Document 2q72zVaR3XpRm6Mr568GJg0p6

'' , V 7#^'*' ^ ^ LEAD INDUSTRIES ASSOCIATION, INC. *tt MAOIfOH AVINUI XCW TO#*. N, V. 10017 miMONl - MU MM .J *} / '! J j i r.J february 21, 1967 lb: All Meabera of the Lead Health end Safety Oonsslttea Be: Survey on Public Knowledge end Attitude* oa Lead Attached you will find en>enelysl* of icae of the finding* of * survey oa public knowledge and attitude* on lead conducted for u* la November, 1966 by the Opinion farch Corporetion of Princeton, Bv Jersey. Til* survey was designed to determine whether people, consider lead a* ft "harmful" substance and vfcy, and to get *a In* dlcatlon of whet people know about the use* of lead. Carefully planned sampling technique* were used la this survey to preclude the possibility of stirring up undue iatereat In lead, lb* saspllcg population was selected as representing an accurate cross section of the entire U.S. population. Four quest Ions eorxeralrg lead wrr* asked anorg a nus&er of other unrelated quest 1 on*. These four questions, together with a tabulation of the percent response to tacit, are also attached for your review. Very truly yours, ^ C. Janet C. Bourne* Jc*/j* Attachment* (l) I'iK _ i i r- V' r1. .. 1')::- " 'l-----I'^T' Li Aiioa <4: 1 Dlacusalon of ORC Caravan Survey oo Lead f The ORC Caravan Survey oo Public Knowledge #M Attitude* on Lead provided data valuable In evaluating prcacnt and plarnii^ future prograsa and actlvltle* for Lead Industries Association, Inc. The survey respondents fii i. wre elected oo a probability sampling baale and therefore the population -TT questioned can be projected to the entire U.8. population of sen and vt*ea "*i over 18 (within certain aaapllr^ variatlooa). s Here are loot of the aajor finding* provided by the data] 1. A large proportion of the public -- b2 percent -- Identifier lead aaong 10 eubctance* aa being harmful to health. If thoae who pleiad "all aubataoce** are Included, tfcl* figure vould rl*e to Lb percent. Lead war tha aeccod oet frequest substance cased, following carbon aooaxlde wtlch vaa picked by 75 percent. Lead ranked well ahead of the third (carbon dioxide 29 percent) and fourth (tulfur dioxide 28 percent) aubatancaa naraed. Lead vaa picked man frequently by thoae with aone college education, 53 percent, and by professional and managerial people, 19 percent. Included In the*# groupe would be tboee who are aaoat likely to be cowualcatora and. , ccxammlty leader*. 2. Conaiderable lack of sophistication coocernlrg knowledge of use* of lead waa a hew among the general population and (pacific legMctl of tha population. Searly oce-fourth of the reapoodent* *ald `don't know" when aakei to nase a uae for laad. "fenolle* a* a uae for lead ranked aeccod, 17 percent, aaong reaponae* (largely becauae 25 percent of the woneo ve. 9 percent of the aen gave this), r trailing paint, 27 percent, which waa caned about equally by aen and woaen. A Crtaa uae* of lead aetal received high Bent loo, largely because of s reapeoee* by aen. Theae Included flahlng weight* 13 percent, aaounltlon 15 percent, and pipe 16 percent, the latter being named about equally by aen and woaea. sr 1 Lead for battarle* waa volunteered by only 6 percent * 12 percent of the aen and only 1 percent of the wesaen. Other Important uae* of lead were r' little atnlloned soldering 7 percent, cable 2 percent, type aetal 1 per cent, ceramic*, wvaent looed; and ant 1-knock ccapouad* 8 percent. l. 3. Health danger* frta lead ar* oot aj* lated with leaded gaaolla* or aatcaaoblla exhauata to any appreciates extent. Only 1 percent specified gasollA# fua* aa a reason for be Having laad baneful to health. Chly 3 P*f* i cent rawed lead a* ccalng fro* auUaaobile eahauat. (Thl* figure contrast* with 8 percent naming gasoline a* one uae of lead, but the lead uae queatlo* waa asked after tha auto exhaust question, and thl* could have at Paulsled g thought-association with gaealin*.) i-& KV 'j- awwp'i^j.w ,#>ifwpa^fwi LIA12047 T ms**** '( mi' ;m '`nii'' ijilr i 'iiii*ii MM*iimiirtmiBh ini-ii~ii'i'i^^J~'*---" nif--ir <-?i - '%*; : -2- lt. la the public klad, the question of lead being harmful imm to ba associated primarily with paint*. Although th leading reipon*e, 17 percent, 1* that of "lead poisoning (general)", other re*pon** related to paint mount up to 11 percent. Baaed upon thee* data, the following observations are aedei 1. A far larger segment of the population a*oclat* lead a* being "haraful to health" than vltb any of lead'e najor and beneficial uaae. 2. Bearly half of the population (over half of the college-educated) believe lead le "hamful to health." IMi aeans that they could be expected to be receptive to -- or are, in effect, pre-conditioned for -- suggestion* that lead enln loos Into tbe ataoephere nay constitute a health hazard, that they are not now aware of use of lead In gasoline or scission of lead froa auto exhausts should be kept well In Bind In future planning. However, this should not lead to complacency that they will not be cede Increasingly aware of leaded gasoline, as the official and Bass media publicity campaigns on air pollution Intensify. The general lack of knowledge eaoog the public of important and useful application* of lead and lead compounds In modern society Is obvious and offers a challenge for brlrgiig a better understanding of lead's contributions to many industrial and consumer activities. '"' ' "' ` r':?_,:.:';'. '" ' ' ' *' LIA12048 l Hill end tncwltoo, Inc. raaDCKAHr t as u l at x o s cr raspo?sra TO LFAD <<JXSTI<X3 IB CAKAYAB 6UHVTT (JV Percentage of Rerponecs) 1. Her* 1* * Hit of subject* which l t < kr.cvn to be Is our envlronsest. Which, if any, do you fill are harmful to health? i. / t 3 j j 3 cadalxos carbon dioxide carbon isoooxlde hydrocarbons lead Iron nitrogen oxide sulfur dioxide nickel osone all of these none of these no opinion 24 304 734 9i 424 64 134 204 01 31 21 21 iol 2. Is what ways do you thick lead 1* harmful (asked of those who Motioned lead as being harmful la question Bo. 1}? V police (general) 19i lead poisoning froo paint 51 paint takes Internally 31 faint fuses 0f harmful to lung* (non-specific ) Jt lead fucel 3l harmful If taken Internally (faint soo'ipeclfled) VJ * harsful If gets In blood stream Itf leal pencils gasollse-gasollae fuoes as ammunition In bullet* 14 14 24 3. Looking over this list again, *>lch of these rubitancei do you think c c s m from actor vehicle exhaust? calalua Of carbon d lexIds 174 carbon acooxlde 6c4 hydrocarbons 74 lead 31 Iron- Of nltrrgen oxide 24 rulfur dioxide 24 nickel Of oione 14. all of these Of none