Document 37e4LyMrmB59RVxkdpR6rEG46

<Lead in the Nature Environment First Draft - Charles Malone \ FKIVllEZED Introduction This discussion of lead in the < not under the direct influence of ma . ; KCT FCT? PUBL[3;-.7;?'rj OR pusuavncsi r s f eh s k s s s /ironment concerns natural ecosystems generally and avoids the various*subjects A. . of human environments, agricultural /stems, heavily trafficed areas, and areas directly subjected to indust al effluents of lead. The objective is to place atmospheric lead in pei >ective to natural ecosystems and ecological processes. Lead is not a biologically er mtial element and has not been studied as extensively as some other met a , such as maganese and zinc. However, knowledge of lead in ecosystems : increasing because of concern over its release from human activities ixi natural environments. The greatest concern regards the release of ! id into the atmosphere but this seems to pose little direct threat to nr ral biota. It is, however, the eventual deposition of lead by fallout < rainout into terrestrial and aquatic eco systems that gives rise to cor rn over Its role as an environmental pollutant. Sourc of Atmospheric Lead In the context of preset -day concentrations of atmospheric lead, natural sources apparently c .tribute only insignificantly. Natural concentrations have been estimate* :o be about 0,0005 g lead/m3 air (Patterson 1965) and result from airbc e dust containing an average of 10-15 ppm lead (Chow and Patterson 1962) 1 gases diffusing from the earth1s crust y (Blanchard 1966). The latter source results in the presence of lead -210 in the atmosphere ranging from 70 x 10 -3 dpm/kg air at grAound level to about o 70 x 10 dpm/kg air in the lower stratosphere (Burton and Stewart 1960). Detectable quantities of lead-210 reach the'earth' s surface in precipitation and on dust particles (Hill 1960, Lagerwerff 1967, Francis et al, 1970), and concentrations of 1-8 p.Ci/1 rainwater have been reported, *. . . ; . :V ... . , . N40677 2 Presently, the principal source of atmospheric lead is considered to result from the combustion of leaded automotive fuels (Patterson 1965), In the U*S. in 1968 alone, more than 500,000,000 pounds of lead were used as antiknock compounds, and since the advent of leaded gasolines, a curnugase/V/re lative amount of more.than 12 billion pounds of^lead have been consumed (Chow and Earl 1970a). About 75% of the lead in gasoline is introduced into t the amosphere as aerosols (Mueller et al. 1962), K . By comparison with gasoline, the burning of coal has not been a serious source of atmospheric lead. In recent years, 500,000,000 tons of coal with an average lead content of 10 ppm (Chow and Earl 1970b) have been burned annually in the U, S. Contribution to atmospheric lead by coal would be only 3 percent of that derived from gasoline if lead from both were introduced into the atmosphere with equal efficiency. In modern furnaces, about 95-99% of the fly ash is removed by electrostatic pEcipitators and only a small portion of the lead in coal is emitted as aerosols (First 1968). Thus, the contribution by coal to atmospheric lead appears to be small. In the past, significant amounts of lead were introduced into the atmosphere by smeltering lead ores (Murozumi et al, 1969), At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in 1750, poor smeltering technology resulted in the loss of much lead fume. During the 19th century smeltering procedures were improved, and by the early 20th century it became economically feasible to recover lead smelter fume. This resulted in reducing the fraction of fume loss by a factor of 4, and during the past four decades the loss fraction has been further reduced by a factor of 8 (Table 1), Thus, the emission of lead aerosols into the atmosphere in the Northern Hemisphere by smeltering currently is small in comparison to the amount emitted from burning gasoline. In 