitute for good personal hy giene, and in areas where these materials are handled, shower facUities and facilities for washing the hands and face are pro vided. When protective creams are used, instructions as to their application and re moval are given, with reasons why they should not be substituted for bathing and other personal hygiene practices. As far as first aid procedures are con cerned, we again recommend copious flush ing of the skin or eyes with water and the immediate summoning of a physician. It may be of interest to note that handling certain. organic solvents, such as phenol, .t "M 52 1955 National Safety Congress which has a melting point of 41Ct or lactic add which has a melting point of 26G, poses, a problem characteristic of materials that melt in the general range of 25 to 50C In ordinary chemical processing experience, these materials might be either liquids or solids, and in the case of phenol, the removal of the solid material from die skin is an absolute necessity if considerable material has adhered to the skin. We recommend that after copious flushing with water, soap and water be used to remove minute quan tities of these irritatants. tween ammonia and Phosgene, due to its intermediate solubility. The selective action of the. irritant gases in the respiratory tract determines the rela tive danger of death from them. The deli cacy of the respiratory membranes, their susceptibility to injury, and the seriousness of the damage which results, are very dif ferent in the upper and lower respiratory tracts. The action of irritant gases and vapors in the nose and pharynx may render them raw by the inflammation without im mediate danger or permanent damage Here again, our experience has shown that good education as to inherent hazards involved in handling these materials and the safety procedures prescribed are the best methods for eliminating acddental exposure. It is a more serious matter when the trachea and bronchi are injured. Not onlyare the local effects painful, but general systemic effects develop as in acute trachitis and bronchitis from bacterial infection. Gaseous Irritants 1. General. Although liquid and solid irri tants afford considerable hazard from skin and eye contact, the most serious hazard associated with irritants in general is from these materials in the gaseous state. The remainder of this paper trill therefore be confined to a discussion of irritants that are either by nature gaseous or vapors arising from liquids or solids. Widely different symptoms result from the action of different irritant gases and vapors. These differences are due primarily to the differences in the localities on which the irritant acts. Symptoms of inflamma tion, therefore, are governed by the struc tures affected by* die inflammation and not by any fundamental difference in the mode of action of the irritant substance; The localities affected by gaseous irritants are influenced principally by the solubility of the irritant. For example, ammonia gas iii high concentrations will cause inten.' congestion and swelling of the upper respir atory passages and possibly rapid death from spasm or edema of the larynx. If the immediate effects are survived, there may be little serious after-effects, since the deeper structures of the respiratory tract are not reached and harmed. On the other hand. Phosgene, even. in concentrations that cause little immediate irritation, may later be fatal due to pneu monia or pulmonary edema through its ac tion on the air cells (alveoli) of the lungs. Chlorine is intermediate in its action be The most serious, but least painful, results of inhalation of an irritant gas or vapor occur when the lungs themselves are acted upon. The damage gives rise to an acute edema leading to suffocation or, if this dan ger is escaped, to pneumonia with prostra tion and circulatory impairment. The out come of either process may be fatal. It can be summarized, therefore, by say ing that the locus of action of various gase ous irritants is the result of the differences in their physical properties--particularly sol ubility, boiling point and volatility; and not so much the differences in their chemical properties. The harmful effect of an irritant is not in a straight line relationship with the product of duration of exposure and concentration as it is in the case of an asphyxiant like carbon monoxide. A single exposure to a high concentration of an irritant can have an intense effect and can terminate fatally. However, an acutely fatal exposure to an irritant could probably* be tolerated by the systemiLLthe-Concentration were halved and it was inspired over a period of twice as long. This fact leads to the conclusion that any reduction in the concentration of an irri tant during its passage through the upper respiratory* tract results in a more than proportionate sparing of the tissues of the lung. 2. Examples. Gaseous irritants are gener ally grouped according to their locus of action. With the exception of the fourth group, these irritants are therefore grouped according to their relative solubilities, which e, due to its irri--at gases lines the reb ut. The deliibranes, their te seriousness are very dift respiratory it gases and x may render i without imlamage. er when the :d. Not only but general tcute trachitis nfection. linful, results fas or vapor ires are acted to an acute ; if this danwith prostratt- The outfatal. fore, by sayvarious gasele differences rticularlv sollity; and not nlrir chemical tan. .j not m. t the product concentration ihyxiant like cposure to a tnt can have inate fatally, iposure to an rated by the - e halved and of twice as ndusion that m of an itri ll the upper more than ssues of the > are generar locus of : the fourth lore grouped ilities, which Industrial Safety 53 is tlie physical properly' that dictates the site of absorption within the respiratory tract. This system of grouping is that pre sented by Henderson and Haggard in their fine text entitled, "Noxious Gases" (2nd Edition, American Chemical Society Mono graph No. 35, Reinhold Publishing Corpora tion, New York, 1943). 8. Methyl Chlorosulfonate 9. Chloroacetone 10. Xylyl Bromide This group, as in all the preceding groups, . is by no means complete. There are literally thousands of such compounds. The biggest single dass of Group IV compounds are the halogenated organics. GROUP I In this group, no simple solubility rela Very Soluble-Affecting the Upper Res tionship exists. For example, acrolein (acry piratory Tract Mainly. lic aldehyde) is only very slightly soluble in 1. Ammonia 2. Hydrochloric Add (HO) 3. Sulfuric Add 4. Hydrofluoric Add (HF) 5. Formaldehyde water, yet it is very irritating to the eyes and the upper respiratory tract. Continued exposure to this compound may lead to lung damage manifested by edema and pos sible death. 6. Acetic Add Dimethyl sulfate is a powerful irritant to 7. Acetic Anhydride the eyes and upper respiratory' bract and 8. Sulfur Monochloridc jet is only slightly soluble in water. The 9. Thionyl Chloride action of this material is apparently not due 10. Sulfuryl Chloride . to the decomposition of dimethyl sulfate to GROUP II Intermediately Soluble--Affecting the Upper Respiratory Tract and Deeper Structures Such as the Bronchi. 1. Sulfur Dioxide 2. Chlorine 3. Bromine 4. Iodine 5. Arsenic Trichloride 6. Phosphorus Trichloride 7. Phosphorus Pentadiloridc sulfuric arid. Because of the anomalous properties of Group TV compounds, great care must be exercised in handling them. The best clue as to the possible seriousness of exposure to such materials would come from the vola tility of the specific compound at the pro posed operating temperature. A highly vis cous material handled at room temperature would afford little hazard since the concen tration of the material in the atmosphere at breathing level would be very low. GROUP III Slightly Soluble--Affecting the Lungs and to a Much Less Extentthe Upper Respiratory Tract. 1. Ozone 2. Nitrogen Dioxide 3. Phosgene The fourth group in this classification represents the major exception to the rule of solubility. No general rule as to-the locus of action applies in this case. GROUP IV < Irritants That Are Exceptions to the Rules of Solubility 1. Acrolein 2. Dimethyl Sulfate 3. Dichloroethyl Sulfide (Mustard Gas) 4. Chloropicrin 5. Ethyldilorosulfonate 6. Dichloromethyl ether 7. Benzil Iodide Many thousands of these compounds have been tested for toxicity and these data are frequently' available in the literature or from the suppliers. It would be a wise course of action for any safety engineer to obtain such information before allowing workers to handle unfamiliar chemical sub stances. 3. Monsanto Experiences. Before a new csgjpound is manufactured or purchased.as an intermediate, saTefiandling information is obtained. This may require a literature search, queries to the manufacturer, or even animal toxicity work. After such informa tion is available, instructions are given to the workers in the area where the material is to be used. If the compound is such that dangerous concentrations are possible In the working atmosphere, exhaust ventilation is recom mended as well as the necessary emergency protective equipment Safety showers, eye 'M ? f- `if 5 cS ! 54 1955 National Safety Congress baths and other permanently installed safety devices are recommended and installed. The most important step in the process of manufacturing a possibly hazardous com pound is in the instructions to the 'workers. These instructions must include recognition of the compound by smell, recognition of symptoms of exposure, escape routes from die operating area, location and instruction in proper use of all emergency protective equipment, proper fire fighting techniques, and proper first aid and evacuation proce dures. If the above procedures are followed in starting up manufacturing units, toxic ex posure to irritant gases and vapors would only arise from accidents such as spills, explosions, and so forth. We do have ex posure from carelessness, but we keep this to a minimum by constant reminders in safety programs and the like. I am sure that our woricers feel that we sell safety like tobacco companies sell cigarettes--by constant plugging, ha this case, the product is well worth the advertising effort. have already been taken. These are ex tremely important procedures in cases of exposure to the Group III irritant gases and, in many cases, may save a life. In almost every case of toxic exposure suffi cient to cause unconsciousness, time is crit ically important The above procedures are for the most part practiced by Monsanto and have con tributed to the fine safety record our com pany holds for which we are justifiably proud. Conclusions. In conclusion, I would like to say that control of irritant exposure is absolutely essential to the health of workers. This control must include proper protective equipment proper first aid training, and properly designed ventilation equipment with periodic exposure surveys particularly where one of the insidious irritants, such as the group two or three gaseous irritants men tioned " peviously, are concerned. Careful study of the process where irritants are used must be made to properly evaluate tbe prob lem and to design control equipment First aid procedures in cases where tome In addition to control of process expo irritants are handled depend largely on the sures, provisions most be made to protea individual compound. However, some gen workers during unusual conditions such as eralizations can be made. Evacuation tech spills or explosions, and- so forth. This re niques, for example, must be instilled in quires thorough safety training in the proper workers so that when an accident occurs use of gas masks and other protective they automatically follow a set procedure in equipment Last but by no means least evacuating unconscious fellow workers. If workers must be trained in proper first aid training is lax in this function, all too often practice and evacuation techniques. die evacuator himself becomes a victim. The chemical industry has a very excel Proper training in artificial respiration is mandatory' in areas where toxic materials are bandied. The proper method of admin istering oxygen under exhalation pressure should be taught to the first aid attendants or nurses in the plant first aid station, and the most rapid method of contacting the lent record in handling irritant materals. When one considers die tremendous ton nages of chlorine, ammonia, the mineral adds, the caustic alkalis, the mineral salts, elemental substances, and even nitrogen di oxide, that are produced and handled every day, this record is even more significant plant physician should be known by all these This condition, however, did not just personnel. When an unconscious worker-ls.. .spontaneously happen. It was made to hap moved to the aid station, some one should pen by the combined efforts of managers, be available to explain to the physician the industrial physicians, hygienists, toxicolo-' details of the accident The physician will gists, and above all, the hard-working want to know what the man was exposed to, safety engineers. Education is vitally im for how long, and what first aid measures portant here as it is in all safety work. hese are ex in cases of in] j: gases e me. In icposure sufFi- tixne is crit- for the most nd have consrd our comre justifiably I would like t exposure is it of workers, ter protective training, and [uipment with cularly where such as the rritants mense<L Careful ants are used ate the probiment. irocess expo le to protect ions such as th- This re in the proper a- protective means least, sper first aid tuef' ^ . excelint materals. tendous tonthe mineral mineral salts, nitrogen diandled every ignificant id not jnst nade to hapit managers, ts, toxicolotard-woridng > vitally imy woric . Industrial Safety 51 Industrial Waste Disposal--The Problem and Its Control . By LEWIS WARRICK Sanitary Engineer Director and LOUIS C. McCABE Scientist Director Div. of Sanitary Engineering Service, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. Introduction Wastes adversely affecting water and air offer a major challenge today. There has been a growing realization in this country daring recent years that water supplies of unlimited quantity and satisfactory quality can no longer be taken for granted. Smog has become headline news. People through out the nation are beginning to recognize and understand the damaging effects of pol lution and are joining in an effort to elim inate and control the threat to the continued use and enjoyment of these most priceless of our natural resources. Cries and industries are showing increas ing willingness to accept responsibility for providing measures to preserve and improve the quality of water and air by protecting them from the polluting effects of their wastes. Disposal of wastes, both in water and air. in the earlier stages of our industrial and urban development, depended almost entirely rat dilution. As wastes increased in amounts, pollution problems appeared. With regard to water, the underlying cause of the difficulty stemmed from a situ ation imposed by nature--that, in any region, the supply of water is essentially constant As years have passed, the mounting pollu tion loadings in many areas have exceeded the capacities of waters to assimilate these wastes unobjectionably. There is a somewhat parallel situation with respect to discharge of pollutants into the atmosphere. Dilution of wastes, such as smoke, dust fumes, and so forth, in air, is usually a more complex matter. There are vagaries of the weather to contend with, along with many other environmental fac tors. These will be mentioned later in this discussion. let us first consider wastes in relation to our water resources. Since 1900, demands for water have steadily increased at an ac celerated rate, due to increasing population and expanding industry and their concentra tion in metropolitan centers. Water-carried wastes from people and industry have cor respondingly increased, causing more and more pollution and rendering more and more streams unsatisfactory for general use. This is a Self-compounding condition which, in i number of instances, approaches critical limits. Problems Water Problem: Current need for water to support community living and associated industrial developments in the United States amounts to a half-million gallons of water per person per year. Looking ahead, it is estimated that the population of the United States by 1985 will be in the 230-million range and that industrial production will be more than double the 1950 level. Water needs to sustain these new levels also will be more than double. It is anticipated that the problem will be even more critical then, since increases in population in the next 30 years are expected to be mostly urban. This can result in an increase in sewered population of from 60 to 70 per cent over that of 1955, as compared to an overall population increase of 40 per cent. It has been estimated that the potential biochemical pollution load from both^popu^ Iation and industry will about double during this period, bringing into even greater con flict man's need for clean water and his production of wastes. . The solution to this vitally important problem must be in the conservation of water resources, so that thp fixed natural supply of water in a region can meet the progressively increasing demands. Undoubt edly, some conservation can be accomplished by impoundment of flood waters, for later release during periods of low natural flow. if !. 1 I. 3 m il-i SJ 1 !! i ij : Vfl 5o 1955 National Safety Congress The use, however, of water-impoundment facilities to solve water-shortage problems is becoming increasingly expensive, as suit able reservoir sites are becoming less avail able and farther from the point of water use. wastes today, and more can be exj>ected with the production of a still wider variety of products. This poses technical tasks, involving waste reduction at the source, re clamation of pollutants as byproducts, or effective, economic treatment and disposal. Water-pollution control through treat ment of sewage and wastes is brought into sharp focus as an essential factor in the conservation of the nation's water resources. By providing treatment of domestic sewage and industrial wastes, stream quality can be maintained to permit repeated re-use as a stream flows from one city or industry to another. Research is increasingly necessary' in deal ing with these wastes. Effects on treatment process, on streams and cm people who use the water are very' poorly understood. Ra dioactive wastes further complicate the prob lem. In fact, so little is known about the significance of some of these new wastes that, despite their prevalence, there have not been developed as yet good methods for An adequate supply of clean water is an measuring and expressing the "load" they indisputable asset to an industry;. vet, in place on a stream. some parts of the country, the problem of water supply has become so acute that, for industrial purposes, it must be reclaimed from sewage-plant effluents. Air-Pollution Problem: The problems of air pollution and of water pollution are closely related. They---spring- oftentimesfrom the same causes, they affect the same The genera] problem confronting an in areas, qnd, in many cases, the wastes dis dustry is: What can be done to return charged to the air are the same that con waters used in their processes to a streamt taminate our waters. Sometimes we have in as nearly the same condition as it was eliminated water pollution by discharging originally? Practical and economic consid waste products to the air; eisewherc, the erations militate against the ideal solution, reverse has been true, and the solution of and tiie question resolves itself into: how an air-pollution problem has provided us far is it feasible and necessary to go, in with an equally serious problem of water waste-reduction measures, to restore waters pollution. In industry and community waste to reasonably clean conditions? disposal, this interrelationship has presented some particularly disturbing dilemmas. The Anal utilization of waters receiving mill effluents has a definite bearing on the Just before World War II, the industrial degree of cleanliness that must be attained. economy of the United States was less than Consideration needs to be given to the uses half the size it is now. America's mines and of these waters for drinking and domestic mills have come to the point where they purposes, industrial water supply, watering now turn out, in peacetime, more than twice of stock, propagation of fish, oysters and as much of the raw materials, machinery other aquatic life, navigation, power produc and things to eat, wear, live in and ride in tion, agricultural development involving ir as they did only 12 years ago. They pro rigation, and recreational purposes, such as duce two and one-half times as much steel, bathing, boating and fishing. Esthetic con two and one-half times as much machinery, siderations are involved, particularly in rec twice as much cementy-and-three times as reational areas. much in the way of industrial chemicals. The water-pollution situation is serious enough, considering only the increasing vol ume of sewage and industrial wastes. In earlier years, many industrial wastes re sponded to treatment processes in much the same way as - sanitary sewage. At present, the problem of treating industrial wastes is For every automobile that came off the production line in 1939, there were more than three in 1954; for every ton of coke produced in 1939, there was an extra three- quarters of a ton in 1954; for every barrel of petroleum refined in 1939, there was an additional barrel last year. much more complex, due to development of Such situations have led to the almost new industrial processes. inescapable conclusion that, where waste A multiplicity of substances not orig prevention measures can be employed, they inally encountered are found in industrial are the best solutions to our pollution Ik -peeled w. (Variety finical tasks, ie source, renproducts, or and disposal. 5sarv in dealon treatment ople who use erstood. Ka rate the probvn about the new wastes tere have not methods for "load" they problems of pollution are ; oftentimes ect the same : wastes disne that con ies we have discharging sewherc, the : solution of provided us m oi water nunity waste as presented mpai ht: listrial rasiess than ,'s mines and where they e than twice machinery and ride in They promuch steel, i machinery, times as 1 chemicals, me off the were more ton of coke extra tbreecvery barrel lere was an the almost here waste ployed, they r pollution Industrial Safety 57 problems. From a standpoint of conserva tion, the recovery of waste products is im portant, for there are many commodities going up the stack or down the drain whose total supply in the earth's crust is limited. Some of them are in short supply in today's market. The work of Haagen-Smit placed empha sis on the loss of hydrocarbons from refin ery operations, storage and transportation of liqtiid fuels, and loss of gasoline from automobile exhausts, as Important sources of smog. The regulations of the Los An geles District now provide for control of Air-pollution has been receiving more and more attention in this country. Smoke, cinders, fly ash, chemical dust, fumes and refinery losses, and research has been initi ated for the purpose of reducing transporta tion and automobile exhaust losses. odors, alone or in combination, are to be found as wastes discharged to the atmos phere.' In recent years, more attention has been directed to combustible rubbish as a source of air pollution. When sanitary fill is prop Smoke is, perhaps, the most common of erly operated, it offers a satisfactory' solu these. It arises from the combustion of tion of the waste-disposal problem, but, as mineral fuels, and it has long been a corol available land is utilized, there is usually no lary of industrial development. Only in choice of disposal method left hut municipal recent years have a few of our smokiest incineration. More research into the design communities been able to make advances of large and small incinerators is needed, toward the elimination of smoke nuisance. and there are indications that this will be It- has long been known that prevention is done. -....-- preferable to elimination, in the case of smoke. This requires skillfully operated fur naces adequate for utilizing the fuels. Throughout the record, there is frequent reference to the effects of air pollution on health, and most legislation is, in part at Wc shall not dwell on the cost of airpollution to a city; we know that it runs into millions of dollars per year and that, in large doses, it affects the health of the inhabitants adversely. least, based on the assumption that there are ill effects. The relationship is difficult to establish. Even from the standpoint of a relatively severe short-time exposure, the answers do not come easily. Air-pollution problems are more likely to This is borne out by the fact that the occur with improperly designed equipment, intensive study of the Meuse Valley, but enough information is available today to - Donora, and London incidents failed to keep most air-pollution at a minimum. More reveal conclusive answers to all of the important, in the long run, is the growing questions raised. This can be- attributed, interest of scientists in the fundamentals of in a large measure, to the fact that investi the subject Before the war, there was little gations of such occurrences take place after interest in air-pollution; now, hardly a they are over, and not while they are going month passes without at least a regional on. The general conclusion of the Donora conference on the subject study was that no single polluting agent was Only within the past 10 years has airpollution received the scientific attention which has been given to water pollution since the second half of the 19th century. present in sufficient quantity to account for the effects on the population, hut that, ap parently. some combination of contaminants occurred which was responsible. The growth of cities along water-courses Bearing~in mind"'the difficulties irf-study- brought pollution and, of necessity, the re ing these effects of a severe short-time search and engineering developments which occurrence, it is possible to visualize the permitted the cities' continued healthy problem of evaluating the more nebulous growth. Air-pollution had not had the same effects of long-time exposure to much technological approach until the past 10 smaller amounts of contamination. In the years, and there are not enough trained latter case, one has much more opportunity people working in the field, particularly at to study the contamination itself and, in this the municipal level, where corrective meas phase of the work; considerable progress is ures are in force. Air-pollution can borrow bring made. from stream-pollution to advantage in meth A much more difficult challenge is that of ods of research control and in the training studying the possible effects of atmospheric of workers. contaminants oh the general health of the i- sI I. i-f;, 58 1955 National Safety Congress persons exposed. This introduces an epi- local governments in controlling air pollu .demiological problem of major proportions. tion." To date no comprehensive, conclusive studies have ever been made on any popu lation group for the purpose of evaluating the chronic effects of exposure to air pollu tion. Contrary to general belief, an authoriza tion act does not appropriate money. In effect; it states that it is the sense of the Congress that the activity defined by the authorization should be carried out by the The Detroit-Windsor international pro agency designated, specifies the maximum gram includes an approach to this problem. expenditure, and may or may not set time A study of the proposed plan for this group limits. Appropriations for the program are gives an idea of the variables which must still subject to Budget Bureau review and be taken into consideration in such a study. action by the Congress. Such factors as density of population, eco The recent session of .the Congress ap nomic status, race and education mast all be evaluated. This will, of course, ultimately produce information as to the health of various groups. proved $595,000 for air-pollution investiga tions in the regular budget of the Public Health Sendee and, following passage of Public Law 159, an additional sum of $1,- Control 190,000, malting a total of $1,785,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1956. These Technical procedures employed in con funds are allocated as follows: trolling wastes have been indicated. Mention Division of Sanitary Engineering should be made of laws under which air Services and water quality-improvement programs are bring carried out. Particular reference is made to legislation enacted in recent years bv Congress relating to air and water pollution, with a few references to activities involving industrial wastes authorized under these Acts. Public Law 159, passed by the 84th Con gress, "authorized to be appropriated to the Department of Health, Education, and Wel Dirdct research.......................... $ 435,000 Contract research....................... 50,000 Training ..................................... 40,000 Transfer to other Federal agencies ............... 400.000 Division of Special Health Services Direct research .......................... 160,000 Contract research....................... 200,000 Research Grants fare for each of the five fiscal years during (To be administered through the the period beginning July 1, 1955, and end * National Institutes of Health) 500,000 ing June 30, 1960, not to exceed $5,000,000" to provide research and technical assistance Total ................................$1,785,000 relating to air pollution. The Surgeon Gen eral of the Public Health Service will direct the program. Program Development: The regular Na tional Institutes of Health mechanism will be used for processing research grant appli Other sections of the Act provide that cations for air-pollution projects. The Sani the Surgeon General may conduct research tary' Engineering and Occupational Health and develop methods of preventing and Study Section of NIH will be used, and abating air pollution through the facilities . the research .grant applications will be re of the Public Health Service, and may aid viewed by the National Advisory Health state and local government agencies and Council. public and private organizations and insti tutions in similar activities. Contracts and grants-in-aid may be made to these organi zations and to individuals for research, training, and demonstration projects. Program supervision will be supplied through the Bureau of State Services' Divi sions of Sanitary Engineering Services and Special Health Services. The Division of Sanitary Engineering Services is responsible The Act does not contemplate the regula for research, technical assistance, training tion of air pollution at the Federal level, as and demonstrations relating to engineering it specifically states the policy of the Con and the physical sciences. The Division of gress "to preserve and protect the primary Special Health Services has similar opera responsibility and rights of the State and tions of a medical nature. Both Divisions ling air pollu- *L ithoriza,te money. In sense of the iefined by the ed out by the the maximum y not set time e program are an review and Congress op tion invest!gaof the Public ig passage of d sum of $1.785,000 for the 1956. These ....... $ 435,000 ....... 50,000 ........ 4Q.OOO ........ 400,000 rvices ------ 160,000 ___ 200-000 500,000 ....$1,785,000 e regular Nalechanism will h grant appli es. The Saniitional Health be used, and is will be re visory Health be supplied Services' Divi- Serviccs and i Division of is responsible ince, training o engineering e Division of iunilar operaoth Divisions Industrial Safety 59 will develop contracts within their respec tive areas. Industry Task Committee: The work with industry on liquid-waste problems has been carried on since 1950 with the aid of the National Technical Task Committee on Industrial Wastes. The effectiveness of teamwork in the solution of certain wastedisposal problems prompted a broader ap plication of this principle of coordinated efforts in solving problems involving indus try. The plan oiled for the establishment of a nationwide committee of industries having the following functions: 1. To inventory, appraise; coordinate and promote, research in developing methods of using, treating and controlling indus trial wastes. 2. To facilitate the devising and adoption of uniform methods of measuring and evaluating trade wastes in water-quality control. 3. To stimulate more effective working re lations on technical phases of tradewastes problems in industry and among federal, state; and local agencies. 4. To advise on employment of the facili ties of the Robert A. Taft Sanitary En gineering Center in those areas of re search and development wherein they would be the most valuable to the over all program. 5. To aid in establishing those areas where major need exists for financial assistance in obtaining baric information in indus trial-waste problems in water-pollution control. 6. To stimulate further the adoption of practical methods--known or yet to be developed--for reclaiming, reducing and -treating wastes impairing natural stream conditions. 7. To achieve wide dissemination of infor mation on technical developments and the accomplishments of industry; to maintain suitable relations with technical so cieties, professional organizations, trade associations and such other groups as issue publications reaching persons con cerned with water-pollution problems. & To aid in promoting training activities to increase the operating efficiency of waste-recovery ami treatment systems employed by industry. 9. To perform such other technical tasks relating to industrial wastes as may be necessary to stimulate improvement in the quality of the nation's water re sources. The proposal for the establishment of tltis committee was enthusiastically approved by the Water Pollution Control Advisory Board, established under Public Law 845. The Surgeon General then invited repre sentatives of major industrial categories throughout 'the nation to meet with him for the purpose of forming a National Technical Task Committee on Industrial Wastes, whose members would work together and with the federal government towards finding solutions to pollution problems caused by industrial wastes. The committee was or ganized in 1950. Much of the technical work of the com mittee is bring performed by work groups composed of the best technical talent avail able in the industries having membership in the committee. By bringing together industries which have common waste-disposal problems, dup lication of effort and unnecessary expense can be substantially reduced, likewise, there is considerable advantage, in endeavors of this kind, in being able to assign the various tasks to groups best equipped and staffed to conduct the particular studies involved. An increasing exchange of fundamental infor mation applicable'to the individual problems of participating industries is taking place, as additional groups become, active in the work of the committee. It is not the purpose of the committee to replace or in any way conflict with activities that have already been sponsored, organized and financed by various industries. Rather, it is intended to broaden the base of techni cal investigation and to inSease the under standing of the potentialities of stream Im provement in a way that will be beneficial to industry and government alike. Four major "task groups" were estab lished to act as working committees in carry ing out the functions of the committee at large: Task Group I--Food Industries: Task Group II--Mineral Products Industries; Task Group HI--Chemical Processing In dustries; and Task Group IV--General Industries. i, ! -1 li iS: & ; 60 1955 National Safety Congress Subsequently, task sections and task units energy for the benefit of man. It forces were established to expedite the work in new dimensions, new formulae, new terms, various special product groups. This has new thinking upon us; we must learn how encouraged wide participation in the tech to use it and live with it, as we have with nical tasks confronting the committee. other new forces before' it How do we There is research and development work being done at the Sanitary Engineering Center in Cincinnati on things of regional or nationwide importance that the States or industry can't reasonably be expected to treat the wastes? How do we remove radio active materials in water-treatment proc esses? What standards shall apply to in stallations in your communities to protect their human and other resources? undertake. We've been endeavoring, through It is intended that the Sanitary Engi cooperation with industry. State depart neering Center, in addition to roaldng its ments. interstate agencies and others, to own modest contribution to research knowl coordinate work on the technical problems edge, may help to meet the even more sig to be dealt with in overall activities to nificant need to stimulate the programs of improve the quality of water resources. sanitary-engineering research throughout the Research: In research, the picture is encouraging. Increasing attention is bring country', and to facilitate translation of that research into practical application. given by a number of industries, universities, Tasks Ahead in Improving Water Qual institutes and other research centers to ity: In weighing waste impacts on water development of methods for reclaiming or resources and in evaluating tasks ahead, treating and disposing of wastes, recharge both municipal and industrial -wastes need of underground supplies, conservation of to be considered. Where practical, joint surface supplies in surface reservoirs, re treatment has been encouraged. Problems clamation of community waste waters, and presented are a real challenge. other urgently needed knowledge. The net effect of all improvements on A new federal research laboratory has stream conditions is of primary concern. At been completed during the past year at Cin present, the municipal pollution load for a cinnati. The resources of this new Sanitary sewered population of 95,000,000 after treat Engineering Center of the Public Health ment, is estimated to equal the loading of Service are bring dedicated to the solution raw sanitary sewage from 55,000,000 people. of probehns of the environment for the This number exceeds by about 19,000,000 betterment of men, including water and die level of pollution which would result if sewerage problems. Studies are in progress the current backlog of needs, amounting to to probe the complexities of the environment approximately $1.9 billion, were met --die nature and extent of pollutants in air and water; factors affecting the quality of food, and countless household items in daily use; and to learn something of how they are affecting man's health through the environ ment. Current construction expenditures for mu nicipal sewage-treatment facilities amount to about $2.40 per capita of sewered popu lation, or approximately $230 million per year. Looking to the future, if we assume a Likewise, the occurrence and significance continuation of the present level of expend!- of viruses and fungi in water will- be ex- * ture per capita served by sewers, the pollu plored with a view to determining whether tion load discharged to streams in 1985 win changes in existing treatment methods may be approximately the same as it is today. be necessary to safeguard the public interest. Expenditures at this rate will be sufficient We know little, for example, of the effec only to take care of our increasing popula tiveness of our water-treatment processes in tion and obsolescence, and to increase the removing viruses and organic substances dis efficiency of treatment processes required to charged into streams. We know that some maintain a constant residual pollution load. of die latter are coming through water- Essentially, the same pollution problem which treatment processes, but not what effect they plagues us today will still be with us. may have on health. The most significant factor is that these All of us are amazed and bewildered expenditures must provide for an increase when we think of the potential of atomic in the nationwide average efficiency of treat- roan. It forces Haf |w terms, ntL kaxn how s we have with _ How do we e remove radio treatment proctll apply to inities to protect nrces? Sanitary Engito making iu research knowleven more sigte programs oi t throughout the translation of tpplkation. \g Water QuaU pacts on water g tasks ahead, ial wastes need practical, joint iged. Problems fe- aprovements on try concern. At don load for a ,000 after treatthe loading of 5,000,000 people, ibout 19,000,000 w A result if s, . imting to ere met iditnres for muidlities amount : sewered popu!30 million per f we assume a reel of expendiwers, the pollnms in 1985 will as it is today, rill be sufficient a-easing popula te increase the sscs required to pollution load t problem which : with us. ir is that these for an increase idency of treat Industrial Safety 61 ment processes from the present 42 per cent BOD removal to an estimated 65 per cent, to prevent an increase in pollution. plants. After that, the construction of waste-treatment plants in the pulp and paper industry proceeded at an accelerated rate. In order to eliminate the current backlog of tnunidpal sewage-treatment construction,' future per capita expenditures based on sewered population must be increased to 190 per cent of the present level to accomplish the task in 10 years, 140 per cent in 20 years, or 120 per cent in 30 years. Nation wide average BOD-removal effidendes would, under these assumptions, climb from the present 42 per cent to 68 per cent, as suming the 10-year period for malting up the backlog, 73 per cent for a 20-year period, and 77 per cent for a 30-year period Based cm present techniques, these average figures mean that we will have reached the upper limit of practical treatment methods, as we know them today, sometime during the next 20-to-30-year period and that local areas will probably feel the pinch even before then. The picture for industrial wastes, based on biochemical loadings alone, can be even more critical, as production is expected to be more than double during the next 30year period Compared to industrial proc essing in 1920, industry has made great strides in the past 35 years in reducing the discharge of pollutants to streams. This has been accomplished by in-plant process changes, reducing wastes at the source through increased processing efficiency, re covery of byproducts and construction of waste-treatment facilities. It has been estimated that from two and one-half to four per cent of all con struction costs in the chemical industry are for pollution-control equipment The overall annual expenditures of the chemical industry for pollution control are estimated to be about $40 million, - It is the policy of chemical manufacturers not to authorize new plant construction which does not in clude provision for the treatment and elimi nation of water- and air-borne contaminants. In older plants, modernization programs in many cases have provided effective abate ment facilities. About five years ago, a National Asso ciation of Manufacturers survey of water usage and waste treatment in industry showed that 37 per cent of all paper mills in the United States had waste-treatment A recent survey of 329 mills by the Na tional Council on Stream Improvement for the Pulp, Paper and Paperboard Industries, Inc. indicated that 180, or 55 per cent, of the mills in the survey sample have con structed waste-treatment plants of one type or another. Based on this recent survey, the Council estimated that the industry has spent in the neighborhood of $70,000,000 for waste-treatment-plant construction over tiie past 10 years. A recent report indicates substantial pollution abatement Despite such encouraging progress, it has been estimated that industrial pollutants still discharging to streams are equivalent to the BOD loading of about 110 million people--over twice the estimated discharge in 1920 before acute water-pollutiori"prob lems began to develop on a national scale. In order to maintain a reasonable degree of stream cleanliness in the future, it will be necessary to increase the efficiency of removal of industrial pollutants to double the present levels, through additional in creases in process efficiency and improved waste treatment. These considerations involve .only waste loads of a biochemical nature. The prob lems involving removal of more .complex waste dements and radioactive wastes can be of even greater health and nuisance significance and will probably require even greater expenditures for satisfactory treat ment. Tasks Ahead in Reducing Air Pollution: Other federal agencies will be asked to undertake projects needed by the Public Health Service to develop baric data neces sary to solve specific air-pollution problems, for which they-are- qualified by staff- com petency or possession of Special fatalities. The U. S. Weather Bureau, the U. S. Bureau of Mines and the National Bureau of Standards have participated in prelimi nary discussions with the Public Health Service concerning projects of this type. Many research and development require ments of an air-pollution program may be met more economically in private or public laboratories or institutions having special ized facilities and competencies which can be used to supplement the projects of the 62 1955 National Safety Congress . PHS. As examples, the following types of projects may be cited: 1. The development of specialised instru mentation for field measurement of spe cific air pollutants. 2. Investigations of atmospheric-pollution problems requiring the temporary serv ices of persons possessing unusual skills of a high order. 3. There is need for estimation of economic effects of air pollution in terms of dam age to materials, vegetation and possible loss of time and efficiency of workers. 4. Problems related to the dispersal of air pollutants can be explored in wind tun nels available in several institutions. 5. Organizations outside the PHS have skills and facilities for developing index plants for measuring levels of air pollu tion. Contracts may be placed with one or more institutions to evaluate this possibility. 6. Some of the universities have labora tories set up for development of atrcleaning devices and equipment. Con tracts for specific investigations mar lead to the development of improved methods and derices for removing dusts, fumes and' odors from effluents. Some characteristic research grants re cently recommended by NAHC and ap proved by the Surgeon General are: Institution Amount Description of Project University of Cincinnati. -'.. .$69,209 The design and organization of a study to relate the incidence, prevalence and prog nosis of human diseases to air pollution in an urban area. Detroit Department of Health. .$20,000 University of Southern Cali fornia, Los Angeles, Cali fornia ....................................$10,982 Utah State Agricultural College ..................................$43,107 University of Cincinnati....... $11,730 A comprehensive study of the effects of air pollution on health. Determination of acute and subacute bio logic effects of air pollution. The effect of atmospheric fluorides cm man. Classified bibliography of atmospheric pollu tion with particular reference to its effects on man. Jefferson Medical College----- $11,126 . Absorption routes of inhaled air contam inants: Intestinal vs. pulmonary deposition. Harvard School of Public Health ..................................$14,634 The physiologic response of animals and human subjects to atmospheric pollutants. University of Southern Cali fornia, Los Angeles, Cali fornia .................................... $36,784 Investigation of the effect of breathing "smog^air on pulmonary function in man. University ofMichigan...........