of thets 14 j no opiate* H s:; N 472.02 its gasoline consumption will be less by virtuo of a high com pression ratio* in its engine. And a high compression engine calls for a high octane gasoline, made possible by lead additives. For years -- from 1926 to 1959 -- the maximum amount of TEL. for automobile gasolines was held at a level of three cubic centimoters a gallon -- or about 1/10 of an ounce to a 128-ounce gallon. However, the average annual amount used was far below this, and never got much above two cubic centimeters per gallon. Because of increasing difficulties by gasoline makers in upgrading gasolines to the octane ratings called for by newer and better engines, the maximum was increased in 1959 to four cubic centimeters per gallon -- although again, the average remains below this, running at 2.16 cubic centimeters per gallon j in late 1966. Two Surgeon General '"onm!ttco. geported On Lead Use Between the time of the first commercial use of TEL. ' (in 1923) and the present, much knowledge from experience and scientific research has developed concerning not only the use of lead in gasoline but also about all of the lead in man's environ ment and about how man handles the lead to which he is exposed. A first major atep in the accumulation and application of knowledge about lead in 1926 with the report of a special committee of the U.S. Surgeon General which concluded "that there are at present no good grounds for prohibiting the use of ethyl (leaded) gasollne...provided that its distribution and uees are controlled by proper regulations.* | k t The 1925-26 committee was appointed after the industry suspended sale of leaded gasoline in May 1925, following some lead poisoning cases in a plant Involved In the manufacture and handling of tetraethyl lead. The Surgeon General's committee, in Hay 1926, recommended certain procedures and regulations covering the manu f! facture, blending, mixing, and distribution of lesded gasoline, which were accepted by existing and subsequent manufactures of lead sddltivea and by the oil Industry. The result has been that in 1959 the Public Health Service said It "has no knowledge of any occurrence of clinical lead poisoning in the manufacture, blending, mixing or uee of TtL, or In the uao of leaded gasoline since the adoption of ths recommended regulations of the 1926 Committee." i i IS 472.03 -S A ` 4 .j 1 $ This observation waa Included in tho report of another Surgeon General*a Adviaory Committee convened in early 1959 to conaider raiaing the maxinun level of lead alkyl additivea in gaaolinea from three cubic centimetera to four cubic centimeters per gallon. Thla committee, which Dr. Harold J. Hagnuaon of the U.S. Public Health Service served aa chairman, reviewed past findings and the present state of knowledge concerning lead additives and lead in the environment. Although the committee observed that a 'conclusive answer' is impossible because of lack of medical data, it concluded that the proposed increase 'would not increase the hazards involved in the manufacture and distribution of leaded gasoline* and that available date do not indicate that the change 'would significantly increase the hazard to public health from eir pollution.' In making its recommendations. the 1959 Surgeon General's committee took into account, among many other thinga, the consider-, ations that the increase in the permissible level of TEL would-- _ - effect a saving on the drain on crude oil resources relieve capital requirements of oil refiners for making better gasoline -- pemt many (especially snail) refiners better to meet competition -- provide economic advantages to the motoring public And would MOT be a factor in formation of atmospheric snog and itrHants Thus it vii that in 1966 about 99 percent of ell gasoline marketed in this country contains sons lead additives, with the average amount per gallon calculated at 2,)6 cubic centimetera for the first 10 monihs of 1966. ^ t However. In its report the committee recommended that the Public Health Service, in cooperation with industry groups, "conduct studies to provide more definitive data on levels and trends of atmospheri; lead eontaminaiion in selected urban areas and of the l>udy burden of lead of selected population groups. If Lhsse Similes should bring to light any data of significance, you (the Surgeon General) may wish to reconsider the recommendation Of thla Committee.* The results of some studies conducted because of this recommendation are discussed later. Many questions about lead in gasoline can be answered '(in' the basis of scientific evidence, but not without considering er sources of lead m the environment to which man is exposed. '* * ** little or no import of and by itself. But aavaral compelling other aepecta enter into the aituation. drink. First, there are tiny amounts of lead in our food and Second, leaded gaaolmo ia only one eource of lead in the air. Third, attention to all the aubatancea in our air has increaaed in recent years. And.fourth, the baaia of any concern ia the fact that lead, aa a metal, can be toxic when too much of it ia taken in by man. This acknowledged toxicity of lead haa resultod'ln'the accumulation of a large body of scientific knowledge about lead' in the environment and ita effects on man, how to measure tiny amounts and evaluate their significance, and how to control and treat over-exposure. .j This knowledge did not c o m about because of any direct concern over the general public's exposure to lead, however, in certain lead-working occupations and through accidents, over-doses of lead could, did, and still do occur, but with decreasing fre quency. Experimental and observational studies on lead over the past several decados have brought about a marked decrease in occupational exposures and illnesses Also, importantly, there has been developed a scientific understanding of what happens to the lead that nan takes In and how much of it he can absorb before he epprosches a toxic rone, and what that toxic lone nay be. At a symposium on lead sponsored by the Public Health Service in late 1W>S, Dr. Herbert E. Stokirvger, chief. Toxicology Section, Division of Occupational Health, MIS, Cincinnati!, reported! "Exposure to alt-borne load, dust and fume, is less by a ractor of ssveral magnitudes in all industrial categories since l^X.* This decrease in exposure hae continued to the present he said, even though as early a* 1'14S, the average industrial exposure in most work categories was below the acceptable limits treatise of ths acceptance of safe work standards for lead. r Benchmarks Developed Occupational and accidental lead exposures are relevant here because medicel and scientific experience with such esses 4 ^ ft 0v"'-` I*1- ' j`l * 1 < * . w '~ '',+,WC35>!