1966, for example, the comparative values were 2,000 tons of load aerosols resulting from smeltering and 100,000 tons from DUP050055832 leaded fuels (Murozumi et al. 1969). A useful tool for identifying sources of lead pollution in the environ ment has been analysis of isotopic composition (Chow and Patterson 1962, Ault et al.' 1970). Each lead ore has a characteristic composition fixed during mineral genesis, and a survey of the isotopic composition of coramer*- dally important ores has been made (Brown 1962). Additionally, Chow and Earl (1970a) have determined the isotopic composition of several lead ores, gasolines, aerosols, waters, and marine sediments (Fig. 1, in Chow and Earl 1970a). The average isotopic composition of lead in sediments from the Pacific arid Atlantic Oceans are characteristic of lead from the Quaternary Period, deposited millennia ago. Contrary to this, lead in coastal surface seawater has a characteristic age of Tertiary time and is no longer the sole product of natural weathering. The isotopic composition of lead in gasoline additives and in atmospheric aerosols from cities where the fuel was obtained are similar and represent lead ore of Tertiary or oihr age. Chow and Earl (1970a) interpret this as implying that the aerosols could not be derived from weathering of natural surface material and instead come from automotive exhausts. . Lead in the Abiotic Environment Although lead emissions into the atmosphere can be identified as to source and grossly quantified, it is considerably more difficult to obtain estimates of amounts actually transported to geographical regions or environ* mental compartments. Coarser fractions of lead settle along roadsides, within cities, or near smelteries, but in the context of natural environ- r ments it is the fine aerosols that a e important, since these travel long A distances and are washed out of the atmosphere in rain and snow. To gain an impression of the magnitude of this process it is instructive to assess data on the concentrations of lead in various compcrents of the environment DUP050055833 as a function of time. Perhaps the most useful records in this respect are chronological layers of snow strata, available in quiescent ice sheets in perpetually frozen polar regions. Such an analysis of precipitated lead has been made in annual layers of snow from .Greenland and the* Antarctic continent (Murozumi et al. 1969). * Annual ice layers from the interior of northern Greenland show that lead concentrations increase from less than 0.0005 microgram/kg ice at 800 B.C. to more than 0.2 microgram/kg ice in 1965 (Fig* 2, from Murozumi et al. 1969, pg. 1285). The ice layer corresponding to 1750 A.D. represents the beginning of the Industrial Revolution and the lead concentration at that date is 25 times greater than natural levels. During the second half of the 18th century, lead concentrations tripled, and from 1935 to 1965* they rose abruplty again by a factor of three. The sharpest rise occurred after 1940, and today, lead concentrations in Greenland snows are over 400 times above natural levels. These data dramatically document the rise of lead in certain components of the natural environment but must not be taken as representative of world wide circumstances. For example, levels of lead in Antarctic continent ice sheets fail to show similar rises. Concentrations of lead in ice prior to 1940 were below 0.001 microgram/kg and rose to only 0.02 microgram/kg after 1940. The difference between lead concentrations in northern and southern polar snows is ascribed to barriers to north-south tropospheric mixing hindering the migration of aerosol pollutants from the northern hemisphere to the Antarctic. Few chronological records of lead concentrations are as complete as the one described for polar regions, but some additional data do exist reflecting increasing lead in certain ecosystems. For example, it is esti