$63,420 Atmospheric pollution by aeroallcrgens. University of California, Berkeley, California........... $14,375 Particulate air pollutants resulting from combustion. At the suggestion of the White House, the Departments of Agriculture; Defense; Commerce; Health, Education, and Wel fare; Interior; the Atomic Energy Com mission; and the National Science Founda tion have appointed representatives to the Interdepartmental Committee on Commu nity Air Pollution. As the air-pollution program develops, it is planned to appoint a committee for air pollution, with nepre- have laborapment of airnpment. Con tigations may of Improved emoving dusts, luents. di grants reiHC and apral are: a study to and progpollution in Fects of air bactite bio- es on man, iter' xiUu i: Jfects ir containdeposition. simals and pollutants. breathing a in man. ergens. ting from adves to the on Gotnmuair-poUndon ed to appoint i, with repre- 64 Illumination and Safety Glare By DR. GLENN A. FRY Dir., School of Optometry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio The word "glare" may be used to desig nate many different types of things which are bad about a lighting installation. For tunately, however, we can identify specific types of glare and cope with them. In order to explain the difference between various types of glare, it will be helpful to review a few facts about the process of seeing. When a person looks at an object he points bis eye so that the image-forming mechanism of the eye will form an image on that part of the retina called the fovea. When an image falls on this part of the re tina. it can be seen in finer detail than images falling elsewhere on the retina. The space in front of the eye is called the field of i-inc. The object looked at' lies at the center of the field. The part of the field which lies outside of the central part of the field is called the surround or the periphery. A light source in the surround, or peri phery, of the field of view may be a source of distraction or annoyance, but it also pro duces actual discomfort. This is what we call discomfort glare. The light source in the periphery of the field of view may also interfere with the risibility of the object. The pupil of the eye admits a beam of light from the light source which passes through the media of the eye to a peripheral portion of the retina. As this beam passes through the media, light is scat tered on to the part of the retina which re ceives the image of the object. The^impairment of vision produced by this scattered light is called veiling glare. Peripheral light sources may also affect the pupil of the eye because whenever an image of a bright source falls on any por tion of the retina, this makes the pupil constrict This may be good or bad. At low levels of illumination, the total amount of light that enters the eye from the object is cut down, and this interferes with the visi bility. At high levels of illumination, there is light to spare, and, if the observer has dituculty focusing his eye on the object, reducing the size of the pupil makes this easier. Older people who are trying to look at close ob jects without the aid of bifocals are usually grateful to have glare sources placed in their fields of view. There is another kind of glare called blinding glare. For example, if, when light is entering the eye from the periphery, the eye turns to look at the light source and then turns back again to look at the object, the momentary glance at the light source will modify the state of adaption of the central part of the retina so that when he looks back at the object, he will not be able to see it as well as before he looked at the light source. Up to now we have been discussing the harmful effects of having a light source in the periphery of the field of view, but we must not overlook the fact that the light has to be there in the first place in order to illuminate the object which the eve is trying to see. The illuminating engineer must provide adequate illumination for the object and at the same time avoid the harmful effects of having light sources risible to the eve. He may use a concentrated light source enclosed in a diffusing globe. Or he may use a lumi nous ceiling which will adequately illuminate the object but will not seriously impair the risibility of the object and will not produce annoyance, discomfort or distraction. In illuminating an object, the first thing to aim at is to proride an adequate quantity* of illumination.- In addition, however, the illuminating engineer must pay attention to the wave length composition of the light, that is, the color of the light In the third place, the illuminating engineer must pay attention to the distribution of light sources and lighted surfaces surrounding the object In the fourth place, he must consider differen- Ohio rver has ditlijject, reducing i easier. Older c at dose dbils are usually :es placed in glare called if, when light periphery, the turce and then he object, the it source will 3f the central hen he looks be able to see ! at the light liscusstng the ght source in view, but we . the light has : jr -rder to e I trying must provide' object and at ful effects of the eye. He >urce enclosed v use a lumiely illuminate ly impair the fnot produce raction. te first thing uate quantity however, the attention to the light, that e third place, pay attention sources and te object. In ider differen Industrial Safety 65 tial illumination for the object and its im mediate background. The distribution of light sources and lighted surfaces surrounding an object is especially important when the object is threedimensional. When one has to deal with a situation like one, for instance; in which the parts of a watch are laid out on a fiat sur face, it is quite important to provide shadow less illumination in order to avoid confusing the parts with their own shadows. When one is attempting to read black let ters on a mat white paper, the distribution of the light sources in the field surrounding the printed page is not too important How ever, if the paper happens to be glossy, it is necessary to design the lighting to avoid specular reflection which can literally make the print invisible, or else one must angle the printed page in order to avoid these reflections. This type of interference with vision is called reflected glare. This brings up again the point which was made at the outset; namely, that the word glare can be used to designate a number of different kinds of conditions found in a light ing installation. Reference has already been made to four different kinds of conditions which can be designated by the word glare. To recapitulate we have already mentioned discomfort glare, veiling glare, produced by stray light, blinding glare and reflected glare. The last three of these are collectively called disability glare. There are many jobs in industry, such as the inspection of roller bearings, which re quire special kinds of lighting. A roller bearing has a polished surface, and one can make use of specular reflection to discover a crack which shows up as a fine black line on the surface: Examples of this type can be found without end. Another type of problem is illustrated by the inspection of filaments of radio tubes. The tube is held against an illuminated back ground so that the object has to be seen silhouetted against the bright background. This arrangement involves differential light ing of the object and its background. Not only do we have to get light from the light source to the object, but we also have to get the reflected light from the object to the eye, and this part of the process of seeing becomes complicated when the space between the eye and the-object is filled with fog, as is often the case on the public high ways. In most situations, however, scatter ing by the atmosphere between the object and the eye is of no consequence: In designing a luminous environment, the optometrist, or ophthalmologist, and the illuminating engineer must set up specific aims in providing lenses and light for the performance of a task. To be specific, they must aim at: 1. efficient seeing, 2. comfortable seeing, 3. safe seeing, 4. seeing without fatigue, and 5. seeing without permanent impairment of vision and health. Since the topic of discussion today is illumination and safety, I will omit saying anything about fatigue and permanent im pairment of vision and health, but I do want to say something about the relation of safe seeing to efficient and comfortable seeing. There are situations, such as driving an automobile at night or landing an airplane, in which efficient seeing and safe seeing are practically the same thing. On the other hand, we find a native carving a canoe in the middle of a jungle infested with wild animals. Keeping the eyes and ears peeled for wild animals is only incidental to the major task. If a man is* working at -a desk, efficiency is the all-important factor, and safety is of little or no consideration. In cases where both safety and efficiency are involved, the distribution of emphasis varies from job to job. In the case of a job like packing cartons in a warehouse; very little light is required to do the job effi ciently; safety is much more important, and one can probably get by with a level as low as five foot candles. However, when seeing becomes critical and efficiency is paramount, one expects to find the minimum specification of the illumination to be 30 foot-candles or more. 'Within the attainable levels of illumina tion, the higher the illumination, the higher the efficiency. It is difficult, however, to pro vide higher levels of illumination without introducing discomfort The upper limit is, therefore, determined by the ability to-keep the environment free from sources of dis comfort. 66 1955 National Safety Congress The most important tiling I can say to flashes of light bright enough to produce people who are concerned primarily with discomfort are well above the threshold for safety is that the requirements for efficiency producing a change in the size of the pupiL are generally much higher than requirements As a matter of fact, a flash of light which for safety. Hence, the safety engineer is is at the border line between comfort and entirely justified in setting a generous safety discomfort produces a change in the diameter factor for safe seeing; the additional light is of the pupil amounting to about half of a needed for efficient seeing anyway. Cost of millimeter or more. lighting certainly has to be considered in any situation, but the thing that really sets the upper limit for both efficient seeing and safe seeing is the ability to keep the environment free from discomfort The constriction of the pupil is one of the principal mechanisms contributing to the discomfort, because, if the pupil is paralyzed with homatropine so that it no longer re sponds to a flash of light, the threshold for I am certain that when a safety engineer discomfort is considerably raised. The dis first hears the expression luminous environ comfort which does occur under these cir ment free from discomfort glare, he is apt cumstances is qualitatively different. It is un to regard this as a high-sounding empty doubtedly associated with the tension in the phrase This is not the case. In the first muscles, producing closure of the eyelids place, we have learned to deal with discom and the auxiliary muscles associated with fort in a quantitative way. In the second place, we have begun^to understand the^ causes of discomfort The role played by discomfort therefore, cannot be treated lightly. If an observer is looking at a fixation point in a uniform field and a patch of brightness is suddenly exposed at the center of the field, there is a definite level of brightness of a flash above the brightness of the background at which it produces dis comfort Luckiesh and Guth have determined to what extent the border line between com fort and discomfort is affected by applying the flash at different points in the periphery of the field of view. One of the problems under consideration is the evaluation of the effect of a combination of glare sources located in different parts of the field of view and having different brightnesses, different sizes and different backgrounds. squinting. When extremely bright flashes are used, this leads to irrepressible blinking and tearing. Techniques have not yet been worked out for evaluating the effect of the combinations of glare sources at different points in the periphery field of view. Experimentally, we have dealt so far with flashes of light This has been done delib erately because one can measure with concrable precision the pupillary response to a flash of light It is found, however, that discomfort may be obtained from glare sources which are continuously presented in the field of view. It is believed in this case that the discomfort arises from fluctuation of the pupil size which depends, for the most part on movements of the eyes. Needless to say, there are many aspects of the problem which need further investigation, but at least we have learned enough about the nature of discomfort produced by glare sources to re I would like to describe an investigation gard it as something real and tangible. carried on at The Ohio State University which aims at understandiag-the causes of discomfort produced by the flashes of light It also aims to provide a basis for predict ing the effect of a combination of glare sources presented in the field of view at the same time. Finally, it ought to be pointed out that comfortable seeing not only sets the upper limit on the amount of light we can proride for efficient and safe seeing, but seeing with comfort is itself an asset to safe seeing. This is no better illustrated than in the case of driving an automobile on the highway at One of the major causes of discomfort night with an intermittent exposure to a resulting from a flash of light is the con succession of passing automobiles. This can striction of the pupil of the eye. By means be nerve racking to the point of making the of an infrared photographic technique, we driver less safe. The safety engineer, there have been able to obtain continuous records fore, should be just as much concerned as of the change in pupil size produced by a the illuminating engineer in the design of flash of light, and we have found that luminous environments free from discomfort. ;h to produce ti( \iold for e c Je pupiL of light which i comfort and n the diameter fut half of a ipil is one of ributing to the il is paralyzed no longer re- threshold for ised. The disder these cirerent. It is un tension in the if the eyelids ssodated with bright flashes ssible blinking 31 worked out ; combinations points in the lit so far with m done delibure with conresponse to a however, that i from glare y r--vented in jd Jbis case jmuuctuation >, for the most s. Needless to f the problem hj, but at least the nature of sources to retangible. nted out that sets the upper re can provide ut seeing with te seeing. This n the case of e highway at ixposure to a dies. This can of making the lgineer, there- concerned as the design of im discomfort. Industrial Safety 67 Musde Tension, Illumination and Safety By. DR. LEONARD MEAD Chairman, Psychology Dept, Tufts University, Medford, Mass. The material to be presented in this paper is a report of work which has been in progress at Tufts University for the past several years. There have been many indi viduals1 in our Department of Psychology and its Institute for Applied Experimental Psychology, who have worked on various phases of this topic I am only one of many collaborators. Our work is not complete What will be presented is a story whose ending is not vet known. The central theme has been the attempt to develop a portable electronic device which will record muscle tension continuously and signal to the wearer'when his state of muscle tension has reached a low level. We shall show yon how musde tension is related to general alertness, a psycho logical trait which has significance in manycommon tasks, such as automobile driving or assembly work; whenever there is monot onous repetition of stimulus and response. Alertness is also a requirement in watch situations like those of the dvil defense aerial lookout, the radar observer or the sonar listener; here, one must be prepared to detect a signal tire first time it occurs, although the stimulus may not appear for weeks, months or years. Deterioration of alertness in these lands of jobs may have serious consequences for the life and safety of the performer and his associates. Our early work was supported by con tract with the Spedal Services Center of the Office of Naval Research. Some of the visual fatigue work and the development of our visual performance test has~t>een supported by the Research Fund of the Illuminating Engineering Society. During the past year,- additional electronic devdopment dud further psychological research has been sponsored by the Quartermaster Corps Research Headquarters of Natick, Massa chusetts. The report of our studies on musde ten sion will constitute the major portion of u PuticnUrly Isxic Bdur, Florence Gray, John L Kennedy, Stella Miyne, Boland C Travis and Bert ram Wellman. this paper. Our long range goal was to select some body mechanism (muscle tension or some other physiological indicator) as an index of efficient performance The first problem. here, obviously, is how do you measure and define efficient performance? There are literally hundreds, or even thousands, of individual acts of behavior (in the work; home or laboratory situation) whose efficiency can fie studied It seemed to us that criteria which could he used to ascertain efficiency fell into either of two categories: gross bodily behavior, and what could be called under-the-skin measure of performance. Examples of gross bodily behavior meas ures are the following: 1. Speed of work 2. Units of production 3. Errors 4. Discriminative capacity 5. Accidents and near-accidents 6l Pay 7. Supervisor ratings 8. Reaction time 9. Test scores You will recognize each of these indices as a possible indicator of overall perform ances in a working or test situation. The measures relate to total individual behavior and can be determined, by an outside ob server or experimenter independently of the individual bring rated or measured. An under-the-skin index of performance, on the other hand, requires the knowledge and cooperation of the subject and involves the measurement of a particular biological function. Among the performance indices which might be found in this category are the following: 1. Heart rate 2. Blood pressure 3. Pulse rate 4. Respiration 5. Brain waves 6. Eye movements and blinks 7. Body chemistry* 8. Temperature 9. Metabolism 68 1955 National Safety Congress 10. Psychogalvanic skin reflex skin" measures. Some of -the apparatus 11. Musde Tension which we had available for the recording Although our research efforts eventually, led us to select muscle tension as the most suitable "under-the-sldn" index, our imme diate experimental goal when we started out was to find and utilize any "under-the-skm" measure which correlated highly with one or more o the acceptable gross-bodybehavior indices. We would have been content with any one of the "under-thesldn" measures, providing that the index finally selected had the characteristics re quired of any measuring device. It should be sensitive to actual changes in bodily performance and not subject to artifacts; of biological potentials generated by the brain and musde tissue are: pre-amplifier and calibrator, amplifiers for each recording channel and four-channel ink writer. Many hours were consumed running off hundreds of feet of tape while recording both bran and musde electrical potentials from college men in various stages of alert ness occupied in various tasks. The am plification system used in stepping up elec trical signals coming from the subject was varied systematically in gain magnitude; the system also selectively emphasized van-' ous frequency bands. it must be responsive to quick changes as For those unfamiliar with the electrical the}' occur; it should not interfere with correlates of tissue, it should be emphasized general body behavior; it must appear that the wave frequencies vary between under relevant circumstances and conditions; one and 400 cycles per second, with ampli it must be non^discomfqrting to the indi tudes from a few microvolts to-a few milli vidual bring studied; and it should have volts. Both neural (brain) and musde such convenience features as bring light tissue give off these electrical waves. Actual in weight, easy to use. portable, economical characteristics of these waves differ quite to construct and free from maintenance. markedly, however, the brain giving off This is a rather formidable list of de wave-like pulses whereas muscle gives off siderata, but I hope to be able to show' spike-like potentials. how w-e achieved some of these goals. Our electrode placements were shifted in If you will recall the various possible location on the head and active muscles ``under-the-sldn" measurements and compare of the neck, shoulder, back, arms and legs, them to those desiderata of a suitable device, in order to discover the most effective place you can see that quite few of these "under- ment for the electrical potential takeoff. the-skin" measures are automatically elimi Calibration procedures were followed to nated. Such indices as metabolism, or the provide frequent checks on the fidelity of chemistry of the body fluids and organs, the amplification and recording units. were discarded because of the complexity of recording these factors without inter ference with routine body behavior; it might also be discomforting. Other Items-- Our brain wave experiments turned out to be disappointing for several reasons: (1) some subjects characteristically showed slow brain waves, some relatively fast brain heartbeat, blood pressure; respiration, and so on--were eliminated because they did not satisfy our requirements with respect to sensitivity or responsiveness to quick changes. waves, some others no brain waves at all; (2) the brain waves of most of the subjects failed to change in any systematic way with changes in states of alertness, boredom --As we began-experiments, therefore, it and weariness; (3) for those subjects who seemed on a priori ground that the most showed brain wave changes as they ap fruitful initial leads might be one or more proached sleep, the changes usually occurred of the following: eye movements and blinks, too late to warn the subject of his. de brain waves or musde tendon. Previous teriorated condition. experience recording and analyzing eye These experimental results showed us movements and blink behavior led us to it would be difficult to establish clear-cut eliminate these as indices because they relations between brain waves and alertness themselves are so often a component of the changes by any simple device showing when many human tasks about which a judgment electrical impulses were predictive of un of efficiency is demanded. alertness. This left us either brain waves or musde We discontinued the recording of brain tension as candidates for our "under-the- waves and turned our attention to the lie apparatus hf cording ad i>y the pre-amplifier ich recording: vriter. : running off lie recording ml potentials iges of alerts. The arri ving up electhe subject n magnitude; ihasized van-' the electrical e emphasized ary between , with ampli> a few milliand muscle raves. Actual differ quite 1 giving off de gives off xe shifted in rive muscles ms and legs, fective placeitial takeoff, followed to . ( |ity of s turned out :ral reasons: ically showed dy fast brain vaves at all; : the subjects tematic way less, boredom subjects who as they apally occurred . of his. de- showed us ish clear-cut and alertness (lowing when dive of lin ing of brain rion to the Industrial Safety 69 measurement of muscle activity and its spikes per second during the relaxed period relation to general alertness. at the five micro-voltage levd and practi It has already been emphasized that there are differences between frequency of occur rence of brain waves and muscle action currents. In general, brain waves of any cally no spikes above the 50 micro-voltage levd. As the tension increases, the number of spikes increases for all three micro voltage settings. magnitude occur at lesser frequencies than Another slide showed the relationship muscle action potentials. And in single between frequency of action potentials and muscle fibers under slight voluntary' con tension levels for three different amplitudes traction, the frequencies of spike type of action potentials. The curves showed naves range between five and ten per that the rate of spike impulses increases second, with occasional rates of three per with increasing tension, and that this rate second. With increasing contraction, maxi differs depending on the micro-voltage cut mum frequencies of 30 to 50 per second off. are regularly observed for single muscle fibers in healthy muscles. On the other hand, in a muscle which is totally relaxed, there is little or no action current activity. Data of this kind demonstrated that recordings of all musde spikes, above the five' micro-volt level should be taken in studies on alertness changes, even for very Another factor of note is that the ampli active muscles like the biceps. To record tude or strength of the spike varies not bdow the five micro-volt levd becomes only with the electrical -potential changes "hazardous because normal noise level of in the muscle, but with the distance of the the amplification system is around three recording electrode from the active muscle micro-volts. Before w*e could use this units. knowledge in further experiments, addi Turning bade now to early experiments in tional dectronic devdopment was required. which wae recorded both brain and musde activity, you will recall that we were using four independent amplifying and recording channels. Quite by accident, we noticed that, as the subject became progressively more Additional instruments' required in order to accomplish our new objectives were: (I) dectronic counters; (2) a voltage dis criminator; and (3) a rate indicator. drowsy', electrical potential output in the The dectronic counters were used to frequency band of about 40 to 200 per count musde spikes as they occurred at second also progressively decreased. This the site of the electrodes. The voltage occurred for a number of subjects. discriminator could be used to cut out The phenomenon caused us to change our recording techniques, to develop and install dectronic units emphasizing the high frequency electrical potentials of the musdes, to record musde potentials along with brain waves coincidentally on the same tape. Electronic - impulse counters, which would record impulses only a few micro volts in magnitude, were used to record voltages at different levds. The rate indi cator showed the rate of occurrence of muscle spikes of a particular frequency level. Our system allowed us to record frequencies between 0-25, 0-50, 0-100, and 0-200 cydes per second. The new rate indicator and the dectronic counters could be used interchangeably, depending on the type of record desired. the-number of actions-potentials--of a par Now that we were partially instrumented, ticular size which occurred per unit of time. we had to find the best electrode placement Here, the author showed a slide demon strating a count of action potentials re corded by three of these dectronic counters, each set to record the number of impulses above 5, 50 or 100 micro-volts, respectively, at four different tension levels: The elec for the most dependable indication of wan ing alertness. Considerable evidence shows tlsat different muscles will be involved to different degrees in the same task, some very active, others almost, if not totally, relaxed. trodes were attached to the right biceps In our search for the most suitable elec musde. The tension levds were: hand trode location, dectrode placements were relaxed, band raised, hand lifting--1.5 made over a variety Of musdes during the pounds, and hand lifting--3.0 pounds. The performance of many simple and/or monot biceps, on the average, exhibits about two onous tasks. In various experiments, we 70 1955 National Safety Congress put them over muscles of the neck, back, But variability in reaction time progres arms, legs and on the face. After many sively increases as tension level gets lower. test sessions it became dear that we should All the missed stimuli occurred at the lower avoid an electrode placement on those tension levels. musdes which were involved in bodily adjustment to gravity, or in making adjusfive responses to environmental tasks. In either of these instances, the decline in alertness is masked by the local musde activity. (Musdes of the bade came dose to qualifying in this regard, but we dis carded this type of placement because of possible embarrassment or inconvenience to die subject) Since reaction time seems acceptable as a gross-body-measure of alertness, we now tried to collect data on reaction time at varying tension levels. An additional ex periment was performed in which the stimulus requiring a response was presented at varying tension levels, from high to low. Try to imagine a situation in which, as you become more and more unalert, or sleepy, you are presented with a sound or a light Finally, we dedded upon a placement requiring your quickest response. Sometimes over the eyebrows or supra-orbital musdes. the signal occurred when you are very This region just above the eyes is not alert; other times you have almost dozed significantly involved in many kinds o off. Reaction time is shortest when tension bodily adjustments to gravity, but has a level is highest. Mean reaction time becomes definite tie-up to ocular adjustments. In much longer at lower tension levels. At attentive visual tasks it is also dose to such times, there is also the previously brain acUvity. This placement also permits observed increase in variability of response the use of a head band, cap or helmet for time. mounting the electrodes, which are made of sponge rubber. Each sponge rubber disk is half an inch in diameter and about a quarter of an inch thick, with a lead-out wire imbedded in it Before applying the sponge electrode, the rubber disk is satu rated with a salt glycerine solution and held on the skin with adhesive tape or a head band. Having obtained this interesting correla tion between a gross-body-measure and an under-the-skin measure; we proceeded to undertake electronic development which would take account both of the magnitude and frequency of muscle spikes. A device was developed which integrated the size of tiie electrical impulses for approximately one second. This newer apparatus was One of the monotonous tasks effective packaged in two black boxes which were in producing unalertness is a simulated portable and did not require a roomful lookout task. Here the subject was re of permanently located electronic apparatus. quired to watch a clock hand move uni formly around a dock face. Very occa sionally, and sporadically, the dock hand would move two jumps rather than one. The more alert the subject, the less likely was he to miss those times when the hand made two jumps rather than one. A' single test session lasted two hours, during which time 25 signals might be presented. . We recorded musde tension from the eyebrows continuously. When the lookedfor stimulus occurred, we also recorded the subject's reaction time. And we could tell if the subject missed the signal al together. As you can imagine, reaction time slowed down as the alertness level became lower, but there were only six misses of 253 dock- Considerable research was devoted to the task of calibrating the new portable device and conducting studies on the day-to-day reliability of the amplifying, integrating and recording systems. We also used the device in conducting further laboratory tests on look-out behavior and other kinds of tasks, such as simple assembly work, reading and solving mathematical problems. These further studies continued to demon strate that, under those conditions, when the subject showed unalertness to the point of dozing off, there was a general decline in.the bioelectrical output from the fore head region of the head. We also found interesting variations in tiie average tension levels of different sub hand signals for a total of ten college jects while performing different kinds of student subjects. Evidently Tuft's students jobs; this suggested to us that it might be have a high tolerance for boredom! possible to evaluate the physiological com- une progres1 y lower. a'< ) lower ceptable as a ss, we now don time at iditiona] ex- which the ras presented high to low. vhich, as you % or sleepy, id or a light e. Sometimes ju are very almost dozed when tension time becomes a levels. At e previoosly of response ting correlaunre and an proceeded to meat which te magnitude s. A device red the size pproxhnately paratus was which were noted to die rtable device i day-to-day integrating Iso used the * laboratory other kinds anbly work, -al problems, d to demon itions, when to the point oeral decline m the fore- /ariations in ifferent subnt lands of it might be logical com Industrial Safety 71 ponents of a particular job by means of Alertness Indicator relay was activated, the Alertness Indicator. the co-pilot reported that he took the con Our portable device was installed and trols for a few moments. Whether there tried out in a number of real life or field would have been an accident if the co-pilot situations. It was used with radar operators hadn't taken over the controls at these two in a Navy combat information center team , times, or whether the Alertness Indicator training center in Boston. It was tried would have warned the pilot of his condi out in an ordinary private automobile. We tion in time to avoid the accident, we shall attached it to a truck driver daring an never know. An end spurt is observed all-night truck run. An electrician on shortly after the end of the flight during watch as controller man in the manuevering which the pilot's tension level stays well room of a submarine cooperated as a sub above the relay pull-in point. ject during various watch periods on two It was at tins stage in our investigation three-day cruises. And finally, it was used that the Illuminating Engineering Society to test the bioelectrical output of an Air asked us to .study the possible uses of the Force subject during a 17-hour continuous Alenness Indicator as a means-of specifying ran as pilot of the flying laboratory of the illumination standards in various occupa aero-medical laboratory of Wright-Patter- tions. This problem of specifying optimal sou Air Force Base. illumination standards has many economic There was a&Jnteresting and expected relationship between the electrical activity picked up from the truck driver and par ticular driving conditions. Although perhaps scientifically desirable, it is not possible under field conditions to arrange circum and human implications. The Illuminating Engineering Society has been interested for many years in developing objective means for standardizing light levels and developing recommended practices for different seeing situations. stances whereby the subject becomes danger- This society has long sought a non-sub- ously inalert to the point of perhaps precipi jective, biologically and psychologically tating an accident. No fortuitous accident valid method on which to base their rec- occurred due to lack of vigilance or sleepi- -- otmnended practices. It is well known that ness! However, it may be possible to utilize visual acuity increases with illumination up the Alertness Indicator to signal automati to around 10 or 15 foot-candles, and that, cally to the operator when he is approaching with uniform surroundings, acuity increases a condition of dangerous inalertness, or low with illumination up to 1,000 or more muscle tension. In the present instance, our foot-candles. driver was alert when he should have been and only became less tense when no danger was involved. There is also some evidence that an increase in illumination may be accompanied by increases in performance or productivity In a 17-hour fatigue run on an Air Force in industrial situations. If it is true that pilot, the subject controlled his plane con acuity and performance do increase with tinuously during this period except for two illumination, we may ask the question: Are brief times when he was forced to land, these increases made at the expense of once in order to refuel and the second time greater demands on the performer? Thus, to^shange batteries. The Alertness Indi even though seeing or performance improve cator was set so as to trip a relay when with an increase in luminance, perhaps the the bioelectric output of the pilot readied individual has to work disproportionally a low level. An examination of the table harder to achieve this gain. What we are shows that there is a decline of alertness asking here is whether or not there is an shortly after the flight has begun. Then actual increase in the physiological cost of there is a long period during which the visually-directed effort It was hoped that tension level remains high above the relay the muscle potential output or the "under- pull-in point Next there is a period near the-skm" measure which the Alertness Indi the end of the task when the subject's cator provided could measure physiological alertness hand falls to the point of operating cost of seeing. the warning signal, recovers, falls again, recovers, and so on. An experiment was made in which'muscle tension level was recorded simultaneously During two of these periods, while the with reading rate (measured by number of ?! m words read per minute). Illumination varied between less than one to over 100 foot candles. Type size was standard 10-point. There was a slow increase in muscle tension potential independent of illumination during a test run of over 70 minutes. from the eye, subtend five, three and one minute of arc respectively. During the past several months we have tried all three of these sizes on ten subjects. Illumination was varied between 300 foot-candles and .01 foot candle. In the second run, which followed the It. had been our plan'during these tests first one by ten minutes, the book was to use the Alertness Indicator at the same moved to twice the normal reading distance time our subjects were performing this at the shaded portion of the curve For visually-directed task. But, unfortunately, the unshaded portions, the book was re we began to be plagued by electrical inter turned to normal reading distance for that ference. Consequently there was so much subject. The increased distance was ac electrical noise on the record it was im companied by a marked increase in muscle possible to differentiate the muscle action action potential which seemed to be inde potential output of the subjects from the pendent of the illumination level. The sub electrical noise. This set-back to our plans ject reported considerable more effort to was especially provoking because so many read at the doubled distance. of the early studies were primarily con Another test was run .with a more severe cerned with the elimination of ambient reading task. The book was old and in electrical interference. smaller, eight-point type. The ink was faded and the paper yellowed. The reading rate was directly proportional to the illu mination, and changed more than in any other test. The muscle action potentials liad a pronounced upward trend throughout the period of falling and low illumination, declined briefly when the illumination in creased. then resumed an upward trend. From these results it would appear that as far as physiological cost alone is concerned, there is no need for high foot candle levels when reading a well-printed book with comfortable surroundings. However, when the task is of great difficulty, more illumina tion is required for lowest physiological cost. In comparing average test scores for all subjects at the three sizes of test object and at all illuminations with similar data obtained by Weston in his original experi ments, it seems quite dear that we are obtaining the same general interactions be tween test object size, illumination and performance as Weston did. Our illumina tion range was slightly greater, however. Because of slight differences in testing methodology and technique, the actual per formance scores on the Weston and Tufts tests should be compared only relatively and not absolutdy. The relative trends, how ever, are quite similar and it w*ould appear that we have developed a test which pro vides a measure of differential performance The results of these observations prompted under varying conditions of illumination. us to devote some time to the development of a standard test of visually-directed be havior. One of the best standardized tests with which we were familiar had been developed by Dr. H. C. Weston of London, England. His--test consisted of a series of circles (Landoldt rings) with gaps in them located at different positions around the ring. The task required of a subject What is now lacking are the musde po tential measures given off by subjects under test conditions similar to those just de scribed. Our efforts are now being directed toward this goal. During the past year we have obtained assistance from the Quartermaster Corps Headquarters Command, which has enabled was to locate aud mark the gap. The test us to undertake the devdopment of a new could be varied in difficulty by using circles and improved Alertness Indicator. We fi and gaps of different sizes. Weston has also demonstrated that the test scores were systematically affected by changes in illumi nally located the source of our electrical interference. It was a new television trans mitter nearby! nation and contrast of the rings. Our new device has a specially developed We have developed a similar test We differential in-put drcuit which eliminates have had printed test sheets with three ambient electrical noise from the electrical sizes of gaps winch, when viewed 14 inches potential signal generated by the subject j hree and one >g the triL it! three Illumination rndles and .01 ig these tests - at the same forming tins unfortunately, ectrical inter' ivas so much I it was imnuscle action cts from the to our plans use so many rimarilv Con or ambient cores for all f test object similar data iginal experithat we are teractions benination and Dur illuminater, however, s in testing e actual per>n and Tufts rek " 'ely and tr>.- I, howwouid appear t which pro* performance umination. e muscle poubjects under ose just deidng directed ave obtained taster Corps i has enabled tnt of a new itor. We fimr electrical vision trans- lly developed di eliminates the electrical the subject Industrial Safety 73 The bioelectric impulses are fed to a high gain amplifier, which is transformer-coupled and employs four transistor stages. Our new model also has four plug-in units which provide different frequency characteristics, making it possible to conduct further re search on the opdmal band width ..for electrical recording of this sort The am plified signal can be viewed on a cathode ray oscilloscope and may be read off a meter on the front panel of the instrument A relay is provided to signal when the output from the subject falls below a given level. The instrument is completely powered by two small self-contained bat teries. and no connection to a power line is required. This instrument is the most versatile, most portable, smallest and lightest device which has been developed up to the present time.' Its dimensions are 19L by^7 .inches on the front panel which fits into a chassis three inches deep. Its overall weight is about 12 pounds. During the past summer we have been learning how to use it, studying its operation characteristics and calibrating it under different conditions of use. Some of the early work done with subjects in various states of alertness has been repeated. We have taken records continuously for three different all-night sessions, while our subjects went through various stages of wakefulness and sleep. Although we have now come to the end of my paper, you can see that our story has not been completed. If the experience gained in the use of our new model con tinues under other conditions, it is our hope during the next year to tie up, once and for all, the relationship between muscle tension, illumination and performance on representative types of human tasks. It is still our hope that we will be able to develop a reliable device for the measure ment of muscle tension which can be used to signal to an operator when he has reached an undesirable state of alertness. There are, obviously, many situations in modern life where such a condition would be a. threat to human safety. An automatic apparatus which would inform an operator when this incipient condition was about to occur would have valuable applications to many circum stances of every-day living. Noise--What You Can Do About It Measuring the Noise Exposure By HAROLD W. CROUCH Eng, Eastman Kodak Co, Rochester, N. Y. Noise has been defined as unwanted sound. I think this is a good definition. For example, the sirens on the fire apparatus coming down the street might be considered noise. But if it is your house that is on fire, it would not be noise--at least by the above definition. The reasons for measuring noise vary. We may be concerned with whether the level is high enough to cause loss of hear ing. Or we may be interested in its annoy ance value in the office or conference room, or its interference -in communication in die work room. The problem may be its neigh borhood annoyance value. The measurements that are made differ in each case. However, the instruments used are the same and the units are the same. Freqneacy-Level-Conlinnity Sound has three main attributes--fre quency, level and continuity. Sound .is wave motion in air. It consists of small pressure and rarifaction areas travelling out from the source at a definite speed. In air at normal temperatures, it is approximately 1,100 feet per second, or a mile in five seconds. Musical Sounds The ear is sensitive to these pressure waves when they follow each other at rates from about 20 a second to 15,000 a second. The rate at which these arrive at the ear is called the "frequency" of the sound. We express it as "cycles per second." The sound pressure level or db level of the noise--is a measure of its loudness. It depends on the pressure difference--in the travelling pressure waves which we said caused sound. The higher the pressure the louder the sound. We measure this pressure with a microphone. To express the level of a sound we use a unit called a decibel. This is a very convenient unit--it is the log of the ratio of the average pressure in the sound wave to a reference pressure. It indicates the amount of energy in the sound. Increasing the energy 10 times raises the db level by 10. Doubling the energy in creases the level three db. When the energy is doubled, the ratio of the energies is two. The log of two is three-tenths, and 10 times this equals three. The reference level is taken as the threshold of hearing, or the weakest sound that can be heard by the average good ear. Various Noise Levels: Loud sounds are made with a very small amount of energy. One watt of sound energy in this room would raise the level to over 100 db. Cutting the noise in half is not very much reduction, but reducing it to one-tenth is a real improvement. A large magnitude of noise reduction is necessary to "quiet" a noisy operation. Cutting the noise in half will probably not be satisfactory. The third factor--continuity, or intermittency--is much harder to evaluate or express as a value. There is no question that it is important in loss of hearing, or in annoy ance studies. I have built an instrument that measures the time the noise is above various levels. Instruments Now let us look at some of the instru ments used to measure noise. Survey Meter: The survey meter is the simplest and most convenient instrument to use. One of the various makes of survey type meters consists of a microphone mounted in the top, an electronic amplifier and an indicating meter. This meter will read noise levels from 40 db to 130 db. The- ound we use a unit--it is the ge pressure in e pressure. It >* in the sound, nes ruses the ie energy inten the energy tergies is two. , and 10 times rence level is suing, or the heard by die id sounds are mt of energy, in this room 100 db. lot--y much mi 1th is a magnitude of to "quiet" a noise in half ry, or Intennitue or express ion that it is or in annoyn instrument rise is above f the instru- meter is the instrument to es of survey microphone mic amplifier s meter will 130 dh. The Industrial Safety, 75 dial on the left has a setting for A--B--C --weightings. This controls an electrical network that reduces the response of the meter to the low frequencies. Ear Sensitivity: The ear is less sensitive to low frequencies; that is, it takes more energy for the ear to hear a low frequency note than sound in the 1,000-4,000 cycle range As the loudness of sound increases, the ear approaches equal sensitivity to all 3udible - frequencies. At the threshold of hearing, it takes 38 db higher level to hear a 100 cycle note than a 1,000 cycle one Going back to our db formula^this means it takes 6,000 times as much energy to hear a 100 cydc note at the threshold of hearing as a 1,000 cycle note ABC Curves: The ABC network sen sitivities are used to correct for ear sensi tivities. The C network is-flat. It is used for normal loud sounds and at any time a frequency analysis is made of the noise The B and A networks are'used when measuring lower levels, such as in offices or conference rooms. The B position is used for levels of 85 to 50 db and the A for still lower levels. The A-B-C weightings have been specified as American Standard Asso ciation standards for sound level meters and are found on all sound level meters. The survey type meter is a very valuable instrument It is almost always the instru ment to use in the first assessment of a noise problem. But it has a number of limitations. Sound Level Meter: When further infor mation is desired about noise, a sound level meter should be .used. This meter--and there are a number of makes and modifica tions--will, give the same reading as the survey type meter if held in the same posi tion, but it has a number of advantages. TheTmost useful is that the microphone can be removed and connected with a cable of almost any length. Also, the type of micro phone can be changed. Another very necessary feature Is that the output is large so the "noise" can- be passed to a band analyzer. Octave Band Analyser: An octave band analyzer divides the audible Tange into eight bands, each one octave in width. Other types are available which analyze in onehalf or one-third octave bands. This instrument tells you what "land" of noise you have; that is, whether it is pre dominantly low frequency or high frequency. Most energy or noise is in the low fre quencies. High db readings are in the higher frequency bands. The' instrument also indicates the energy in each band. There are other types of band analyzers. Narrow Band Analyser: The narrow band or sharp band analyzer is an instru ment that covers only a very narrow range of frequency at a time. With this instru ment, you can "pin-point" the' offending frequencies. This instrument is only useful when the noise tends to be of particular frequencies, like some motor or transformer noises. Sharp Band Analyses: The readings from this instrument are plotted on a continuous scale; not in the right equal divisions as was done with the previous analyzer. B K Analyser and Recorder: The analy ses we have been talking about could have been made with graphic recorders. Graphic recorders are mechanically operated ana lyzers. They draw a curve showing the results of the noise analyses. There are a number of makes. This instrument consists of a microphone to pick up the sound, a sound level meter to amplify it, a one-third octave band analyzer and a means of record ing the output on a chart that is pre-printed and kept in step with the analyzer. The recording part is at the bottom. One par ticular advantage of this instrument is that the recorder will respond at a high rate, so rapidly changing noises can be more faith fully analyzed. The instrument is frequently used to meas ure the changes in noise level over a period of time. The rate the chart moves is vari able over a wide range so the measured period may be from a few minutes to many hours on a short length of chart The instrument will record change in level at rates up to 1,000 db per second. Magnetic Tape Recorder: Magnetic tape recorders have a real place in the- noise measuring fidd. Their use is twofold: (1) to make a record for future reference (These records are very useful if changes are to be made to reduce the noise), and (2) to sample the noise, and store k for future analyses in the laboratory. Data storage systems of this type are particularly I i i j fi i . . r !