<J'WV." Sr. ^ v" JT * ^Jjf fciriilziliM r^.-^^5aws=u*.;:iKiBJ' wmm & * *J3 +\j l ' ' . % ;' -5- provided basic benchmarks essential in considering the general public'a expoaure to lead in the environment -- from air and all other aourcea. Important among theaa arei 1. Lead levels in the blood and urine of man can now be measured and any unusual rise in these levela can indicate an un usual intake of lead. The lead content in urine, since it is being excreted, la considered as an indicator of a change in lead intake. When it approaches ISO micrograas per liter of urine, this la con sidered a signal for further checking. Usually, the next thing checked is the lead level of the blood. If this le approaching 80 micrograas per 100 grama of blood, this is considered a warning signal, for lead intoxication may occur somewhere above this level, but is not known to occur below it. In studies of people with diagnosed lead poisoning, it was found that relatively large quantities of lead were absorbed and that the concentration of lead in the blood ranged from ISO to 800 micro- grams per 100 grams of blood. r -2. The sverage man takes in about 100 micrograms of lead daily in his food and drink and about 10 micrograms in the air he breathes. And he eliminates this same amount dally, mainly through his feces and urine. Thus the sversge individual is considered In *lesd balsnce* and is not sccumulating excess lead in hi* body. ]. experiments have shown that a normal man can almost double his normal intake of lead through hie diet for a prolonged period without showing sn Increase in lead concentration in his blood. (This was tested by adding 300 micrograms to the dally diets of human subjects under study.) 4. In lead-working industries, a level of 200 micrograas per cubic meter of sir has been generally accepted ss safe for workers on sn eight-hour work day. besides limiting exposures. Other protective measures have been taken. Removal from exposure is the simple and effective step to take if any tendency, toward an increased lead level in the blood shows up. Removal frdw''exposure brings down the level. The application of preventive measures relating to lead exposure has been widely Accepted in industry. ) lL2iiLL Lir.!iiJ!.'iLrJL.JL&JLs*. 1 Good industrial hygiene practices have prevented any cases of lead intoxication in the manuiacturing of lead alkyls in the last )0 years. Similar good records are rej-orted for other segments of the lead industry. Even inadvertent poisoning by load has been re duced and development of medical treatment has decreased the possible damaging effects of over-exposure to lead. * JSifegKf The above facta are only a amall part of the accumulated knowledge about lead in the body -- in the bonea, liver, kidneya, brain, and other organa and tiaauea. Medical experimenta have involved feeding two or three tinea the normal daily diet intake of lead to human aubjecta to deternine what happena to the lead and to the aubject. Other experimenta, atill going on, teat human aubjecta in roona with artificially high lead content in the air. On the baaia of accumulated information about lead intake and ita effecta on people. Prof. Ralph G. Smith of Wayne State Univeraity'a School of Medicine, commented at the 1965 lead aympoalum that the current knowledge of aafe body levela of lead ia "entirely adoguate in the prevention of diagnoaable lead poiaoning in induatry, and it ia widely believed to be applicable to the population-at-large." Thia acientific knowledge haa alao made it poaaible to atudy the relative contribution of lead emiaalona from gaaoline enginea to environmental lead to determine whether there appeara to be any effect on the general population. - > '/ / ' *' t 1 ' . '' 0 Si" i -,i" III. THE `THREE CITY SURVEY" AND OTHER LEAD STUDIES To Mingle out one of the many substances in the air and then to conaider a aingla aource for thia one aubatance an. tall the risk of diatortlng a complex problem. `Lead la but one of many metals preaent In the atmos phere and diet of man. Further, it ia only a minor component of the tremendous mixture of chemical and biological matter which permeates the environment. There are many aubatancea pre aent in this mixture which man never encountered at all until relatively recent times..." said Professor Smith of Wayne State A University Medical School, Detroit. Tiny specks of dust -- unseen and relatively sparse -- in the air of our cities (and countryside) are made up of many things. Thia dust (called particulate matter) can be measured in terms of micrograms (one one-millionth of a gram) contained in a cubic meter of air, about the amount of air contained it) ; a box 40 inches on a aide. Studies indicate that lead particles .1 may range from 1.5 percent to 2.5 percent of all city particulate matter, on the average. Of course, the amount of particulate matter, including .s lead, is never constant. It is affected by humidity, temperature, 5 geography, wind currents, and a number of social and industrial ) factors. As Just one example, in or.e city the amount of particu. i late matter measured during a year ranged from a high of 192 i micrograms per cubic meter of air in one location in February, to a low of 51 micrograms per cubic meter of air in another location in March. --"'j Nine Sources Listed for Lead in Air Further complicating the study of lead in the air is that there are at least nine sources of lead in the air, said Dr. Joseph F. Tomashefskl and Ralph I. Mitchell of the Battelle : Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio at the 1965 lead symposium. They listed along with motor vehicle exhausts, pesticldesT^coal burning, refuse incineration, industrial, natural, dusts and sprays, tobacco smoke, and paint attrition. `Lead occurring naturally in soils and rocks contributes only a small part to air pollution,- they cow*ented. `In Industrial, areas and where distillation and burning of coal occurs, higher atmospheric levels can be attained. Lead can be emitted into the atmosphere from smelting processes, from the Incineration of acrap and other industrial uses, and from dusts and aprsye "e sp-ue uujum. < - /VSiW-ihn (Ineectlcidea containing load). Tho moat Important aourco of load contamination in tho atmoaphore ia oxhauat from vohlclos uaing leaded gaaoline... Studioa on cigarotto saokera indicate higher blood levela of load than in