mated that the preindustrial lead content in marine water was about DUP050055834 5 0.02-0.04 mg/kg (Chow 1968). Today concentrations of surface waters in some areas of the Mediterranean and Pacific oceans contain as much as 0.20 and 0.35 Mg lead/kg water respectively and only deep waters, below 1,000 m, appear uncontaminated. (Fig. 3, from Chow 1968, pg* 408). As with marine waters, the lead content of fresh waters also has increased in recent times. The available data suggest that the mean global natural lead content for lakes and rivers is from 1 to 10 micrograms/liter, (livingston 1963). The lead content in public water supplies of the 100 largest cities in the U.S* in 1962 ranged from traces to 62 micrograms/liter (Burfor and Becker 1964), reflecting sizable additions of lead from pollution in some localities. Rainwater in some regions apparently contains concentrations of lead greater than expected from natural sources. Lazrus, et al. (1970) reported an average of 36 micrograms lead/liter rain for a U.S. nationwide sampling network. They concluded that the lead content in rainwater at various cities is correlated with the gasoline consumption there. For example, in the Chicago area, rainfall results in an average monthly input of about 40g lead/ha compared to about lg lead/ha in less populated regions. In soils, a range of about 2-200 ppm lead usually occurs naturally, exclusive of areas near deposites of lead ore (Motto et al. 1970, Huff 1952, Wright et al. 195% Natural concentration of lead in soil is primarily a function of the geological source of the parent material (Hamilton 1967), ( / ia b /. ) and as a rule, lead content decreases with soil depth^ (Wright 1955, Schuck and Locke 1970). Motto et al. (1970) believe that the natural content of lead in typical soils is low, usually less than' 50 ppm with an average of about 15 ppm, but soils near heavily trafficed areas commonly are heavily they contaminated. For example, found 160 ppm lead in the A upper 6 inches of soil within 25 ft. of a major highway. Beyond 75 ft,, DUP050055835 6 (Table. however, the concentration dropped to about 80-90 ppm^ Similar results have been reported by others (Schuek and Locke 1970, Chow 1970), and in general, the comparative content of lead in surface soils is a function of the volume of regional automotive traffic, proximity to roadways, and other factors such as prevailing wind direction. In remote areas, little or no increase in lead in soils is occurring (Chow, in press), suggesting that atmospheric lead aerosols deposited in precipitation are not of sufficient amounts to contaminate the soil environment. The problem is, however, severe near major roadways/T*bl<& 4')* DUP050055836 7 . CONCENTRATIONS OF LEAD IN BIOTA . Most information relating to lead in organisms concerns those of economic importance to humans, and far less is known of concentrations in natural biota. Fortunately, however, Swedish scientists are giving attention to this problem, and one of their studies (Ruhling & Tyler 1968)' is especially valuable regarding vegetation, l In Sweden, the concentrations of lead in several mosses, herbs, shurbs, C and trees were studied in relation to distances from highways. Lead ontents Ok of plants and soils within 50-100 miles of roads was high but dropped sharply and became stabilized at greater distances (Figs. 4 , *5, , in Ruhling and Tyler 1968, pg. 324,325,327). An exception to this rule occurred with mosses which generally had substantial concentrations of lead above normal levels at distances far from roads. Additionally, mosses near highways typically had much greater contents of lead than did vascular plants. Mosses accumulate most of their nutrients from precipitation and dust (Svensson and Linden 1965, Tamm 1953) making them suitable indicators of vrits such air pollut as lead (Ruhling and Tyler 1968, 1969). Pursuing this, A Ruhling and Tyler (1968) demonstrated chronological increases in lead concen trations in Swedish mosses from I860 to 1968 (Fig. 7 , in Ruhling and Tyler 1968, pg. 341) corresponding to increased use of coal, 1875-1900, and 1950-1968. Mosses also were found to reflect regional gradients in atmos pheric lead content (Figs. 8 , 9 > /P , in Ruhling and Tyler 1968, pg. 335, 336, 337). Unfortunately, data on lead in native fauna comparable to that for the flora in Sweden are not yet available, and virtually nothing is known of the contribution of atmospheric lead to the lead burden of animals in natural ecosystems. Swedish scientists have begun studies concerning lead in natural ecosystems (Westermark 1969) but few data are yet available: only scattered - DUP050055837 $ reports exist, and note of this is made by Danielson (1970). Data reflecting historical increases in lead content in humans (Jaworowski 1968, Becker et al. 1968) presumably can be considered indicative of possible increases in native fauna, but no substantive information exists. , CYCLING OF LEAD IN THE BIOSPHERE To place atmospheric lead in proper perspective regarding natural eco systems it is essential to understand its processes of biogeochemical cycling. Because of the lack of significance attached to lead in natural systems in past years, no comprehensive treatment of its movements within living systems has been made. There is not sufficient information on the chemical forms, amounts, and rates of transfer of lead from one component of the environment to another to permit treatment of the subject in terms of systems analysis. However, fragmentary data do exist allowing some insight into the movement of lead atoms in the biosphere, and these come primarily from studies of lead-210 in the environment. The importance of radionuclides in tracing the pathways and determining flux rates of lead was stressed by Burton and Steward (1960). Analyses of lead-210 in rainwater has allowed calculation of its residence time in the atmosphere to be from 7-30 days, depending on environmental conditions (Ter Haar et al. 1967, Francis et al. 1970). Whether these values apply to atmospheric lead aerosols resulting from gasolines is not known, but Ter Haar et alt(1967) found that stable lead and lead-210 were well mixed in air. Should the residence time of atmospheric lead aerosols be from 1-4 weeks, a the turn-over rate of these materials may be such that/world-wide steady state of lead already has been reached in the atmosphere* It should .. at least be possible to estimate the turn-over time and volume of lead removed from the atmosphere by natural processes. Another interesting observation by Ter Haar et al. (1967) is that the *0 DUP050055838 contribution of stable and radioactive atmospheric lead to soil is about 0.2%/year of the existing natural burdens of soil lead. This amounts to about 0.04 ppm/year and might explain the failure of most investigators to detect a significant accumulation of lead in soils removed from heavily trafficed and industrial areas. Studies of lead-210 also have provided insight into the movemet of lead into plants. For example, Wilson 6 Cline (1966) concluded that soil lead largely is unavailable for uptake by plants and amounts to only 0,003-0.005% of the amount in soils. Several investigators have concluded that the primary source of lead entry into plants is from rainfall and not soil (Francis et al. 1968, Hill 1960, Mayneord jet al-1960). Contrary to this, however, Tso jet al, (1966) believe that a significant amount of soil lead is available to plants, but the exclusion of soil lead by most plants (Mensel 1965) appears to rule this out. The movement of lead into animals is a little known subject, and the relative contributions of atmospheric lead and dietary lead are poorly understood. Smith et al#(1970) found that some mammals breathing heavily contaminated air absorbed lead and concentrated it in bone