Document 0Jqz1evEQQK5bQdM5x4kRXnVV

ST 0853306 INDUSTRIAL TOXICOLOGY PLAINTIFF'S EXHIBIT DOW-1654 LAWRENCE T. FAIRHALL Scientist Director, Ret., United Statu Public Health Service SECOND EDITION (Facsimile of the 1957 Edition) HAFNER PUBLISHING COMPANY New York London 1969 ST 0853307 Originally Published 1957 Reprinted 1969 v PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY HAFNER PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC. 31 East 19th Stscct New Yoik, N. Y. 10003 Library of Congress Catalog Card No.: 73-76444 Copyright 1957 by The Williams and Wilkins Company PUBLISHED BY ARKANCEMENT ALL RIGHTS RESERVED NO PART OF THIS BOOK MAY BE REPRODUCED WITHOUT THE WRITTEN PERMISSION OF THE PUBLISHER ST0853308 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION Advantage has been taken of the demand for a second edition of this book, not only to make several minor changes, but also to write a number of new sections and to introduce new material in order to bring the book thoroughly up to date. The great advances in chemical technology, the manufacture in large quantities of new chemical substances, and the increasing accumulation of toxicological data have collectively imposed an obligation to contribute further information on those new substances which have received substantial toxicological investigation. It is a great pleasure to express my thanks to my colleagues here and abroad who, by sending me reprints of their scientific papers, have greatly eased the burden of library search. I wish to record especially my appreciation and gratitude to many friends and associates who have rendered me most valuable aid with material, assistance, and sugges tions. Acknowledgment is also made to publications of the U.S. Tariff Commission, the Manufacturing Chemists Association, and the U.S. Bureau of Mines for use of certain data. It is to be hoped that the inclusion of the various tables in the Appendix will increase the usefulness of the book. STO 8 53309 CONTENTS Preface................................................................................................................................ V Introduction....................................................................................................................... 1 Pabt I INORGANIC SUBSTANCES Aluminum........................................................................................................................... 10 Alundum............................................................................................................................. 12 Ammonia............................................................................................................................ 13 Antimony............................................................................................................................ 14 Arsenic................................................................................................................................ 17 Asbestos.............................................................................................................................. 19 Barium................................................................................................................................ 21 Beryllium............................................................................................................................ 23 Bismuth.............................................................................................................................. 26 Boron.................................................................................................................................. 27 Bromine.............................................................................................................................. 29 Cadmium............................................................................................................................ 30 Cerium........................................................ 33 Chlorine.............................................................................................................................. 35 Chlorine dioxide................................................................................................................ 36 Chromium.......................................................................................................................... 37 Cobalt................................................................................................................................. 39 Columbium......................................................................................................................... 41 Copper................................................................................................................................ 42 Decaborane........................................................................................................................ 44 Fluorine.............................................................................................................................. 45 Gallium............................................................................................................................... 48 Germanium........................................................................................................................ 50 Glass fiber and mineral wool............................................................................................. 52 Hydrazine........................................................................................................................... 53 Hydrazoic acid................... ............................................................................................... 54 Hydrochloric acid.............................................................................................................. 55 Hydrogen fluoride.............................................................................................................. 56 Hydrogen peroxide............................................................................................................ 58 Hydrogen sulfide................................................................................................................ 59 Hydroxylamine.................................................................................................................. 60 Indium................................................................................................................................ 61 Iodine................................................................................................................................. 63 Iron..................................................................................................................................... 64 Kaolin and ochre............................................................................................................... 66 Lanthanum........................................................................................................................ 67 Lead.................................................................................................................................... 68 Lithium...................................................................t......................................................... 71 Magnesium......................................................................................................................... 72 Manganese....................................................................................................................... 74 Mercury............................................................................................................................. 76 Mica................................................................................................................................... 78 Molybdenum...................................................................................................................... 80 Nickel................................................................................................................................. 81 vii ST08533I 0 CONTENTS Nitric acid............................................................................................................................ 82 Nitrogen oxides.................................................................................................................... 84 Osmium................................................................................................................................ 87 Ozone.................................................................................................................................... 88 Palladium............................................................................................................................. 90 Phosphine............................................................................................................................. 91 Phosphorus........................................................................................................................... 92 Platinum............................................................................................................................... 94 Plutonium............................................................................................................................ 95 Portland cement.................................................................................................................. 98 Radioactive substances....................................................................................................... 99 Rubidium and cesium.......................................................................................................... 101 Selenium............................................................................................................................... 103 Silica..................................................................................................................................... 105 Silicones................. 108 Silver.................................................................................................................................... 109 Strontium............................................................................................................................. 110 Sulfur.................................................................................................................................... Ill Sulfur chlorides.................................................................................................................... 112 Sulfur dioxide...................................................................................................................... 114 Sulfur fluorides......................... -*t-j.................................................................................... 115 Sulfuric acid......................................................................................................................... 116 Talc...................................................................................................................................... 117 Tantalum............................................................................................................................. 119 Tellurium............................................................................................................................. 120 Thallium.............................................................................................................................. 122 Thorium............................................................................................................................... 123 Tin....................................................................................................................................... 125 Titanium............................................................................................................................. 126 Tungsten.............................................................................................................................. 128 Uranium............................................................................................................................... 129 Vanadium.................... 131 Yttrium............................................................................................................................... 133 Zinc...................................................................................................................................... 134 Zirconium............................................................................................................................ 135 Parr II CARBON COMPOUNDS Acetaldehyde....................................................................................................................... 138 Acetic acid........................................................................................................................... 140 Acetic anhydride................................................................................................................. 141 Acetone................................................................................................................................ 142 Acetophenone...................................................................................................................... 144 Acridine............................................................................................................................... 