nonaaokera..,* Studioa continue to be node to anavor auch quoatione aa> How much lead ia in city air? In aroaa of heavy traffic? Of little traffic? Ia tho amount increaalng? Or docroaaing? What about tho people who live or work in thoae aroaa? Whet ia their lead level aa Matured by amounta in their blood and urine? . Although there had been conalderable prevloua work, a maaaive effort to get more definitive antvere to thoae queationa waa reported in 1965 with publication by tho Department of Health, Education, and Welfare of the rooulta of `Survey of Lead in the Atmoaphore of Three Urban Communltiea' __ Loo Angelea, Philadelphia and Cincinnati. Thia report ia uaually referred to aa the Throe City eurvey. The eurvey waa undertaken epecifically aa roault of/ the auggeation, referred to previoualy, by the 1959 Surgeon General*a committee that auch atudlea be conducted. for a period of one year (June 1961 through May 1962), eoeae 3,400 aample# of air were taken from 20 repreaentative rural, reeidential, commercial and induatrial location# in the three cltiea Result# of the Three City Survey Soae of the finding# (which were reported in a 94.page booklet) are given here. for Cincinnati, the average in all aajaplea waa 1.4 nicrograae of lead per cubic ateter of air, with the higheat monthly concentration at any one aite being 3.1 micrograma in October. Por Philadelphia, the average of all aamplea waa 1.6 micrograme per cubic meter of air. with the higheat monthly concentration at any site being 4.4 mlcrograma in October. Por Loa Angelea, the Average of all location# wae 2.5 falcrograme per cubic meter of air, with the higheat monthly concentration at any site being 6.4 nicrograma in December. By comparing these reeulta with prevloua sampling# (done by the national Air Sampling KetworX of the Public Health Service and the Kettering Laboratory In Cincinnati), it waa found that there waa no conalatant trend, up or down, in lead r S i '"j vi . - > ; h- 0 - 9- content of the air of the thrao cltiaa during tha previous five years. 'Data obtained by the Kettering Laboratory indicate that in Cincinnati the trend haa been downward since 1946.* The reaaona for the general decline in Cincinnati since 1946 include the diminishing uae of aolld fuels, better collection and removal of particulates from industrial operations, an in. croaalngly effective enforcement of the ordinance relating to abatement of smoke, and changes in traffic flow and land use in the metropolitan areas,* the report explains. In consenting on these swssurements. Dr. Robert A. Kehoe, a pioneer in lead research at the Kettering Laboratory and Uni. varsity of Cincinnati, said that none of these concentrations is in the range considered as making a significant contribution to the lead burden of individuals, lie said even *the observed high results have been far below the range that is capable of causing lead intoxication in any individual even after many months of exposure.* Lead Levels Also Checked in People However, to determine what might be happening to the lead in people in these cities, the Three City study also checked the lead levels in the blood of about 2,300 people, and in the urine of 1,700 of these, The people to be checked were selected to get different types of exposure to traffic and other fumes. They Included policemen in areas of haavy traffic, firemen, poet office workers, aircraft workers, suburbanites, commuters, and the like. In addition, 126 patients with chronic illnesses were examined to so# if the lead content of their blood was of sig. nlficance, "Ko relationship was found between levels of lead in the blood and age. Levels in females were slightly lover than those In males from comparable groups. In nearly all in. stances, the mean concentration of lead In the blood of sawkere was slightly higher than that of non.smokers. There were no unusual findings concerning persons who were investtgated'be. cause of chronic diseases,* the fOIS report stated. ^ Out of the total studied, only 11 persons wers 'found to have concentration* of lead in the blood egual to or In excess of 0.06 mlltigr&ms (60 mlcrt-jrams) per 100 grams of blood... These 11 persons were fr<m group* which had an opportunity for occupational expoeure to lead,* ISubseguently, seven of these 11 wers rs-examlnsd and their blood lead levels wers In the range of 20 nlrrograms - Indicating either an analytical error In the first place, or a fluctuation in the lead levels, which is often observed.) ``Si* SSVfeiSjMSftit The findings did show that lead levels in ths blood of people tended to be higher in those areas where lead con centrations in the atmosphere were higher -- that Is, in rural or suburban areas both blood lead levels and the concentration i of lead in the air tended to be lower than in congeeted down town districts. : Similarly, people who were exposed more to traffic conditions -- such as policemen, parking lot attendants, coessuters, and garage mechanics .. tended to have slightly higher lead' levels than those not so exposed. However, even these were well within the accepted safe ranges. ;3 In addition to the regular sampling stations for lead in the atmosphere, the study also Included some special sampling in dense traffic areas These showed lead concentrations in the air rising during heavy traffic periods and declining after 1 the traffic -rushos* eased off. Various Factors influence Lead Significance -, The Three City survey findings seemed to confirm what had been shown in previous studies that some of the lead exhausted from gasoline engines becomes air.borne, but that after the source is removed or ebatee, there la e eettling down of lead perticlee and the degree of concentration in (he air vi decllnea. Estimates very ae to how much of the lead which la in the gasoline get a into the air, depending on many conditions, including the condition of the engine. Less lead will be dis charged, for example, under city driving conditions then under conditions of higher speeds in the country. Some of the lead remains in the oil, engine and exhaust system of care. One rounded estimate is that about 43 percent of the lead in gasoline becomes air borne for varying periode of time. About 70 percent is exhausted from the car but the heavier par ticles fell to the greund ^ l- Other factor* Affect 8ifjni^ficance to^Han Ae far. ae eigntficance to man is concerned, there are other important fedora . auch ae the particle sire (whether email er.uwgh to be inhaled and retained in the l>ody), chemical co[>oalt ion of the lead ctexjounde twhether abaorbable or not), and others. In combuetion of gasoline, practically all of the lead additives srs convertsd into inorganic compounda of lead and part of theae go out the exhaust. ., vj ."'