tissue. Reindeer apparently assimilate lead-210 from their food and concentrate it aknost solely in bone (Miettinen 1967). Accumulation of lead in bones of vertebrates may be a general rule, since this also was observed in fish, with lead-210 in bone exceeding that in muscle by a factor of over 50 (Holtzman 1967). As in vertebrates, marine shellfish concentrate considerably more lead in hard parts than in flesh (Holtzman 1967). Accumulation in soft tissues increases with increasing concentrations of lead in water, but the process of accumulation largely is reversible whenever the source of contamination is removed (Pringle et al. 1968). 10 EFFECTS OF LEAD ON NATURAL BIOTA Except in circumstances of extreme contamination, lead appears- at present not to be having adverse effects on native plants or animals. There is no evidence indicating that natural concentrations of lead are toxic to vegetation, and no mention is made of damage to plants in Swedish investi-* gations or other studies of vegetation in relation to automobile traffic. Experimental data, however, indicate that the possibility exists of lead contamination someday reaching proportions deleterious to plants (Keaton 1937, Hammett 1928, Gregory and Bradsh|w 1965, Brewer 1966). For example, Koeppe & Hiller (1970) recently have shown that lead chloride can be p f3ot deleterious to^ respiration and that the safety margin can be narrow under certain environmental conditions, A narrow margin of safety also exists for some estuarine mollusks (Pringle jet al. 1968) l onsiderable toxicity was exhibited toward animals exposed to lead at 0,1-0.2 ppm in water. Birds appear vulnerable ,to lead poisoning (Begley and Locke 1967) and death apparently can result with as little as 0.5-3,7 ppm lead in the liver. Most hazards posed by lead to wildlife arise from lead shot or other, .metallic lead substances and not from atmospheric forms. DUP050055840 SUMMARY & CONCLUSIONS 1. Aerosols constitute the principal class of atmospheric lead compounds reaching natural environments, and their primary source is leaded auto motive fuels* 2. The primary mode of input of lead aerosols to ecosystems is precipitation* 3. Historical samples of both biotic and abiotic materials document increases of lead in certain components of the environment corresponding to the advent of the Industrial Revolution and leaded gasoline* 4. Increases in lead content are not detectable in soils removed from heavily trafficed or industrial areas. 5. Lead concentrations are increasing in marine waters and freshwater s. 6. Lead concentrations are increasing in some plants* especially mosses which may serve as indicators of atmospheric lead pollution . M 7. Too few data are available to evaluate possible lead increases in most groups of animals, terrestrial or aquatic. 8. Little is known of the assimilation of lead by animal^ but it appears to accumulate to some extent in the bones of vertebrates.. 9. Too little attention has been given to the ecological pathways of lead and its rates of transfer from one environmental compartment to another. 10. Virtually nothing is known about the effects of chronic exposures of native flora and fauna to increasing concentrations of lead in the environment. DUP050055841 LITERATURE CiTEU Malone page. Ault, W. U., R.G. Senechal, fa W.E. Erieba^h. 1970, Isotopic composition as a natural tracer of lead in the environment. Environ. Sci. Techno1 4: 305-317. Becker, R.O,, J.A. Spadaro, ^ E.W. Berg, 1968,. The trace elements of human bone. J. Bone Joint Surg. 50-A(2): 326-334, Begley, G.E. and L.N. Locke. 1967, The occurrence of lead in tissues of wild birds. Bull. Environ, Contam. Toxicol. 2: 297-305. Blanchard, R.L. 1966. Relationship between polonium-210 and lead-210 in man and his environment, pg. 281-294. In Radioecological Concentration Process. Pergamon Press, N.Y. Brewer, R.F. 1966. Lead. In Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils. H.D. Chapman, ed, Univ. of Calif., Div, of Agric. Sci., Riverside, Calif, Brown, J.S. 1962. Ore leads and isotopes. Econ, Geol. 57: 673-720. Burton, W.M. and N.G. Steward. 