* M useful when there is only a limited time to collect the data, or the particular type of analyses desired cannot be decided at the time It is very convenient to "sample" the noise with the tape recorder and then "ana lyze" it in the laboratory with a graphic recorder. To be useful, the tape recorder has to be portable; it probably should operate from the 115 volt lines. Its power requirements should be low enough so that a converter operating on a storage battery will operate it This makes it possible to operate it from an automobile or in other locations remote from power lines. This becomes particularly important in neighborhood annoyance prob lems. Fidelity of recording, however, cannot be sacrificed for portability. High fidelity in the audible range is obviously of extreme .importance. Moreover, the instrument must be so arranged, or modified, that it is cap able of reproducing the level of the original noise. You must be able to calibrate it-- and maintain the calibration. This is fre quently done by replacing the continuous attenuators with step attenuators. When recordings are made, it is desirable to play a known noise onto the tape for a reference. This can be done with a micro phone calibrator. It has been said that in many cases higher precision noise measure ments can be made by first recording on tape and then making the analyses in the laboratory, where time and interference is unimportant. Our objective in any noise investigation is a survey of the area or the analysis of an industrial noise source. The measurement of noise is an art. Wre have a lot of electronic instruments to aid us, but the results we get depends to a large extent on how we use the instruments. The development of a technic of measure ments is very important--it is the- art of noise measurement. Microphone in Use on Cable: The loca tion of the microphone is surely the most important single factor. In survey work and measurements made to determine per sonal exposure, the best location is at the operator's ear level. However, when meas urements are made the operator should be out of the way to prevent the shielding of the microphone. The exact location of the microphone is important when machines are being ana lyzed. and when measurements are made dose to the source of the noise. A small change in the location may' give a measur able difference in level. The location be comes particularly important when changes are to be made and you want to determine what reduction has been achieved. Hood: The calibration or sensitivity oi the instruments change and measurements should never be made without checking the calibration of the instruments used. There is available a small hood, containing a loud speaker and attached oscillator with which the calibration can be checked in the field. The db level of the noise, as indicated by the meter on the sound level meter or ana lyzer, is not simple to read. More often than not. the pointer is in constant, random motion, often over a range of several db. Very few industrial noises are constant in level. - It is common to see the readings vary three, five, or even 10 db. When this happens, the best reading is often difficult to decide upon. One rule commonly used is to record the reading as three db below the peak indicated bv the meter if the variation is over six db. This peak reading depends to a considerable ex tent on whether the meter response is in the slow or fast position. Records 1 believe the most important thing I have to say concerns the keeping of records. All too often records of measurements made some time ago are not dear because it is not known where the microphone was, how close it was, what was going on. how many machines were running, and so forth. The type of work being done varies, and this to a large extent determines the detailsdesired on the record form. On the back of the form should be a place for a sketdi--and this is most impor tant. Below this, you should have space for a number of analyses. The locations should be indicated on the sketch by letter or de scription. There should also be a note as to the particular operation going on when the .analysis was made. In survey work, a blue print of the floor plan is very' useful to spot the location of the readings taken. e microphone is ax! ting anareiL are made noise. A small give a measnrTie location bet when changes tnt to determine hieved. r sensitivity of j measurements nit checking the its used. There antaining a loud ttor with which ted in the field, as indicated by J meter or anawL More often onstant, random of several db. are constant in to the readings ) db. best reading is port. One rule the reading as ndicated by the er six db. This considerable extsponsc is in the mt thing I have of records. All surements made ir because it is phone was, how ; on. how many so forth. lone varies, and nines the details. m should be a is most impor- ! have space for locations should by letter or deo be a note as going on when .tint of the floor the location of Industrial Safety 77 The presentation of the results of the measurements is the meat of the investiga tion. The results are not much good if they are not seen, or, as more frequently hap pens, are not understood by the people who see them. It is important that they be pre sented so their significance can be readily appreciated. To me this means a report with a concise summary and clear, simple sketches and charts. For example--the results of a general survey might be presented with figures showing the level in db throughout the area. so that the locations of high level are easily noted. Or you might draw contours, like weather maps, to indicate the variation in noise level. You can then tell, for instance, when noise from a machine is bounding off a wall, and thus raising the general noise level in a whole area. Frequently you will have some kind of band analysis taken of some of the noise when a general survey is made. This can be indicated by letters on the plan, and the curve of the noise can be included in the report on separate sheets. Methods of Reducing Noise By J. C. RADCLIFFE Supvr. Industrial Hygiene Unit, Medical Section, Ford Mortor Co., Dearborn, Mich. t would like to be able to say that you can find in one textbook the methods of reducing noise. I know of no such textbook. There have been numerous articles written in many scientific journals regarding spe cific noise control jobs. They usually fol low certain prescribed avenues of control. But each one, even though following a cer tain avenue, must be tailor-made for the specific noise source. If your company is planning a new build ing or manufacturing site, you are fortunate in the opportunity presented. Many dollars can be saved by building-in noise control features. The laying out of work processes, the location of noisy machines and the seg regation of as many workers as posable from noisy areas will do much to minimize your future problems. (The article by Bonvallef & Karplus, in the December, 1953, AIHA Quarterly, gives general bands of noise levels to be expected in different types of industries, and specifically those being produced by different types of machines and processes.) Operations involving impacts will be noisy, especially on large metal plates. Balancing noise reduction against costs of changes in work-processing must depend on particular applications. The following list of changes is given as a few obvious examples of alter nate processes which cause noise reduction. without regard to economic factors. This is a'guide for the engineer: 1. Welding instead of riveting. 2. Compression riveting instead of com mon pneumatic riveting. 3. Pressing or rolling instead of forging. 4. Grinding instead of chipping castings and welded joints. 5. Electrically-operated tools, instead of unquieted pneumatic tools. 6. Selection of less noisy types of con veyors. 7. Avoidance of dropping hard materials during handling. 8. Mechanical stripping of work from dies instead of air blast stripping. 9. Low speed process machinery instead of high speed machinery. 10. Substitution of materials; for example, fabrication of plastics is usually less noisy than sheet metal fabrication. 11. Wide sparing banks or rows of noisy machines instead of close spacing. 12. Hot working of metals instead of cold working. 13. Belt drives instead of noisy gears. 14. Substitution of less noisy materials used in friction processes, as in brakes and dutches. Ti mu y /:* i 78 1955 National Safety Congress Experience in his own field will enable the plant and manufacturing engineer to recognize and avoid the use of noisy ma chines and processes when posable. Personal Protection The use of ear protectors may be indi cated under conditions where noise cannot be controlled by engineering. Nearly all ear protectors are effective in the high ire-: quency region, but at low frequencies, where a tight fit is important, there is less need for attenuation. Contrary to usual opinion, speech understanding in a high noise level is often improved by ear protectors. The noise is reduced as well as the speech, and the speech-to-noise ratio is unchanged, but the levels at the ear are in a region where there is less distortion and better understanding. The principal difficulties in using ear pro tectors are sanitation and discomfort, but these handicaps are bring overcome: En forcing the wearing of ear' protectors is usually more difficult than enforcing safety goggles or shoes, but alert management can popularize and enforce their acceptance. Reduction at the Source Prevention of noise at its source appears to be a promising method of noise reduc tion. It is often difficult or impossible, since noise energy may he an unavoidable portion of the mechanical work done. Methods of reduction which follow are listed under types of noise sources: Impacts: Where a material is hammered, sheared, tumbled or peened, the impact is a necessary part of the work and is always accompanied by noise. It is difficult to re duce this noise. However, if an impact can be made less sudden, the noise will tend to change from a sharp crack to a thud and will be less objectionable. In a punching operation, one portion of the die can be made to enter the work first and convert the process into a shearing action. When punching involves a multiple die which makes several holes at one stroke, the die can be stepped to convert a single intense impact noise to several lesser noises. Prevention of unnecessary bounces from a hammer-type blow also will be effective. In tumbling, impact noise on the containing cylinder can be decreased by suitable lining. Rattles, Lost Motion, and so forth: This type of impact noise can be classed as minor impact and the remedies are fairly obvious. Proper inspection and maintenance, secur ing. stiffening or damping of loose panels and replacement of worn parts, are effec tive: Elimination of rattles prevents low fre quency energy from bring transformed into more undesirable high frequency energy. Significant noise reduction can be obtained by these simple control means as great as 10 decibels. Friction: Considerable noise can be made by frictional forces in general and in grind ing, dutches or brakes. Part of the noise of cutting metal and wood can be dassed as frictional noise. Motion along a contact surface creates force variation if the sur faces are not well lubricated. The frequency characteristic is rich in high frequencies, usually because of resonances in the pan excited. Clutches and brakes tend to squeal grinding produces broad band noise, and other friction noises are of the squeaking and scraping type which have objectionable high frequency energy. Remedies indude lubrication, substitution of materials, especially in brakes and dutches, changes in shapes of cutting tools and sharpening of tools which become noisy with wear. Gear noise is caused partly by frictional forces as well as variable forces at tooth' impact frequency. Some improve ment can be obtained by lubrication, substi tution of helical or worm gears for direct gears, use of plastic or fibre gears, and reduction in speed. Fluctuations in Gas Float: Turbulence in the escape of compressed air or steam causes a loud hissing or roaring noise. When the air velocity is not bring used, a simple muffler is effective. This, for outlets having small air flow, may consist of a can filled with steel wool or any other means of slowing down the escaping gas. Reductions of 10 to 15 decibels are possible When the air velocity serves a purpose such as dcaning out chips, stripping or removing parts, noise appears to be unavoid able at the present state of knowledge The least that can be done is to keep the air flow at the minimum velocity necessary for the operation by using a reducer valve in the line Sound Absorption Total Enclosure: Noise in the air can be kept from spreading by almost any type of endosure Porous sound absorbing mate- Industrial Safety 79 e ; |y obvious, ni ice, seairof loose panels, parts, are effecjrevents low fretransformed into equency energy, can be obtained ans as great s ise can be made nal and in grindart of the noise an be classed as dong a contact don if the ssr. The frequency igft frequencies, ices in the pan s tend to squeal and noise, asd f the squeaking ,ve objectionable ion, substitution in brakes and of cutting tools ch become noisy ansed partly by variable forces Some improvebricarioo. substigif \for direct HiL gears, and : Turbulence in or steam causes oise. When the used, a simple r outlets having of a can filled )ther means of gas. Reductions able. rves a purpose. <s, stripping or s to be unavoidknowledge. The to keep die air y necessary for educer valve in ion i the air can be boost any type absorbing mate rials are of direct use in reducing sound transmission through a wall, but of little value on the inride of an enclosure to reduce the sound level which must be contained. Transmission loss can be greatly reduced by using double walls with an air space. In some cases, an extremely noisy machine or area can he totally enclosed to take advan tage of large noise reductions of 20-45 decibels. Complete covers over a noisy part of a machine are another useful method in noise reduction. Whether a small enclosure over part of a machine will do a good job of arise reduction should be checked by trial with an improvised cover first If such a cover gives promise, a cover made of: (1) an impervious harrier such as sheet metal, 16 gauge or thicker, (2) rubber-like mate rial to seal the edges and vibration isolated fasteners, and (3) absorbing material in side the cover to absorb sound and prevent bdld-up of noise, should be designed. Partial Enclosure: The term "partial en closure" is used for noise shields and en closures which have openings greater than a few per cent of their area. Noise radiation from these openings is the principal path of noise flow from partial enclosures, since the transmission loss of the barrier is at least 20 decibels. Sound absorbing linings must al ways be used inside these partial enclosures, or there will be little noise attenuation. This type of enclosure is useful mainly in giving a shadow effect for workers who otherwise would be in the high level direct noise field. Basically, an operator is not protected in this type enclosure, but nearby operators are. Space Absorption: The most common use of sound absorbing material is a general or overall method of reducing noise in enclosed spaces. However, absorptive materials used on ceilings and walls of a general work area give a reduction of noise levels in the reverberant field at a distance from the noise source, but absorption will not de crease the level for workers less than five to 10 feet from the source. In most practical installations of areatreatment with absorbing walls or ceilings, there would be a maximum reduction of about 10 decibels. In addition, area treat ment will "push back" distant noises and allow an operator to hear his own machine better. Specific Noise Control Measures Following are a few examples of noise control attempts made in certain industries: HEAVY DUTY DRILLING OF TRANSMISSION HOUSINGS Frequency in cyclesPersecond Noise Intensity in Decibels Machine A Machine B BothA&B Before After Before After Before After Overall ................... 20-75 ................. ........... 106 75-150 ................. ............104 150-300 ................. ..........102 300-600 ................. ........... 102 600-1200 ................. ........... 112 1200-2400 ................. ............105 24004800 . . ............. ........... 103 4800-10KC ............... ........... 98 Sooes ..................... ............1268 86 87 85 88 83 82 75 65 173 112-117 89-92 102 86 * 112 87 98 87 108 90 100 84 108 86 101 82 no 89 107 77 112 84 104 76 106 83 999 72 104 77 94 63 100 66 999 129 1485 193 The before readings refer to a dry drilling of this cast iron housing: The after readings refer to drilling with an oil lubricant This change Iran dry to oil-lubricated drilling has reduced the loudness by approximately 87 per cent i '"ill 80 1955 National Safety Congress VIBRATING SCRAP CONVEYOR Noise Intensity in Decibels Frequency in cycles per second Under Conveyor Before After Spot Welders Location Before After Overall 20-75 75-150 150-300 300-600 .................................................104 92 91 92 93 97 92 91 92 92 101 96 90 90 90 90 93 92 92 92 600-1200 .............................................. 97 1200-2400 .............................................. 98 2400-4800 ................................................ % 4800-10KC .............................................. 88 Sones .................................................. 550 90 93 91 82 383 94 90 94 93 93 87 85 80 440 342 The before readings refer to a vibrating scrap conveyor as originally installed. The after readings refer to the same conveyor after an adjustment of the angle of"""-- the conveyor. The spot welder was in the nearest work location to the conveyor. Under the conveyor is a main aisle. This change in angle of die conveyor has reduced the noise intensity by approximately 23 to 30 per cent. FOUNDRY KNOCKOUT OPERATION Frequency in cyclesper second Noise Intensity in Decibels Operator's Area-Vibrating Screen Before May 1953 After April 1954 Overall ..................... 20-75 ................... 75-150 ................... 150-300 ................... 300-600 ................... 600-1200 ................... 1200-2400 ................... 2400-4800 ................... 4800-10KC ................. Sones ........................ ...................... 112 .......................Ill ...................... 109 ........................ 107 .......................103 ...................... 100 105 102 102 103 103 104 104 93 83 ~ 756 The change in before and after readings is effected by the application of dum-dum to one wall and the ceiling. This change in wall absorption decreased the sound intensity' only 10 per cent As can be observed, this dum-dum application was most effective in the low frequency ranges. Further correction is still needed in this area. Industrial Safety 81 ctbels 'dersLocation f After 96 90 90 92 92 90 93 87 80 342 ally installed, the angle of-- the conveyor, conveyor has ea } ng Screen ter April 1954 103 102 102 103 103 104 104 93 83 756 of dum-dum cd the sound ion was most I in this area. M-07 ALLIED WHITMAN CO., AIR HOIST Frequency Noise Intensity in Decibels in cycles per second Before After Overall ................................................................................ 111144 20-75 .................................................................... . 90 75-150 150-300 . 104 300-600 . 94 600-1200 .............................................................................. 100 87 80 85 81 76 74 1200-2400 ............................................................................... 110077 2400-4800 .................................................................. . 107 4800-10KC ....................................... -............ ..................... 112 107 74 73 65 Sones .................................................. ..................... .1116 105 103 104 Before readings refer to the noise from the cotnp: id air exhausting from a compressed-air operated hoist The after readings refer to conditions found when the compressed air exhaust was equipped with a muffler. .The use of this muffler has reduced the noise intensity by 90 per cent v" SCRAP BALER ENCLOSURE Frequency in cycles persecond Noise Intensity in Decibels Before After Overall ........................................................... 20-75 .......................................................... 75-150 ......................................................... ................... 118 150-300 ......................................................... 300-600 .......................................................... ...................108 600-1200 ......................................................... ................... 112 - 1200-2400 ......................................................... 2400-4800 ......................................................... ...................114 4800-10KC ........................................................ ...................106 Sones ............................................................. 94 90 88 86 86 85 80 80 76 194 The before readings refer to noise at the baler operator's position when scrap is dropped from the metal slot conveyor into the baler pit The after readings refer to conditions found after an acoustical booth was built around the operator with just a small door opening to the side. In addition. air release discharges from valves inside the booth had been silenced. This acoustic enclosure and air release control. feduced noise intensity by 85 per cent - i m :f!l "if : U ?.u*> tli 82 1955 National Safety Congress SCRAP BALER-SPACE BAFFLES Frequency Noise Intensity in Decibels in cycles persecond Before After Overall .............................................................. ............. 115 20-75 ............................................................ ............. 94 75-150 ............................................................ ............. 95 150-300 ............................................................ ............. 99 300-600 ............................................................ ............. 105 600-1200 ............................................................ ............. Ill 1200-2400 ............................................................ ............. 112 2400-4800 ............................................................ ............. Ill 4800-10KC ............. ............................................ ............. 106 Sones ................................................................ ............. 1766 113 85 87 92 101 103 110 109 104 1435 The before readings refer to noise levels at ear level of the baler operator when scrap was dropping from the mdtal slot conveyor into the baler pit. The after read- ings were taken at the same location during the same operation with sound space baffles in position over the baler pit These baffles effected a 19 per cent reduction in noise intensity. RUBBER WHEELS vs. STEEL WHEELS Frequency Noise Intesity in Decibels in cyclespersecond Steel Wheels Rubber Wheels Overall ............................................................... ..Ill 20-75 99 75-150 .................................................................105 150-300 106 300-600 108 600-1200 .................................................................104 1200-2400 .................................................................103 2400-4800 ................................................................ 96 99 91 92 95 95 90 85 80 4800-10KC .............................................................. 92 Sones .................................................. 893 75 275 The steel wheel and rubber wheel readings refer to an empty metal tote box being polled over a wooden block floor at standard speed. SCRAP METAL CHUTES Frequency in cycles persecond Noise Intensity in Decibels Single Wall Double Wall Single Chute Single Chute Chute Chute Tape Outside Tape Inside Overall ............. 92 20-75 77 75-150 .............................. -78 150-300 ;............................. 78 300-600 .............................. 87 600-1200 .............................. 87 1200-2400 ................................90 2400-4800 .............................. 88 4800-10KC ..............................85 Sones ................................260 87 91 86' 72 75 73 81 78 77 78 75 75 78 78 78 77 87 80 77 85 79 77 83 77 77 78 73 124 174 110 The readings shown indicate in a test set-up the noise levels obtained by dropping a five-eighth inch diameter sted ball, eight inches onto a steel chute. :rator when after read- xnmd space "eduction in Industrial Safety 83 Planning an Audiometric and Ear Protection Program for Plants in Sznall Communities By ROGER P. MAAS, EdJD. Hearing Consultant, Employers Mutual Liability Insurance Co., Wausau, Wis, Hearing measurement stations are a log ical starting point in a program of indus trial hearing conservation. Usually these can be established in plants in large cities where specialized medical service is avail able and where large numbers of workers make practical the expenditure; An otologist is obtained to conduct a complete program under the standards established by the Amer ican Academy of Ophthamology and Oto laryngology, hereafter known as AAOO. Our problem in Wisconsin, where we have'"been forced into a program to protect both employer and employee from the ef fects of noise, has been in assisting numer ous smaller plants in cities under 30,000 population to develop facilities to conduct pre-employment hearing measurements. We prefer "hearing measurement" to "test" be cause it eliminates some undesirable psycho logical connotations contained in the word "test" We don't want to encourage the man to feel that he must try devious meth ods in order to "pass" to qualify for em ployment Actually', it is a measure of hear ing acuity before the man comes on the' job, just as we measure a man's height weight, blood pressure; and so forth. Similar expressions of what we are get ting at might be a hearing check, inventory, examination, evaluation, audiometric read ing or audiogram. Over 75 per cent of the installations in Wisconsin are in small plants having little labor turnover or new lures. I hope that these suggestions primarily aimed at the small plants will be of help to those of you in the larger plants which many of you represent We have found that an excellent starting point is to approach the manufacturer's council or the industrial committee of the chamber of commerce or its equivalent winch calls a meeting of its membership. An otologist who is informed on the AAOO subcommittee on noise in industry's research program, and a legal expert selected to give a history of the problem with emphasis on the need and purpose for establishing a func tional bearing conservation program, usu ally result in a highly successful kick-off. I would suggest to those of you beginning programs in smaller communities that you use the terminology "industrial hearing con servation program." It is easier to put across. All of us are interested in conser vation, whether it is natural or human re sources. ' I have attended a number of meetings where the AAOO film, "The Ears and Noise," or the NBC film, "The Effects of Noise on Man," winch was part of the search series, have most effectively oriented the group as to problems and what to do about them. In our own state, the Medical Society drew up a guide entitled Recom mendations for Planning Hearing Conserva tion Programs in Wisconsin Industry, which you . can obtain try writing to the State Medical Society, Madison, Wis. This car ried a lot of strength because the program came not from management or the insur ance company but from our own doctors, who felt that industry had a responsibility. The next step is for representatives of plants to decide upon a local hearing conser vation committee to work out details of the program, presupposing, of course, that the need is established arid that the group chopses to take definite action. One of the communities I know haring a little labor turnover and feeling that it did not pay for each little plant to purchase an audiometer for just a few new workers each year de rided to ask the local visiting nurse associa tion if it would be willing to carry on the program of hearing measurement In other communities, the hearing conser vation committee may ask the cooperation of the local hospital, medical clinic, general physician or the local vocational school to undertake this program. The local or neigh boring otologist; who was consulted at tire very beginning and present at The meeting of the plant representatives, said that he would be glad to supervise the station and assist in training the audiometric techni- ! I! f : ! i. '! Yf. f .84 1955 National Safety Congress dans. We have found most otologists will ing to do this because they feel that their time is more profitably spent in seeing the many referrals and not carrying the pro gram of pre-employment audiometric screen ing. They tdl us, "Send us those who need our specialized medical services." Every fadlity in every communin' pro gram should be supervised by a qualified otologist The VNA, to follow one very workable plan through in more detail, de cided to undertake the project because they already served industry with part-time nurs ing service and felt that these contacts with industry would assist them in selling more of their services to the public Besides, these worthy community organizations need the extra margin of income In the meantime, the plants assess themselves 25 cents per man on their payrolls to purchase an audio meter and to build or buy an audiometric examination program. You can't evaluate hearing properly in just any old place The noise levels must be those conforming to the standards estab lished by the AAOO. For example; in the band of 73 to 100 cycles, the permissible level is 45db. In the next band of 150 to 300 cycles. 35db. is required. If this is not done environmental noise invalidates the audiogram. If you think it is an easy mat ter to meet these rather rigid requirements, ask someone who has tried it Many plants where noise levels are high everywhere fed that the only solution is a commercial in stallation which carries a guarantee of at tenuation or removal. How can you get a noise level survey? An insurance carrier or health department is prepared to do this. It is possible that the noise levds are not too high to treat a moderatdy quiet place accousticallv with out too much expense Shall we get a small examination room or a large one? The larger room accommo dates both the audiometric technician and the subject The answer usually is dependent upon space requirements. The AAOO seems to favor a smaller room with a technician out side of the booth. This is constructed with a rather large observation glass installed so that the technician can communicate with the subject through signals. Some fed that the contact of technidan and subject brings about valid audiogram data. This is a mat ter to be derided on an individual basis. Audiometers range in price from $150 to approximatdy $500. Audiometers are no longer approved by the American Medical Association's Council of Physical Medicine I would invite representatives of available companies to explain what they have to oiler because each instrument presents unique fea tures which, with the hdp of the nurse, technician and the purchasing director, will have to be evaluated. Talk to nurses a.. technicians who are already using audio metric equipment Remember that you are screening workers using air conduction threshold examination techniques, and those having hearing losses are sent to the otologists for more complete evaluations. For this reason, an expensive instrument with extra gadgets is hardly a necessity, unless you have a consulting otol ogist come to your plant for the referrals. Having an audiometric examination room meeting the required noise levels and an in strument with the frequencies recommended by the AAOO, we are ready to train our technicians. Nurse, X-ray or laboratory technicians are naturals for this work, but alert responsive personnel from a general office can also become skilled technicians. According to the AAOO, about 12 hours of training time, induding an hour or two of actual practice with the instrument, is rec ommended in order to obtain valid audio grams. There is much more to audiometry than the mere pushing of buttons and (haling. Preparation of the subject for procedure and understanding individual differences is paramount. There is a psychology of ob taining responses from the individual and the ability to teach. If the local otologist cannot find time to assist in this part of the program, find out if the nearest college is holding short courses for nurses or tech nicians. These are excellent because the otologists who conduct these training pro grams give the student excellent background material, which is motivating and adds inter est to the job. Audiometry can be a boring routine job or it can be a highly interesting and chal lenging skill. We know that we get more accurate data when more complete training programs are given. Usually it is necessary This is a matidi jil basis. ! from $150 to neters are no trican Medical sical Medicine s of available y have to offer nts unique feaof the nurse, j director, will to nurses a*,., using audio- tening workers !d examination hearing losses more complete . an expensive ts is hardly a onsulting otol- the referrals. ruination room ,-els and an m; recommended y to train our or laboratory this work, but om a general sd technicians, ut 12 hours of out- two of ut" \ is rec ti \_A audio- idiometiy than s and dialing, for procedure differences is hologv of obindividuat and local otologist his part of the rest college is arses or techt because the training pro mt background and adds imer- tg routine job ting and cbal- we get more nplete training it is necessary Industrial Safety 85 to indude physics, anatomy and physiology of the ear, care and operation of the in strument, the recording of audiogram data and the techniques of obtaining responses from people. At this time, the local hearing conserva tion committee reports back to its member ship that tilings are ready to go. Each new worker is given an appointment, always before he begins the job, and the techni cian administers the measurement This takes from 10 to 15 minutes induding fill ing out the history and making a duplicate record to be retained in the station files. 1 do not believe that you can make a valid audiogram in five minutes if one considers the fact that sometimes it is necessary to repeat frequencies when extraneous noise is present or if a subject is slow and needs to have-more time so that one can be sure of his responses. A good technician always ex plains the procedure carefully, demonstrates how the audiometer works and then allows the.subject some actual practice, probably twovbr three frequencies before recording the data permanently. A copy of this orig inal audiogram is mailed at the end of the working day to the employer, who never fails to inform the man if the record indi cates the need for otologica! diagnosis. In one state, audiometric data cannot be used as legal evidence unless the man .is given the information regarding the results of his evaluation at the time it is made. To implement this vital step of referral, some industries pay the worker part or even all of the cost of the diagnosis. Figures seem to indicate that approxi mately 25 out of 100 men seeking employ ment have hearing losses indicating the need for medical attention. Tn other words, in the absence of this audiogram data, these plants in 25 employees out of 100, would be purchasing previous employers' hearing losses. At the end of each month, each industry is billed for the hearing measurements it received. A recent survey indicated that the average cost to industry per examination in smaller communities utilizing cooperative methods was $2. Where the program breaks down in actual practice, I regret to say, is that not enough men get to the ear physician. We need to emphasize this part of the program more vigorously. The hearing conservation com mittee continues to serve the official admin istrative body for the plants, and it is ap pointed each year by the executive commit tee of the chamber. This group sees to it that the proper financial arrangements are carried out between the agency, whether it is a hospital, clinic, private physician, visit ing nurses association, and so forth. Quar terly reports are made on the program to the chamber just as other committees report. In one dtv, 100 per cent of the industrial firms participated, and even the fire and police commission and welfare department asked if they could use the facilities as part of their pre-employment training and proc essing. Employees in these non-noisy occu pations were referred by their employers to otologists if the audiograms indicated hear ing losses. One employer said, "It is an inexpensive procedure, and one which the new employee appreciates." I believe you can-sell the idea of hearing conservation more easily than if you would use the "fear approach" because of impending chum costs. I have given you a pattern which.has been successfully used in establishing hear ing measurement facilities in small commu nities. The reason why I believe it works is because of the age-old principle that when people thoroughly understand a new devel opment and are active participants who share in the responsibility for carrying out its objectives, the program cannot help but be successful. In several of our very small communities, the leading industry purchased an audiometer and gave it to the hospital so it could be used by all of the doctors for the benefit of all the people. Ear Protection Programs The heart of the problem is "How to get the ear protection on the man!" In the early days most of us were ^uite^discouraged about this and many of us gave up, but I believe we can now take a more optimistic attitude. Each day I hear of more instances where 100 per cent programs are in effect. The recent research of the AAOO and from some of the larger industries, such as Allis Chalmers in Milwaukee, have proved that ear protection devices work; We now know that a man who faithfully wears them is practically guaranteed against further loss through noise exposure. The average ear plug attenuates and reduces noise from 20 to 86 1955 National Safety Congress 30 decibels, which reduces the most danger ear protection he could enjoy his television ous noise levels to a safe exposure. We also set much .more because the ringing in his know that the wearing of plugs does not ears was gone. These are techniques which interfere with signals or oral communica help us sell programs. - tions--in fact, it improves them. Some industries have learned that it helps Where we have failed in the past is that to have a variety of ear protection equip we have let ourselves be talked out of it by ment rather than to push one single type. the men themselves. We must propagandize The person in charge of the program says. the use of ear protective devices with the "Try this one and come back In a week and same vigor and energy that we have used tell me how it works. We have other lands with eye protection and safety shoes. and we can try until you have a good fit Man}' plants I have visited have 100 per cent ear protection because they have car ting." If we have a choice, it makes the proposition that much more attractive. ried on rigorous long-range education pro Posters also aid in the educational cam grams. Seme plants have gone so far as to paign, but we must not be discouraged, and have compulsory programs with the features we must keep whittling away until each drawn up in their labor contracts. I suppose man is using the proper ear protection. In the difficulty is probably due to the fact that conclusion, here are some pointers to help us: this program is new among workers and anything new must be interpreted and rein terpreted. 1. Ear protection is a long-range educa tional programjenhanced by posters, demon strations and explanations at safety meet I think I have a good analog}*. Last ings. It is a selling job best taken care of October in the exhibition hall of the Safety by the doctor, nurse or first-aid man trained Congress, I asked an exhibitor who was in the fitting and handling of ear protection exhibiting a curtained enclosure for isolat devices. ing noise at its source in order to protect the other workers in the plant, -whether it bothered the operator to be enclosed in tins manner. He replied by stating that men now spray in paint booths while a number of years ago they sprayed in the open, and not too many years ago men welded in the open while they now do their work in enclosures. He felt that, likewise, men in noisy jobs would have to learn to work in isolation in order to protect the other em ployees from harmful noise. 2. All derices seem to show about the same coefficient of reduction but they work better in the high frequency noise levels than the low ones. The fit of the device is important. Lubrication promotes the effi ciency of all types. If they are not too com fortable, they may not be doing their job. Some temporary discomfort must be ex pected if protection is the goal. You have probably heard that safety shoes and glasses are also a source of discomfort. Don't be talked ouf of it We can learn something from this. The world is changing. New things come and we have to adapt ourselves to them. I doubt if anyone came to this convention riding a bicycle. 