.si 'i !& 'i . --.t % % ! 3c In discussing som of those factors. Dr, Tocasshsfski and Hltchall stated that ths cleansing mechanisms of ths respi ratory system will remove the majority of inorganic lead par ticles.that are inhaled. Since inorganic load is relatively insoluble, any remaining "should be poorly absorbed," they said. A California Institute of Technology toxicologist. Dr. Thomas J. Haley, wrote in 1966 that "the fact that a par ticle is present in ambient air does not Man that it will be Inhaled and if inhaled, retained." Because of variations in particle size and the lung's mechanisms for cleaning out par ticles, Dr. Haley observed that "the lead compounds in automotive exhaust may not be available; or if available, not absorbed; or if absorbed, not retained, so no contribution is made to lead body burden." It has been observed that the body burden of lead tends to remain in balance, with body excretions adjusting to slight changes in lead intake. Such considerations help explain why, in the study of the 2,300 people involved in the Three City survey, the MtsureMnts of body content of lead, while showing variations according to place of residence And occupation, did not show any levels that were net "well within the presently accepted range of lead levels for htriane." This was so even among some 26 male population groups that were especially selected for expected varying exposure to lead. Some of those, such as garage mechanics, service station attendants and refinery workers, are exposed to lead in their occupations as well as to lead in the atmosphere and in their food and drink. The Three City survey, with all the new information developed and reported by it, was considered not an answer, but a start for a continuing surveillance. "These results have established s base-line for future investigations 'of thsse types," concludes the report. The report on the Three City survey expressed the hope that similar studies would be continued and extended so that there can be comparison* in findings over periods of time and in different community exposures. International Study of Lead Levels in Han Subsequent to the publication of the Three City survey report, a special study group of the World Health Organisation : 1' .. r tifi **3kt - la - reported results of a study that similarly measured the lead levels in the blood and urine of people In 16 different nations, including the United States. Tho findings showed, the WHO reported, that "there has been no Increase in lead contamination in the last two decades... If there has been any change, it would appear that at present man is exposed on the whole to less lead in his enviconatenb than he was 20 years ago." The WHO committee cautioned that there was "no cause for complacency because there are new sources of exposure, chiefly tetraethyl lead which is used as an * anti-Knock' additive to motor fuels. Wider use of lead in industry has also intro, duced new hazards, mainly by inhalation.* The report noted that "great progress has been achieved in eliminating the most obvious and dangerous sources of*lead / poisoning! lead paints, lead pipes for watsr. lead insecticides on fruit and vegetables, etc. In most countries this type of exposure has become insignificant.* Load in Sew Guinea Aborigine* Dr. Leonard Goldvater. professor of occupational medicine et Columbia University, who vss chairman of the WHO study group, reported in November 1966 results of a study of blood lead levels in New Guinea aborigines, costpared with those of persons in other countries. ^ > ij : "The lead levels rsportsd in the blood of the Hew Oulnea aborigines are of particular Interest,* the scisntist rsportsd, "in that they demonstrate that these natives, living in the hills of New Guinea, away from industrialization and n motorization, showed blood lead levels higher In range than iurban and rural Californians. The mean figure of 22 mlcrograms " per 100 milliliters of blood was higher than that of samples from 13 other localities. Including California, Ohio and Mew York City. Mean levels from England, Yugoslavia and Finland are slightly higher than the Mew Guinea mean.* J a ''Skfe J 4 Despite currently extensive knowledge about lead in nan's environment everyone seema to agree that conaiderably more research 'I should be carried out to be certain that lead does not become a hazard to the public at some future date. , 4 Some areas of future research were Indicated in a three$ day symposium on lead in the environment held in December 1965 with representatives from government, universities and research institu tions, and industry participating. i* The published proceedings (PHS Publication 1440, Kerch 1 1966) report the formal and informal discussions of leading scien i. tists on various aspects of lead in the environment, including lead in the air from automotive and other sources. Tor someone seeking more details about current knowledge on lead, these proceedings offer informed summaries of much basic work. -> y In one summation. Dr. Robert J. M. Morton, chief of the' field Studies Branch, PHS Division of Air Pollution, Cincinnati, aid "some sources of lead air pollution have increased with the passage of time (for example, loaded gasoline) and others have de creased (for example, coal). It is very difficult, if not Impossible, to determine with certainty whether general urban air .levels have changed over thirty or forty years due to the lack of strictly com parable measurements. Changes occurring in recent and future years need further study." Economics, Health and Smog The question of continued use of lesd In gasoline, or its reduction or elimination, waa one subject for attention at the sym posium. Dr. John A. Zapp. director of the Haskell Laboratory for Toxicology and Industrial Medicine, E. I, du Pont do Honours and Co. Wilmington. Delaware, made special note of this question and aaidi "Before recommending to eliminate lead from gasoline, we should be sure that it ia necessary to do so, and this will require informa tion not presently aval table...it is imperative that more Information be obtained on the economics, the health implications, and the po tential for smog formation..,* 1 On the last of these three point*, existing studies show that lead emlaalona from automobile exhaust* have no effect on the formationof photochemical amog -- the kind that plague* Loa Angelas. The "health Implication*" have been discussed in previous eectiona of thia presentation and future reaearch area*.will be aet forth in the next aection. The "economics" were diacuaaed to some extent at the sym posium. A repreaentative of tho American Petroleum Inatitute told the symposium that API would undertake to develop more preciae and broader information than ia preaently available concerning poaaible 'I effect* of eliminating lead from gasoline, Conalderetion* Suggested for, tier*-Leaded Caaollne Some analyses of what might reault if production of only non-leaded gasolines were to be required have indicated thea* considerations! 