1960. Use of long-lived natural radio activity as an atmospheric tracer. Nature 186: 584-589. Chow, T.J. 1968. Isotope analysis of seawater by mass spectrometry. J. Water Poll. Cont. Fed. 40: 399-411. Chow, T.J. 1970, Lead accumulation in roadside soil and grass. Nature 225: 295-296. __ ____ _ ............................................... ......... Chow, T.J. 19-- . Environmental pollution from industrial lead, (in press) Pergamon Press, N.Y. Chow, T. J. and J. L. Earl. 1970a Lead aerosols in the atmosphere: Increasing concentrations. Science 169: 557-580. Chow, T. J. Ti- L, Earl. 1970b. Lead and uranium in Pennsylvanian anthracite. Chem. Geol. 6: 43-49. DUP050055842 Malone - page 13 Chow, T. J., j. L. Earl, and C. F. Bennett. 1969. Lead aerosols in marine atmosphere. Environ. Sci. Technol. 3: 737-740. Chow, T.j. and C. Patterson. 1962. The occurrence and significance of lead isotopes in pelogic.sediments. Geochim. Costnochim. Acta 26 : 263-293. Danielson, L* 1970. Gasoline containing lead. Ecol. Res. Cotnm., Bull. No. 6, Swedish Nat. Sci. Res. Council, Stockholm, Sweden, 45 pgs. Durfor, C.N. ft E. Becker. 1964. Selected data on public supplies of the 100 largest cities in the United States, 1962. J. Amer. Water Works ' Assoc. 56: 237-246. Francis, C.W., G. Chesters Erhardt. 1968 plants. Environ, Sci. Technol. 2: 690-695. 210 Kionium entry into 586-589. 4: . ......... - First, M.W. 1968, Process and systems control. In Air Pollution,. A.C. Stern, ed., 2nd edition, Vol 3, Chap. 41, p. 298. Academic Press, N.Y. .................. ... . . . ___ Gregory, R.P.G. and A.D, Bradshaw, 1965*. Heavy metal'tp'lerance in populations of Agrostis tenuis and other grasses. New Phytol. 64: 131-143.* Hamilton, E.I. 1967. Some problems concerning lead in the natural environ ment, pg. 355-358, in B, Aberg^F.P. Hungate, eds., Radioecological Concentration Processes. Pergamon Press, N.Y. Hammett,. F.S. 192S. The retardative Protoplasma 4; 1S3-191. influence of lead on root growth. Hill, C.R. 1960. Lead-210 and polonium-210 in grass. Nature 187: 211-212. K Holtzmap, P..B, 1967. Concentrations of the naturally occurring radionuclides ^Ra, *-^Pb, and 210f o in aquatic fauna, pg. 535-546. In Symposium on Radioecology* D.J. Nelson, F.C. Evans, eds. USA2C, Oak Ridge, Term. ; * * v. ** DUP050055843 Malone - page 14 \S Holtzman, R.B. 1970. Discussion : Isotopic composition as a natural tracer of lead in the environment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 4: 324^*317. Huff, L.C. 1952. Abnormal copper, lead, zinc content of soil near metalliferous veins* Econ. Geol. 47: 517-542. Jaworowski, Z. 1968. Stable lead in fossil ice and bone. Nature 217* 152-153. . . Keaton, C.M. 1937 The influence of lead compounds on the growth of barley* Soil Sci* 43: 401-411* Koeppe, D.E. and H.J. Miller. 1970. Lead effects on corn mitochondrial respiration. Nature 167: 1376-137#. Lagerwerff, J.V. 1967. Heavy-metal contamination of soils, pg. 343-364. In N.C. Brady (ed.), Agriculture & the Quality of Our Environment. John Wiley and Sons, N.Y. Livingston, D.A. 1963. Chemical composition of river s Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 440-G, 64 pg. ake s. U.S. Lazrus, A.L., E. Lorange, ^ J.P. Lodge, Jr. 1970. Lead and other metal ions . in United States precipitation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 4: 55-58. feyneord, W.V., R.C. Turner, and J.K. Radley. I960. Alpha activity of certain botanical materials. Nature 187: 208- v/ Kenzel R.C-. 