3. Give the man a choice of an ear pro tection device and keep a string on him until he finds something that works. It is a wellknown fact that even individual ear canals differ in size. A small derice may be well Probably the person best prepared to "stated to the-left ear, but a medium-one supervise ear protection programs is the may be indicated for the right ear. Obtain nurse or first-aid man. This person might a case displaying all of the plugs you can discuss ear protection at safety meetings get. Let the man see the different kinds. and show the different types. One such plant had a meeting and the nurse suggested that six men try different types of ear pro tective devices and report back at the next meeting, which they did. It was reported 4. Wear different types of protection yourself and carry on a personal research project. How can you honestly and con vincingly tell a man about the comfort and that speech and wanting signals could be helpfulness of ear devices unless you can heard easily with protection. One man who say, "I have worn this land myself." Give worked in a 100 decibel noise level area the man some suggestions based on your said that when he got home after wearing own personal experiences. ' his television rir * in his htl is which d that it helps Section equip single type, program says, in a week and ve other kinds re a good fitit makes the ittractive. Rational caraicouraged, and ay until each protection. In ers to help us: 'range educaasters, demon- safety meettaken care of d man trained ear protection ow about the wt they work r noise levels 1 the device is otes the effii not too com ing their job. vet |be exaL Jou have es and glasses ort. Don't he f an ear pro s' on him until It is a wellral ear canals : may be well medium* one t ear. Obtain dugs yon -can fferent kinds. of protection onal research itly and con: comfort and dess you can nyself." Give ised on j*our Industrial Safely 87 5. The safety engineer and nurse must shoulder this responsibility for the job or it will not get done. Ear protection devices have been developed for every noisy job, and until we can reduce or abate the noise at its source, our first and primary job with out question, we shall continue to find new ways to get them on the men who benefit from using them. Finally, I believe that we are successfully expanding the hearing conservation program in our plants, and we can look happily to ward the future because we are beginning to get encouraging results. JiTif 1t a ,:if; 88 0-the-Job Safety -- An Important Field for Management Do It Yourself--But Do It Safely By THOMAS J. BERK Safety Consultant, Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., New York, N. Y. All day long, wed; after week, the man or woman in the plant or in the office goes about his regular job, whether it is to pro duce or to solve problems. He does it with great dispatch, through education and ex perience. In evenings and on weekends, however, you are likely to find tins same man has swapped his white collar or jumper for rolled-up sleeves. In his hand is a hammer, chisel or paint brush. He is deeply en grossed in painting, or building, or repair ing something about the house. This is the modern-day trend of do-ityoursdf. We find more and more people turning their hands to making, repairing or re-doing something around the house, them selves. What disrupts this healthy picture of do mestic tranquility? The fact that about 630,000 persons in the United States annu ally suffer disabling injuries while doing their own home repair work and fixing. Most of these victims are found among families residing in single or private dwell ings. These families account for about 63 per cent of the total population, vet suffer 90 per cent of all home accidents. What lies behind this great movement? It may be the lack of skilled or* competent mechanics or tradespeople; the economic problems of having to employ someone else to do something on an employee's in come; the old axiom of, if you want some thing done, do-it-yourself. Or it might be a throw-bad; to our forefathers who had to do everything for themselves! The fact remains that in any suburb, any weekend, the man of the house is apt to turn into his own handyman. He is painting a porch, painting a pipe or, in many cases. building his own home from foundation to roof top. He's a member of a family that, while it has some money, wants to save some. For this reason, he has decided to "do-it-himsdf." If you ask the man of ,the house why he does it himself, chances are he will say, "It costs too much to get someone else to do it-" Even though his own paycheck may be bigger than it used to be; by the time he has taken care of his family and paid his taxes, he hasn't much left to meet the high cost of services. Population growths, the trend toward owning your own home, and living in the suburbs are all part of this ever-growing pattern of do-it-yourself. It is the tare per son who onus a home and doesn't want to tinker with something in it. The shorter work week, with more free time, allows additional opportunity to do-it-yourself. Manufacturers have realized this trend and have provided equipment ideally de signed for the home workshop. For Instance, more painting is done by the home owner now than ever before, and paint manufac turers have lent a willing hand by develop ing new kinds of paints and applicators. The owner doesn't have time to learn the skills of the professional, and these products are made easy to use. But unfamiliarity with the hazards and toxicity of some paints has often led to permanent injury and even death--sometimes to the do-it-your selfer, sometimes to other innocent persons, or children. In many instances, the "roller-coater," for applying paint has taken the place of paint brush, and the open pan has taken the place of the paint can which could be conveniently covered when not in immediate d* N. Y. foundation to a family that, wants to save las decided to house why he he trill say, someone else own paycheck by the time nily and paid t to meet the trend toward living in the ever-growing the rare percsn't want to T* 'Shorter Jti allows -yourself. d this trend t ideally deFor instance, home owner int manufac1 by devdopl applicators, to learn the hese products unfamiliarity f some paints injury and do-it-yourcent persons, oller-coater," the place of a has taken ich could be in immediate Industrial Safety 89 use. The oil- and lead-mixture paint has been complimented with water color and synthetic rubber base products, and these paints have all been aimed directly at the home owner. Yet, despite the fact that, through educa tion, we have tried to warn people about the tragic results that have occurred to babies or children who have chewed on furniture or woodwork painted with lead paint, we still find them painting children's furniture, window ledges, and so forth, with lead base paint. The Paint Manufacturers' Association and the American Standards Association have been extremely cooperative in this educational program. Some cities have passed laws requiring paint containing lead to be adequately marked to call atten tion to the hazard. The trend to home carpentry is grouting. Anyone can use a hammer to drive a nail, or a saw to cut a piece of wood. But even the simple operation of sandpapering can be dangerous. My questions are: Can they do it without injuring themselves or someone else? Will it be necessary to replace the object they are attempting to fix? Will they have to call in a tradesman to replace the whole floor or wall they have tried to re pair? Will they have to throw- out the chair or table they have tried to fix before they cause an injur}-? In industry, we call these non-personal injuries, or property damage.. They are oc currences that good management will not tolerate, that marry households cannot afford. So, there is a lot more than just words to the phrase, *do-it-yourself, but do it safely." I recently read of a case where a father was cutting a piece of wood with a portable electric saw without a guard. As he pulled the saw through the wood to his side; his 27-month old child came up from behind him, right into the revolving blade.. The youngster was so severely cut about the head and face that he died. Another man drew a similar portable sawback so that it put a seven-inch cut in his thigh, severing an artery and resulting in death. As I read about these two terrible things, I could not help but think: what kind of a safety program existed where these two men were employed? Was the absence of a saw guard on the home tool evidence that there were no guards on power equipment on the job? Was the safety education and training on their jobs, whether in a plant or office, so lax that the men were not aware of the dangerous condition -they cre ate when a guard is not provided and kept in place? Certainly, our safety education program should be aimed at creating in the employee such safety-mindedness that he will automatically do things in a safe way, whether it be driving, walking or doing something around the house. Maybe it is high time we review our own safety programs. Maybe we should review our own consciences, too, to determine whether we have the courage of our convic tions to make "safety" so worthwhile to our employees that safety education will have a lasting effect. What we need is courage-- courage to know we are right in trying to stop accidents, courage to know we must do something about stopping off-th&job ac cidents. If it is courage that prompts a man to stand up and five by his religious beliefs, then we as safety men and women will have to become religious about our Crusade for Safety. In industry, we employ experts to pur chase our materials. The same care Should be used in selecting the material we are to work with at home. The selection of "good" wood is all important when planning a car pentry job. Plywood manufacturers have kept up with the times with a product that is cheap, versatile and workably safe At one time, you could get plywood only in a standard size four by eight feet But this size was too big, too awkward for the home owner, and too often, in trying to handle it or cut it there was-an accident Now you can get plywood in small sizes known as "handy panels." Other types of lumber have been used in greater quantities by the army of do-ityoursdfers who are now doing the "big" job themseh-es. You find them replacing floors, beams and studs, erecting complete homes. Obviously, this land of endeavor requires some knowledge of how it can be done properly and safely. Hundreds of doit-yourself books, kits and plans are offered, not only for homes but for boats, furniture, sheds, and so forth. One of the first things the* man of the house wants when a home is purchased is a work bench. But how many know how to build a safe, adequate work bench? How ' :*! iI 90 1955 National Safety Congress many are aware that there are, in existence, patterns designed to help him build his home work bench? The McCall's Corpora tion, -well-known for their dress patterns, now have patterns for wood and metal objects, including a work bench. The pat tern is ironed on to the wood, and all die home owner has to do is follow the outline and make himself an ideal bench. Patterns throughout the years have been the backbone of industry. Today, they can serve as a help to do-it-yourself, but do it safely--and, we might add, a help towards doing it well. The professionals who put linoleum on floors or paper on walls are seldom called in to do their work today. Now, the man or woman of the house does it New types of materials and easier methods have shown home owners they can do the job them selves. However, manufacturers again were alert and made available convenient easyto-handle products, such as tile floor cover ings of linoleum, cork, rubber, plastic and asphalt This has eliminated the need for a lot of tools and a great deal of skill and patience required to put into place the large-sized product formerly used. But again we run into the hazards of the lay person doing a professional job--unsafe use of tools, improper layout of the job, and lack of knowledge of hazards of products involved, particularly the flammability and toxicity of some of the solvents contained in the mastic. We laugh at cartoons showing rolls of wallpaper and pots of glue sitting on the head of someone who has fallen while put ting up wallpaper, or the innocent helper who has had this stuff thrown at him. How ever, we must not lose sight of the fact that a fall from a ladder or other structure at home can result in as painful an injury as one on the job. The do-it-yourselfer has a new and highlyskilled servant to do the work of profes sional hired hands--the power tooL It is a blessing, yet it can be, when improperly used, a great hazard. I do not mean only the hand electric or pneumatic tool, but many types of machines now used to do heavy' work around the house--the power lawn-mower, the washing, drying and iron ing machines, woodworking tools and others. These man-made devices have been of fered to us as conveniences, means by which we can do things easier, quicker and more efficiently. But should the use of these equipments result in a personal injury*, the unit cost of such an operation is too expen sive. If the use of modern-day do-it-your self equipment causes accidents, the onlyway out is to go back to the old fashioned way of doing things. Many much more dangerous machines are being operated in a safe manner without personal injuries every day and night in our factories. Perhaps we are prone to leave our safetylearning behind us when we leave the plant or office. We just seem to forget the simple, baric precautions, such as properlypositioning ourselves to do the job, proper placing of tools, being sure everyone is out of the way before starting or using a ma chine, the hazards about the point of opera tion. These simple but ever-important re quirements for the control of accidents seem to be readily forgotten when we do a job at home. Yes, .even the simple but strictly-enforced safety rule of "grounding" all electrical equipment is ignored. And yet, the working conditions in our homes are seldom as good as those on the job. The wet cellar floor around the ungrounded washing machine makes a "perfect" setup for a shock. The dampness of the cellar makes it much easier for electrical currents to stray from a power tool that is not grounded, sending them through our body to give us a shocking awakening--or deadening. The low voltage service in a household is often looked upon with disdain by' workers who operate poly-phase equipment. They forget that, under certain circumstances, these low voltages can be as fatal as the higher volt ages. Some manufacturers of portable electric tools have taken steps to help users of their equipment escape shock. On each tool of Black and Decker there is attached a tag giving special instructions for grounding the tool. The tag is affixed to an adaptor which permits the use of the three-prong ground ing-type plug in a standard convenience out let. In addition to the instructions on the tag written in English and foreign lan guages, one page of the instruction manual is devoted to the importance of grounding portable electric tools. 'While we like to feel our homes are wellrun establishments, actually most homes pre sent an uncontrolled environment--a center use of these naj-ujury. the i i \ expenlay iO-it-yourcnts, the only 5 old fashioned ly much more ^operated in a injuries every is. ave our safetyleave the plant to forget the *h as properly he job, proper rveryone is out >r using a maint of opera-important re accidents seem i we do a job rictly-enforced all electrical t, the working eldom as good et cellar floor hing machine i shock, liar makes it Tents to strav not grounded, y to give us a ade r=ig. The rif Is often workers who They forget ces, these low e higher volt- rtable electric users of their each tool of ttached a tag grounding the adaptor which wong groundovenience outictions on the foreign lanUCtion mantra! of grounding nnes are welltst homes pre tent--a center Industrial Safety 91 oi family life not nearly as organized as it might be. On the job, it is quite different What we find there is an environment con trolled by safety regulations that have been set up by law and by the employer and usually with the employee's cooperation and approval. Metropolitan's Do-It-Yourself Program Many of us enjoy hobbies and, realizing this fact; Metropolitan is holding a series of hobby shows for the 15,000 employees in our home office. Planning for this show, we were surprised to learn the many ways in which oar people enjoy their leisure hours! About 10 per cent retained a form sent to them. These reports indicated many of them had interests in such dungs as graphic arts, handicrafts, mechanical and technical pursuits, sports, home and 109 other-hobbies. Some of the leading interests were those that came under the general category of do-it-yourself. As you might expect, we were interested in making sure employees who were engaged in do-it-yourself activi ties were doing them in a safe way. Ac cordingly, an exhibit was planned for a week's time, during which seven categories of do-it-yourself were displayed. These categories include carpentry, electrical, al teration and mending, painting and paper hanging; plumbing, slip covers and drapes, ami wood finishing. As in all home office activities, the safety bureau is invited to advise regarding safe conditions and safe practices. During the development of plans for the show, I asked that those doing the demonstrations should use only safe and proper tools, equipment and materials; maintain their booths in a safe manner; and, while demonstrating, to point out daring their talk that what they were doing was bring done in a particular manner to avoid the possibility of injury. At each of the booths, qualified men and women demonstrated how to do a job. We prepared for each one of them a list of precautions to be followed, and we stressed how important it was for them to point out. safety measures taken while they were do ing the job. In the manual industries, such as carpen try, painting, paper hanging, plumbing, and so forth, stress was placed on knowing what tools, materials and equipment were required to do the proper job. Those par ticipating in the carpentry exhibit and dem onstration were told about grades and uses of different types of wood, how to use sand paper, equipment available for the safe application of same, the proper use of ham- ` mer and chisel, and so forth. They were shown the importance of having sharp tools that were set properly, and advised how they could tell when a tool needed to be re-set The demonstrators also advised how various carpentry problems could be bandied and took a more common type of job, such as repairing a chair, as an example. Supplementing the booths used to demon strate the seven fields of do-it-yourself work were other exhibits, including avail able pamphlets on the various fields of doit-yourself ; an adult education booth which listed the names and locations of local schools sponsoring adult education courses in the area; films on how to do-it-yourself, and so forth. The safety bureau also had an exhibit booth. Our demonstrator dis cussed unsafe handling of tools and equip ment from a general aspect We had on display examples of unsafe tools and equipment that should be discarded from the home. This included a ladder with a broken tide held together by string; cold chisels and. hammers with mushroom heads. Danger prints were targeted by red spots. From each was a ribbon extending to a safety message. We also had safety posters on display and arranged to have posters carrying a specific message placed in all other booths^ We had about 9,300 viators to the hobby show. In order to help the demonstrators bring in as part of their talks the safe practices followed in their work, a fist of safety recommendations was developed for each booth. For example, the recommenda tions sent to those demonstrating painting were as follows: It is suggested that while demonstrating your hobby, you call attention to the safety aspects of the technique you are using. Here are some of the things you may wish to keep in mind by cautioning your listeners to: Be sure of adequate ventilatiQn of room before starting to paint Be sure ladder is safe; no broken steps or side rails, no rough edges. 92 1955 National Safety Congress Safety feet on straight ladders, proper angle while using straight ladder, proper location of ladder to avoid over-reaching. Wear safe clothing, no loose sleeves, low heels. Prevent fire or explosion by disposing of cloths into covered metal containers. Use a safe can for solvents (call atten tion to the fact that open cans containing solvents for cleaning brushes, and so forth, are dangerous. They should be covered when not in use:) Use only safe solvents. Avoid using paints tliat contain more than one per cent lead on furniture, toys or trimmings in house where it is possible for children to chew on same. Lse proper techniques in pouring solvents (see page 25 of the booklet Hozc to Do It Safely). We were able to"obtain from the Home Insurance Company a supply of their fine booklet. Hose to Do It Safely. These were distributed to any interested during the hobby show. In sending bur recommenda tion to the demonstrators, we sent along a copy of this booklet and called their atten tion to the pages on which items of their hobbies were discussed. One of the other items that was stressed during the demonstrations was the fact that home repairs could be properly made by the home owner up to a certain point, after which it was required by local ordinances to have licensed people do the work. This was particularly true in plumbing and elec trical work. In the plumbing area, we stressed particularly that special care was to be exercised when handling or using caus tics, impressing upon our people the impor tance of following instructions given by manufacturers. Safe practices and safe conditions were - woven-into the*"discussioiir givei" by the electrical demonstrators, who were quite careful in malting sure that no unauthorized repairs or installations were made or dis cussed. They felt that certain things of importance were necessary to be understood by home owners. For example, they went into the following areas: Chart meter--fuse box. They showed how the meter should be read. They ex plained the fire hazard and the purpose of the fuse in the line and stressed that a fuse of not greater capacity than the line should be used. Only the positive approach was used in the demonstrations. The Use of a penny in place of a fuse was not explained or dem onstrated. Instead, the importance of proper replacing of the fuse was stressed, and dem onstrated, including the actual pull of the switch, removal and replacing of the fuse and the dosing ot the switch. The basic fundamentals of electricity were discussed. The gauge of wire was compared to the size of water pipes; it was felt1'that, in this way. more people would understand it. In discussing the size of wire?, the audience was reminded of the purpose of the fuse. We also had a dem onstration of how watts were measured. This was followed by the charting of a typ ical home circuit. In this explanation of the load on the wiring system, the amount of the watts input was shown by various sizes of pictures of appliances. For. ex ample. a small picture of the refrigerator and television set was shown; whereas, a toaster and an iron were shown enlarged. * These were two of the do-it-yourself areas covered. We also discussed carpentry and wood finishing, alteration and mending, paper hanging and slip covering and drapes. For each of these, a set of precautions was prepared which the demonstrators used. Home owners can do-it-themselves with out getting hurt or injuring others. There arc many valuable aids available to assist in the easy, best and safe ways to do-ityourself. The subject of do-it-yourself safety is the kind of thing that your workers will accept. They will welcome ideas and suggestions from you that will make their home work safer. to be understood utf | they went Industrial Safety Fact Finding--Off-the-job Accidents 93 . They showed read. They ex1 the purpose of essed that a fuse n the line should ach was used in sc of a penny in xplaincd or dem>rtance of proper tressed, and demtual pull of the ting of the fuse ch. s of electricity ye of wire was ter pipes; it was re people would ing the size of `eminded of the also had a demwerc measured barring of a tvp- explanarion of tem, the amount iown by various ances. For. exthe refrigerator wn; whereas, a shf ~ \ enlarged e it-vourself cussed carpentry m and mending, ring and drapes, precautions was rators used. hemselves with? others. There ailable to assist ways to do-it: do-it-yourself at your workers come ideas and will make their By ROBERT H. ALBISSER Safety Mgr., Chemical Div., Merck & Co., Inc, Rahway, N. J. I have appreciated the seriousness of offthe-job injuries for some years, but I was never truly aware of the full significance of off-the-job safety until we began gath ering data at Merck. Other speakers on this program have and will tell you of the manifold advantages of an off-the-job safety program. I have been asked to discuss the fact-finding aspects of the problem. I'm going to coniine my remarks to two things: one is the need for factual informa tion on the non-occupational injuries experi enced by our workers. The other is to explain a method that has been successfully used and to convince you that the gathering of off-the-job statistieal information can be easily accomplished. Before mentioning statistics, forms and procedures, let us briefly review our needs. We know that our employees in fairly good numbers suffer off-the-job injuries. We know that these involve a great deal of needless suffering and economic loss. How ever. many of us don't realize just how much these accidents are costing our em ployers in dollars. Perhaps of even greater significance is the indirect cost of nonoccupational injuries. Whether an employ ee's services are lost due to an on-the-job or off-the-job accident, the result is the same. We lose the services of a stalled worker. Another question often asked is: Why gather information on accidents we can't do anything about? We haven't any control over what our employees do after they leave the plant. In a sense, this is true, but we must not lose sight of the fact that accidents involve people, and people do not want to be in jured, in spite of the fact that some people really' go far out of their way* to become an accident statistic. We may not be able to tell people what to do while they are away from the plant, but we can tell them and keep telling them of dangerous prac tices that cause many accidents. Maintain ing a constant awareness of accidents, espe cially those involving people our employees know, is bound to have a favorable effect Safety engineers know that we can't pre vent all accidents. We are just not that smart But we do know* we can prevent many of them, and the occupational injury statistics prove it Suppose we cut off-the- job accidents by only 10 per cent You'll agree that is not being over-optimistic, when industrial injury frequencies have been re duced upwards of 90 per cent by a good safety program. / If your ratio of off-the-job injuries is about the same as that of the few com panies I know who have kept records, a 10.per cent reduction of off-the-job acci dents is practically the equivalent of having no occupational injuries. For off-the-job disabling injuries are just about 10 times more numerous as on-the-job injuries! In our chemical division for the first rune months of this year, some 5,000 employees have had 1(M off-the-job injuries. During the same period, these people have had 11 work injuries. DuPont's off-the-job fre quency for the first seven months of 1955 is running over 10 times their occupational rate. So far, we have been dealing with a few general reasons for gathering statistical in formation. Fundamentally, we need the in formation for the same basic reasons we compile statistics on occupational accidents. We want to know the size of the problem in number of people involved, days lost and cost More important, we want to know what types of accidents are involved. If 90 per cent of our people are injured in auto accidents, we don't need to spend practically all of our efforts on promoting home safety. Let's concentrate where the needs are great est Finally, we need statistical information to measure results to guide our activities and, to put it bluntly, to help justify our efforts. Contrary to what you may be thinking at this point the gathering of off-the-job sta tistical information is a relatively simple job, and it is not time-consuming. It's essen tially a three-step operation which involves establishing a procedure for obtaining the 94 1955 National Safety Congress basic information from the employees, as many people as possible. Keeping the infor sembling it in a summary report and dis mation on file for future reference won't seminating the information. do much good. It is also nice to know bow Obtaining the basic information can be done in a number of ways. Many plants re quire employees to dear through the dis pensary before returning to work after a sick leave or unexplained absence. This, is almost essential in some states which have compulsory disability insurance. If you have such a procedure, all you have to do is enlist your medical department's cooperation. The you compare with the other fellow, so we should cooperate with those compiling indus try and national off-the-job statistics. The Manufacturing Chemists' Association is about to start releasing the off-the-job in jury experience of its cooperating member companies. The Council is also in the proc ess of developing reporting forms and pro cedures. doctor or nurse merely checks off the cause The determination of off-the-job injury of an off-the-job injury and notes the num rates may he somewhat of a mystery to ber of days lost on a summary form. This you. M.GA. reporting companies are arriv form can be sent to you weekly or monthly ing at the exposure hours per month by or for any convenient period I like this multiplying the number of employees by plan best, but there are methods which may 312. The 312 is arrived at by subtracting be more satisfactory for jour purposes. from the number of hours in a week (168) You may ask supervisors to note off-thejob injury absences ou ~time sfreetS- Tter request the payroll department to forward the information to you. Perhaps it may be easier to have supervisors relay the infor mation to you directly on a separate form. Often yoar benefits manager, who adminis ters the medical-surgical, hospitalization and the normal sleeping hours--56 and normal working hours--40, which leaves a balance of 72. Multiplying 72 by 4% weeks equals 312, the monthly off-the-job hours per em ployee. Admittedly, this is not an approved A.S.A. standard method, hut if, later, a different figure is adopted, you can always adjust your figures accordingly. sick benefit plans can supply you with the As for the off-the-job severity rate, that base information. poses somewhat of a problem. I recom Ill explain sample forms and the break down of the information later. However, you will note that I haven't mentioned names, departments, dates, nature of injur ies or the usual items found on the average occupational injury report I don't believe we should complicate this business unneces sarily. There's no use gathering a lot of mend that you forget it for the-present and merely publicize actual days lost. -Estimat ing the degree of permanent partial injuries which occur off-the-job is rather difficult It*is also doubtful that if it were posable to evaluate these injuries and include time charges based on A.SA. Z16 Standard, the severity rate would be significant information you don't know how to use. I'm Forms that I am familiar with for sum glad to report that the people I know who marizing off-the-job injuries all have the are gathering off-the-job statistics are in same agency classifications. You will note full agreement with me on this point--keep that there are three general classifications it simple. --Transportation, Home, and Public, which Summary reports can jyary from a fine printed bulletin to a mimeographed memo. The information can be included in existing refer to a previously established statistical breakdown used by the National Safety Council. routine safety publications or house organs. DuPont has been using this form for sev The present practice is to issue monthly eral years. It has been adopted by M.CA. reports showing the number of disabling The National Safety Council's Off-the-job injuries for the current month, year to date Committee is considering its adoption. My as compared to the previous year, days lost, guess is that most people like it, since no and the causes. one, to my knowledge, has come up with a One of the principal values of off-the-job radically different form. injury information is in creating an aware Off-the-job safety is tremendously impor ness to the problem. Therefore, we should tant, and it is our responsibility to do some make every effort to have the data reach as thing about it. At least, there is no logical spinjrthe inforef| 'p won't e k -Jiow how fellow, so we ompiling indusstatistics. The ssociation is off-the-job inrating member so in the proc:orms and pro- the-job injury a mystery to tnies are arrivper month by employees by by subtracting a week (168) 36 and normal ives a balance t weeks equals hours per em it an approved t if, later, a ou can always ly. xity rate; that an. I recomite-present and lost -EstnnatMrtial injuries ath'''difficult W possible 1 include time Standard, the ant . with for sumall have tiie ifou will note classifications Public, which bed statistical tional Safety form for sevU by M.CA. s Off-the-job idoption. My : it since no ne np with a ionsly imporr to do someis no logical Industrial Safety 95 reason wby we can't complete the first step, finding out the magnitude of our problem and the type of accidents responsible. It is relatively easy to assemble off-the-job sta tistics. Disseminating these alone should, by creating and maintaining an awareness of the problem, will begin to bring about a reduction of'off-the-job accidents. The results will be worth many times your efforts, and you will be able to show your employees that your off-the-job safety program is truly worthwhile: Dividends On the Job from Off-the-job Safety Programs By ARTHUR F. TYRA Safety Dir, Union Carbide & Carbon Corp* Cleveland, Ohio American business, long concerned with more fives are lost is classified as a disaster. the safety of employees at work, is now It is a credit to oar industrial accident pre emphasizing another phase of accident pre vention work that disasters occur very vention--off-tht- job safety. Most of you rarely. However, off-the-job disasters are here--today are safety engineers or super reported almost weekly. visors. In addition to saving lives, prevent ing pain and suffering, and the loss of earn ings to individuals, your efforts have helped to increase the productive capacity of your piants. It is ironical that in America, where we have done so much to improve the standard of living; we have not done more in off-thejob accident prevention so that people may enjoy the benefits of their work. I feel con This phase of safety will present a chal fident; however, that ooce we are stimulated lenge to yon, as it has to all of us. It pro to take action in off-the-job safety pro vides an opportunity for yon to serve as grams, we will reduce the toll of fives that leaders in the field of human relations that accidents take in our homes; recreation, and will bring greater security and happiness to on the highways. American homes. It is not necessary for me to quote a lot of statistics about the number of lives lost; the people maimed for life, and the general economic waste resulting from off-the-job Up to the present time, our efforts in accident prevention have been, mainly di rected to saving a man's life or preventing injuries to his body while be worked. This was done, for example, by placing guards accidents. on the equipment he used, and through edu Long holiday weekends that should bring cation. In this phase of accident prevention dividends of happiness have returned debits --off-the-job safety--we are taking a more of sadness. It las become a common experi thorough approach to our safety problems. ence that ou the day following a long holi We are now thinking in terms of the whole day weekend, plants are uncertain as to the man; that is, his family, his friends. Us number of employees who will be unable community, his total environment The fam to return to work because of injuries sus ily, as a unit is the most important factor tained off the job. "Eleven * Children Die in Bus Crash," "Eleven Die as Plane Strikes Houses," "Five in this new approach to safety. Obtaining the group participation of the family is nec essary to make a safety program successful K3!$d on Turnpike," all of these headlines I would like to describe briefly some off- appeared in'one city's newspapers on one the-job safety activities that have been pro day. All of the accidents are not on the ducing dividends in several of our plant highways, however. We' read about people .. areas. I hope that they may help you bring bring killed or injured in the home by falls about some new productive ideas. or fori We learn of bunting accidents and In an attempt to determine community drownings. response to a home safety piogram, one In industry an accident in which five or plant on a Saturday afternoon held a gen- 96 1955 National Safety Congress eral meeting in the local movie theater. Previously, all employees had been notified by letter and by bulletin board notices; so that a large group was present Movies were presented and favors were distributed to the children. During the intermission, members of the plant's safety organization explained the need for safe practices in the home and the nature of the new program they had planned. Sometime after this meeting, letters and an application went out to all employees inviting membership in home safety com mittees. Each employee-member of a home safety' committee was given a certificate which gave him a formal connection with the off-the-job safety group. After the committees were established, literature on many phases of the safety problem was distributed at regular intervals. This information went not only to members but to all employees. Much of this material was obtainethfree from the National Safety Council, insurance companies, automobile associations, government agencies, and in dustrial firms. Once a committee was in existence, it was possible to conduct surveys to determine the most frequent causes of accidents and to work out a plan to emphasize these hazards. Forms were available for reporting home accidents. Monthly schedules of projects were prepared. For example, in June and July, vacation accidents were discussed i in October, rules for fire prevention were in cluded; and in December, Christmas and New Years accident problems were given attention, both for the. home and on the highway. Many plant safety personnel frequently go outride their immediate area of responsi bility' to organize school driving dubs and to teach first aid to girl and boy scouts. First aid equipment and movies are being made available through the plants. Some of the schools have bought their own equip ment and are continuing the program.- Plant safety' supervisors have been called on to inspect school workshops, for the purpose of recommending correct equipment guarding, also to assist in establishing safe practices for students. Much of the time spent by the safety' rep resentatives was after-hours and connected with other community activities like parentteachers' associations, civic dubs, and other organizations who welcomed informative talks on safety. Some of these groups are now conducting their own safety* programs. One plant arranged an elaborate display of safety equipment available in the plant and invited the townspeople in to look at it Safety* consciousness was brought about, and many wives went home more aware of the need for home safety. Safety demonstrations are frequently made a part of plant outings. On one picnic, a panel of four persons was formed with the job of guessing the hazards represented by another employee. Such games, even when lighthearted, tend to make spectators re member the causes of accidents. In one case, on a television program, members of a little league baseball team were interviewed and asked questions on safe recreation--how they' made ball playing, for example, less dangerous by wearing plastic cap liners. The plant safety director figured that a lot of young TV fans would leant-that safety is not a sissy's business. Essay contests on safety were sponsored by* several plants and a great deal of interest was developed. Prizes, such as bicycles, were awarded to the winners. Employee publications have been found to be a good way to get safety information across to employees. One plant magazine recently ran an article with pictures, that told the things a wife can do to help pre vent acadents. Some of these are: help the husband get sufficient rest, help maintain a serene family* life, try* to understand the husband's financial problems, maintain good family health, observe safe practices in the home, and eliminate worry- over personal health. Such articles when well-thought-out can do a good job for any off-the-job pro gram. I have only* mentioned a few examples of methods used by' some plants to encourage safety off the job. As part of the program, the corporation focussed public attention on safety* through institutional and plant-com munity advertising. Numerous others could be talked about, but perhaps these will give you an indication of the type of approach we are making. The effect that an off-the-job safety pro gram has on plant accident experience is an interesting study. The accident experience of four plants, from 1950 through 1954, led informative liese groups are air ^programs. lal Jte display ble in the plant in to look at it brought about more aware of frequently made n one picnic, a formed with the . represented br ines, even when spectators re lents. rision program, : baseball team d questions on ide ball playing, us by wearing safety director TV fans would sissy's business, were sponsored deal of interest A as bicycles, i* : been found to rty information plant magazine i pictures, that to to. help pree \ help the idp .Maintain a understand the maintain good iractices in the over personal dl-thougfat-ont >ff-the-job pro- w examples of s to encourage. the program, ic attention on md plant-comis others could these will give approach we ob safety pro sper!ence is an ent experience through 1954, The extent of these activities and the area covered is best illustrated by the following items from an annual report from one of our plants. "We concluded 138 safety pro grams consisting of safety films and talks. Ninety-five of these were held in schools with an attendance of 14,329 students. Fortythree were hdd with civic groups with an attendance of 2,110 adults . . . concluded six radio programs and a television pro gram dealing with home an<f off-tlie-job safety . . . our visits included tours in six counties adjoining our plant." Let us now, more specifically, attempt to list some dividends on the job from off-thejob safety programs. In safety work we dunk of dividends in terms of human values, benefits from our efforts, rather than in financial returns. However, we must realize that our industrial system is built on finan cial returns, profits. As individuals, we can improve our way of living only through the successful operation of our industries. The following is a list of some of the immediate benefits of an off-the-job safety program: 1. It creates good employee relations and improves the morale of the working force. (a) Improves attitude of employee on the job because he is released from worry due to injuries to self or family. 2. It produces a stable -working force. (a) Reduces labor turnover. (b) Reduces absenteeism. (c) Employee maintains high earning power. 3. It prevents loss of employee through death or total disability. (a) Reduces overtime cost of replace ment for an injured employee. 4. It creates good public relations. (a) Better selection of applicants, people (c) Preventing loss of production due to idle machines when employee is absent. (d) Reduces on-the-job accidents and damage to equipment as employee becomes more safety conscious. Probably the greatest dividend is the de velopment of safety' consciousness in our children, for they are the future employees and leaders in industry. In preventing one child's death, we have prevented needless family unhappiness. We may also have saved an Alexander Graham Bell, an Edison, or an Einstein for our country. From this list of dividends accruing from an off-the-job safety program, it is apparent that the employee, employer and the com munity all benefit from these safety activi ties. Up to the present time there has been some hesitancy by industry in taking the lead in off-the-job safety programs because: 1. Safety supervisors feel they do not have sufficient time to devote to these pro grams in addition to their plant safety work. 2. - Cost and time spent on these programs are thought to be excessive. 3. Industry has been hesitant to enter into any program that might be considered paternalistic. There may have been some basis for these attitudes in the past, but our experience in five years of off-the-job safety programs indicates that these reasons or fears are not sufficient to preclude .off-the-job safety programs in industry. We believe that a safety supervisor can include an off-the-job safety program with his plant activities, if he plans his*work and is willing to put a little additional effort into his job. We feel that this activity is part of his community' and civic responsibility'. V-i'S : 98 1955 National Safety Congress In our experience, the cost of an off-thejob safety program is redly insignificant. There are many agencies that furnish mate rials and services at little or no cost The time spent on off-the-job safety need not be great for any one person, since there are many people, agencies, associations, and civic groups that mil help carry on the program. The National Safety Council has considerable material available for these programs and is ready, willing and anxious to give assistance in promoting this phase of safety. In 28 years in industrial relations work, I have yet to know an employee; his wife or his family, who objected to anything bring done to further personal well-being, providing it was cone sincerely. I am sure that industry, with its tremendous reservoir of talent and experience in accident-preven tion work, will be commended for taking the lead in this humanitarian program. Offices Have Accidents, Too Offices Have Accidents, Too By WILLIAM C. BARBER Asst Vice-Pres^ Asst Dir.--Engineering, Michigan Mutual Liability Co, Detroit Mich- Thc idea of safety in offices is really not such a new thing. People in offices are just as susceptible to accidents as other indi viduals in more hazardous jobs. Maybe you think safety is all big things like new fire escapes, guards on equipment sturdy furni ture: It doesn't have to be. It could be the dozens of little things we do every moment without much thought--even throwing things in die waste basket Nothing Is so small or so insignificant that it can't have serious, tar-reaching consequences. If peoole hurt themselves in the office by slipping on a paper dip, they fed it just as much as a fellow who falls because of a spot of oil on the floor. They can lose just as much time and money, and you have to bear the same amount of indirect cost Have any of your girls ever slammed her finger in the desk drawer? Before the echoes of her howl drifted away. I'll bet you saw Mary and Jane whizzing by to see just what had happened to Betty. Already, the accident has cost you money. Betty's smashed finger is hurting so badly that she is preparing to go home. Mary and Jane are still offering sympathy. Their produc tion is affected for the remainder of the day. And you are very well.aware that when Betty returns to the office tomorrow, she will be worth only about half her normal wages, but you must continue paying her in"fulL Meanwhile, the overhead still con tinues--lights, heat and rent must still be paid, even though Betty is not producing. I realize that this is a far-fetched ex ample of indirect cost We all know that injured workers are actually the heaviest losers. They and their families must bear the physical pain and suffering that accom panies every injury. And even though, dol lar for dollar, their losses may be less, show me the employee that can afford the financial burden of injury. Well, then, how can we keep our office people from getting hurt? How can we get our office people to work safely? What is office safety? It is only natural for beginners in any phase of safety to look for an ideal pro gram or pattern, some sure-fired way of selling this thing--and it is only natural to be disappointed when they find that the plan that brought safety into Joe Doke's group landed like a lead balloon with their own crowd. If you were banded an assignment; for instance, a booklet describing employment opportunities in your company, would you call up a neighboring firm and ask for, and reproduce, a booklet they had been using? No, you wouldn't You would look into their material, true; but you would give it a great deal of thought You would deter mine just what you wanted to cover. You would take into consideration the individuals you were appealing to, those who would be using the booklet Any number of things would be carefully thought out and planned. A safety program should be like that--some thing carefully thought out and planned. Before we give any further thought to a plan in our office safety program, let's take a look at what constitutes a whole, sound safety program. Three things should be considered: safe working conditions, safe environment, and, most important, management Here you have safe environment, safe working conditions and safe practices all based on the foundation .of a safety-minded management from the top down. Thus we know a safety program depends almost entirely on you as supervisors. If you really want a good safety performance, you can have it It has been my experience that whenever I found a safety-minded supervisor I have 100 1955 National Safety Congress found a conscientiously safe working group. Every supervisor should be a safety super visor. Any person who values his job will try ixardest to accomplish whatever it is that his boss wants most. If the boss is sold on safety and makes it dear that is what he wants, his people will try their damdest to give it to him. And they will keep on giv ing it to him as long as he wants it They must feel with the boss that safety is a vital pan of the job. Your people know when you are sincere and when you are just giving a matter of "lip service." them. He knows that any strong emotion decreases a person's ability' to think clearly and act efficiently, making him accidentprone. I know it is tempting to use the term "carelessness" when analyzing the cause of an accident. You might say the word "care lessness" has grown into an alibi for super visors. They are unthinkingly placing the blame on the injured worker, who certainly didn't care whether or not he got hurt It's almost an admission that he. as a super visor. is making little or no effort to under stand and guide the actions of his people. Safety isn't something tangible that you can haul out and set chi your desk. Your people can't see you touch it can they? But they can see you. They can hear you. They can feel vour sincerity, your belief. If you are enthusiastic about safety and show it, it is cqntagious. Xou don't have to build-up safety. It doesn't need exaggeration claims. Just tell the truth. In getting to know his people, a super visor will find that some don't stop to think. With them, safety must become mechanical. Safe working habits, such as dosing one file drawer before opening another, must become a part of their working pattern. With these people, dose, positive training is required. And remember--if the individual liasn't learned, the instructor hasn't taught Don't think you are the only player on this team. Everyone must carry a share of safety responsibility. How much more effective it would be if a supervisor would study and analyze ways for creating in his employees the desire to work safdy. the desire to eliminate unsafe practices! Every employee must be made to feel that he or she personally is necessary for any plan of safety or production to succeed. There is a need for high morale. Why do some of us fail to get it ? Could it be that, too often, we criticize severely and fail to build up a desire for improvement? You know how you appre ciate a pat on the back. Try showing vour approval when your people are doing a job in an outstandingly safe manner. You'll ac complish a lot more that wav than if you wait until you have an accident and then go aliout raving about unsafe methods. When you receive an accident report do you just note your initials, or do you ana lyze the report carefully? Do you find that. often the reason shown in the report isn't a true cause? Perhaps the employee was worried about his little son. who is critically ill; or furious because someone banged a fender of his new car; or all excited over his new fishing equipment. A smart super visor observes his people and gets to know Yours can be a dream of an office--every thing accident proof, except the people working there. It's not enough to remove safety hazards. Every person must get into the habit of thinking safely' at all times, induding you. Sometimes we need help in keeping safetyalive in our groups. An office safety pro gram can do just that Let's discuss briefly several programs used successfully by or ganizations with good safety records. First, we have the safety observation plan. This plan provides for making onthe-job observation of office conditions and unsafe acts of employees, and taking immed iate steps to correct them. By correcting hazardous conditions and unsafe acts, you naturally are reducing, the number of po tential accidents. We have also seen tire safety committee plan in use. This is particularly effective in larger offices. The initial committee must be carefully selected, since they ate laying the ground work for subsequent committees. The committee generally consists of three people with one designated as chairman. The supervisor makes himself available to the committee for consultation. Terms for the committee members are adjusted so that as one member leaves, a new member is added each month. rong emotion th: ' clearly iin{ jtident- ase the term the cause of : word "care1)i for super placing the who certainly got hurt It's as a superort to underf his people. pie, a super stop to think, e mechanical closing one nother, must long pattern, re training is he individual rasn't taught office--every* the people h to remove must get into at all times. eeping satety : safety pro!isa*-\ briefly ft jbv orcorus. observation making onmditions and iking immedly correcting fe acts, you mber of po- ty committee y effective in imittee must v are laving t committees, ists of three is chairman, available to . Terms for usted so that .