1. Coat* of comparable gasoline would rise to the point of coating the motoring public many hundreds of millions of dollars annually. 2. Drain on crude petroleum reserves would be increased by tens of millions of barrels a year. 3. Oil refineries would have to expend an eatlmated total of several billion dollars to re-equip their plenta. .4 Dozens of oil refineries, mostly smaller ones, would be forced to close down if they could not afford capital requirements to convert. 3. Effectiveness of much militery end defense equipment, here end ebroed, would be greetly effected, insofar ss this is geared to use the leaded gasoline. L*i>T*av -Ca> *1 *-?s r 6. Many existing automobiles would not be able to run efficiently, end possibly redesigned engines for automobile users would be necessary. i Many other possible results, such as an effect on other emlseions of auto exhausts, would require study. Some such studies ere golhg on now,- i i^Stx On tho bsais of this lesd symposium, Or. Jtichsrd Prindio of tho U.S. Public Health Servico told Corvjress thst "wo simply do . j uoj j VJsSkr&'lr- V. $UUJU'.r i-'> .''-'V, .'7.7 - Vf 'V'.777^7`"^. , ' i 77 Cs7 -v t 7 7, 7 i'^%: /- ' - ? '. i't'- t A. '<.---. v-. - 15 - not have tho data we need to determine to what extent control action may be neceaaary to curb human exposure to lead In the urban environ** mont.* He added that he thought "at the end of a period of 9 yeara we might well have aufficient information oj* Which at leaet to make much better judgment# than we can do today." `i Those observation# from the government official who late in 1966 bocamo head of the PHS's new Bureau of Disease Prevention and Environmental Control, which includes the Rational Center for Air Pollution Control, were made during hearings on lead in the environment conducted by a Subcommittee on Air and Water Pollution of the Senate Committee on Public Works. Dr. Prindle was respond ing to questions from Senator Edmund Muskie of Maine, subcommittee chairman. Senator Muskie devoted one part of a series of hearings on air pollution to the lead question and heard medical and scien tific witnesses as well as representatives from the American Petroleum Institute and the Lead Industries Association. Dr. Robert A. Kehoe of the University of Cincinnati summarized for the Muskie subcommittee some results and conclu sions from rosearch on lead and its effects on man conducted by him and his colleagues across more than 40 years. Dr. Kehoe told the subcommittee that "the impression has existed in certain circles that little information is available on this subject., especially as to certain matters that relate to the safety of the public. Tho fact is, howover, that no other hygienic problem in the field of sir pollution hss been lnvestlgsted over such s prolonged period of time, end with euch definite results," Geophysicist Expresses His Concern Senator Huskie's group also hesrd test imony from Clair C. Patterson, s geophysicist who has expressed s lara at what he calls the "chronic lead insult* which he conside rs the populetion is subject to. Patterson based his concorn about lead on calculations which he eaid show that modorn environment conta ins many times more lead than "natural" environment of prehistoric t liwi and that eodern man has many time# more lead in his body than it 1 J preh1stor ic man. due primarily, Pattsiaon aaid, to the widespread industrial and automotive usee of teed. . I V- 4 - 16 - Patterson had previously published Ms views in the September 196S Archives of Environments! Health, which subsequently has published a number of dissenting communications, including a lengthy letter of explanation by the editor of the journal. (See references for full liat of citations of these communications.) Some objections were that the geophysicist erred when he got into assumptions involving toxicology, an area which is not his field. The Archlvcs* editor acknowledged that consulting editors had divided opinions about the Puttaraon paper, and that the decision to publish it was based on the desirability of getting the Patterson views irto discussion. Patterson's position, as described to the Huskle Subcom mittee, was that he disagreed with interpretation of existing data and believed that lead in the environment haa increased to a point of concern and ia increasing. ~> Patterson told the Muakie Subcommittee that ha also disa greed with interpretation of findings in the Three City survey, with a statement made by the American Medical Association's Committee on Occupational Toxicology, and with the statement of the World Health Organisation's study group on lead which he termed "false end fallacious.* ftW.ly*i.ffCOTg-Pm<irg*i Commenting directly on the Patterson paper In the Archives of Environments! Health, the Coemittee on Occupational Toxicology of the American Medical Asaociation stated in February "The Committee feels obliged to point out that as a reault of years of careful clinical study in workers in the lead industry, significant, subtle and unrecognized or 'unrecognizable' changes are not occurring in the general population as a result of its exposure to environmental lead. In fact, this vast clinical evidjftpce, eval uated by a great number of clinically trained acientists, suggests that the general public is not now, nor in the immediate future, facing s lead hazard," (Subsequently. the carried a review article by Thomas J, Haley, a toxicologist at ibe University of California School of Medlcina. bos Angelas, which examined tho Patterson the sis from e toxicological viewpoint. Haley concluded that "The supposed chronic lead intoxication from environmental contamination ia myth not a fact." - *% '* EWMRsegegjM r>- r t : . -3 '`i ,# 5 * ''5- ' ' T'-' ' * t * ^ : T ' _* * * * ' '^ . -S . -- '*--^, - 17 - V. COWTIMUIJW INTEREST IH RESEARCH EETORTS From recent discussions on the question of environmental load. Including the load symposium and the MusXie haarlnga, hava coaa aavaral suggested araaa for further aclantlflc investigation. J1' ^ h\ " Among theao, for example, ia a concern exprested by public health offlclala about people Who may, by raaaon of peripheral occupatlone, be more exposed to lead than the average adult or othera vho may, or may not, be particularly auaceptlble. Vernon Mackenzie, then head of PRS Division of Air Pollution and subsequently deputy to Dr. Prindle, told the Senate subcommittee that *v* are not concerned with the average human being, and whether or not he is being affected, because I don't think he is in any essential, important way, but, rather, with smaller groups in the population, and they may be of significant numbers, that may be having a greater than average exposure.