1965. Soil-olant relationships of radioactive elements. Health Physics 11: 1325-1332. Miettinen, J.K. 1967. Enrichment of radioactivity by artic ecosystmes in Finnish Lapland, pg. 23-31 in Symposium on Radioecology, D.J. Nelson and F.C. 3vand, eds, USASC, Oak Ridge, Tenn. Motto, .H.L., R.H. Daines, D.M. Chilko, C.K. Motto, 1970, Lead in soils and plants: its relationship to traffic volume and proximity to highways. Environ. Sci, Technol, 4: 231-238, Mueller, P. K., H.L. Helwig, A,E. Alcocer, W.K. Gong, ft E,E. Jones. 1962, Concentration of fine particles and Pb in car exhaust. Amer. Soc. Testing Mater. Spec. Tech, Publ. No. 352: 60-73, *4 DUP050055844 MajLone - page 15 V Murozumi, M., T. J. Chow, and C. Patterson.. 1969. Chemical comp osition of pollutant lead aerosols, terrestrial dusts, and sea salts in Greenland and Antarctic snow strata. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 33: (L247-1294. Patterson, C. 1965. Contaminated and natural lead .environments of man* Arch. Environ. Health 11:344-363. Pringle, B.H., D.E. Hissong, E.L. Katz, and S.T. Mulawka. 1968 Trace jogtal accumulation hy estuarine mo Husks. J Sanit. Eng. )iv. 44(SA3, #5970): 455-475. ___ \ Ruhling, A. and G. Tyler. 1968, An ecological approach to the lead problem, Bot. Notiser. 121: 321-342. Ruhling, A. and G. Tyler. 1969. Ecology of heavy metals - a regional and historical study, Bot. Notiser 122: 248-259. Schuck, E.A. ^J.K, Locke. 1970. Relationship of automotive lead parti culates to certain consumer crops. Environ. Sci. Technol. 4: 324-332, Svensson, G.K. and K. Linden, 1965. The quantitative accumulation of ^Zr &c>s Nb and 140ga & ^Ia in carpets of forest moss. Health Physics 11: 1033-1042. Smith, R.O., J. Szajnar, and exnerimental animals. 1970. Study of lead levels in Hecker^ , Technol. hi 333-338. ... * Tamm, C.O, 1953, Growth yfeld, and nutrition in carpets of a forest moss (Hylocemiu splendens). Meddelanden Statens Skogsforskningsinst. 43: 1-140. \ Ter Haar, G.L., R.B. Holtzman, and H.F. Lucas, Jr. 1967, Lead and lead-210 in rainwater. Nature 216: 353-355. Tso, T.C., N. Harley, jfh.T. Alexander. 1966. Sources of lead-210 and polonium-210 in tobacco. Science 153: 880-882, DUP050055845 Malone - page 16 Wasterimark, T. 1969. Chemistry and trace elements, pg. 43-451 in Metals ^Ecology, Ecol Res. Comm. Bull, 5, Swed, Nat. Sci. Res. Council, Stockholm, Sweden. Wilson, D.O. and J.F. Cline, 1966, Removal of plutonium-239, tungsten-185, and lead-210 from soils. Nature 209: 941-942, Wright, J.R., R. Levick,0^^!. J. Atkinson. 1955. Trace element distribution in virgin profiles representing four great soil groups, J. Soil Sci, Soc. Amer. Proc. 19: 340-344. * DUP050055846 u 0 43 P< CO 1 CD w ua Cl 43 U P O 523 a) 43 -P 0 H 0 O 4J O 0 *G O CT\ P 00 (XCM r-l r-l 0 <0 60 6 P< M 0) *> on d n o 0 ON 0 rH 4W 0 r-l *00 H Pi <OW UPSrVH) to w ^>* O0 44 m (u00oo0 0 E 4Po4 O O w 0H 44 D I OO ^2 4J sOr sr ,P0i 4l O CO o6 0CO *d U>> w s4J 0) --I m I? o 1-1 *Q 0 CO . . CO 40 0 Pi M4 U *HU 0 O >N 4J S. r-l CO CO (D fiH fi O O CO 4J cn o CO uo 0 nUo r-l 0 4-1 #* ** CM *d co a r-l 4u4 o CO 0 > Ou 0 CD O0 o *o 44 in vD CM CM o u >N Pi 0 P 44 0 O 44 rl in o 0u rH CO so CM CO cn m m NO in r-l cn NO 0 r> 00 o n ON Q404 -i rH r-l r-l tta jLone - rage u DUP050055847 EA3LS 2 Malone - page 18 1x23(1 Content in P.P.M,. (Parts per Million) of Three Different Soil Profiles as a. 7unction of Depth Horizon Depth (") (approximate) P.P.M, Depth (") 6 ' 'o A3 8 8o^ 73 ' 53 0 1 b lb 3 18 21 C 26 in 8 31 + 13 <1 <1 26+ P.P.M. 28 15 9 18 11 12 Depth (") 0 2 /.$ 7 12 16 20+ P.P.M. lb 67 6o 72 68 37 ^ First profile values from Schuck and Locke (1970)j other values iron Yfright et al. (1955) 7j t* DUP050055848 Malone - page 19 Table 3* Lead in soil along highways in northeastern New Jersey (Motto et al, 1970X* Distance from highway m 25 75 125 175 225 Av. 25 75 125 175 225 Av, 12. S 14.7 16.9 134 48 48 70 39 87 60 39 78 63 30 64 58 23 77 77.0 35.8 70.8 82 26 39 43 34 64 36 26 68 47 26 39 52 27 44 52.0 27.8 50.8 Traffic Volume (Vehicles/24 hr. in thousands) 17.3 17.7 19.7 19,8 35.2 41.0 45.6 48.6 154 42 42 49 43 66.0 442 43 43 34 40 120.4 0-6 inches p.p.m. Pb 125 77 192 165 95 59 76 130 129 70 70 66 332 80 48 129 193 64 `49 228 174.8 70.0 87.0 143,6 47 30 108 84 162 86.2 206 157 109 91 74 127.4 6-12 inches p.p.m. Pb 29 616 72 62 42 34 20 53 17 34 28 24 76 86 18 32 24 28 76 28 34 - 32 247 63 26 31.4 143.2 95.2: 60.8 29.6 48 58 178 70 23 86 48 18 ' 38 61 21 30 73 229 33 60.0 69.8 73.0 48.6 266 117 104 5! 