* member is Industrial Safety 101 When a committee of this sort is consid ered, it might be wise to set forth in writ ing exactly what they can do, how far they can go, and how they can go about doing it I find our safety committee quick to observe unsafe conditions and actions and correct the situation. They talk safety to their fel low workers, particularly to the newcomers in our office family. It is surprising to see the live, safety ideas that these committees come up with. Let me tell you about the little gimmick that our people really enjoy in our general office. It is called Pluto. Pluto is the sad dest; most dejected looking rubber dog you have ever seen. He is in a position peculiar to dogs, sitting down. And before him is written, "I was unsafe." If I perform an unsafe act, Pluto is placed on my desk, and there he sits until someone else goofs. Then, real quick-like, I present Pluto to him or her. The smaller office groups might be inter Did you know that, by the end of 1955, ested in a safety engineering plan. The every employee in our engineering depart same general procedure is followed as with ment actually will have received first-aid safety committees, except that one person is training? This is not only something they designated as a safety engineer responsible can use on the job, but something they can for all safety activities for one month. The take home with them. First-aid training is office of safety engineer is held on a rota a terrific tool in accident prevention pro tion basis, each individual taking his turn. grams. When people realize what can hap This has been highly successful because it pen to them in an accident, they begin utilizes the principle of competition. , thinking, and then they do a better job of Some groups prefer the safety* meeting selling. plan. They have regular safety meetings. And how about housekeeping in your But don't just squeeze safety into sched offices? Is it just housekeeping, or is it uled meetings ahead of time. Show the ' good housekeeping? Guttered desks and schedule on the bulletin board and list cluttered minds prove a fertile breeding some of the points you will discuss. In that ground for accidents. way. you give safety the stature it deserves. Whenever you get an idea on safety, jot If a safety meeting is not a thought-out plan, it is better not to have it Some groups find that by gearing the next meet it down. Put it in your desk or in one of your pockets. You may throw* 90 per cent of your notes away, but I bet you will come ings to comment and suggestions brought up with some good material in the remain out in these monthly meetings, their interest ing 10 per cent. is stimulated and held more easily. Of course, there are posters, booklet^, Next is the safety inventory. What is a bullet as and any number of safety tools safety inventory? Just that--you are taking you could use. These are all gimmicks, and inventory of the standing of safety in your they should be treated as such. When their office--existing hazards there might be, rec value is worn out, dispose of them. Or put ommendations as to possible treatment, the them aside for revival at a much later date. way your people feel about the safety pro But, for goodness sakes, don't attempt any gram and their suggestions for improve thing and everything at once. ment Do you know where the fire extin guisher is in your office? Or your first-aid khl And where is your air-raid shelter? Do you see how including questions such as We have been talking about the way people respond and the way they act It makes you think perhaps safety is a state of mind. And perhaps the best tool might be these could give you a wealth of material right up here--between your ears. We to work with in your safety* meetings? A could say* that safety is a way of life, a word of caution: this can be touchy if it is happier, more fruitful way of life. done too early in the safety* program. You might get a flood of recommendations - that you just couldn't handle. It might be wiser to reserve this device for use as a check-up. Set an example. Sell yourself on safety, give it some thought, come up with a plan, and you will sell safety to your people. Try to understand their thinking. Guide them in It could be much more effectively used in their thinking, and, before y*ou realize it's this way. It could be the means of giving happening, you will have your people want a safety program "a shot in the arm." ing to work safely. - :5 )1 fi *,l; i y s. . k: f ; .. Safety Is a Way of Life How Do We Get People to Recognize and Accept the Value of Intangibles How to Sell an Intangible By MRS. JEAN WADE RINDLAUB Vice-Pres^ Batten, Barton, Durstine & Osborn, Inc., New York, N. Y.; Member, Board of Dir., National Safety Council, Chicago, I1L What- is the problem of selling an in tangible? What do we live by? What, after all, is a tangible? A tangible--and I hope Mr. Webster won't argue with me--is something you can see or taste or feel or touch. What, I ask you, that you can see or taste or feel or touch could begin to measure up to the long list of words men truly live by? Does ice cream taste as sweet as lovef Is a padlock halt so strong as faith? Is a heated brick as warm as hopet Is gold as bright as a baby's smilet Is it muscles and veins and tendons you feel in a handdasp? Is it lipstick you remember of a kissT Is work just a way to dll a day--or rest just a way to waste a night? Is the head of a pin you see and touch as all-important as the bil lions of atoms that you know are there-- although you nor anyone else can see them? Money is tangible--honor intangible--but how often have you known men give up one to gain the other? A job is tangible, char acter is intangible, but don't you want both tor your children? The things men Jive and work by, the values we commit our lives to --these remain in the realm of intangibles. I don't know why we put it like that The truth is--and every advertising person worth his salt would admit it--that in our business we sell tangibles through intangibles. I spend a lot of my life selling cake. Do we advertise cake as so much flour and shortening, so much energy and nourish ment? Like fun we do. We understand our customer. We know that no woman bakes a cake for herself alone. We know there's a little bit of love in every cake a woman hakes, and we move in on that intangible to sell a whale of a lot of cake mixes. I spend the rest of my time selling soup, good soup. What's quicker and easier than to open up a can of soup? But do we stop by saying it's quick and easy? No. We sell intangibles, the roses of good health that soup will put in children's cheeks. We sell ideas---soup on the rocks, soup for break fast, soup shakes. We make something new and exciting of soup--and we sell a lot of it These are days when life and jobs are a lot less compartmented than they used to be. The best education is the broad-based education, the one that relates Its varied subjects to a total whole The best man in the job, employers are coming to realize, is the whole man--the man who sees his job not just as a cog but in its relation to the whole wheel. The man who looks upon safety as a way of life, rather than a path to a paycheck, does his whole job better. The man who understands his customers or his company's employees--your customers for safety edu cation, the man who sees their life`plainly,4does a better job of selling them the intan gible of safety. When you start to sell a tangible or an intangible, or to change or develop a point of view, you have to understand your cus tomer, and you have to build your project into your customer's picture of the good life. Let's talk for a moment about both of these dungs. How can you understand your customer? Well, for one thing, you can take a reflective look at the fast-changing if*} and N. Y.; 3L [ a lot of cake dc selling soup, and easier than But do we stop ? No. We sell >od health that becks. We sell oup for breaksomething new ire sell a lot of and jobs are a t they used to he broad-based ates its varied he^ ^t man in ig V realize, is 10 sees his job relation to the safety as a way to a paycheck. The man who his company's lor safety edurir life plainly, hem the intan- tangible or an levelop a point land your cusd your project if rite good life. about both of understand your hing, you can : fast-changing Industrial Safety 103 stage on which bis short life story has been performed. Think, for a moment, about this half century of ours. Think of the life of a boy bom in 1900. Could any man have foreseen the changes ahead for that bit of humanity --from the horse and buggy to the car, plane and jet--from slow mail to wireless, tele graph, telephone, the Atlantic cable and radio and television? From 10-day boats to the Queen Mary (just this year, for the first time, more passengers Sew the Atlantic than crossed by ship) 1 From gas lamps to indirect lighting. From sulphur and molasses to sulfathiazole. From palm leaf fans to air conditioning. From coal stoves to electric ranges built in the walL From coal cellars to home freezers. From lantern slides to Gnerama. From radios with earphones to portables for your purse. ^ The.,boy of 1900.lived in a house that had never known an electric stove or washing machine, a dish washer or vacuum cleaner, toaster or electric iron. The country store keeper who sold his mother cheese doth for diapers knew nothing of crackers in pack ages and was only beginning to sdl food in cans. He had never seen a soap flake, a detergent or a bug bomb, frozen foods, canned milk or baby food, cake mixes or brown and serve rolls. The department store his rocking horse came from had never sold a radio or a TV, a sun lamp, zipper or wrist watch. A man could buy a suit; but a woman would find it hard to buy a ready made dress or a permanent wave Mother got along with no more cosmetics than a little rag she called "My shammy." The old man manned his office minus bookkeeping machines, electric typewriters and ball point pens. Think on these things. They are steps to ward soring jour customer plainly, steps to ward understanding the kaleidoscopic world Jn whlch be has grown. Those were the tranquil years of the early 1900's. It wouldn't have been hard to sell safety then. Men lived at a slower pace. A angle life, a single illness, a single accident --these things had tremendous Importance. Then came the war years, when a single life lost some of its individual significance. And then the mad 20's, when the rush began, and the sad 30's, when one man's troubles seemed very small in the light of all men's trouble. And then the turbulent 40's, when trouble became, for many people, almost a way of life itself. And the constantly de manding, challenging, stimulating years since the Second World War. You are talking to men who have seen and shared a great show, men who have proved their capacity to survive such assortments of strikes, shortages and spirals, unrest; unhap piness and uncertainty, earthquake, dust storms and hurricanes, and somehow come through determined to find for themselves a little fun, a piece of peace, a chance to do less worrying, more living. Am I making this up? No, I'm finding it out. The psychologists are telling us this, and our business these days is knee-deep in psychologists. And there are such solid sources, as the 20th Century Fund's new sur vey of America?s Needs and Resources, re porting that today for the first time our people have quit bring afraid. They are no longer asking themselves, "Can I earn enough to live at all?" but, "What land of a life do I wish to lead?" A social psychologist put that in another way recently. "For the first time," he said, "in any country in the world, the majority of Americans are no longer afraid they will starve." He did not say they will not starve.. He just said that they have stopped expect ing to. And right up to the present day, that has been the major preoccupation of most of the people in any country--not how do we eat, but do we eat at all- "Today," says the 20th Century Fund's report, "a man may choose between a mean house with a good motor car and a good house with a poor motor car. He may choose to live in slums with television rather than in a humble but decent house without it He may decide whether to support churches and schools handsomely and skimp on movies and tobacco. Each man" and this is the important fact "makes these choiceraccord-c mg to his picture of the good life" That is the significant sentence for you. Is your product--safety--in the good lifet Of course it is! But it -won't be unless you find some effective way to put it there. See your customer plainly. See what has made him what he is today. And see the good life as he wants to live it Then link safety to the things that matter most to him. Don't sell intangibles--sell tangibles, the things your customer wants in the good life. i h {' 'T ' j i 1 n y.. 104 1955 Xational Safety Congress Sell safety as a means to an end--the family of knowledge. Anything that makes a man fun, the good times, the good living, that more of a person makes him want to take on can be the lot of the man who gets through a deeper share of neighborly responsibility. the day safely. The man who is less afraid is not, unhap pily for you, a more cautious man. The man who has been around, who has looked trouble in the eye, is not, unfortunately for you, the easiest man to talk out of taking a chance. What can you do to make safety a part of the good life as he sees it? "There are only two things we can leave our children,'' a mother once said. "We can leave them roots. And we can leave them wings." I think that is a good motto for the man who is selling an intangible. Help peo ple to put down roots--roots of deeper un derstanding of their company deeper faith in themselves and their fellowmen, a deeper You can quit putting so much emphasis sense of belonging to the community, and on the purely personal--the life you save you are contributing not only to their safety may be your own. You can appeal to vour but to their growth. Help your people to man's deepening sense of awareness that no have wings--to read statistics in terms of man is an island. You can encourage him human values, to understand the greatness to think of himself as the guardian of his and the glory of saving lives, preventing fellowmen. You can build bridges of under grief, to feel greater confidence and faith standing between men and their machines, in themselves because they have caught this management and men. You can help educate wider vision. You cannot give your people vour people to know the function of the ma this kind of purpose, this kind of a dreaav- chine. the end uses of your product, the func without first having it yourself. tion of the company in the community. So the first step in selling your intangible Are these things safety education? Yes, is to feel it deeply yourself, to dedicate your they are--if they give a man more pride in self to safety as a cause, not a career; to his work, increases his self-respect, his kin make it a part of your life. Let your cus ship with the man at the next bench. For tomers catch this contagion from you. Have safety is more than common sense, more a positive, not a negative program. Lead than the instinct of self-preservation -- it is from strength, not weakness. Make no little a way of life. It is easier for the man who is a heart-and-soul part of his organization, who understands the human needs his com pany satisfies, who has a sane, well-balanced and good humored relation toward life, his family and his work. plans. The more personal, the more emotional, the closer to man's basic wants -you can come in sdling him safety, the more effec tive you'll be. What are these basic wants and needs? They are very simple, really. You Build men like these, grow men like these, and you won't need safety education. That's why I urge you to understand your custom ers. share their lives, find out their hidden motivations, not only for their part in your personal growth but because they are a part of vour responsibility to your customers. As you enlarge vour own horizons, as you widen vour understanding and deepen your sensi tivity, you will bring new perspective, new strength to vour immediate job. You will think of safety as a way of life--a way that starts, as so many good things do, at home. could write the list yourself. A man wants a woman, and a woman wants a man. A man and woman want sons and daughters. They all want to be loved and understood, respected and liked. They are hungry, and they want to be fed with a minimum of work and a maximum of satis faction. They are weary and want to be housed with a minimum of wony-andr'amaximum of comfort. They are busy--they want to be clothed with a minimum of trouble and a maximum of good appearance. Thet- are lonely islands, and they want un You may want to take part yourself, and derstanding and things to help them to be encourage your men, to share in little leagues or Big Brothers or boys' clubs. Scouts or other activities that will help you to grow understood. They get up in the morning and work hard all day. They go home tired, and there is always something to worry about. responsible citizens who are capable of caring Somebody is mad, or sad, or broke, or blue. for their fellowmen. You might find your They have big worries and little worries. self helping your men to widen their hori And the days and years go by, and things zons by adding an extra skill, an extra body don't work out the way they hoped. Industrial Safety 105 makes a man rajf .take on rt .risibility. tve can leave said. "We can in leave them motto for the ble. Help peoof deeper un> deeper faith men, a deeper immunity, and to their safety our people to 5 in terms of the greatness es, preventing nee and faith re caught this e your people d of a dream, if. xmr intangible dedicate your: a career; to Let vour cusom you. Have rogram. Lead Make no little are emotional, ants 'you can ie '"'re effecc t wants le, remly. You md a woman nan want sons t to be loved i liked. They be fed with a mum of satis1 want to be worry and a .... 1 re busy--they minimum of xl appearance, hev want unp them to be : morning and jme tired, and worry about, woke, or blue, little worries, iv, and things toped. These are the people you are talking to about safety, your customers. Somewhere, somehow, they are waiting for you to make safety part of the solution of their problems. I read a question somewhere recently: "Are you part of the problem--or part of the solution?" You can be part of the solution for your customers' lives. You can fit safety into their picture of the good life. Do it quietly. You don't have to shout. Talk in simple words they can read and understand. Do it help fully with a little extra service in every word or line, a little smile, a little fun. Do it understandingly in a way that makes it very clear that you know they have troubles and you want to help. Do it with ideas--not just words, or pictures--ideas that will make your customers' lives gayer, brighter, simpler or, in some definite fashion, more livable, as well as just simply safe. Speak to your customers in a voice that sounds like you. They'll listen, and you'll feel better for it. How to Sell Intangibles in Life Insurance By JOHN O. TODD Special Agent, The Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Co. In the first place, we both sell insurance in a way. You sell people on doing the things that insure them against having the accidents--we sell insurance to provide the financial reimbursement when for some rea son your sale fails. Another point that we have in common is that we both have to sell an idea of pure intangibles. Ideas are elusive but precious things. It has been said that when one man has a dog and he gives -it to another man, then when they separate only one man still has a dog- But when one man has an idea which he gives to another man, when they separate there are two men with an idea. There's another point that we have in common.' Did you ever stop to think that almost everything that the consumer buys today he uses today and pays for tomorrow. But in life insurance and in safety you pay first before you can use the product that you buy. That makes it a much more difficult sale because it is easy for people to think in terms of pleasures of the mo ment and to postpone the memory of paying. . *A fourth way in which we are very much in common is that the result of what we do is much more beneficial to the buyer than it is to the seller. If you teach a man how to run a machine properly so that he won't have an accident but he doesn't buy the idea and he has an accident, for you it's a sad day--a failure--for him a much greater loss. If I try to help somebody to form a program for their financial success through their life insurance that they don't buy, then the man who has his disaster and didn't buy means a small loss for me, but he may lose his business. So the first key to intangible sales is the belief on the part of the seller and the ability to convey that belief to the buyer, but the buyer's interest comes first. Perhaps there's no better example of how this has been done than in the field of medicine. The doctor to be successful must sell or persuade you with his patience to take some severe medicine even to the point of a dangerous operation. Do you think for one moment that he could succeed in that sale if it were not for the fact that you believed that he recommends it in your best interest rather than malign his own thoughts. The medical profession has not always had that acceptance but by vir tue of the" fact that the vast majority of men who are practicing medicine practice in that way, today the vast majority of doctors are accepted on that basis. My job, it seems to me, is to make men think, to help men to think about their problems, to discover what their problems are so that they can find solutions for them. And if I can do that, I can construct the right kind of a sale. I have long been a believer that the best way to accomplish a sale of an intangible 106 1955 National Safety Congress is to follow the adage of Ben Franklin who problem? Would it be correct to say that said, "Men are best convinced by reasons your problem is to accumulate in the time which they themselves discover." that remains enough money to produce the I should like to give you an example of difference between 10 per cent and 50 per what I mean out of my own experience cent of your present income? by asking you to think through with me The point is that you must believe im your own situation to the solution of fi plicitly in what you say and what you sell. nancial success. Imagine for a moment that As far as our sale is concerned all we you and I are alone in a room. I have have to do is to discover the problem, then come to your home or your office to discuss put on the other man's shoes and apply our your affairs. Think with me so I can show technical knowledge to give him a solution you what I mean by asking you to think that will lead him out of his problem. about your problem. HI call you Bill, regardless of what vour name is. Bill, tell me if there was some thing that was easily within your power to do but Would make a difference between possible financial saving and certain finan cial success would you do it? What per centage of vour present income would you like to have as permanent income some day? What do I mean by permanent income --why permanent income is money at work-- temporary income is men at work. Any time you quit work your temporary income terminates. I realize that you'd like to have So to summarize how do we sell in tangibles? There are four principal points. First, preparation--which seeks to cover every possible area before approaching a sale; second, to find the problem, to discover and to help men discover what their own problems are so that they will seek to buy our product for the solution; third, an application of the Golden Rule, putting yourself in the other man's shoes and see ing to it that what you recommend for him would apply with equal force to yourseli. The fourth is how do you think? it all, but if it were permanent income you I don't know whether you ever get dis wouldn't have to save any more money, couraged--maybe in your business you don't would you? You probably wouldn't have to have the kind of problems that we do in pay as much income tax, and you certainly curs, but the life insurance man takes an wouldn't have the expenses that you do in awful beating, particularly in the early going to work every day, maybe you could years when he must spend his time trying get along on 60 per cent, 70 per cent, 50 to sell people who don't want to see him. per cent, no less than 50 per cent you say-- So. it's easy for the life insurance man to in other words to be financially successful get discouraged. I have long felt that you must accumulate enough to produce thoughts are veiy real. We tend to be what 50 per cent of your income. we think we are, and I have found that If you were to quit work tomorrow, what percentage of your present income would be permanent? Five per cent, 10 per cent? Ten per cent? How many years have you been working? Twenty years? And you're half the way through, aren't you as far as economics are concerned. So in half the time you've accumulated 10 per cent most people agree with this philosophy. Ii that's so. I've often wondered why there is such a gap between what people accom plish and what they apparently want. Isn't the key to it in the word apparently? "The problem is to keep the little things from interfering with the big things." The prob lem is to attain self-discipline and you need 50 so you're 20 -per cent along the way. Tell me, following your present plan how long will it take to ac cumulate enough to produce 50 per cent? It this is the problem then here are two ideas that have been very useful to me and I'd like to pass them on. They' are very specific in their point, and they're based Supposing you don't have that long. Will upon the conviction that there is a law of the need for the income be any more or minds which is just as inexorable and as less? Isn't it fair to say that something firm in its operation as is the law of gravity. rather drastic will have to be done if you That law of mind believes anything which are to be successful financially according you ardently desire, vividly imagine, hon to your own measurement? Tell me. Bill, estly believe in and expectantly act toward would this be a fair statement then of your will inevitably' come to pass. We could 10S Safety Services to Industry By the States and Provinces The Idecd State Safety Program and How the U. S. Department of Labor Can Help By PAUL E. GURSKE Dir., Bureau of Labor Standards, U. S. Dept, of Labor, Washington, D. C. The Congress established the United States Department of Labor to promote the welfare of the wage earners of the United States, to improve their working conditions, to advance their opportunities for profitable employment, and to administer and enforce statutes designed to advance the public interest. One phase of this broad mission involves the safety and health of wage earners, re sponsibility for which has been delegated to the Bureau of Labor Standards. Since except for responsibilities under certain statutes, the federal government has no direct responsibility for providing leader ship in the safety field, the Bureau provides a safety consultation sendee and tools which will hdp others achieve leadership in the areas where needed. The safety consultation sendee encom passes all aspects of safety in federal estab lishments. maritime operations, industrial safety under specific laws, and aid to states. This discussion concerns itself with an ideal state safety program and with safety services of the Bureau of Labor Standards available to the states. Under our American industrial system, safety is primarily a management function. However, states have the responsibility' to see that all employers provide safe work places according to certain acceptable mini mum standards. In the past, the primary emphasis bystates lias been on guarding of machines and equipment and the elimination, or control, of physical hazards. Many states now rea lize that to do an effective safety job they must be more than just policemen enforcing laws and regulations. They must supply the highly professional service that a trained safety engineer gives to employees in the large business concern. Safety- training, safe work practices, good supervision, engineering control and proper selection and placement of personnel are some of the elements that wide awake man agement uses to prevent^accidents onthe job. But-we must not overlook the fact that an effective state safety program lias to in clude an internal and an external element, internal meaning a safety program for state employees, and external meaning safetyservices to aid administration of the various laws affecting wage earners in the state. When we consider the variety of hazards and exposures in proper administration of state penal institutions, state schools and hospitals, state police, public roads and mo tor vehides, public buildings, state agricul ture and conservation of natural resources, we realize the importance of a state safetyprogram covering state employees engaged in these activities. A * suggested organization for such a safety program would include: 1. A governor's safety committee in cluding such persons as the labor commissioner, the industrial commis sioner, and the commissioner of pub lic safety. The chairman would be appointed by the governor. 2. A departmental safety organization, including: a. A safety coordinator appointed by the commissioner of each state department to be responsible for administering safety activities within the department. b. A department safety committee including at least three top level t to say that 2 r Ve > i jice the t and 50 per t believe imvhat you sell, srned all we problem, then uid apply our itn a solution problem. we sell in* ncipal points, ks to cover pproaching a n, to discover at their own 1 seek to buy a; third, an lule, putting toes and see* nend for him to yourself, k? ever get disess you don't at we do in tan takes an n the early ; time trying to see him. anf 'rian to tg- , that id to be what ; found that tilosophy. It 1 why there eople accom want. Isn't rently? "The things from " The prob- iiere are two ul to me and tey are very hey're based is a law of able and as if of gravity. >-thing which nagine, honf act toward We could Industrial Safety 107 spend many hours to amplify or possibly to qualify that statement, but for the mo ment I want you just to assume that it's true. What can we do to put so great a power into our hands? First, you must be sure that what you want is right. You begin to imagine, you begin to believe in the possi bility of attaining that thing which you know is right. Then you go about doing whatever it takes to accomplish it with complete confidence that the result is as good as done. How can you have that confidence? Well, if you don't have it in yourself you can borrow confidence. If someone else whose opinion matters to you believes you can do it, you trill not let that person down and you can do it. And so, here is my first specific idea. Seek out the problem, find the solution that you- know is right, prepare for it com pletely, and then go about doing the things that it takes to finish the job. And the second specific is this. Give your mind a chance to work; the little annoyances and hindrances of the day burden us all and our conscious hours of free thinking are all too few. With that kind of interference it's almost impossible to think through those big objectives and the things that you want to accomplish. For my part I have learned when I have such problems that the hour in the morn ing before breakfast--before the family is up, before the telephone rings, before there is any interference--is my best opportunity. At such a time I will sit down and com mand my mind to go to work. I'll ask myself--where do you want to be 10 years from now--then five years, then next year and then what must I do today in order to take steps in that direction? It doesn't matter if the answers are often the same, the point is that it clears the track, it makes it possible to see where you are and find out whether you are on the track or not Now this is not limited to material things alone--happiness, human happiness is the prime objective and material things are only a part I believe that it is no more im possible to reach out aiid time your mind to receive from the Great Universal Power than it was impossible to bring in words and music and pictures through TV. The power is all about us--all we need to do is to tune our minds to receive it <ry cv the P a, D. C. ployees in the practices, good ol and proper personnel are le awake manddents on the the fact that 'ant has to in* emal element, Ham for state anting safety of the various the state, sty of hazards umstration of schools and tw/ pd mo st Agriculral resources, a state safety 'vees engaged for such a ommittec in* as the labor trial commis sioner of pub* an would be tor. organization, or appointed of each state sponsible for ' activities nt y committee ree top level Industrial Safety 109 supervisors with, the safety co ordinator as chairman. 3. Adequate funds for developing edu cational and promotional materials, as well as to support the other as pects of the program. 4. An effective and adequate records and accident investigation system. 5. Regular and periodic educational and training meetings of safety and su pervisory personnel. 6. Regular and periodic inspection of state property and equipment. When we consider the safety services a state should provide in the administration of laws affecting the health and safetj' of wage earners, we find that authority should be provided by legislation: 1. Placing general responsibility' on em ployers to maintain a reasonably safe place to work. 2. Giving the state labor agency author ity* to formulate occupational safetyrules and codes for the health and safety* of workers under proper legal safeguards. 3. Providing for the assistance of ad visory' committees made up of em- ' plovers, employees and technical ex perts in the formulation of safety rules and codes. 4. Authorizing the state labor agency to carry on educational programs In collaboration and cooperation with employers and employees. The inspection service winch implements this type of safety* authority should provide a minimum of one regular inspection of each establishment annually,, with additional ones as necessitated by review or hazards, injuries, complaints and suspected violations. The numbed of inspections to be expected of each state safety engineer in a year de pends upon the types of industry in the state, size of individual establishments, dis tance from one part of the state to another, travel facilities available, and the number of laws to enforce. To insure getting good factory* safetyinspectors and keeping them, certain quali fications and inspection standards should be established. A competitive merit test administered by the state civil service procedure, or by an important non-partisan board, should be de signed to bring into the service men with an adequate and predetermined degree of technical and practical knowledge. A one year probationary period of train ing and experience, with a final qualifying examination by the board administering the merit system, should be given all newlyappointed inspectors before permanent appointment. Equally as important as appointment and training is a reasonable assurance of per manence of office for competent inspectors. The system should give qualified inspectors the protection of civil-service tenure or its merit-rating equivalent How can the United States Department of Labor help the states in this type of program? To promote the safety, healt&^and^welfare of wage earners, it is necessary to have certain minimum adequate safety standards which will help effect uniformity through out industry. The Bureau of Labor Standards partici pates in the activities of the American Standards Association in the developement of American standard safety- codes. At the present time, the Bureau is represented on two standards boards and 37 technical committees. The Bureau promotes the -adoption of ASA safety standards by keeping the states advised of the adoption of new standards, by suggesting the use of ASA standards as the basis for state codes, andi by using ASA standards as the basis for safety codes drafted by the Bureau at the request of states. In this way, the Bureau hopes to achieve better uniformity of state codes. It is estimated that approximately 70 per . cent of the industrial injuries inr=thiscountry occur in smaller plants where the safetyprogram is weak or non-existent Such plants are seldom serviced by their insur ance carriers and receive only occasional assistance from state factory inspection agencies. To meet this problem, the Bureau has developed a special industry program to derise tools and aids for improvement purposes. The state agency responsible for occupa tional safety, with the help of safety spe- no 1955 National Safety Congress tialists from the Bureau of Labor Stand ards, selects a specific industry which requires concerted attention for the purpose of reducing industrial accidents and work injuries. A review of state injury records, of known hazards, and of importance of the industry to the citizens of the state helps to determine the selection. In cooperation with the state agency, the Bureau provides the services of safety engi neers to study the hazards in selected plants in the industry, to analyze the problems and operations of the industry and to de velop engineering and educational data to he used in the promotion of a concentrated safety program. The safety staff of that Bureau then com piles this data and prepares flow charts showing the sequence of the important op erations and the principal hazards in each operation. These materials are printed and made available to the state. In addition, safety committee instruction pamphlets are pre pared outlining a yearly safety program which covers a specific hazard of the in dustry each month. Suitable posters and promotional aids are also developed. As a result, a tailor-made safety program is available for a concentrated effort of six months, a year, or longer. To obtain over-all participation in this special industry-wide safety program, it is suggested that the state agency appoint a publicity committee consisting of safety personnel from industry, civic service groups, insurance companies, the pres and radio. This committee promotes the pro gram through its members, publicity chan nels, publications and activities. The Bureau helps develop promotional aids tor this purpose. Before such a program is put into opera tion, the Bureau conducts a two- or threeday training session for state safety person nel to acquaint the state's staff with the details of the program and give specific in structions on the hazards and corrective measures to be used by this industry. A session on "How to Sell the Special Indus try Program" is included in this training. State safety personnel then make personal contacts with each plant in the industry. They discuss the program with top manage ment to enlist cooperation, to survey opera tions as to help needed, and to get the injury-frequency rate for the previous six month or yearly period in order to be able to compare safety records before and after the program is inaugurated. Assistance is given in organizing a safety committee or other personnel to make use of the program material. The state agency reproduces the materials developed by the Bureau and sends them to the participating plants each month for the program period. . At the end of the program period, state safety personnel again contact each estab lishment to evaluate results of the program. Injury-frequency rates before and after the period of die program are compared. Plans are then made for continuing the program as a- long range one. To date, special safety programs have been developed for 29 differ ent industries. Some examples ot improved industry injury-frequency rates as a result of this type of program are shown in the table at the bottom of this page. State North Carolina -------- ---- New York Iowa Arkansas Indiana Industry --__ ____ ,,;_:9tS-5----- Injury-Frequency Rate Reduction Brick: and Tile Scrap iron and steel Woodworking Logging Limestone quarries and mills 9%--6 months 25%--2 years 36%--3 years 65%--6 months 49%--6 months 23%--6 months 24%--6 months aids ior this A) ut <to operawo- or threesafety persontaff with the re spedfic bi nd corrective industry. A ipecial Industhis training. sake personal the industry, top manageurvey opera- to get the previous six t to be able re and after Vssistance is ommittee or the program he materials nds them to nth for the teriod, state each estab ic program, .d after the ired- Plans ie_ iraui rdarSafety r 29 differ- d industry lit of tins te table at qucncy tction Industrial Safety 111 The training function of the Bureau is to make available to states, federal agencies and other groups a modem concept of safety training to help implement existing safety efforts. There are several safety training courses given, each with a specific objective. They are directed to the state factory inspector, the state or federal agency supervisor, the trade union representative and persons re sponsible for handling similar training within their own units. Bureau training experts conducted 81 dif ferent courses during the past fiscal year. The tfttal attendance at these courses was 1,725 persons. A new departure in the training function was a course conducted in Virginia under the joint sponsorship of the Virginia Manu facturers Association and the Virginia De partment of Labor and Industry- This course was conducted for industry repre sentatives. Bureau training experts prepare instruc tor guides, student'outlines, visual aids and safety promotion materials to enhance the value of the subject matter. Students are provided with reference materials and edu cational materials pertinent to the subject matter to help them apply their knowledge to existing problems. Specific courses offered are: 150 hours covering broad scope of accident prevention fundamentals. 30 hours for state, federal and indus trial supervisory personnel on basic accident prevention at the supervisory leveL 12-16 hours covering the place and re sponsibilities of trade union person nel in accident prevention. ___._. 30 hours teacher-training course in the techniques of presentation of safety subjects for training personnel in the field. 30-60 hours in specific field of con. struction safety. 30-60 hours in specific techniques of chemical products safety. 30-60 hours in the field of electrical hazards safety. Special courses covering -specific safety problems as they arise and are requested. The teacher's training course has been prepared to enable state labor department personnel to conduct training courses in safety within their respective states. An attempt is being made to expand co operative safety training classes in states, sponsored jointly by state labor and indus try departments and trade associations such as the National Association of Manufac turers. One aspect of the work of the Bureau is keeping technical consultation and develop ment activities current Several hundred technical inquiries are received yearly from states, municipalities, unions, and private in dustry requiring constant research into new fields of safety endeavor and recurrent studies in existing fields. To provide technical safety aids in a form which can be used effectively by state fac-' tory inspectors, small plant supervisors and small safety committees; approximately 100 bulletins, booklets and charts on safety and health have been prepared and issued. Work is constantly in process to expand this service. Assistance is provided state agencies in drafting and revising safety codes or regu lations. This service includes making sur veys of the state industrial problems, mak ing comparative studies of existing national and state standards, and drafting suggested requirements for final revision and adoption by the state agency. Consultation service is provided state code committes, and upon request. Bureau safety engineers participate as expert witnesses in final public hearings on proposed codes.. On request, state and governmental agency safety programs are studied and appraised for effectiveness. Specific recommendations are then offered with respect to methods of c improvement and additional activities which might prove beneficial. In fact, at the present time. Bureau safety engineers are working with four states (Maryland, Virginia, Iowa and Min nesota) helping them .to organize a com plete safety program for all state employees in all state agencies. The experience gained in these four states should be valuable in helping other states organize similar programs. Under the Longshoremen's and Harbor Workers' Act, responsibility is given the & as 112 1955 National Safety Congress administering authorities to make studies, The value of the community approach to investigations and recommendations with re occupational safety has been demonstrated spect to safety provisions and causes of for some time in Oregon, where 31 commu injuries in employments covered bv the Act nity conferences held in 1953 showed an The Bureau of Labor Standards has been eight per cent reduction in work injuries in delegated this responsibility. There are ap 1954. proximately 500,000 workers under this Act The 1954 President's Conference produced located at 100 major ports in some 31 states. a "How To Do It" guide for community Safety activities of the Bureau in states having ports involves promoting and stimu lating interest of steamship operators, steve dore companies and shipyards in developing and maintaining an effective safety program. Injury reports are analyzed to determine basic causes of injuries, and regular visits are made by Bureau safety engineers to ob serve conditions and activities and make recommendations for control and elimina tion of hazards. Safety' programs are eval uated and recommendations are made con cerning policies and promotional activities. safety conferences which the Department of the Army distributed to safety directors in major commands all over the world. A large railroad gave the guide to its superintend' eats in towns all along its route. These are typical examples of the determination of the President's. Conference to reach, small workplaces where the great majority of work injuries occur. The President's Conference, embracing all segments of our national economy concerned with the prevention of on-the-job accidents, continues to be a vital -force in stimulating action on the part of state and local offi Shipping associations and insurance com cials and private agencies. panies are contacted to promote joint action in the interests of Iongshoring safety. Peri odic on-the-job safety meetings are ar ranged and conducted as a part of safety training in cooperation with management and unions. Technical information dealing with recommended safety standards is pro vided with the objective of developing and promoting the adoption of uniform volun tary safety codes throughout the stevedor ing industry- In covering the various ports last year, 116 stevedoring companies, 26 shipping com panies, 35 marine trade assocaitiers, 12 in surance carriers and 34 union locals received safety services of one kind or another from Bureau engineers. President Eisenhower has requested the Department of Labor to-organize a nation wide conference next year to concentrate on other areas which need the attention of the safety movement. The next conference will again stress promotional and educational ac tivities which can be taken to workplaces where the accidents occur. Any program must continually move for ward with new devices and new ideas. It must be dynamic--not static And the Bu reau has not lagged in pushing into new fields. A brand new Hazardous Occupations Or der Number 12 became effective in Septem ber, 1954, following an investigation of the hazards to minors employed in the paper While the fiscal year 1954 was an "off" products industry'- The order sets an 18- year as far as a President's Conference on vear minimum age for operating certain Occupational Safety is concerned, the re machines used in this industry. And, as evi sults of previous conferences go on and on. dence of more progress, one otheE hazard Reaching small business by community action, an expressed goal of the May, 1954, President's Conference, was quickly realized in Hagerstown, Maryland. The first Cum berland Industrial Safety Conference ous occupation order was amended and an amendment proposed to still another. In recognition of changing industrial condi tions. Bureau safety engineers are working in these areas constantly. brought together representatives from a Another pioneering project, completed in four-state area to stimulate safety activity cooperation with the Office of Education of in plants and to offer practical aid in acci the Department of Health, Education and dent prevention particularly to supervisors, Welfare was the publication of a booklet on foremen and others responsible for safety school shop safety. Intended as a safety objectives. guide for pre-employment training, it aims iity approach to Demonstrated Jl commu953 showed an vork injuries in :rence produced for community Department of ety directors in : world. A large its superintend>ute. These are itermination of to reach, small it majority of e, embracing all nomy concerned e-job accidents, : in stimulating and Ideal offi* requested the lanize a nationi concentrate on mention of the conference will educational acto workplaces tally move rorv" \ideas. It . , / the Bu shing^ into new Occupations Ortire in Septemitigatiem of the l in the paper er sets an It erating certain y. And, as evi; other hazardnended and an ill another, in dustrial condirs are working completed in f Education of Education and af a booklet on d as a safety aining, it aims Industrial Safety 113 to indoctrinate the boy or girl in the school shop to safe work practices before he takes a job in industry', not after he has learned the hard way, by being injured. To summarize this discussion, we believe the safety services of the Bureau of Labor Standards contribute to the giving of more effective safety' service by' states through: 1. Training state personnel in safety. 