* PHS officials have subsequently said investigations' were going forward on such specisl occupationally exposed groupe, similar to those studied in the Three City Survey. Central Areas for Wore Research Other general areas suggested for research includei 1. Determining whether there are any "subclinical* effects of lead In human beings, that is, effects which may occur in body lead levels below those ordinarily considered safe but which may not show up as lead intoxication. While this question has been raised, the evidence against such effects comes primarily from observation of workers in lead industries. 'Many thousands of men in Industry have been followed by competent clinicians for from thirty to forty years with no evidence of any effect on their health when these levels have not been exceeded.* / 2. Continued monitoring of ambient air in cer^&ln cities to determine whether leaded gasolines, or other sources, are contributing to an Incresee In lead In the atmosphere. and it to, whether this Is ..important. There 1# wide support for continuing to gather Information on lead concentrations In air. aa one important step In surveillance of the total lead question. 3. Conducting studies on levels of lead in the air that may have a measurable effect on absorption of lead by people in breathing normal ambient air 34 hours daily. Although the `-.V We rj'1* nMum** I *o Industrial level of 200 mlcrograas per cubic meter of air is generally accepted, this ia based on a 40-hour work week and also oh continued check-ups of men working in such ataospheres. Such a level would not be expected to apply on a continuous exposure basis. 4. What happens to the lead exhausted from gasoline that does not go into the air and is eventually diluted or dispersed? Some studies have shown higher than expected amounts of lead deposited in the soils and vegetation around highways, which could have an influence on lead in food and water. Sug gestions have been made for research in this area. 5. Is lead a necessary trace metal in human body function, as are several other minerals and metals? There have been suggested, and are being carried out. studies relating to 'natural levels" of lead in man -- that is. without man-made exposures -- and the effect of "no lead* on living tissues.' ,' Projects Undertaken with MI.Support Some indications of the range of research activities under way. or in the planning stage, on questions about lead were described in 1964 in Washington before the House Subcoesslttee on Science. Research ar.J Develo;>oent which held hearings on Pollution Abatement Technology. A joint statement by P. W. Qaeaselgard, director, and Dr. Robert C. Cckardt. medical advlaor. of the American Petroleum Institute's Committee for Air and Water Conservation, outlined some major research projects on lead in which the API la participating as a sponsor. They said API is "ready to carry forward the mandate of continued surveillance* and that API would welcome sponsorship by the Public health Service of a study that would provide "early detection if any tendency toward lead accumulation should occur In tho popu1 a11on. We would be indeed pleased to cooperate with the Public Health Service In such a study." ^ weret Other projects on lead discussed by the API officials 1. Medical research is being conducted that may detect the tubcllnical effect* of lead in man, or the effects of Isad, if any, on well-established clinical conditions, such as resplratory diseases. ' i. Tor a severe test of lead effects, laboratory animali Will be fed for a long time amounts of lead far above levels normally encountered. ^>5^- /v- t 'rX'X , t 3. An attempt la under way to determine the lowest level of lead in the atmosphere that will produce a measurable change of lead in the blood. This is being carried on in coopera tion with the Public Health Service, du Pont, Ethyl Corporation and Load Industries Association, at the Kettering Laboratory of the University of Cincinnati. .4 API and Lead Industries Association are supporting a project, being conducted by Wayne State University scientists, to study the lead burdens of laboratory animals exposed to heavy concentrations of automotive emissions in contrast to the lead burdens of other animals that have not been exposed to such concentrations. This work is a continuation of a major study begun by the Public Health Service. 5. It la planned to monitor lead levels in the ambient air and in the blood and urine of man to permit early detection, if any tendency toward lead accumulation occurs. This is a possible continuation of the so-called 'Three City* study.' ' 6. Another project is being directed toward understanding of the relationship betweon bone lead and blood lead. 7. A similar study will seek to determine the relation ship of bone load to the total of lead in the body and how this relationship has changed with time. 8. A study is being made of lesd concentrations in soil and vegetation at known distances from highways in order to assess the significance of lead fall-out adjacent to highways. 9. A project will analyze what effect, if any, there would be on evaporative and exhaust emissions from autonobllas by varying fuel composition and volatility, and by blsnding gasoline with and without load. An effort will be made to deter mine the effect on the output of nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide resulting from variations in gasoline formulas. This work is being done by the U.S. Bureau of Mines. fie- f- 10. Case studies are being made of representative refineries throughout the country to determine the capital Investment and- Incremental costa of making gasoline without lesd antiknock additives. 