114 130.4 65 62 20 32 31 42.0 54.7 169 171 98 78 78 118.8 48 76 26 20 34 40.8 Av. 159.5 85.8 78.2 87.2 92.5 100.6 105.0 47.4 39.4 35.8 71.2 59.7 -v--- r DUP050055849 Wa lone ^ page i\j <- TABLE t LEAD CONTENT III TOP SOILS FROM VARIOUS LOCATIONS^ua^)_ LOCATION . LEAD P.P.H. Antarctica South Victoria Land Americas Kexico Peru Chile Texas Florida South Carolina Washington, D,C. Massachusetts New York * * McKelvey Valley Victoria Valley King Valley King-David Valley Matterhorn Valley Mexico City Lima Santiago Houston West Palm Beach Chester Boston New York * Quadelune Garden Plaza Grau Cajamarquilla Natural History ''useurn Normal Park Old Market Square Sam Houston Park Currie Commons Park Brockman High School Ellipse Park Public Garden Central Park Fort Tryon Park Cloister Botanical Garden 6-8 6 - 11 9 5 12 , 179 223 72 90 ` 53 720 99 75 600 243 345 834 185 293 224 DUP050055850 Maione page n New Hampshire. California Hawaii Asia Japan Chi na Hongkong Meriden Borrego Springs Brawley San Diego Los Angeles San Francisco Hawaii Island Hilo Honolulu Kimball Union Academy 18 White Mountain 8 Laguna Mountain * .6 Palm Canyon 7 U.S. Dept, of Agriculture . 20 Balboa Park 194 Horton Plaza . 164 Newtown Park 267 MacArthur Park 422 MacArthur Park 3,357 Hancock Park 306 Golden Gate Park 560 Volcano National Park 4 Airport Park 214 Iolani Palace 224 Foster Botanical Cardan 415 Irwin Park 1,088 Tokyo Taipei Kowloon Victoria Hibiya Park 167 Shiba Park 169 Ueno Park 195 Meteorological Pvesearch Inst 67 Wan Shou Park 67 National Palace Museum 80 Post Office 78 Statue Square 107 DUP050055851 Thailand Malaysia Europe % Austria Belgium Denmark France Germany Holland U.S.S.R. Bangkok Penang Vienna Brussels Copenhagen Paris Kiel Munchen Hannover Hamburg Amsterdam Moscow Sananluang Park 331 Patumwaro Circle 1,175 Chulalongkorn University 143 Museum Park 182 Fort Cornwallis. 107 Prater Gare Midi City Hall Jardin des Tuileries Forest Englischer Garten Masch Park . Botanical Garden Museum Park Lomonosov University 85 859 105 220 11 158 1 757 411 893 19 DUP050055852 Malone - page 23 Fig. X. Isotopic correlation of lead in various specimens (Chow 1970). . St JOXPH *r > , .j * : J DUP050055853 Malone - page 24 Fig. 2. Increase of lead in snow at Gamp Century, Greenland since 800 B, C. Taken from Murozumi et al Age of samples DUP050055854 tFig. 3. lead profiles in the major oceans (Chow 1968). Malone - page 25 Il DEPTH m eters- s DUP050055855 Malone - page zo Fig. 4. lead gradients in vegetation in a road transect at Stavsjo, Sweden* Plants sampled were Pleurozium schreberti, Lusula oilosa. Vacciniuin vitis-ldaea, and Picea abies. Taken from Ruhling and Tyler (1968). DUP050055856 na j.vytt5? r-'+jb'* Fig. 5. lead gradients in vegetation in a road transect at Oskarshamn, Sweden. Plants sampled were Luzula pilosa, Deschamosia flexuosa and Vaccinjum vitis-idaea. Taken from Ruhling and Tyler (1968). I ' V. ; V / DUP050055857 DUP050055858 J.'ia4.vuc -- page J Fig, 7. Lead Concentrations in samples of Hyloconium solendens, Pleurozium schreberi and Rypnum cupressiforme collected in Skane, Sweden from I860 to .1968 wH ./f DUP050055859 Malone - page 30 Fig. 8 Lead concentrations in Hylocomiun splendens in Sweden. ' ?aken from Ruhling and Tyler (1968), **/( v* * ' ' \4.. , .. : r DUP050055860 Malone - page 31 Fig. 9. Lead concentrations in Pleurozium schreberi in Sweden. Taken from Ruhling and Tyler (1963). DUP050055861 Malone - page yi .* Fig. 10. Lead concentrations in Hynnum cupressiforme in Sweden. Taken from Ruhling and Tyler (1968). J & DUP050055862