2. Providing technical safety materials and aids for states to use. 3. Giving personal safety' consultation service on all phases of safety activ ities. -1. Pioneering and research work in new areas of safety and new tech niques in safety promotion and control. Private industry benefits trout the safety- services of die Bureau because die Bureau: 1. Helps cover segments of industry that are not reached by others--the small business. Z Helps improve the industry-wide frequency and severity rates. 3. Helps preserve industrial skilled manpower. The worker benefits from the safety serv ices of the Bureau because the Bureau: 1. Helps improve the safety of-the ma chines and equipment he uses. 2. Helps improve the environment he works in. 3. Helps improve the quality of super vision over him. 4. Helps provide physical and eco-nomic security for him in liis job. The Florida Training Program By a. p. McIntosh Chief, Dept, of Industrial Safety, Florida Industrial Commission, Tallahassee, Fla. When our Department oi Industrial Safety was activated October 1, 1947, all that tve had to go on was a philosophy that Florida Problems Should Be Solved by Florida People. To determine the pattern of indus trial safety* needs, a survey' was made throughout Florida which contacted repre sentative Industries, including executives, su pervisors, workers, associations, labor groups and members of the public in each area in the state. The most amazing thing we found was a general feeling that occupational injuries are simply "a part of progress." Executives and managers all agreed that supervisors were the key men in industry* and any program for betterment of methods and practices should, include these key people, but how? % In order to take advantage of the knowl edge and experience of the only people in Florida who, we felt, could really help, we called on eight successful safety* directors in industry, each having the status of a full member in the American Society of Safety* Engineers, tor their advice. Out of their suggestions came Florida's Balanced Safety Program, consisting of inspections, train ing, aids and materials and special services. Our chosen safety experts insisted that inspection be not just a procedure for locat ing hazards, but an Industrial engineering approach where accident prevention is made a part of the production schedule. In nu merous instances, plant or job inspection has led to 10-hour safety classes. Management has realized that safety should be a part of the production plan, not something sepa rate as it had been in the past Building our safety training course was both an interesting and, at times, a trying experience. When nine peoplejyith a com mon profession, but completely divergent experiences, try to agree on the many de tails involved in such a project, it takes time and patience. .Results have proven, however, that these men had lots of patience and inspiration. Their work will continue to jay dividends for years to come. We started out with five points to be considered: * 1. Executive and supervisory responsibility. 114 1955 National Safety Congress 2. Accident source and cause. 3. Plant or job inspection. 4. Accident investigation. 5. Program planning. Each of the nine men selected the subject or subjects they would prefer writing or preparing material on, and then started to work--each working independently of the others. The initial material was rewritten at eighth grade vocabulary' level and edited to eliminate duplication. The original five items became: 1. Safety is a part of vour job. 2. Where accidents come from. 3. You can see an accident coming. 4. Now, what caused that one? 5. Plot your course and keep sailing. After a state road department artist did the cover design, chapter headings and vari ous key illustrations, our Florida Foremen in Safety booklet emerged, not as a safety manual but a handbook to be used for home work with our safety training course. The original five subjects, as chapters in the book, suggested five daily presentations, and, in order to use both lecture and con ference methods of teaching, we decided cm a two-hour period for each session. Thus, the 10-Hour Safety Course began to take shape. We decided to use visual aids as much as possible. Charts were adopted, as they are most flexible to change, easily packaged, transported and most likely to fit the various physical situations under which the course would be presented. The charts we use are painted by a local artist on dull finish plastic cloth about IS by 24 inches in size using lots of color in lettering and caricatures. Experience has shown that it is desirable to diversify color schemes and make each one as simple as possible so as not to con fuse class members. Parallel material is added as needed. Where-the discussion war rants, a blackboard is used to record the points and permit class members to make notes. Our 10-Hour foremen Safety Course is simply go-a ioremanship with safety in its proper position and proportion. Particular stress is placed on prevention of production accidents with a resulting prevention of accidents to workmen. The course is given in five successive daily meetings of two hours each, at hours during the day most convenient to the class members. Class sizes are from a minimum of 10 to a maxi mum of 23 pupils. The first hour of each meeting is used in presenting principle, by use of hand art work, "Flip Charts" and blackboard illus trations. After a 10-minute rest period, conference methods are used, and various devices get class members on their feet talk ing about the principles presented in each of the lessons. All material presented is in shop language. Under no condition do tre ever discuss company policy. Briefly, our outlines arc as follows : Monday-- Class rules. ( Accident-definition. Plant accident experience. Acddoit costs. Business organization. Foreman-Definition. ... -- Duties of a foreman. Teaching. Training. Tuesday-- Accident sources (production and em ployee accidents). Unsafe conditions. Unsafe practices. Control of unsafe conditions. Control of unsafe practices. Wednesday-- Planning. Operating plans. Safety plans (a part of operating plans). Inspection--production and safety'. Safety methods. Production and safety training. ThursdayrProduction accident study. Employee accident study. Accident reporting illustrative cases. Accident records. Friday--(Fitting safety to location or job). Production prbgram. Satety program (as a part of production program). 1. Training. 2. First aid. 3. Safety inspection (for production and personnel hazards). 4. Accident investigation (production and personnel accidents). 5. Publicity. At the close of each class, we. pass out foremanship circulars paralleling die class embers. Class If ja maxi- ting is used in of hand art tdeboard illuss rest period, i and various Jteir feet talkted in each of esented is in edition do sr< ollows: >n and era- Industrial Safety 115 work; Monday--Qualifications of a fore man; Tuesday--Handling people; Wednes day--Self improvement; Thursday--Waste control, and Friday--Leadership. The class instructor devotes from two to four hours per day on the second, third, fourth and fifth days to on-the-job visits with various class members, accompanied by the safety director or some other person designated by the executive. These visits are arranged so that there will be no inter ference with the supervisor's production du ties. The purpose of this activity is to estab lish a closer relationship between the pupil and instructor, and to aid the supervisor on individual problems in connection with the basic principles of the course. The commis sion furnishes the instructor, class mate rials and visual aids without cost or obliga tion to Florida employers. Wc believe that the success of this course lies in the fact that it is basically simple, of "homespun" origin, and our instructors have been thoroughly trained in public speaking, salesmanship and conference meth od of teaching in addition to their usual safety training. The University of Florida has been most helpful in developing and conducting training seminars to help make our field force an instruction group as well as safety people. A survey of locations that have had the 10-Hour Safety Course, comparing the year prior to the class to the year following, was made in 1953. This survey showed that 85 per cent of the companies had reduced their accident frequency 22 per cent, a reduction in days lost of 44 per cent, and an accident cost reduction of 36 per cent From the date this course was initiated, July. 1949, to October 1, 1955, we have con ducted 373 classes in 107 Florida cities for 523 companies, with 6,892 supervisors com pleting of a total enrollment of 7,841, or an enrollment mortality of about 12 per cent. As of October 1. 1955, we have our avail able class instruction service scheduled full time until January, 1956, and have had to postpone a number of requests until next year. This has contributed more to Florida occupational safety progress and good will toward our Department of Industrial Safety than ant* other service we render. :ety. : cases. or job), production production production ; pass out the class British Columbia's Complete Safety Service By ARTHUR FRANCIS Chief Inspector, Workmen's Compensation Board, Vancouver, B. C., Canada The development, oi British Columbia's safety program closely follows the industrial development of the province, and, as British Columbia is the most rapidly expanding province in Canada, our program is con stantly changing to meet the new conditions not only of our industrial development but also of the rapidly growing safety move ment within our industries. The design of our safety program was laid down in a report made to our provin cial legislature in March, 1916, by a com mittee which had been appointed the pre vious year to investigate compensation laws, in order to ascertain the best system of at taining the principles of social justice which underlie much legislation. The report stated: "The best system as we conceive it [is] one which will not only eliminate so far as possible the economic waste attendant on the present system in force in the Province, but which, while pro tecting the employer against personal injury claims and ensuring the employee an enlarged and better measure of compensation, will in their common interest exercise a "constant and direct force tending to improved per sonal relations between employers and their employees, and to the creation of better working conditions and the reduction of the opportunities lor accident." With respect to accident prevention the committee reported: "Another matter to which the committee devoted considerable attention, and one which we think should be given a very prominent jflace as an es sential element in an adequate compensation system is that of making provision for the 116 1955 Xational Safety Congress bringing about oi conditions ivhich tend to the reduction of industrial accidents. Laws which provide for the taxing of industry to furnish compensation for the victims oi industrial accidents, irrespective of fault, are commendable and desirable, but laws which will prevent the happening of such accidents are of more ratal importance. In dealing with this subject every consideration should be given to the fostering of condi tions which will prevent or minimize the evils which give rise to the necessity for compensation." On industrial diseases, the committee re ported: "The provisions of the Bill relating to industrial diseases adopt the principle of considering such diseases for the purpose of compensation as the equivalent of personal injury by accident. ... It would appear necessary, in the interests of the workman as well as employers, that the duty should be imposed on the Board of seeing that no workman is retained in any such employ ment a sufficient length of time for him to become a chronic sufferer from the disease." Hie report ended as follows: "In con cluding this Report, we have only to add that, with the passing of such an Act as here outlined covering adequate medical-aid and accident-prevention features, with a sys tem of insurance entirely exclusive of the expensive and wholly unnecessary competi tion of casualty insurance companies, with a competent Board composed of members holding office for a considerable term of years and thus freed from immediate polit ical influence, and with a fair degree of cooperation on the part of both employers and workmen, the success of the proposed system is, in our opinion, assured in such a way that it will undoubtedly develop to be a strong contributing element in the. upbuild ing of the industrial life of the Province." The humane views and constructive ideas expressed by this committee were reflected in the provisions of the Act and have shaped the policy of the Compensation Board ever since. The principles adopted have not only lent weight to our efforts but have imposed challenging demands to take positive and forceful action against any condition that constitutes a threat to work men. The System The Act gives authorized persons the right to enter into the establishment of any employer to ascertain whether all proper precautions are taken for the prevention o: accidents to workmen and to determine what suitable devices or requirements shall be adopted or followed. The Board may order the installation or adoption of safety devices and appliances and mpy fix a reasonable time within which they shall be installed or adopted. Immediately after each visit, the author ized person shall cause to be posted in a conspicuous place a statement showing the portion of the premises inspected and the condition found to prevail therein. Such visits include the investigation of accidents, circumstances of which indicate the need for corrective action. The Act provides for the making of regu lations of either general or special applica tion but requires that before such regulationare adopted a public hearing shall be held for the purpose of considering same. Accident Prevention Regulations and First Aid Service Requirements were first adopted in 1918 and have been revised periodically to keep them in line with changing conditions. Provision is also made in the Act for pub lishing and distributing bulletins on any phase of the subject of accident prevention and to cause lectures to be delivered to em ployers, employees and the general public about first aid, the causes and prevention oi industrial accidents and industrial diseases and related subjects. Employers are re quired to maintain such first aid appliances and services as the Board may direct, and, when the employer fails to comply, the Board may install such appliances and serv ice and charge the cost to the employer. The Board was also given broad powers of enforcement. When an employer fails, neglects or re fuses to install devices ordered by the Board or required by-regulation or where, in the opinion of the Board, conditions of imme diate danger exist which would be likely to result in loss of life or serious injury to workmen, the Board may order the em ployer to forthwith dose down the whole or any part of the establishment Where any particular plant is shown to be so circumstanced or conducted that the acci dent cost or hazard differs from the average of his dass, the Board can confer or im pose a spedal rate, differential or assess- ther all proper .e pr\-ention o: d<] jsine what shall be oard may order safety devices x a reasonable be installed cr sit, the authorbe posted in a it showing the pected and the erein. ivestigation of which indicate faking of reguspedal applicauch regulation^ shall be held g same. tions and First re first adopted periodically to ing conditions, e Act for publetins on am ent prevention livered to emgeneral public prevention of stri?1 diseases >y<_ We reaid appliances iv direct, and, comply, the ices and serv: employer, broad powers fleets or reby the Board where, in the Mis of inunei be likely to >us injury to der the emm the whole nt > shown to be that the acdi the average mfer or mi ll or assess Industrial Safety 117 ment upon that plant to correspond with the relative cost or hazard. Where an accident causing injury to a workman was due entirely to the gross neg ligence of the employer or to his failure to adopt reasonable means for the prevention of accidents or to comply with the directions of the Board or with the regulations, the Board may levy and collect from the em ployer the amount of compensation payable, in respect of the injury and not exceeding in any case 300 dollars. Where the injury is attributable to the serious or wilful misconduct of the work man, no compensation shall be payable un less the injury' results in death or serious or permanent disability. Every person who contravenes any regula tion is liable to a penalty not exceeding 300 dollars, recoverable voider the "Summary Convictions Act" or by an action in any court of competent jurisdiction. The Organization When the Compensation Act became ef fective, on January 1, 1917, there were al ready in effect, acts governing safety in coal mines and metalliferous mines--safety with respect to boilers and pressure vessels, electrical wiring and equipment, provincial railway operation, prevention of fires, under the Fire Marshalls Act, and the Factories Act. which covered elevators and safety, health and welfare in factories. In addition there were Federal laws covering explosives, shipping and interprovindal transportation. The inspectors appointed under the vari ous provincial acts were authorized to per form the duties of inspectors under the Compensation Act. The territory' was new and undeveloped. One hundred years before 1917, the Hudson Bay trading posts had been practically the only establishments in the area. The terri tory was made a Crown Colony in 1858 and joined the Confederacy as a Province in 1871. Communication by railway to the test ou the country did not come until 1885. The assessable payrolls for 1917 amounted to 78 million dollars and total assessments 939,000 dollars. There were 5,483 tune loss cases and 124 fatal accidents, 63 of winch were in mines, 34 of them in one mine ex plosion. Logging had 43 fatalities and saw mills 18. In 1954, assessable payrolls amounted to $1,200,000,000, or 15 times greater than in 1917. As a matter of fact, payrolls were three times greater in 1954 than they were in 1945. There were 23,483 time loss cases in 1954 and 251 fatalities. Dependence on the inspectors of other departments proved helpful but not too ef fective in reducing accidents. One of the commissioners took a very active interest in the guarding of power transmission equip ment and similar hazards of the day. In 1932, a logging inspector was employed. This was followed by the appointment of additional inspectors, until today we have 22 safety inspectors, one industrial hygienist, four men concerned with the silicosis prob lems, three first aid inspectors, an artist and 15 office employees. All inspectors are chosen first for their knowledge and experience for the particular industry in which they are to be engaged, and secondly for their ability to earn the respect and confidence of both labor and management. For more effective coverage, for closer contact with industry and for more eco nomical operations, inspectors are located at seven different points about the province. Three field offices are maintained at con venient points. The safety department has the whole hearted support of all other departments, so that detailed statistical information is al ways available regarding accident'occurrence and the experience of a firm or of an entire industry'With such a strong and broad foundation of authority coupled with responsibility, with the imposing of police powers and educational duties, with an organized system of plant inspection and accident investigation and the `means to have unsafe conditions corrected, with, records to show the nature and circumstances of accident occurrence, regulations to provide a guide for safe op eration, means to secure employer coopera tion, methods for gaining the participation of labor and devices to arouse interest and enthusiasm, we have the structure and ma chinery to cany out an effective safety program. The Problem It is necessary to have a mental picture of our province in order to understand some of our difficulties in carrying out the program. IIS 1955 Xational Safety Congress The province is 366,255 square miles in area, roughly 400 miles east and west and 800 miles north and south. It is equivalent to the area of California, Oregon, Washing ton and part of Idaho. The 700 miles of coast line has 7,000 miles of shore line, exclusive of hundreds of islands. Vancouver Island extends like a giant breakwater nearly 300 miles north from below the 49th parallel, while the Queen Charlotte Islands, a little farther north and west form another barrier to the ocean. The inland sea, sheltered behind these islands, is an important factor in our econ omy, for communication along the coast is only bv boat and plane. The eastern boundary of the province is the Great Divide formed by the crest of the Rockies. The Coast range rises from the sea along the mainland coast The area between these two ranges is a plateau and more mountains. The extremes of topog raphy lead to extremes of temperature which vary from the mildness of the Mediterra nean to the coldness of the polar regions. Only three per cent of the land is arable but 38 per cent is rich forest land. The balance is mountains, lakes and rivers. The mountains are valuable for their mineral deposits, and the lakes and rivers are the source of the tremendous hydro-electric power to which our industrial development is partly due, and which has helped to give us the highest standard of living in Canada. The size and nature of the province makes transportation a problem of some signifi cance. While we have 6,000 miles of rail road and 25,000 miles of roads, many indus tries are reached only by water and to others the airplane is the most convenient means of travelling. While lumbering, mining and fishing are the basic industries, the province ranks third in Canada in value of manufactured prod ucts. The smelter of Trail is said to be the world's largest producer of lead and zinc and the world's largest cold storage fish plant is located in Prince Rupert. But, on the whole, the industries in Brit ish Columbia are small in size and hazard ous in nature, thus making accident preven tion both important and difficult. Program Our program has been built around an inspection service, and we are absolutely convinced that such a service is essential to a government safety program. Only a small percentage of operators require the full weight of authority to force them into re luctant compliance. The majority of em ployers are cooperative, but need to be informed of unsafe conditions and often require some gentle nudging to get them moving. Even those operations whidi are sincerely interested in safety and are well organized and doing all in their power to prevent acci dents, welcome and appreciate the guidance and encouragement of an inspector. We have always provided a line of official placards giving notices, warnings and rules regarding faulty conditions or unsafe be havior. One of the earliest educational efforts of the Board was the regular mailing of circu lars to employers, giving factual information on accident causes and methods of preven tion. A monthly analysis of accidents in the various branches of the lumbering in dustry- is in such demand that when we attempted to discontinue it as being of little interest we received strong requests for its continuance. We recently purchased a four-wheel drive one-half-ton panel truck equipped with a power winch, for travelling to lumber camps and oil drilling operations in the north coun try- We also provided for our inspector a sleeping bag and air mattress because habi tations are few and far between in that area. There are only 1,080,000 people in our province, 65 per cent of whom live in the south west comer. The population of Van couver accounts for over halt of the total population. Another popular line of literature is sketches and drawings of items such as scaffolds, ladders, strengths of structures and rigging and similar items of what could be called an engineering nature. Various booklets and pamphlets have been issued since the inception of the Board and besides regulations, include information for workmen and for employers and recom mended safe practices concerning specific hazards, of operations or entire industries. Several such pamphlets are now being pre- ap*1 fishing are mi janks third luiavtured prodis said to be the t lead and zinc >ld storage fish upert. dustries in Brit,ize and hazardaccident prevenficult. built around an are absolutely :e is essential to n. Only a small equire the full e them into retajority of ecn.jpt need to be ions and often ig to get them ch are sincerely well organized to prevent acciite the guidance spector. a line of official nings and rules or unsafe be- ). . soTnu efforts ot railing of circutual information tods of prevenof accidents in : lumbering inthat when we s bong of little requests for its f literature is items such as of structures s of what could ure. >hlets bare been the Board and information for rs and reeomrerning specific itire industries, now being pre Industrial Safety 119 pared. Recently we published the first issue of a new effort entitled "Gleanings," which contains ideas, devices and similar items that can help make equipment safer or programs more effective. Two types of posters are issued, one of the two- and three-color lithographed type in two sizes, of inspirational or educational nature The other type we reproduce on our own multilith machine These might be on any phase of safety from illustrations of accidents to items of public safety. Some times they are black and white and some times two-color on white paper, or black on colored paper. Members of the staff participate in all types of conventions and are in demand as speakers for safety committees, company campaigns, schools and service clubs. Moving picture projectors and film li braries are located in each field office; We feel that the effectiveness of this service and the broad use made of the equipment make it a "must" for a government safety pro gram. Safety graphs are used by the inspectors on suitable occasions and are available to industry from our office. We take a very active part in organiza tions and programs dealing with traffic safety. On November 1 we are starting a six months' traffic safety campaign in coopera tion with the Automotive Transport Associ ation, Teamsters Union, Taxicab Owners Association and similar groups . Frequency Records and Awards The Board maintains accident frequency records for all the branches of the lumber industry and keeps firms informed of their standing. Annual awards are presented each year by nature of industry and size of oper ations. Whenever the occasions warrant, we make awards to any type of industry' or present trophies for competition. Keeping a score sheet undoubtedly has a very' definite influence in improving performance. Blasters In the last revision of the Accident Pre vention Regulations in 1950 we included a provision for the examination and certifica tion of blasters in industries other than mining. We felt this move necessary be cause of the widespread use of explosives. with attending hazards, and because em ployers were not always in a position to determine a blaster's qualifications, or were not informed enough to train one in the safe and proper procedure. We are satis fied that the results have justified this step, and employers and blasters appear happy about our action. First Aid The pattern of development of First Aid* services in British Columbia has been some what unique because of the hazardous nature of our industries, the isolation and remote ness of the operations and the difficulties of transportation. In the beginning we depended entirely on the training services of the established St. John's Ambulance Association, but experi ence indicated that a more intensive training was necessary to meet the serious problems confronted by our First-Aid attendants. While St. John's Ambulance instructors still do some of the training, other organi zations are active. Training has to meet Board specifications and examinations are trader Board supervision. Training consists of 25 two-hour sessions of both theory and practice. Four grades of certificates are issued, renewable in from one to four years. There are at present about 3,000 certified men and women in the field, and they are doing a marvelous job both in preventing accidents and in treating injuries. The use of professional First Aid attend ants is not intended to prevent the tride spread training of workmen in basic First Aid and the Board participates in and en courages the training of as many people as possible, the general public as well as work men. The Board also supports First Aid competitions as a means of fostering inter est in this training. In 1953, a further, development took place when the Board conducted an experimental course in oxygen therapy for 'First Aid attendants. This knowledge proved so successful in saving lives and lessening the effects of shock that after January 1, 1956, all First Aid rooms in hazardous industries will be required to have oxygen therapy equipment and an attendant qualified to use the equip ment. The Board is carrying out the neces sary training of these men. 120 1955 National Safety Congress Accomplishments From die foregoing it can be seen that our program has followed standard practice in the accident prevention field, but results do not come from organization and system alone. Accomplishment is most definitely in proportion to effort. Our entire staff is ded icated to its task of preventing accidents and each member gives generously of his time and energy. Our statistics indicate that there has been a dedining frequency rate throughout all types of industry since 1946, and that in spite of increased benefits and higher cost of medical services there has been a general trend to lower assessment rates. However, dte real measure of success does not show immediately in the statistics but is revealed by the increased activities in industrial safety and a much higher level of both interest in and understanding of accident prevention philosophy. It should be pointed out that our Act is compulsory and monopolistic, without any numerical exemptions and covering all types of work but domestic and farm labor, with the latter covered under optional protection. Benefits are liberal and medical attention is unlimited. The worker gets compensation of 75 per cent of $4,000. free of income tax. A claim can amount to $75,000. Maybe this makes accident prevention an economic necessity. A great deal of the success in reducing accidents in our province is due to the in creased activities of an increasing number of employers, the greater interest being taken by employers' associations and the greater awareness by organized labor of the importance to labor of the need for an active and constructive participation in the* safety program. I think, too, that the interest the public is showing in all phases of safety is reacting beneficially on the industrial safety move ment I have given you some of the things we have done in British Columbia.. The future to us is a constantly enlarging workforce with more and different problems, but we haveateam that is-alert and eager, and I am confident that we will be digging up newer and more effective plans to hold up our end in the program against accidents. I would like to express to the National Safety Council oar appreciation and my personal gratitude for the service bring rendered in the field of safety. Their efforts are applying a constant force to guide so ciety into more sensible and ethical ways of behavior. MO- Maybe this i / \ economic ess in reducing due to the inreasing number interest being ations and the Jed labor o the * need for an idpation in the- st tbe public is ;ety is reacting safety move- tlie things we ia. .The future tag workforce Mens, but we I eager, and I >e digging up ns to hold up inst accidents, the National tion and mv service being Their efiForts to guide sohical ways of 121 Safety Training -- Down the Line Green Hands--What Training Should Be Given to New Employees? By WILLIAM E. STUFFING Safety Dir., Carrier Corp., Syracuse, N. Y. First of all, I would like to substitute the term "Education" for "Training" in the title of my talk today. I agree with several people in the field that the term "education" is the over-all process of conveying and re ceiving knowledge, while "training" is a more restrictive process whereby "instruc tions" are crystallized or converted Into manual skills. New employees should re ceive the benefits of over-all safety educa tion. as opposed to the more restrictive term, "training." In thinking about the benefits of safety education, the thought occurred to me that many of the 14,000 men and women killed and 1,850,000 injured last year in industrial accidents would still be hale and hearty today if they had been subjected to some form of industrial safety education, or if greater emphasis had been placed on the safety education they received. I don't think there is a single one in the audience who will disagree with me that some form of safety education would have prevented many of the industrial accidents which occurred last year. I'm sure, how ever, that I could expect violent disagree ment if I were to predict the number or percentage of disabling injuries which could have been prevented, bad the victims beenexposed to the proper amount and type ot safety education. Unfortunately, there is no one "magic formula" by which we can crank out such an answer. " Perhaps the first opportunity a company has to educate an applicant in safety is the employment interview. After the applicant' has filled out the company's application blank and sits down with the employment interviewer, safety education should start A good interviewer will be conversant with the machinery, processes and hazards in each shop and department He, therefore, is in an enviable position to determine tbe applicant's abilities and safe attitudes. The skilled interviewer will eliminate many undesirable applicants at this time. He also can match tbe applicant's mental and physical capabilities against the^arious job requirements, to place him in the job which he can perform most safely. Additionally, tbe interviewer can emphasize the com pany's attitude towards safety. The physical examination is the next or der of business for the applicant The in dustrial physician or nurse can add their recommendation as to the fitness of the applicant for the job chosen for him. If, in the opinion of the doctor or nurse, the ap plicant is not mentally or physically fitted for the job assigned by the employment interviewer, a recommendation should he made by the doctor to reassign the applicant to a department where the working condi tions are less hazardous, or where the phys ical requirements are of less importance, with full recognition regarding the safety of the applicant At this point the physician or nurse can do a fundamental safety edu cation job by explaining to tbe employee his limitations and the sate way be can cope with the job. The next step in safety education is the induction process. More" good pr bad can be done towards shaping the new employee's work habits or attitudes at this point than dnring any other phase of the educational process. First of all, the safety education part of the induction program must be dynamic It must be frequently reviewed 'to make very sure that all the material is current and that the most important points are present 122 1955 National Safety Congress Although the safety engineer is best qual sit down with the person who is going to ified to prepare the safety education section present our program and "sell" him on the of the induction program, too many times importance of our program. Usually the in the safety portion of the induction program duction class is handled by a member of falls fiat One of the main reasons that the personnel department, so his natural in programs fail is that the safety engineer clinations would be to emphasize the person has lost contact -with his fellow employees nel programs of the company. and the new employee. There are, of course, a variety of ways A program, to be effective, must be de that we can sell the instructor on the value signed and placed into operation - with the of our program. I won't attempt to enu employee constantly in mind. Your pres entation will definitely improve if you con sult him. You can flip a coin in the air 100 times, and the coin will give you the right answer at least half the time. A broken watch or clock will be right twice a day. When we ask the advice o.f others, we immediately accomplish two separate and merate them; it would take too much time. I do think that our own selling job will depend upon the particular circumstances in our plant, as well as the personality of the instructor and ourselves. One thing is basic though, we'll never sell the instructor on the value of the safety program unless we are thoroughly sold ourselves. distinct things-- The selling of safety is one of the most First, we increase our knowledge, re gardless of past experience, and Second, we automatically gain their sup port of the safety program. When we seek the advice of others, they imme diately feel that they are an integral part of the safety program. Naturally, the safety education portion of the induction process must be tailored to fit our own company and operating conditions. The program which has produced outstand ing results in one company may fail miser ably in. ours. It should not be complex, nor should it be too technical. It must be sim ple and have sincerity woven into its every phase. Any safety induction program designed in a half-hearted manner, or in which the em ployee detects a "tongue-in-cheek" or "talk ing down" attitude will be an absolute waste of time important, and one of the most difficult jobs to da It is comparatively easy to sell a product, because the company's prospects and customers have a need for products. But when we sell safety, we find continued sales resistance. That is why anyone who is educating others on safety principles must be, primar ily. a salesman. It's our responsibility to talk to our employee customers in the same way as the men in our sales department talk to the company's customers; and certainly it is up to us to know how to handle our safety education, so that every employee knows absolutely what he gets and how he benefits by working safely. A salesman friend of mine once told me that a good salesman never tells his prospect just what he wants him to do. Instead, he tells the prospect just what he will get by doing certain things. When the prospect realizes how he is going to benefit, he will Remember, too, in designing our program want to do the things the salesman tells we must compete with subjects which ini him to do. tially are of more interest to the new em Most successful safety engineers have dis ployee than safety. Subjects like pay-rates, covered this technique. But all of us fail pay-dates, procedure for obtaining pay, pro to keep the other fellow's viewpoint con motions, grievances, lunches, vacation plan, stantly in mind. The reason for this is that pension plan, hospitalization benefits, and so we are so dose to this matter of safety, we forth, are all going to be competing against realize its importance. the safety presentation. For this reason, the safety presentation must be "top-drawer." I don't need to tell you that a great deal of inspiration, plus a lot of perspiration, will be needed to get our message across. I realize that it is difficult to maintain the employees' viewpoint, but if we want to do a thorough educational job, we must make each man and woman feel that we are talk ing directly to him, and, in all situations Now that we've planned our safety indue- . show him exactly how he benefits by fol tion program, we, as safety engineers, must lowing safety polities and procedures. rho is going to ell" .him on the U |y the in i'- --ember oi his natural in' size the person- ariety of ways tr on the value ttempt to enutoo much time, tiling job will rcuinstances in sonality of the >. thing is basic instructor on am unless we e of the most t difficult jobs asy to sell a tv's prospects for products, find continued is educating st be, primarponsibility to s in the same partment talk and certainly 0 handle our ary employee ; ar ' ljow he once told me ; his prospect . Instead, he ; will get by the prospect Befit, he will desman tells ers have dis1 of us fail rwpoint con i' this is that >f safety, we maintain the -want to do must make we are talk11 situations tfits by foliures. Industrial Safety 123 Points to be covered in die induction pro lected to watch over him. If the department gram will vary according to such things as has a job trainer, the job trainer will see size of the plant, geographical location, type that he learns to do his job in a safe manner. of industry, and so forth. In some cases where the type of work Perhaps I should list some points that warrants, vestibule schools are set up to should be considered for inclusion in the teach the new man orwoman the skills nec safety induction program. I think that any essary before he or she is allowed to work at or all of the following might very well fit the normal operating speed. Vestibule schools into the programs of most companies: are those in which space has been set aside 1. Showing of sound or silent safety films. 2. Issuance of safety rule books and other important safety information. for educational and training purposes. Ac tual working conditions are duplicated as closely as possible and the new employee learns at a rate of speed comparable with 3. The use and care of existing safety his ability. When he reaches the degree of guards and material could be described. skill which is required in actual operations, 4. Stressing the necessity for reporting he is transferred to his permanent job. even minor injuries. Certainly, one of the primary duties of 5. Description of typical plant hazards and some previous accidents. 6. Stressing the need for each employee to carry out the entire safety program. 7. The concern of the company in having the new employee learn how to do his job the right way. S. Demonstrating the practice of dear thinking under any circumstance. 9. Pointing out that the forming of good working habits, which are just as easy to form as bad habits, and once formed are just. as hard to break, is a correct approach to working safely. the shop or department safety committee men is to keep a dose watch on the new employee and see that he has all the safety equipment he needs, is using it and perform ing his job in a safe manner. Another form of safety education for new employees is performed by many companies. After the employee is firmly established in his job, a member of the safety staff drops by to check on the employee. In many in stances the safety engineer or inspector can dear up some safety problem or policy that lias been troubling the employee. Even if no service for the employee is performed, he is made aware of the company's attitude After the induction program, the new em towards safety and their interest in his ployee should be escorted to the safety welfare. store, where he should be fitted with safety, Another form of employee education is shoes, safety glasses, gloves, protective the five-minute safety talk. Usually, at the clothing or any other protective equipment beginning of a shift, the foreman will call needed for his job. This procedure gives his men together fo.r a short safety talk. the safety department another opportunity Experience has shown' that these talks do in which to convince the employee of the much to keep safe practices fresh in the need for personal protective equipment and minds of the employees. the proper manner in which to use it and Apprenticeship is an almost ideal method care for it. of safety education for new employees. The After being fitted out with the equipment apprentice realizes that he is in a training needed to protect himself from injury, the program and is very receptive to sugges new employee meets his immediate super tions, thus making it much less difficult to visor. In the department where the em teach him the safe and effident way to do ployee is to work the supervisor points out his job. the specific hazards to be encountered and does a short intensive job demonstration to be sure the employee is aware of these hazards. In order for this type of training to be effective, however, the jobs must have been analyzed, hazards known and dearly indi cated so that the boys in learning the proper If the new employee is inexperienced at sequence will also learn to avoid the hazards. his new job or has not performed the job The training of a boy by turning him for some time, sometimes a "buddy" is se over to an "old timer" is not enough. This 124 1955 National Safety Congress method could easily result in the apprentice learning the bad habits of the older em ployee. Naturally, new employees who are se lected for jobs in which they can do severe damage to themselves and others through their own mishaps should receive special ized training. Fm talking now about em ployees who have been selected for jobs as crane operators, industrial truck operators, motor vehicle operators, work-saver opera tors, elevator operators, etc. The specialized training for these men should indude all the safety rules and regu lations that have to do with their particular job. Before these men are allowed to per form their jobs as regular employees, they should be tested and satisfactorily pass a proficiency and safety rule test In conclusion, I would like to review some of the types of safety.