11. Another study hsa two purposesi a) to compare the present total environment *- land, sir snd water -- with the ancient environment by using tho isutcptc character of lead as an environmental tracer, and b) to discover the relative importance of various possible sources of lead and to better understand the mechanisms of lead transfer. wfiwn.y.j <P|H - 20 - Thl* li*t include* only tho*e hPI-*pon*or*d project* rolated to load ro*earch. Many other project* are under way dealing with other aapect* of air and water conservation. ' - -Ci ,-;3 tv ' '} 's, Jt .1 I In discussing ths API's views on the lssd situation and its plan to pursue research, P. N. Garoelgard told the Muskl# sub* committee that data available "convince us that the question of lead in the atmosphere is not now a concern Iron the public health point of view. Ho one accuses lead, either, of being an air pollution nuisance or a contributor to smog formation. And so, in our view, lead fro* gasoline exhausts is not at this time an air pollution problem. "We do, however, as demonstrated by our intent to pursue research in this area, want to keep a close and continuing watch in this area... ) "We feel that continued collaboration on this type of study is essential if we are to move forward following the recommendation; made by the Advisory Committee on Tetraethyl Lead to the Surgeonv ; General in 1959 calling for cooperative studies to provide more ' definitive data on the levels and trends of atmospheric lead con tamination in selected urban areas and of the body burden of lead of selected population groups. The environmental Pollution Panel of the President's Science Advisory Committee last year recommended continuing surveillance of body levels of lead, more intensive research to gain understanding on the uptake and excretion of lead, the mechenlssis of action of lead, and the relationships between tissue lead levels and disease or the aging process. The sense of the PHS Lead Symposium last December was surely to continue work toward such objectives." 1 -X**' 1 Ur F ''Sib References (Wot*i The scientific literature on lead ia extensive, but many research findings have bean sunsnarixed in various papers, discussions and symposia. The following citations were the source for most, but not all, of the material presented in this paper.) 1. U.S. Public Health Service* Public Health Aspects of Increasing Tetraethyl Lead Content in Motor Fuel. PHS Publication Ho. 712, 1959. v 2. U.S. Public Health Service* The Use of Tetraethyl Lead Gasoline in its Relation to Public Health. Public Health Bulletin Ho. 163, 1926. 3. U.S. Public Health Service* Symposium on Environmental Lead Con' tamination (Dec. 13-15. 1965). PHS Publication No. 1440. March 1966. 4. Xehoe, Robert A., M.D.* Statement Concerning the Hygienic Aspects of Lead in the Human Environment. Hearings before Subcommittee on Air and Water Pollution of Committee on Public Works, U.S.' Senate. Washington, O.C., June 9, 1966. V 5. Haley, Thomas J. Ph.D.* Chronic Lead Intoxication from Environ mental Contamination* Myth or Pact? Archives of Environmental Health, Vol. 12, pp. 781-785, June 1966. 6. U.S. Public Health Service* Survey of Lead in the Atmosphere of Three Urban Communities. PHS Publication Mo. 999-AP-12, January 1965. 7 U.S. Senate* Air Pollution -- 1966. Hearings Before e Subcommittee on Air and Water Pollution of the Committee on Public Works. Washington. D.C.. June 7, 8, 9, 14, and 15, 1966. 8 U.S. Senate* Automotive Air Pollution. Third Report of the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare to the United States Ccngrosa. Match 25. 1966 (ordered to be printed). 9 Symposium oo Lead (held at Fettering Laboratory, University of Cincinnati. February 25-27. 1963). Archives of Envircfttmental Health, Volume 8. pp. 202-354, Pebruary 1964. 10. Lead Industries Association, Inc , New York Cltyi Tacts About Lead and Industrial Hygiene. 1965. 11. World Health Organisation! Mo Increase in Lead Contamination Pound by WHO Investigation Press Release WHO/36, Oecember 15, 1965. 12. Gammslgard, p. N.. director, and Robert EcXardt, M.D., medical advisor, of Committee on Mr and Water Conservation, American Potroleut* Institute* Testimony at Hearings of Subcommittee on Science, Research and Development of the Committee on Science and Astronautics, U.S. House of Representatives. Washington-, D.C., August 9. 1966. 13. Haagen-Smlt, A. J.,Dr.f' California Institute of Technology* Statement Submitted to Subcommittee on Science, Research and Development of Committee on Scienco and Astronautics, U.S. House of Representatives..- Washington. D.C., August 3. 1966. 14. Committee on Occupational Toxicology of Council on Occupational Health, American Medical Association* Comment. Archives of Environaental Health, Vol. 12, page 27), February 1966. 16. Threshhold Limit Value for 1966, adopted 28th Annual Meeting, American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, May 1966. 16. Coldvater. Leonard J-. M.D.. and Hoover. A. Walter, M.D.* Art'.' International Study of `Normal' Lead in Blood and Urine. Presented November 1. 1966, at annual meeting, American Public Health Association. San Francisco. 17. Pstterson. Clair C., Ph.D.t Contaminated and Natural Lead Environ ments of Man. Archives of Environments! Health, Vol. II. pp. 344-360. September 1966. 10. Note* The following citations relate to the discussion of the Pstterson paper on page 20. All citations arc from Archives of Environmental Health* Dr. Haley's article (June 1966 issue), and communications from Dr. Robert A. Kehoe (November 1965)* Dr. Harriet L. Hardy, assistant medical director, occupational Medical Service, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (December 1966)* also, ths late Robert L. Ziegfeid, executive vice president. Lead Industries Association, Inc. Dr. Clair C. Pstterson* Dr. Rutherford T. Johnstone. Lod^Rngeles* Dr. Katharine R. Doucot, editor of the Archives (all in January 1966) Also. Committee on Occupational Toxicology of the Council on Occupa tional Health. American Medical Asaorlationi Dr. Henry A. fichroeder, Dartmouth Medical School* Dr. Willard Machls, University of Miami School of Medicine (sll in February 19M)* also. Dr. M. K. Williams, tendon (England) School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine* Dr, tester W. Sanders, 8r., The Kettering Labor story. University of Cincinnati College of Medicine (all in March 1966)* also Dr. John J, Hanlon. Health Commissioner, and Dr, William 0. Frederick, director, Bureau or Industrial Hygiene, Detroit Department of ^Industrial Hygiene (May 1966)* and E. 1. Hamilton, Radiological protection Service, fiurroy, England. (August 1966). R r p- gw?*?-! -.vv