-education that a new employee could or should be sub jected to. There are many types I have not covered, but if the majority of methods I have discussed are utilized, the new em ployee will become a much safer employee. Briefly, I mentioned the following methods of safety education. 1. Employment interview. 2. Review of physical conditions at time of physical examination by examining physician or nurse. . 3. The induction process. 4. Visit to safety store. 5. Interview with new employee's imme diate supervisor. 6. Buddy system. .7. Vestibule schools. 8. Instruction by sbop or department safety committeemen. 9. Contacts by members of safety staff. 10. Five-minute safety talks. 11. Apprentice training. 12. Specialized safety training for new em ployees selected for extra hazardous jobs. Finally, I urge you to inject enthusiasm into any and all of your safety education endeavors. All of you will agree with me that A1 Jolson really did not possess a great voice. If he didn't have a great voice, what made him the great singing success he was? In my humble opinion, it was the "enthu siasm" that he projected into his singing. His enthusiasm really sold his song and at the same time,' himself. ` By the same token, enthusiasm will help us sell our safety story to the new em ployee, to all other employees, supervision, and general management Enthusiasm is the mightiest asset in the world! It shatters gloom, laughs at rebuffs and conquers the unconquerable. Supervision Needs Special Training in Job Safety Instruction Methods By JOHN D. GALLAGHER Senior Consulting Eng., Industrial Department, National Safety Council As a means of preventing accidents, many organizations have set up safety programs which include, among other things: 1. Safety indoctrination of employees; 2. Safety contests; 3. Employee safety meetings; 4. Safety articles in the house organ; 5. And other projects of that land. Each of these, of course, when construc tively carried out, makes its own contribu tion to the effectiveness of the over-all safety effort. However, experience also shows that em ployees can be talked to, or talked at, and can read pages of printed matter, and yet fail to apply the safety message to the de tails of their own individual jobs. When educational efforts are applied to groups of employees, it is oftentimes hard to be spe cific enough about the safety problems of individual jobs to teach a man (1) what ) in bis imme- >r department if safety staff. ing for new emextra hazardous nject enthnsiasn] safety education I agree with me >t possess a great treat voice, what success he was? was the "enthunto his singing, his song and at nsiasm will help o the new emees, supervision, hthusiasm is the rid! It shatters ad conquers the f '"\ t m Council af the over-ali shows that emr talked at; and matter, and yet >sage to the de al jobs. When :d to groups of hard to be spety problems of man (1) what Industrial Safety 125 things to avoid, (2) how to avoid them, and (3) how to do his particular job safdy. There are inherent accident hazards in volved in the performance of a great many industrial jobs. Unless the man working on one of these jobs recognizes the existence of these hazards, and understands and fol lows the specific safe- work practices that will helphim to avoid them, he is very apt to become an accident casualty. When a new employee takes up his work, it should be under the supervision of a man who believes in safety, who practices it, and who can lead other men; because it is from this man that the new employee must learn the specific job application of the general safety principles that have been taught to him during indoctrination; This is often the point where the system of safety instruction fails, because the supervisor has probably been advanced to his present job on qualifications other than his ability to teach safety. He may believe thoroughly in safety himself, and practice it, and still not be effective in instilling his own knowledge and interest into other people. All skills and work habits must be learned, and so all the thoughts and the skills which we want a man to have about his job must be taught to him. Many plants never check into the supervisor's job in struction technique, to'determine its charac ter or even whether it exists; and, as a re sult, the employee is often instructed in a very haphazard way, if he is at all. In many cases a new man's statements about his own ability and experience are taken pretty much at their face value, and he is simply' "tried out"; that is, he is put on the job and left to prove whether he can stay out of trouble or not. For example, in one plant an elderly man was hired on the strength of his own state ment that he had been a woodworker all his life. Without any particular instruction or supervision, in this case, the foreman fried this man out by letting him operate a drcular saw.* Within a few hours, the man cut four fingers and his thumb off Of one hand, at a cost to the company of some thousands of dollars, which would, of course; have paid for a lot of job safety instruction. The best logical insurance for preventing any man from becoming an accident casu alty is to give him job safety instruction. with supervisory follow-up; so that he anil know just what his specific job hazards are, and will understand the specific safe work practices that will help him avoid these hazards. Since the supervisor's responsibilities re quire him to be familiar with the opera tions, processes, equipment, materials and people under his supervision, he should also be reasonably familiar with the various job hazards and accident exposures that they might involve. The supervisor, of course, has long been recognized as bring respon sible for giving proper attention on the job to (1) maintaining a safe work environ ment, (2) educating his workers in safe job habits, and (3) enforcing Ms men's day-today safe work practices. Specific safety educational work, there fore; is really, and primarily, a responsi bility for supervisors, who, because of their authority and also their close drily contact with employees, are in a pretty good posi tion to translate safety generalities into the everyday safe-practice procedures that ap ply to specific tasks, machines, tools, proc esses and so on. So the supervisor is logi cally the one who should give job safety instruction. Of course, that presumes, in turn, that the supervisor is well qualified to give this kind of instruction to his men. As safety men, we ought to be objective in consider ing whether the average supervisor is well qualified to give effective job safety instruc tion, unless he has some special training to help him do this. A great many supervisors have grown the hard way, which is up from the ranks. This means that the supervisor must acquire his knowledge and skill of supervisory techtuques, either by picking them up as he goes along, through th- "cut and try" method; or, preferably, that his supervisory skill and knowledge must be given to him in a com plete, well-organized form by special train ing. A few years ago one large industrial or ganization, in a survey of its superintendents and foremen, found that 39 per cent of the supervisors listed "How to instruct" among the top three topics they felt should be in cluded in their supervisory training pro gram. There were undoubtedly a good many additional supervisors in that same organ:za- 126 1955 National Safety Congress don who were in equal need of training in "How to instruct," but simply failed to recognize their own need for it; so that the 39 per cent figure would actually be rather substantially higher if it was based on the actual need for this training among the supervisors. It is just not reasonable for us to expect that the average super visor is going to use an effective method of job safety instruction unless he is given some training in how to do this effectively. The need for training of supervisors in safety was recognized during World War IT and was met then by providing nation wide training courses in what was called "JIT," or Job Instruction Training. Also, at that time, the Ordnance Department pro vided a special job safety training course for supervisors in its own plants; and this course was one which would be equally applicable in any normal industrial opera tion. More than a-million-supervisors-were trained in "JIT," and it is generally recog nized in the training field that both these courses did a tremendously effective job of improving war production efficiency, and also of preventing accidents. be prevented through the right land of job safety instruction: a. By getting workers to know the haz ards of each job operation; b. By instructing them in safe job meth ods; and also c. By making sure that they do folfow their job safety instructions. It was estimated then that if every worker knew his job thoroughly, and did his work to the best of his ability*, about 80 per cent of the supervisor's problems would either be eliminated or at least greatly minimized, including the problem of acridents. So that on that basis, getting each man to do each job safely as well as correctly, when multi plied by all of the men in a plant, would certainly seem to represent a great deal of the answer to getting out safe production. What does a supervisor need to know in order to give effective job safety instruc tion ?; Well, it is generally recognized that he must have some understanding of the training process, and also some knowledge of effective training methods, in order to be a good instructor. I would like to say something about the details of these courses; because if we think a little bit about the techniques necessary for getting good results through job safety instruction. I fed that it should be fairly apparent that the average supervisor jast cannot be expected to use these special tech niques unless he has some training to help him understand and use them effectively. The "JIT" and Ordnance courses were both based upon the recognition: The basis of the Ordnance course was JIT. Therefore, let's take a quick look at JIT first, and later we can consider the strong emphasis on safety that was added in order to create the Ordnance Job Safety Instruction course; because the techniques involved in both of these courses do lave an important bearing on our subject. The JIT method consists primarily of two parts: 1. Planning the instruction; and 1. That safety is vital to efficient produc tion; 2. That workers who are not wdl trained in safe and effident job methods are apt to make mistakes, and that these mis takes, in turn result in:. a. Acridents; b. Scrap and rework; c. Damage to equipment; d. Production ddays; e. And other warts on the wheels of progress; 3. And also upon the recognition that approximately SO per cent of all accidents result, at least to some extent, from human failures, and that these can largely 2. Presenting the instruction to the worker. Let's briefly consider planning the in struction first. Assuming that the one best method of performing any specific job has already been established through job studies, the princi pal feature in planning the job instruction is to make a breakdown of the job, which can then be used as an instruction guide by the supervisor whenever a man is given in struction in that job. Making a breakdown enables the supervisor to determine in ad vance just what he is going to tell the learner about the job so that the man will learn it correctly and do it safely. Malting a breakdown is not a complicated process and ought not to take the experienced e right kind of 1| } the hazafk..;' i safe job meth- they do follow ictions. if every worker d did his work out 80 per cent s would either atly minimized, idents. So that nan to do each Iv, when multi* a plant, would i great deal of afe production, ted to know in safety instrucrecognized that landing of the >me knowledge is, in order to ce course was quick lode at i consider the hat was added nee Job Safety the techniques ror' '.do have sir /t primarily of and to the worker, ruling the in- sst method of is already been es, the princiiob instruction the job, which ction guide by ut is given in; a breakdown :ermine in adg to tell the the man will ifely. Making icated process e experienced Industrial Safety 127 supervisor more than about five or ten minutes to do. A good breakdown is really essential for good job instruction. For example, the new man on the job has to pay attention to such things as what to do with his hands, where to look with his eyes, what part of the operation to do first, how hard to push on a lever, what safety instructions to take on each step of the operation, and so on. A lot of poor instruction, which results in accidents and other production inefficien cies. is really the result of the instructor failing to organize all the important points of the job clearly in his own mind, before he actually gives the instruction. As a re sult. then, he overlooks mentioning certain of the safety features, or other important points about the job, and also, he tends oftentimes to jump around from one point to another during the instruction^-in_such a way that he confuses the learner, rather than helping the man to learn the job quickly, safely and properly. In analyzing a job for instruction pur poses, the supervisor needs somehow to get back to the simple and elementary points of the job, where the learner will have to begin. A good job breakdown will include all of these points, and also it will enable the supervisor to give his instructions dearly, in their proper sequence; and not to overlook any of the safety points when he instructs the man. One common way of making a job break down is to list, in the left-hand column of the breakdown sheet, in their proper se quence, the principal steps the man would normally go through in performing the job. The next step would be to list in the righthand column of the sheet the so-called "key points" important in performing each of these steps safely and properly. With reference to the importance of "key points," I would like to mention the anec dote about `Top" Peters, who went to work on. a railroad when he was 15 years old. He retired after 50 years of service, and the company gave him a banquet, and pre sented him with a gold watch. The presi dent of the company was there to make the presentation, and in his speech he told how, for the last 20 years or more, "Pop" had had the very important job of going around and tapping the wheels on their rolling stock to be sure they were in good, safe condition. Then he said "Pop, I'd like to ask you a question I've always wondered about, be fore I hand you this watch. Just what do you listen for when you tap a wheel?" Well, Pop was one of those ingenuous, simple souls, and he blurted out the truth without stopping to think about it "By golly, Mr. President" he said, "In the last 20 years, many's the time I've wondered about that myself." Well, there was Pop going around every' day tapping all these wheels, and not know ing exactly what it was he was supposed to be listening for; which, of course, in this case was the vital key point of the job, that his job instructor of 20 years or more before, had apparently neglected to get across to him. I mention this only to try to illustrate how important a key point can be; not only from the standpoint of doing the job right, but also as experience shows, equally so from the standpoint of doing the job safely. In making a breakdown for instruction purposes, the job should be carefully ana lyzed for accident hazards, and the safe practices for avoiding these hazards should be built into the breakdown as key points. This is where the Ordnance course goes a step farther than the basic JIT method; it does provide the supervisor with a spe cific guide for analyzing the safety hazards of the job, so that these will all be incor porated into the instruction breakdown as key points, and none of them will be over looked when instruction is actually given. In other words, it insures that job instruc tion becomes job safety instruction. Briefly, this guide in-the Ordnance pro gram gives the supervisor five specific job factors to consider from the safety stand point, in making his instruction breakdown: 1. The work area; 2. Materials handling; 3. Machines; 4. Tools; and 5. Improper clothing. It also breaks each of these down fur ther. For example, with respect to machines, it calls attention to; 1. Pinchpoints; 128 1955 National Safety Congress 2. Projections; In Step Two: Presenting the operation 3. The point of operation; combines: 4. Flying pieces: 5. Power transmission, including a. Line shafts; b. Other shafting. c. Belts, d. Gears, and" so on. a. Explaining, showing and illustrating the details of the job to the learner; b. Cautioning against common errors; c. Calling his attention to safety points he might not notice for himself; and then d. Repeating the job presentation, step-bystep dearly, completely and patientiy, a Planning the instruction along these lines is important for good job safety instruction, and we ought to ask ourselves whether the sufficient number of times so that the learner will understand all of the steps and safety points involved. average supervisor will actually do a thor ough job of analyzing all the safety hazards of the job, and will make an instruction breakdown that covers all of the safe prac tices that should be followed, unless he does have some special training to help him do this. If he fails to do it, all of the safe practices are not going to be taught to each man who learns the job; and the result is that we will have a potential accident-pro ducing situation. In Step Three: Trying out the worker's job performance gives the man an oppor tunity actually to "learn by doing," while the instructor is still with him to correct mistakes and to guide him in establishing safe and proper habits of job performance. In this step, the instructor has the learner explain each key point as he does the job, to be sure that the man really understands just what he has been taught If this step is not carried out in just this way, experi So far we have talked about planning die ence shows that die learner can still lack instruction. Now let's briefly consider pre knowledge of the safety precautions, after senting the job instruction to the worker. die instruction is thought to he completed, The basic, four-step JIT pattern of giv ing job instruction, although it is used with some variations, is now pretty generally ac with the result that we will again have a potential accident-producing situation, if tins Step Three is not carried out properly. cepted as about the most effective method for the supervisor to use in transmitting his knowledge; skills and attitude about die job to the worker. Its steps are: Stef One, prepare the worker; Stef Two, present the instruction to die learner; Step Three, try out the worker's job performance; and Step Four, follow up. In Step Four: The instructor follows up the instruction by watching the learner reg ularly to be sure he does condone to use die safe and proper job methods he has been taught An instruction technique of this land is important for good job safety instruction, and, again, when we consider whether "Su In Step One: The purpose of preparing pervision Needs Special Training in Job the worker is to get his mind focused on Safety Instruction Methods," we ought to what he is going to leant. Tins can usually consider whether the average supervisor be accomplished by: trill actually plan and give the land of job a. Putting him at ease; b. Describing die job to him, and finding out what he may already know* about it; safety instruction I have tried briefly to describe, unless he does have special train ing to help him do this. We could hardly expect him to do this without special train c. Arousing his interest In learning the job; ing, because a special technique is necessary and that he can understand and use effectively d. Putting him in a position where he will only if it is taught to him. see the work from die same angle he The practical question then arises as to will see it from when he actually does what we can do as safety engineers to see the job; so that he will not see the mo to it that supervisors do get this land of tions backwards; which would confuse special training. The answer to this will him in trying to learn die job safdy and naturally vary according to the position and properly. relationships of the safety man within his X ip* operation '() illustrating the learner; on errors; afety points he self; and then tadon, step-byad patiently, a s so that the 11 of the steps L t the worker's nan an oppordoing" while lim to correct in establishing i performance, as the learner does the job, y understands * If this step i way, experican still lade antions, after be completed, again have a nation, if this : properly. >r follows up t learner regitrf ^\to use hdv die has . this bind is r instruction, vhether "Su iting in Job ire ought to : supervisor kind of job d briefly to .pedal trainuld hardly pedal trainis necessary e effectively irises as to leers to see his land of o this will losition and within his Industrial Safety 129 own company organization, and also accord with supervisors, or in supervisory meet ing to the facilities that may be available ings, in many cases he can acquire addi to him. tional personal knowledge regarding the For example, if there is a training de partment in his organization, he can prob ably get them to present job instruction training to his supervisors, and then he can participate in that training himself, at least to the extent of being sure that there is principles of effective job instruction and how to present it to his supervisors, by writing to the extension division of his state university. Many of them have such infor mation available and will provide it upon request. enough emphasis on safety in its presenta Also, there are various films available tion. If there is no training department; the which outline the basic principles of effec safety man wilt either have to do the train tive job instruction, and which can be used, ing job himself, or get someone else in from with discussions, at supervisory meetings the outside to do it for him. for indoctrinating supervisors with these If he needs outside help, he may be able principles for their effective use in giving to make arrangements with his State De job safety instruction. partment of Vocational Education to send For example, there is a sound-slide film a man u.."> the plant to give the training to entitled. Teaching Safety on the Job, which the supervisors. Many of these State de is put out by the National Safety Council. partments will do this upon request Also, there are two sound-slide films avail Another source of outside help would be the Training Within Industry Foundation, which is a non-profit organization located at Summit New Jersey. Arrangements can be made with them to send a man from the plant to attend one of their five-day insti tutes, which are held periodically at various able from United World Films, in New York City. One of .these is an 11-minute film entitled The Job Breakdown, which covers planning the instruction, and the other is a 13-minute film entitled The Four Stefs, which covers presenting the instruc tion to the worker. locations throughout the country'; and upon There is also a 16mm sound movie en his return to the plant this man would then titled Instructing the Worker on the Job, be qualified to train tire plant supervisors in distributed by Castle Films through their job instruction methods. If it is not feasible offices in New York, Chicago and San Fran to send a man to one of these institutes, cisco. There are also other films available arrangements can be made with the Founda from various sources on this subject tion to send one of their trainers to the plant, and be will give this training directly, to in-plant supervisory groups. In actual practice, a good many foremen turn new employes over to their group leaders for job instruction, and therefore If the plant is located in a well-indus .feel there is no real, need for their own trialized area, it may be posable for the training in job instruction techniques. It is safety man to locate some individual in generally frit, however, that foremen should either the training or the safety department have this training, preferably before their of another near-by plant, who is or has been group leaders do. a qualified trainer in JIT. It may be pos able to have this man come into the plant and present the training to In-plant super visory groups. If this is not feasible, the safety man can very likely learn enough from this other individual about the baric principles and effective presentation of job instruction so that he can at least indoc trinate his own supervisors with these prin ciples to the extent that they will be able to give effective job safety instruction. The fact that this training is given to the foreman first usually makes the gronp leaders feel it is important for them to learn and use this technique effectively when they do give job instruction to new or transferred workers. Also, a knowledge of this technique will -enable the foreman himself (1) to see to it that his group leaders and other subordinate supervisors use this training method consistently and effectively, (2) periodically toevaluate the Also, if the safety engineer is going to effectiveness of its use by his subordinates, have to rely upon doing this training job and also (3) to spot-check periodically on himself, possibly through individual contacts just how well his own workers are being 1955 Rational Safety Congress instructed in safe and correct job per formance. Before a supervisory training1 program of this kind might be instituted, the safety man can stimulate the interest of his foremen in taking the training themselves as well as having their group leaders and other sub ordinate supervisors take it I have seen a good many plants, for example, where the safety man, as a result of building up a strong, friendly relationship with each in dividual foreman, has been able to get their real personal cooperation all the way down the line on safety. In a situation like this, the safety man can sit down with an in dividual foreman, and, by demonstrating to him the effectiveness of the four-step in struction method as contrasted with the poor instruction results of merely "telling" or "showing" a man how to do a job, he can oftentimes stimulate the foreman's interest in the instruction technique to the point where he will want to take the training hirasdf. Usually, when the foreman takes this training himself and becomes sold on the value of using an effective method of job safety instruction, he will then follow through to the point of insuring that his supervisors make amtinning and consistent use of effective job safety instruction; so that, instead of bring a spasmodic effort which quickly dies out, the result of the supervisory training program will be the permanent use of effective job safety in struction methods. If a safety engineer is not able to sell his management on group supervisory train ing, he can at least indoctrinate his indi vidual supervisors with the principles of good job safety instruction through indi vidual conversations and demonstrations oi the kind I have just mentioned; also bv the use of films and discussions on job safety instruction in supervisory' meetings; and by helping supervisors to make job break downs, and giving them occasional follow-up help when they do give job safety instruc tion to new or transferred employees. In closing, I would like to repeat two of the points I have tried to bring out during this discussion: 1. If we do not use an effective method of job safety instruction similar to the general methods of the JIT and Ord nance Department programs I have briefly' outlined, we cannot expect to get good safety instruction on the job; and also 2. We cannot expect the average supervisor to use an effective job safety instruction technique unless he does have special training to help him do this, because a special technique is necessary that he can understand and use effectively only if it is taught to him. What Shall We Teach the Safety Engineer of Tomorrow? By W21.LIAM D. RENNER Safety Supvr., Schering Corp., Bloomfield, N. J. The safety profession is no longer an infant It is, however, still growing by leaps and bounds. We can now look back over more titan 40 years of hard-gained experience in organized accident prevention work and count the benefits in impressive terms. It is more important, however, that we look to the future, where the best safety work is yet to be done. We cannot predict all of the problems which will face the accident prevention expert of 1980, but we have a pretty good idea of whr.t some of them will be. We must make our experience available as a guide for tomorrow's men in meeting their problems, just as we today are using the experience and knowledge which has been passed along to us by those who pioneered the movement in 1912 and 1913. The accident prevention field is always changing. When one type of hazard is brought under fairly* good control, such as m will be the j<f p'ety in- tot able to sell pervisory train-inate his indi! principles of through indinonstrations of ed; also by the on job safety etings; and by re job breakional follow-up safety instrucemployees. repeat two of ing out during :ive method of imilar to the 'IT and Ords I have briefly t to get good job; and also age supervisor ety instruction have special its, because a O' that he can rely only If it leer i pretty* good will be. We railable as a .neeting their re using the iich has been .ho pioneered 1 d is always f hazard is trot, such as Industrial Safety 131 machinery guarding, another, such as radia tion, arises. To meet these changing situa tions, we must have trained and qualified men. electricity and the necessary precautions against accidents and injury of an elec trical nature. This information is read In the state of New Jersey, this need has been recognized by state labor department ily obtained from the handbooks and codes on the subject officials and they have requested legislation pertaining to the registration of qualified safety personnel for New Jersey industry. Chemical. The corrosive; toxic and flammable properties of all chemicals and how to safeguard against them. Tomorrow's problems may be complex. They will be best met through the practical application of safety theory. This is our great need, today and tomorrow*. This we must teach. There is no time to sit and dream where safety progress is concerned. Once again, fundamental knowledge of chemistry, plus recourse to handbooks. National Safety Council data sheets, trade publications and so on, will pro vide the necessary information for prac tical application in the field. We've made a start. Let's keep rolling. Let's help the "new man" stay ahead of Ins accident problems, as we like to stay* ahead today. What shall we teach? Fundamentals! Mechanical. A knowledge ol machin ery guarding principles is indispensable to the safety engineer. Also included in this field are the fundamentals of venti lation, which will always be an industrial Basic knowledge is a foundation, a frame work upon whidi the finished structure is problem. The steady advance of auto mation brings new matters of mechan applied through practical experience: It is ical safety to be properly controlled. recommended, therefore, that we teach the following: 1. Basic principles of the individual engi neering sciences. Civil. An idea of construction safety features, such as fire resistive proper ties of materials, floor loads, stresses and strains, adequate access, entry and 2. A concept of the science of the preser vation of industrial health. exit facilities, is important for intelli gent scanning of blueprints. The safety- . 3. Accident costs and how to estimate their true value. 4. Safety philosophy* and safety psychology*. 5. How to educate, how to train in regard to safety*. 6. Pride in the dignity and stature of the. safety profession. 7. How to get along with people--and vice versa! man-to-be must be taught to read plans and to find the answers to his questions in the N.F-P-A, state labor department, American Standards Association, M.C.A. codes and publications. Industrial Engineering. The move ment of materials through all phases of processing creates many safety prob lems. The safety engineer will do well to maintain dose liaison with industrial A brief discussion of each of these points will illustrate their importance in the edu cation of a safety engineer. engineering people, who are constantly devising newer, more efficient and usu ally safer ways to move materials. ' Engineering principles. The safety of any - facility or piece of-equipment has its roots Radiation. Finally, there is the work of the physicist, until all of the prob in the engineer's drafting board. It has often been found that when safety features are incorporated in the original design of facilities and equipment, a large obstacle to accident prevention is removed. To assist in such matters, the safety engineer must be an engineering jack-of-all-trades. His knowl edge of principles must include the following: Electrical. The whys and wherefores, lems of radiation. How* extensive this will be in industry in the future, we cannot say. The control of radiation is prescribed. The safety engineer must master this prescription and apply it daily. There is an ever growing file of literature on the subject, and numerous public agencies are equipped to give answers to radiation problems. and methods of grounding.' The basic phenomena of voltage, current, circuit wiring, transforming and distribution of All of the above sounds like a big order, and so it is. Such a wide knowledge is not easily or quickly gained. By teaching the 132 1955 National Safety Congress young safety man where to find the answer, How to use accident costs is very impor we will do much to further his education tant When shown in their true light; they and equip him in the never-ending fight are a powerful argument for the entire against accidents. - safety movement Knowledge of the right The young safety engineer can be equipped with a degree in any of the above engineer ing science fields, or from an arts or busi ness college, bqt he will soon discover the need for basic knowledge in all of the sci wav to display these costs and make them into an effective tool will help the safety man in his ceaseless battle to apply preven tive controls on the onrushing accident problem. ence fields. Education and Training. We must teach Industrial Health. Although this fidd is a profession in itself, it is dosdy allied with the industrial safety effort In many instances, it is the safety engineer who is called upon to deal with industrial health the safety engineer of tomorrow how to teach. True recognition of the part played in accidents by the human factor has been ours for many years. Here, perhaps, is the biggest part of the safety job. The man problems from a preventive standpoint New who does this job must know how to train, sciences make this aspect of accident pre how to educate. vention extremely important Industrial safety training is an art. It Knowledge is necessary about the forms utilizes tried and successful teaching tech and types of air contaminants, dermatitis niques, the best and most ingenious of vis causatives and preventive measures, the ual aids. It calls for lively imagination and manner in which industrial poisons cap at a repetitive effort The safety engineer tack the human system and the mechanical must realize that his training and education and physiological controls necessary to pro work is like an inoculation, but an inocula tect health against them. tion that is not permanent because here we Safety Philosophy. In the matter of a are dealing with minds of people, which are safety philosophy and psychology', we must always alive. teach the concept of safe individuals, rather than safe workers. We must point out that human actions are dictated from the mind and, therefore, the mind must be directed in its thinking along safe channels. A major part of the safety engineer's education work is directed at supervisors. They must be well grounded in safety prin ciples so that they can do the bulk of the safety education in the field, where it counts Through elementary psychology, such as the most the use of accident experience, and the play upon the various basic drives of a person, we can exercise a safety influence on the average person's mind. Here, too, the use of promofive efforts, advertising techniques and continuous propaganda can get an indi vidual to adopt his own safety psychology'. A sound safety- philosophy will teach that we must realize that we will always have accidents, but we must also constantly -direct our efforts toward the irreducible minimum of such occurrences and the best Roast beef today, beef pie tomorrow and hash on Wednesday. That is safety. The same dish, constantly served, in many forms. Pride in Profession. Let us also teach the coming safety engineer the value of safety work, so that he may have justifiable pride in his profession. Let us hdp him enhance and dignify his stature so that he is always respected for what he is trying to do-- prevent accidents, save lives, alleviate 'Suf fering and protect property. possible control of their consequences. We shall teach him to recognize the re Accident Costs. A true knowledge of accident costs will be very helpful to the young engineer. These costs must be inter preted not only in monetary terms, in chargeable accident statistics and in the lan guage of direct and indirect costs. They wards that come from the knowledge of a safety job well done. If these rewards are not always material in nature, they can certainly many times have a spiritual value that can balance the occasional frustrations of any hard working safety engineer. must also be understood in terms of their How to Get Along. Finally, and of ut effect on productive capacity and of their most importance, we must teach the men effect upon the individual and society. who will follow us the necessity of getting is very importrr'jght, they fc( Je entire je oi the right md make them iielp the safety 3 apply prevenishing accident We must teach arrow how to the part played ractor has been perhaps, is the job. The man r how to train, is an art It teaching techgenious of vismagination and afety engineer : and education Imt an inoculaecause here we 9ple, which are fety engineer's at supervisors, in safety prinhe bulk of the ahere it counts " 'i to_ ,ha<K and s safety. The h many forms. : also teach the aloe of safety nstifiable pride p him enhance it he is always tying to do-- alleviate suf- ognize the renowledge of a ie rewards are ore, they can spiritual value al frustrations engineer. ly, and of uteach the men sity of getting Industrial Safety 133 along with people. A good part of the safety job is getting people to do for yon. Tact; firmness, diplomacy, humor, understanding ... Dale Carnegie stuff perhaps, but indis pensable for this type of work. The entire success of a safety engineer's efforts depend upon bis ability to get people to do things for him, and to do things his way, the safe way. Summary. As we put all of the foregoing thoughts into a final two paragraphs, we reach'again the following conclusion: The major items we are to teach the 1960 safety engineer are the fundamentals of the various engineering sciences, a concept of safety philosophy, how to present accident costs so they help in reducing further costs, how to educate and train and influence the forma tion of safety habits, and how to get along well with people and keep them on the right ride. By this type of teaching; which will be based on the nearly SO years of experience in the field of organized safety, we must create a desire and demand for careers in the safety profession. Then we can be as sured that all of the good work already done in the interest of accident prevention will continue to be fruitful and trill he fur ther cultivated by competent hands. 134 The Human Element in Industrial Accident Prevention The Human Element in Industrial Accident Prevention (Panel Discussion) Discussion Leader: Walter A. Cutter. Ph.D., Assistant Director, Center for Safety Edu cation, Div. of General Education, New York University. Participants: Leon Brody. Ph.D., Director of Research and Publications, Center for Safety Educa tion, New York University. John C Larson, Research Associate, Cen ter for Safety Education. New York Uni versity. . Hugh M. Jackson, Manager. Industrial Health Program, lohns-Manvilie Corp., New York. H. J. Spoerer, Director. Industrial Rela tions, The Youngstown Sheet & Tube'Com pany, Youngstown, Ohio. DR. CUTTER: The subject of this meeting is the same as the title of a book based on research con ducted by the Center for Safety Education of New York University and published this year. The book contains much material not usu ally found in safety papers. Except for inci dental treatment, details of safety engineering procedure have not been reviewed. This was not to minimize the importance of safety engineering but rather to draw more atten tion to behavioral factors. The only constant in the human factor is its variability. In dealing with this human factor, we must take into account not onlybasic human similarities which permit group controls to function but also individual differ ences which make special control measures necessary. There is a segment of opinion which dis counts research, preferring common sense, which really is quite uncommon. It is much better to study a question than merely to hold opinions. Inevitably, some of the material is rather elementary- The book, of course, does not answer all questions ultimately. But nowhere in the whole field of human activity have all questions been answered ultimately. DR. BRODY: The Center for Safety Education has re ceived numerous complimentary remarks concerning its publication. The Human Ele ment in Industrial Accident Prevention. Few letters and reviews, however, have really evaluated the- publication and pointed out omissions or weaknesses in content. The complimentary remarks are welcome, of course, but it would have been helpful to us and to the cause of industrial safety if more specific possibilities for improvement could have been identified. After all, 100 pages cannot tell the whole story of the human element in industrial accident prevention, al though we do feel that the publication tells a great deal. The reviews appeared in periodical, litera ture of management, medicine, psychology and safety. There is not a single critical com ment of specific suggestion. The discussion this morning will provide opportunity to cor rect this situation A'small number of individuals did make specific comments in letters. These included a vice president, a medical director, a director of training, a director of personnel, a director of safety, a public re lations manager and a mechanical engineer, among others. The comments of this small but obviously representative group fell into four categories: 1. Application of findings 2. Labor market considerations 3. Level of writing and 4. Topics omitted. Application of Findings. Most of the re viewers said they wished that ways of ap- -------- r\ revention than merely to ateriai is rather curse, does not ly. But nowhere activity have a!! natelv. lucation has reaitarv remarks he Human Etcrevention. Few er, have really nd pointed out 1 content. The : welcome, of at helpful to us 1 safety if more royement could sl lOO pages ov Jk human . prevention, alpublication tells erjodical literaine, psychologi ze critical comThe discussion ortunity to corlumber of rudi ments in letters, lent, a medical g, a director of ty, a public remical engineer, s of this small group fell into ion of findings ins 3. Level of 1 lost of the reit ways of ap Indus!rial Safety 133 plying the findings had been discussed. The value of such discussion cannot be ques tioned. However, it might have been confus ing to include applications in a volume de voted essentially to research considerations. It may be well to undertake a companion volume for this purpose. Labor Market Considerations. A majority of the reviewers pointed out that a shortage of labor supply often prevented organiza tions from carrying out the research impli cations for hiring procedures, although, in general, they subscribe to these implications. One must agree that selective hiring is limited by the labor market, but only to a certain degree. Much can be accomplished to help offset this limitation by adequate training and by supervision based on the psychology of motivation and the principles of human relations. - Level of Writing. About half of the re viewers felt that the publication was entirely digestible. The rest had mixed opinions and felt that it made "tough" reading in sections. Topics Omitted. "Application of findings" has already been discussed as a topic that did not receive coverage. A few reviewers wished more information had been provided on acci dent investigation. Some desired more infor mation on rest periods, employee benefits, and so forth. One comment deserves special recognition: The mechanical engineer thought there should have been more coverage of the engineering aspects of the problem. He was not con vinced by the explanation in the preface: "Except for incidental treatment... matters of safety engineering have not been re viewed; this was not to minimize the im portance of safety engineering, but rather to draw more attention to behavioral consider ations." -MR. LARSON: The book which provides the basis for this discussion was bom almost of desperation. . Like many of you, we found it almost im possible to absorb or keep up with the liter ature in industrial safety. And nowhere, to our knowledge, was there any anthology of research. Accordingly, we decided to consoli date the findings pertinent to the human aspects of industrial safety. These findings were culled from many fields, since many fields have to do with human beings. Since safety engineering was doing a much better job of informing itself, and since its findings were pretty specific and up to date, the medical and behavioral sciences received the most attention. Except for general treat ment, matters of safety engineering were not reviewed. We examined nearly 1,000 references to safety which appeared in medical psychiatric, ophthalmological, optometric, psychophysical, psychological and sociological journals, pe riodicals and texts. About 500 of them were abstracted and over 100 were summarized in the book; the remainder were eliminated either because they were unsound or because they duplicated better studies. Projects which didn't mention safety but which had considerable relevance were re ferred to in the bibliography. In addition, we set up a glossary of technical terms and tests for the convenience of our readers. As a result of these labors, we reached the following general conclusions: 1. The majority of potential accident risks can be detected before they are hired by dint of a careful analysis of their job histories, references, their injury and accident records in all walks of life, their hospitalization records, and thch ervil, federal and court martial offenses. You will note that all of these factors indicate a person's stability, and they* can be obtained easily from thorough application forms and skillful inter views. This is not to sav, however, that prediction can be 100 per cent. 2. Psychological tests, well chosen and carefully administered, can suggest signs of instability if their results are supplemented by the data described above. Prediction is comraensuratelv in creased here. 3. Medical screening also is very helpfuL Many obvious illnesses make a man-apoor risk, but it is equally true that many illnesses are not necessarily por tents of a bad accident and injury rate. In fact, under the proper circumstances, people with certain disorders and/or physical disabilities perform as well as (or better than) workers who enjoy good health. These were the general findings as far as pre-employment safety efforts were con cerned. Our research also showed that there 136 1955 National Safety Congress are a number of post-employment practices Safety committees are an obvious means which are of great help in reducing accident of accomplishing these aims, although, theo tendencies, accident rates and injury rates: retically, they are concerned only with acci L Thoroughly briefing and generally as sisting the new worker to adjust himself to his job have proven valuable. However, mere token efforts along these lines can, on dent and injury prevention, they have the added advantage of allying workers with a management in the joint solution of mutual problems. occasion, be worse than letting him shift 5. Management also has at its disposal for himself. another way of cutting down accidents and 2. Putting the new worker in the job for injuries. Studies have shown that accidents which he is best fitted and then training and/or injuries often are preceded or ac him thoroughly for that job are essential companied by certain behavior--certain hints aspects of a good safety program. Again, of trouble. Among them are absenteeism, token training can be disastrous, nor is it chrome visits to the medical department, a wise to harp on safety too much. Efficiency series of minor injuries and accidents, fre and safety are almost one and the same. 3. Physical working conditions should be as attractive and efficient as possible. In addition to machine design, guards, plant layout, lighting and protective equipment, certain other aspects seem significant, such as five-meal eating schedules to counter fa tigue (many physicians, as a matter of fact, recommend tills over the normal three-meal schedule), careful sound-proofing and the quent complaints and .evidence of poor per formance on the Job. In combination, these things often can predict who is likely to have an accident, and, thus, where it is likely to occur. It is very important; therefore, that accident reports and reports from foremen, supervisors and the medical department be collated and carefully examined at some central point so that maximum use of them can be made. like. Although there were a number of specific 4. Though rather intangible, the social and psychological elements of the work en vironment seem to play more important roles in causing accidents and injuries than do physical working conditions. Low morale and a dissatisfied work force generally are associated with high accident and injury and detailed findings, these were the major findings of fact To most of yon, they may be rather obvious. But we fed that we have provided a concrete basis for these meas ures. No longer need a safety man rely on bundles, opinions, and so forth. Perhaps some misconceptions were brought to light rates, lowered production, high breakage .We were appalled at the number of and waste rates, and impaired efficiency; poorly-conducted studies--so much so that they', also breed cliques, factions, personal an entire chapter was added spelling oat enmity and personal competition. A co deficiencies and recommending research operative atmosphere, on the other hand, practices. As above; many of these defi usually is associated with the opposites of ciencies were obvious, most of them consti all these things: a number of studies under tuted-nothing more than standard operating lined this point directly. procedures in research, but we fdt that they The research on this type of bad situation had to be put in writing. indicates that the main problem is to im prove morale and decrease dissatisfaction. Financial incentives alone, award programs, poster contests, more recreational facilities, and other more or less superficial approaches often have been found to meet with little or temporary success. However, profit-sharing plans, joint group conferences with em ployees on ways of solving plant problems, and similar techniques of gaining the coop MR. JACKSON: The book -prepared- by the research-staffof the New York University Center for Safety Education is an excellent approach to that all-important phase of accident pre vention--the human dement Statistics have led us to believe that 85 per cent of our accident experience have causes directly related to human failure or operators* errors eration of workers by allowing them to in judgment participate in the company's affairs and The findings and observations contained contribute to its progress ami welfare, have in this book are a challenge to our present proven valuable concepts -of employment medical, training obvious means although, tbeoof with acrifL ./have the workers with a ition of mutual at its disposal a accidents and i that accidents (receded or jacr--certain hints re absenteeism, l department, a accidents, frex of poor perdbination, these k> is likely to here it is likely , therefore, that from foremen, department be titled at some in use of them giber of specific vere the major yon, they may 1 that we have jr these measty man rely on orth. Perhaps ought to light ie. briber o n; Iso that d spelling out ding research of these defiif them constidard operating fdt tot they research staff ty Center for llent approach : accident preStatistics have r cent of our anses directly craters' errors ions contained to our present dical, training Industrial Safety 137 and job safety programs. The data indi Another area for consideration is that of cate that a dose scrutiny of our present changes in our labor relation concepts that activities and techniques in these fidds should be made according to research com should be made. While there are vast areas pleted to date. In most labor contracts, of research yet to be embraced, the infor seniority plays an important part in the mat mation summarized in this book provides ter of job assignment The research findings many thought starters toward making our indicate tot for purposes of accident pre in-plant practices more effective in the con vention, job placement must be made on the trol of the human dement basis of physical, mental and emotional The complexity of the "human dement" capacities. demands a much more complete integration The much maligned word "automation" of the activities of employment medical suggests another problem area. The' main training; methods engineering and line super tenance of motivation and morale in a work vision. situation which demands a minimum of phys The fidds of discussion covered in the ical effort and an upgrading of mental acu book are relatively new and require a pre ity may be much more difficult than today's ciseness in terminology. This problem has morale problems. Further research toward been recognized by the authors, and an ex the development of a simple and practicable cellent glossary has been included. technique of morale measurement would be The New York University Center for of inestimable value to industry. Safety Education is to be highly commended tor tins summary of research. It is an ex MR. SPOERER: cellent injuiry into the current status of our knowledge of human behavior and its relationship to accident prevention. Let me quote from, the synopsis of Sec tion II of the book. Psychological and Sociological Characteristics: There are a few areas, however, in which my remarks concerning this publication can not be so complimentary. In an early por tion of the hook, there is the inferred phi losophy that selection methods, tests, inter views, and so forth, should be used as a means of discarding the unfit, of rejecting those of high accident liability. This atti tude is reminiscent of the early function of the physical examination. However, we have come to recognize that the purpose of the physical examination is to know the limitations of the individual in order that proper job placement may be made. Sim ilarly, I would recommend that the evalua tion methods discussed be used for appropri "According to research, intelligence tests do not identify accident-free workers from accident repeaters, except at the extremes. The same thing is true of tests of general coordination, hand-finger skill, and armhand facility, as well as of knowledge of mechanical operations. However, where ex ceptional ability along these lines is needed to perform the job safely, these tests are of some help. "An interest in mechanical things seems to be associated with safe workers to a certain extent--apparently because workers with such an interest tend to recognize dangerous situations more readily than those who do not. ate.placement of the individual, rather thin "Several studies have shown that person total rejection for employment ality has a lot to do with accidents. Spe Although Dr. Brody has already com mented on the omission of the field of safety engineering, I still-believe that cov erage of this field would enhance the value of the text Certainly, the recent develop ments in engineering design which mini mize the opportunity for human error in judgment should be given some attention. Recognizing the many factors that make up cifically, how well a worker adjusts himself to everyday living seems to he important, is his ability' to get along with other per sons. Such things, of course, are reflected in his past record, so a careful check of references, banking habits, home ownership, indebtedness, arrests and other indexes of stability or instability are very helpful to the personnel department" human behavior, it appears logical that any There is a wealth of information bound thing that can be done from an engineering in this book of less than 100 pages which, standpoint to keep that behavior within if properly analyzed, may furnish the cues acceptable limits is desirable. to some problems or suggest new avenues. 13S 1955 National Safety Congress and in some instances confirm tvhat you Psychological tests and interpretations must already thought. be regarded in terms of practical considera The tests generally seem to be too small tions. a sampling to carry the proper weight. It is Dr. Cutter: We must distinguish between indicated that psychophysical tests (visual original research and the problems of apply acuity, reaction time, hearing, and so forth) ing the findings. There is need for a book still outnumber all other categories of acci which will indicate where findings can be dent research but are on the wane. Psycho applied and what compensating devices can social tests (social factors related to psycho be used. logical factors) are getting greater emphasis. Dr. Brody: Some possibilities of applica One test made by Harris concluded that tion have been indicated briefly in the text accident proneness, implying a psychological In most instances, there has been nothing predisposition to get hurt, may have been new in practical applications. greatly over-rated. The Purdue University pegboard test findings were found to vary in a work situation involving more mechan ical operations. The finding that mechanical interest was correlated with a good accident record must be- examined more dosely. Mechanical interest, which often goes hand in hand with mechanical ability, differenti ated the "accident prone" from the "acci dent free" group approximately 95 per cent of the time. The authors empliasize situational factors in their conclusions. They imply that a per son lacking psychological predisposition to ward accidents is unlikely to have an acddent, even when an aeddent-produdng situ Mr. Spocrcr: We want to hear things to help us in our work. There is no substitute for prompt investigation of aeddents. Too often there is a waiting period of hours which gives those involved a chance to think up alibis and cover up the facts. Many per sons enter the field without adequate train ing or experience. More material is-needed for their guidance. Dr. Brody: We should also consider in vestigation . of near-aeddents, which out number personal injury aeddents but are due to the same causes. Mr. Spocrcr: This is bdng done on a large scale. ation develops. The inference seems to be Dr. Cutter: Another subject to consider that, despite an inability to predict "aeddent is automation and its possible effect on bore proneness" from the results of the study, dom fatigue, the most common type of fa the investigators believe personality charac tigue. teristics have something to do with acd- Mr. Jackson: Another area for research dents. More information is needed. is morale, to evaluate such morale builders One test by Whitlock and Cranndl, com as pensions, recreation and other fringe paring. 100 "major aeddent" cases with 200 benefits. accident-free cases, disdosed that ndther Mr. Spocrer: Morale is a fundamental. In mechanical comprehension test scores nor addition to the familiar "Three E's," we intelligence test scores had any significant need a fourth--Enthusiasm. It means more relationship to the occurrence of accidents. than words; it must come from the heart, The aeddent-free group appeared less or the other "Three E's" won't do much "neurotic," less introverted and more self- good. confident than the aeddent group;-- - Question s the 85per cent-of aeddents This research report indicates that so far attributed to human causes high or low? we have only scratched the surface of the Answer: We are too indined to blame problem. everything on human failure. That doesn't We shall be obliged to develop some tech nique that is simple to learn and apply to determine what soda] factors are related. tell what really happens. We fail to engi neer properly for human beings. Boredom fatigue is one of the problems. SUMMARY OF DISCUSSION Question: What about aeddents to the experienced worker? I refer particularly to Mr. Jackson: We must have something the man who doesn't use all his abilities on reasonably simple to interpret and use. The a job. doctor can discover much in his contacts. Answer: It is sometimes just as bad to pretations must tip1 gonsidera- \> ngtiish between items o applv:ed for a book indings can be ng devices can ties of applicafly in the text > been nothing hear things to Is no substitute accidents. Too xiod of hours chance to think ns. Many peridequate train^ erial is needed to consider in5, which outidents but are ng done on a tet to consider effect on borean type of fa ne*. builders other fringe mdamental. In hree E's," we ft means more rom the heart, ton't do much it of accidents gh or tow? ined to blame That doesn't i fail to engings. Boredom is. tidents to the particularly to tis abilities on ust as bad to Industrial Safety 139 place a Class A man on a Class C job as to place a man on a job that is too much for his abilities. The experience of many companies is that the more hazardous jobs, which require closer attention, often show a better accident record than easier and ap parently safer jobs. Question: Is there any relationship be tween safety on the job and off the job? Answer: Research by General Electric showed that employees who received safety training on the job were six times as safe in traffic as the average for the community. Question: Do medical studies indicate noise as a contributing cause to accidents? Answer: Every accident is the result of a number of contributing factors. Present knowledge indicates that noise is one of them. Dr. Cutter: Any man can be employed if we know enough about him and compen sate for his defects. Indiscriminate use of the word "unemployable" is unfortunate. Much could be accomplished if we paid as much attention to men as we do to machines. Large industries must do more training. 140 "Z16.1" The Yardstick of Safety Performance The Origin of the Standard and Recent Revision By H. GENE MILLER Dir., Statistics and Library Div., National Safety Council, Cbicago, HL The search for a way to make compari dicated that they still represented proper sons of accident statistics started in 1914 values. when the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics In 1926, the American Engineering Stand initiated a meeting in New York of Work ards Committee (now the American Stand men's Compensation officials. In 1915, the ards Association) was officially requested Committee on Statistics of the IAIABC to initiate a project on accident statistics. (International Association of Industrial Ac This was done in that year, but the first cident Boards and Commissions) also began Standard was not approved until 1937. Since a study of the problem. then there have been two changes in the In the beginning, injuries were expressed as so many per 1,000 workers. This was not sufficiently precise because numbers of work ers varied from day to day, there were dif Standard. One "occurred in 1945 afid the latest one in 1954. Regarding the recent changes, the first one 1 will mention is the title of the Stand ferences in the hours worked, number of days worked per year, and so forth. This led to the development of a unit of hours ard itself. It is now titled the American Standard Method of Recording and Measwr~ ing Work Injury Experience. which at first was set at 3,000, then 2,400, Next, the new Standard indudes a sec and 2,000. tion on "Definitions," in which all of the All of these units had disadvantages; so finally, in 1919, a complete break was made with die odd units and the 1,000 hour unit was adopted. Frequency rates were ex pressed in terms of 1,000 hours. The severity rate was expressed in a single 1,000 hour unit. A system of assigning time losses for computation of severity rates was worked out by the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics in the early part of 1914. As first used, the time allowances as fixed by the Wisconsin Workmen's Compensation Act for Specific Injuries were applied. Later, these time al lowances were changed, death being based on life expectancy, and permanent disabilities on the New York scale increased by 50 per cent terms used throughout the Standard are defined. An Appendix to the Standard is new, where interpretations are presented covering certain common situations. For the specific changes, I will discuss these in the order in which the items appear in the Standard. Medical treatment injury. This classifica tion in the new Standard covers all nondisabling injuries and combines two sepa rate classifications which had been set up in the previous Standard: (I) temporary partial disability, and (2) medial treatment injury. Disabling Injury. The new Standard states specifically that the injury used in calculat ing the standard injury frequency and severity rates is identified as a "disabling injury." In the old Standard, this was It is interesting to note that the time loosely referred to in many ways, with charges as developed in the first table of the term "lost-time injury" developing im such charges continued unchanged until the portance through usage. Some injuries used 1955 revision of the Standard, when the in developing injury rates may not result charges for fingers and toes were revised. in lost time (permanent partial disabilities), During all those years, the charges were re and the term "lost time," therefore, is not viewed several times, but each review in entirely accurate. a Revision igo, I1L resented proper Sneering Standmerican Standaally requested ident statistics. \ but the first util 1937. Since changes in the 1945 and the oges, the first : of the Stand- the American g and hleasur- ndudes a secidi all of the Standard are ;e Standard is are presented uif \ 1 - _ discuss e items appear ["his classifica>vers all nonies two sepa! been set up 1) temporary leal treatment tandard states d in calculatequency and a "disabling rd, this was ways, with eyedoping iminjuries used ay not result disabilities), efore, is not Industrial Safety 141 Charge for finger and toe amputations. 1,000,000 man-horns of exposure. The As mentioned earlier, the scheduled charges method of calculating the rate is unchanged, for fingers and toes were changed in die latest revision. Previously, each finger had the same charge--300 day?. In the new Standard, each finger has its own charge; with the little finger, for example, having and in fact rates calculated on the new basis will be the same as those calculated on the old basis except that the decimal point will be moved three places to the right A severity rate which would have appeared a charge of 200 days, and the more impor as 25 previously will now appear as 250. tant index finger a charge of 400 days. In calculating rates, it is recommended the It is difficult to set down all the specific charges in a written report, so I will cover them briefly and suggest that each of you obtain a copy of the Standard itself for reference use. (It may be obtained from the American Standards Association, 70 K 45th St, New York 17, New York). decimals not be used, but that the rate be rounded to the nearest whole number. Average days charged per injury. In addition to the injury frequency and sever ity rates, a third measure has been included in the new Standard. It is the Average Days Charged per Injury- In addition to each finger having a sepa rate charge, each joint of each finger has a separate charge, and for the -various fingers these are as follows: Little finger, distal phalange--50 days, middle phalange--100 days, proximal phalange (entire finger)-- 200 days. For the other fingers, the respective charges are: Ring finger--60, 120, 240; middle finger--75, 150, 300; and index finger--100, 200, 400. The charge for a thumb remains unchanged at 300 days for the distal phalange and 600 days for the proximal phalange Each toe except the great toe has the same charge, but these are different than in the previous Standard. Distal phalange-- 35 days, middle phalange--75 days, and proximal phalange--150 days. For the great toe, the distal phalange has a charge of 150 days and the proximal phalange a charge of 300 days. In evaluating finger and toe losses, the charge for each digit is the charge assigned to the highest valued bone involved. The charges are not cumulative; only one charge is used, and that is the one assigned to the highest valued bone involved. To get the charge for two or more fingers, merely' add together the charges for each finger. This is a much simpler method than that used jn the previous Standard, where per centage losses had to be averaged and then applied to total charges, which varied dis proportionately depending on the number of fingers involved. The severity rate has frequently been misinterpreted as indicating the severity of the injuries. It does not do this, but merely indicates the rate of loss from injuries. The new rate, average days charged per injury, will tell how severe injuriS'"re "So the average. It is determined by dividing the total number of disabling injuries into the total days charged as a result of these injuries. It may also be determined bydividing the frequency rate into the severityrate. Injuries charged to date of occurrence. This is not really a change in the Standard, but merely sets down in writing an impor tant point of procedure. It is of particular importance today with the increasing em phasis bring given to no-injury- records. It states that a no-injury record terminates on the day an accident happens, regardless of the delay which may result before the in jured person begins to lose time. Back Injury. An attempt has been made in the new Standard to obtain more uni formity in the handling of back cases, and to avoid charging as injuries back condi tions w-hich do not arise out of and in the course of employment The procedure set forth is not very-predsCr-df Js~generally recognized as a starting point from which further refinements can be made. The Standard says that a back injury or strain shall be considered a work injury only if it meets both of the following con ditions: (a) There is a clear record of an accident, or an incident such as a slip, trip or fall, sudden effort, over-exertion, or blow Disabling Injury Severity Rate. The in on the bade; and (b) the physician au jury severity rate in the new Standard is thorized to treat the case is satisfied, after on the same basis as the frequency rate-- a complete review of the circumstances of 1955 National Safety Congress die accident or incident, that the injury Aggravation of Minor Injury. This is could have arisen out of said accident or another point which does not really repre incident sent a change in the new Standard, but Disability arising solely out of physical again merely represents stating specifically deficiency. The new Standard provides that an interpretation that was followed even injuries which arise solely out of physical under the previous Standard. The Standard deficiencies shall not be charged as disabling cases. The purpose of this change was to avoid penalizing a company for luring a physically handicapped person should the now states that if a minor injury is ag gravated because of improper diagnosis or improper treatment; either professional or non-professional, or if infection develops physical handicap give rise to an injury. For example, if a worker with an artificial foot suffered an injury in a fall which later, tither on the job or off the job, the injury shall he classified according to the ultimate extent of the disability. resulted when ids impairment caused him The above points cover the principal to lose his balance, this injury would be changes that were made in the Standard. determined as having arisen solely out of All of us may not agree with the changes the pre-existing physical deficiency, and that vere made; in fact, we may not all would not be considered a work injury. agree with the Standard itself. When as However, if an injury arises out of and in tiie course of employment, it shall be considered a work injury even though the employee had a pre-existing physical de> many people are involved and interested as there are in connection with standard in jury reporting, it would be a miracle if everyonewas in agreement ton every point fidency. Suppose the same situation existed However, much more will be gained if as in tiie previous example, except that the all companies will record and classify in worker lost his balance and fell when he juries in accordance with the Standard pro stepped on an object on the floor. Since cedure, so that valid comparisons can be this injury did not arise solely out of his made among companies, titan if each person pre-existing physical deficiency, it would records and measures his injury experience be considered a work injury. according to his own preference. Its Application By HENRY B. DUFFUS Administrator. Accident Prevention, Westinghoose Electric Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa. As the Daily Stock Control Sheet is to the stockbroker, the Daily Racing Form to the bookie, the Weekly Market Price list to the farmer, so also is the Monthly Injury Report Form to the management of a plant. - Modem management must he kept in formed of their progress in injury control through a measure that can be applied nationally,' permitting them to compare their operating experience against competi tors and against other types of industries. "The American Standard Method of Re cording and Measuring Work Injury Ex perience" is the national medium that makes this possible. Whether you are interested in the textile or steel industry, quarrying or canning, electrical equipment, manufac turing; construction or lamp manufacturing, the same measure for performance can be applied. Whether you are in New York, California, Maine or Mississippi, the same method is -applied- in measuring experience, if you use the Standard Method for com piling your experience. This is possible because tiie Standard is an American standard developed on the consensus principle and on the principle that groups having a substantial interest in the standard have an inherent right to representation. In other words; any agency with a substantial interest in or affected by tiie standard was permitted a voice in its development The standard Injury. This is not -ally reprev ] Ward, but ating specifically t followed even L The Standard >r injury is agper diagnosis or professional or lection develops off the job, the ccording to the iKty. r the principal i the Standard, nth the changes we may not all Sself. When as nd interested as lb standard ine a miracle if on every point U be gained if md classify ini Standard proarisons can be i if each person lury experience ice. sburgh, pa. lent, manufacmanufacturing, nuance can be in New York, ippi, the same hg experience, thod for com- te Standard is loped on the the principle antial interest inherent right words; any Merest in or s permitted a The standard Industrial Safety 143 of comparison that meets with uniform Let's take a look at the application of the acceptance is provided. Standard when comparing disabling injury In essence, Z16.1 is the bookkeeping piannal of accident prevention. It spells out the method of recording and measuring the gains and losses in the safety program. Whether it be the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics; the National Safety Council Sta tistical division, a mnltiplant company, or a small plant of 20 or 30 employees, the experiences between states. As pointed out, die 1945 revision was divorced from rulings by the Workmen's Compensation Acts of the several states. The 1954 revision carries through with this because there is no meas ure of national comparability or disability injuries under the acts applied within the 48 states. same measure for performance is applicable. Take a plant in New York state; for It outlines the method to use for comparing example. Over 50 per cent of the rases your short' or long periods of injury compensated under the act might involve experience against other longer periods, or no loss of rime from work because of the your plant experience against other plant injury or alleged permanent partial dis experiences. Let me give yon an example. ability. To compare the experience of this While Westingfaouse Electric Corporation is basically a manufacturer of electrical equipment, we are in reality a multi-industry company. We have plants that manufacture ceramics, jet engines, glass, steam turbines, television sets; thermoplastics and electronic plant against one in Pennsylvania, Mary land, or many other states, we must revert to the American Standard which spells out the degree and types of permanent disabilities and gives a uniform measure of disability. ~~~~~-- tubes. We also have major construction Without such a standard we could not have projects and broadcasting stations. Because meaningful comparisons between industries of these widely diversified operations, in and industrial averages as listed in the many instances it is not too practical to National Safety Council Accident Facts. measure one of our operating plants against Through this medium, it is possible to point another. Therefore, to get a proper measure up low-hazard industries, such as the com of their disabling injury experience, we munications and the printing and publishing take advantage of the national measure industries, and industries with low-frequency and look to the National Safety Council rates, such as the communications and Accident Rates pamphlets for comparisons. electrical equipment industries. There wc can relate the experience of each Since the Standard is a national means Westinghouse plant to plants in the same of comparison, it is important - that it industry of a similar size. measure only that part of the injury ex Keep in mind that the Standard Zlfi.1 perience' which can be uniformly recorded is the only national measure of comparison by all plants in all industries. Therefore, of disabling injury experience of plants m in setting up the several degrees of injury, different industries and plants of different it was necessary to cut off at a point where sizes. There are one or two exceptions it could he most uniformly applied using to this. The railroads, I believe, measure only the top four degrees--fatal, permanent their experience by a casualty rate, using total disability, permanent partial disability, the frequency of nou-fatals and a frequency and temporary total disability. of fatals. This, naturally, precludes the* This limitation need apply only when possibility of developing a severity rate making national""companscms between in for railroad operations. dustries. It does not preclude the recording _ Since there are a few exceptions, and of other lesser degrees of injury within since some companies apply only part of a plant or within a company or industry the National Standard in the compilation of group. For example, we, as well as an their experience, it is good practice when ever-increasing number of companies, do publisbing your injury experience to include compile frequency rates for all injuries; the statement "Compiled in accordance with including medical treatment injuries. Man American Standard Z16.1-1954" When so agement now appreciates that the causes of stated, it tells the reader that the report large numbers of minor injuries become was compiled in line with the Standard and the breeding ground for the more serious can be used for comparison purposes. injuries. In recording these medical treat- 144 1955 National Safety Congress ment cases wc build up frequencies of three or 400. Such frequency rates, however, cannot be used for national comparison at this time because of the wide variation in methods of collecting these data. For uniform rate comparisons, therefore, we have to cut off at a level that permits uniform com parability. Another application of the frequency rates common within several companies is the recording of frequency by the several de grees of injury, somewhat similar to the railroads. These companies list the fre quency of deaths, frequency of permanent total disability, frequency of permanent partial disability, frequency of temporary total disability, and frequency of medical treatment injuries. Such a method points up clearly the frequencies of the more serious types of injuries, I believe this method is more applicable in the highhazard industries. Here the number of deaths and permanent partial disabilities provide a meaningful frequency measure. It should be noted here that you cannot use the Standard to determine the facts surrounding an injury'- All the Standard is intended to do is permit a proper measure of recording these facts and a weighted measure of the seriousness of the injury. It permits you to pigeonhole each industrial injury with the several degrees of injury, and sets a uniform measure for recording the seriousness of permanent disabilities. It does not spell out whether an alleged loss of function of a finger is or is not reportable, nor does it set the degree of injury- These facts must be provided by the plant personnel and by the medical profession. When established, it is easy to assess the proper time charge and classifi cation of injury. It is rather interesting to get the re actions of different groups and industries relative to the use of severity. Some fed that the severity rate has no meaning, that injury occurrences are all that matter, the seriousness being simply a matter of chance. In essence, I disagree with this concept and would like to convince you of the need for some measure of difference between an injury involving a stubbed toe, with one-day loss, and a death. The question of chance may be present to some extent in the degree of injury, but the fact re mains that a person was killed. Therefore, some measure is necessary to set the inci dent apart statistically from a mere one-day case, since both cany equal weight in compiling the frequency rate of injuries. Making Interpretations By HENRY G. LAMB Safety Engineer, American Standards Assn, New York; N. Y. The original American Standard Method of Compiling Industrial Injury rates, Z16.I1937, was rather short and to the point. On the question of which injuries to in-^ dude and which to exdude from the fre-" quency and severity rates, it simply stated that in case of doubt on any case the ruling of the local Workmen's Compensation Au thority should be used as a guide. In other words, if the Workmen's Compensation Authority induded the case for medical treatment and compensation payments, then it should be induded in the rates. If the Workmen's Compensation Authority threw out the case, then it should not be induded in the rates. This was changed in the 1945 revision. The standard was divorced from Work men's Compensation rulings, and the 716 Sectional. Committee was faced with tne tremendous decision, how could they write into the American Standard just which injuries should be induded in the rates and which should be exduded? In general, they provided that injuries arising out of and in the course of employ-' ment should be induded, but they made cer tain spedfic exceptions to this ruling. All members of the Committee realized that, through Workmen's Compensation referees and court decisions, books upon hooks had been written upon this one subject of what of the injury. : <T .industrial jri Af injury, i for recording cnt disabilities. her an alleged ir is or is not the degree of provided by y the medical 1, it is easy to ?e and dassifi- 0 get the reand industries ity. Some feel > meaning; that at matter, die liter of rhaiuf us concept and of the need fence between bed toe, with The question J some extent 1 the fact reid. Therefore, i set the indmere one-day a! weight in of injuries. :) 1945 revision, from Worfcand the "*"16 :ed with tie Id they write just which the rates and that injuries e of employ-y made cer- ruling. All realized that, don referees n books bad ject of what Industrial Safety 145 constitutes "arising out of and in the course of employment" The Committee made a fast decision and established a Committee of Judges to deride which cases should be Included and which should be excluded from the Z16 frequency and severity rates. It was, of course, the idea that this group would amply interpret which cases did arise out of and in the course of employ ment and which cases did not come under this classification, but it soon became evident that some people were taking this "Com mittee of Judges" quite literally. One case was submitted, for instance; where the employer stated, "The employee claims that as he passed through the bulk head of this ship he struck his shoulder on the edge of the steel plate and received injuries which have resulted in lost time." The employer could not find any witnesses to this incident and claimed that the em ployee was faking. They wished the Com mittee of Judges to deride the question of fact--did tins employee, or did he not, strike his shoulder on the steel plate? As a result of this and similar cases, the Com mittee of Judges adopted a policy that they would be happy to try to interpret any vague or obscure meanings or intentions with regard to the American Standard Z16.1, but they did not believe that they were in a position to judge questions of fact as to whether the employee was telling the truth or not During the nine years that this standard was in existence; 255 cases were judged, and the decisions were published for dis tribution. To start with, groups of from 20 to 30 of these decisions were published in the Magasme of Standards, published by the American Standards Association. Then the cases were put on muItOith plates, and copies were made available to all in terested parties. For instance, we now have a list of 150 individuals who desire one or two copies. We also have a few companies who are so interested that they have stand ing orders for from 25 to several hundred copies of the derisions, which we duplicate and mail to them at a cost which just covers our duplicating and mailing expenses. In the 1954 revision, the Committee very definitely changed the name from Committee of Judges to Committee on Interpretations. Because of other cases which have been received concerning the old standard, it was derided to start cases based on the new standard with the serial number 400, and already the Committee has received 55 cases for derision. Some of these are definitely of a borderline nature, hut already decisions have been reached on 40 of them. Here are some typical cases: An em ployee reported to work a half-hour early, and, instead of reporting directly to his work area, he first visited a friend in an other department This was approximately 150 feet from his work area, and, in going to bis friend's department, he fdl into an open pit at the tail pulley of a belt con veyor. It was admitted that someone had failed to replace the guard over this pit but the employer believed that the injured employee had taken himself outside his employment by going to see his friend. In this case, the Committee interpreted the standard as anting out of and in the course of employment Back Injuries. The 1954 revision for the first time made special provisions for hack injuries, and, as can well be anticipated, several safety engineers have submitted borderline cases for interpretation as to whether they did or did not meet the special provisions of paragraph 5.2. An employee was regularly engaged in handling and piling 100-pound bags. Two men were engaged on this operation so that the lifting of each man should have been about 50 pounds. Daring his normal opera tions one day, while stooping down to pick up one end of the next hag; he felt a catch in his back. There was a momentary pain that left within a few seconds. He continued working without any stoppage or making any comment to his fellow worker. Two days later his bade was very sore. He reported to the company doctor, and the doctor diagnosed it as a sprained back and gave him some heat treatments. Tins employee lost about two weeks from work before his back returned to normal. In accordance with the provisions of paragraph 5.2, the Committee decided that this injury should not be included in the industrial injury rates on the basis that this employee had not slipped, tripped, fallen or had any other incident or accident as called for in the standard. The Committee still receives many case histories concerning hernias. The special requirements concerning hernias shown in 146 1955 National Safety Congress paragraph 5.1 have been changed slightly of tiie statistics and research division of the from the provisions in 1945, but apparently National Safety Council, is secretary of the there will always be borderline cases con Z16 .Committee; and a member of the Com cerning hernias. mittees on Interpretations. He has already The provisions for hospitalization for started work on such an index, and as observation have been slightly relaxed in soon as details can be worked out, ar paragraph 5.13. The Committee received rangements will be made to have copies a case where an employee jumped or fell available for those who are interested. and landed on his heels. There was a crashing injury of one heeL The doctor immediately took this employee to the hos pital, and, by the use of ice packs for the first 24 hours, was able to reduce the swell ing so that with a walking cast this em ployee was actually able to return to work in 48 hours. The Committee called atten tion to the statements in paragraph 5.13 that this is only an observation period for injuries which are known to have a delayed effect, and where the physician determines May I take a moment at this time for a special message to those of you who have sent in cases or who may send in some question in the future. We hope you all realize that the members of the Committee on Interpretations are voluntary workers. They are not bring paid for the job, and I hope that everyone appreciates all of the time and effort that the members have, devoted to this undertaking. The Committee tries to do as much of that the injury was in reality slight, and that tire injured person could have returned to work without any permanent impairment or temporary total disability. In this case the Committee decided that whether or not there bad been any observation, tins em ployee would have had to be in the hospital 24 hours for the ice pack treatment, and that the case should be included as a tem porary total disability. Arrangements are now bring made to its work as it can by correspondence. This, of course, takes a certain amount of time, and we hope that you will be patient in waiting, for a derision by the Committee. As you can easily guess, there are differ ences of opinion between members of the Committee, and, when a case is of a real borderline nature, it is held for discussion at a meeting of the Committee. In such cases, it may take an even longer time to get you a derision. continue the former practice of publishing In the 1945 revirion it was requested that derisions of the Committee on Interpreta three copies of a case be sent in. Since tions in the Magazine of Standards, and there are seven members of the Committee, reprinting copies to be distributed widely this did not help us too much. Now the for the information of all parties concerned. standard respectfully requests that you send Some of the members of the Committee on us nine copies of your request When we Interpretations believe that an index of these can receive these copies, it saves a tremen cases would be very valuable in helping dous amount of duplication work in the to find previous decisions in connection with offices of the ASA. May I take this oppor any particular paragraph or with regard to tunity to express our. thanks to those of certain situations which may come up from you who llave sent in the required number time to time. Mr. H. Gene Miller, director of copies. Other Volumes in this Series Users of this volume will find much value in its companion volumes. Here is the list: TITLE VOLUME No. General Sessions and Detailed Index to all Volumes............................................................. 1 Aviation (Aeronautical Industries Section & Air Transport Section)............................... Cement and Quarry Industries................................................................................................. Chemical Industries ....................................................;........................................... ............... 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NON-MEMBER prices are double member prices, except volumes 8, 12, 25 and 27. NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL 425 NORTH MICHIGAN AVE. CHICAGO 11. ILL. piktu w k.s.k. 148 15M2S602 Noise--What You Can Do About It Measuring the Noise Exposure By HAROLD W. CROUCH Eng., Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y. Noise has been defined as unwanted sound. I think this is a good definition. For example, the areas on the fire apparatus coming down the street might be considered noise. But if it is jour house that is on fire; it would not be noise--at least by the above definition. The reasons for measuring noise vary. We may"be~ concerned with whether the level is high enough to cause loss of hear ing. Or we may be interested in its annoy ance value in the office or conference room, or its interference in communication in die work room. The problem may be its neigh borhood annoyance value: The measurements that are made differ in each case. However, the instruments used are the same and the units are the same. Frequency-Levd-Continuity Sound has three main attributes--fre quency, level and continuity. Sound .is wave morion in air. It consists of small pressure and rarifaction areas travelling out from the source at a definite speed. In air at normal temperatures; it is approximately 1,100 feet per second, or a mile in five seconds. Musical Sounds The ear is sensirive to these pressure waves when they follow each other at rates from about 20 a second to 15,000 a second. The rate at which these arrive at the ear is called the "frequency" of the sound. We express it as "cycles per second." The sound pressure level or db level of the noise--is a measure of its loudness. It depends on the pressure difference--in the travelling pressure waves which we said caused sound. The higher the pressure the louder the sound. We measure this pressure with a microphone. To express the level of a sound we use a unit called a decibel This is a very convenient unit--it is the log of the ratio of the average pressure in the sound wave to a reference pressure. It indicates the amount of energy in the sound. Increasing the energy 10 times raises the db level by 10. Doubling the energy in creases the level three db. When the energy is doubled, the ratio of the energies is two. The log of two is three-tenths, and 10 rimes this equals three. The reference level is taken as the threshold of hearing, or the weakest sound that can be heard by the average good ear. Various Noise Levels; Loud sounds are made with a very small amount of energy. One watt of sound energy in this room would raise the level to over 100 db. Cutting the noise in half is not very much reduction, but reducing it to one-tenth is a real improvement. A large magnitude of noise reduction is necessary to "quiet" a noisy operation. Cutting the noise in half will probably not be satisfactory". The third factor--continuity, or intermittency--is much harder to evaluate or express as a value. There is no question that it faimportant in loss of hearing, or in annoy ance studies. I have built an instrument that measures the rime the noise is~above various levels. Instruments Now let us look at some of the instru ments used to measure noise. Survey Meter: The survey meter fa the amplest and most convenient instrument to use. One of the various makes of survey type meters consists of a microphone mounted in the top, an electronic amplifier and an indicating meter. This meter will read noise levels from 40 db to 130 db. The-