145 Acrolein............................................................................................................................... 146 Acrylonitrile...................................................*.................................................................... 148 Alkylbenzenes..................................................................................................................... 149 Allyl alcohol........................................................................................................................ 150 Ally1 chloride and allyl bromide......................................................................................... 151 Aminophenols...................................................................................................................... 152 2-Aminopyridine................................................................................................................. 154 Amyl acetate....................................................................................................................... 155 ST08533 I I CONTENTS ix Amyl alcohol......................................................................................................................... 157 Aniline................................................................................................................................... 159 Benzene................................................................................................................................. 161 Benzene hexachloride........................................................................................................... 163 Benzidine.............................................................................................................................. 165 Benzoyl peroxide.................................................................................................................. 166 Benzyl chloride........................................................................................ 167 Bituminous substances......................................................................................................... 168 Bromoform............................................................................................................................ 170 1.3- Butadiene.................................................................................................................... 171 2-Butanone........................................................................................................................... 172 n-Butyl acetate.................................................................................................................... 173 Butyl alcohols...................................................................................................................... 174 Butylamine........................................................................................................................... 176 1- tert-Butyl-4-methylbenzene............................................................................................ 177 tsoButyl methyl ketone....................................................................................................... 178 n-Butyl methyl ketone........................................................................................................ 178 Carbon dioxide..................................................................................................................... 179 Carbon disulfide................................................................................................................... 180 Carbon monoxide................................................................................................................. 182 Carbon tetrachloride........................... ^'1.......................................................................... 183 Carbonyl chloride (phosgene)............................................................................................. 185 Chlordane............................................................................................................................. 187 Chlorinated diphenyl and thechloronaphthalenes............................................................. 188 Chlorinated mononitroparaffins.......................................................................................... 189 Chloroacetone...................................................................................................................... 190 Chlorobenzene...................................................................................................................... 191 2- Chloro-l, 3-butadiene..................................................................................................... 192 Chloroform........................................................................................................................... 193 Chloronitrobenzenes............................................................................................................ 195 Chloropicrin......................................................................................................................... 196 Cresols---cresylic acid.......................................................................................................... 198 Crotonaldehyde................................................................................................................... 199 Cyclohexane......................... 200 Cyclohexanol........................................................................................................................ 202 Cyclohexanone..................................................................................................................... 203 Cyclohexene......................................................................................................................... 204 Cyclohexylamine................................................................................................................. 205 Cyclopropane....................................................................................................................... 206 Diazomethane...................................................................................................................... 207 Dibutyl phthalate................................................................................................................ 208 Dichlorobenzene.................................................................................................................. 209 Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)........................................................................... 211 Dichloroethanes................................................................................................................... 213 Dichloroethylene................................................................................................................. 215 Dichloroethyl ether............................................................................................................ 216 Dichloromethane................................................................................................................. 217 2.4- Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid...................................................................................... 218 1,2-Dichloropropane........................................................................................................... 219 Diethylene glycol monoethylether and related substances............................................... 220 Diethyl ether........................................................................................................................ 222 Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate.................................................................................................. 223 Dimethylaniline................................................................................................................... 224 I ST03533I 2 X CONTENTS Dimethylnitrosamine.......................................................................................................... 225 Dimethyl sulfate................................................................................................................. 226 Dinitrobenzene.................................................................................................................... 227 Dinitro-o-cresol................................................................................................................... 228 Dinitrophenol...................................................................................................................... 230 1,4-Dioxane........................................................................................................................ 232 Diphenyl and its amino and nitro derivatives.................................................................. 234 Diphenylamine.................................................................................................................... 235 Ethyl acetate....................................................................................................................... 236 Ethyl alcohol....................................................................................................................... 237 Ethylbenzene....................................................................................................................... 239 Ethyl bromide..................................................................................................................... 239 Ethyl chloride..................................................................................................................... 240 Ethylene chlorohydrin........................................................................................................ 242 Ethylenediamine................................................................................................................. 243 Ethylene glycol................................................................................................................... 244 Ethylene glycol mono-n-butyl ether.................................................................................. 246 Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether....................................................................................... 247 Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether acetate.......................................................................... 248 Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether................................................................................... 249 Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether acetate....................................................................... 250 Ethylene inline................................................................................................................... 251 Ethylene oxide.................................................................................................................... 252 Ethylene tetrafluoride........................................................................................................ 253 Ethyl formate..................................................................................................................... 254 Ethyl oxalate....................................................................................................................... 255 Ethyl silicate...................................................................................................................... 256 Fluoroacetic acid................................................................................................................ 257 Fluorocarbons..................................................................................................................... 259 Formaldehyde..................................................................................................................... 260 Formic acid......................................................................................................................... 262 Fumaric and maleic acids and maleic anhydride.............................................................. 263 Furfural.............................................................................................................................. 265 Furfuryl alcohol.................................................................................................................. 266 Hydrocarbons, saturated--paraffins (methane, ethane, propane, butane)..................... 267 Hydrocarbons, saturated--paraffins (pentane, hexane, heptane, octane)....................... 268 Hydrocarbons, unsaturated (acetylene)............................................................................ 269 Hydrocarbons, unsaturated--olefins (ethylene, propylene, butylene, amylene, hex ylene)........................................................................................................................... 271 Hydrogen cyanide.............................................................................................................. 272 Isophorone.......................................................................................................................... 274 Kerosene....................................... 275 Ketene................................................................................................................................. 276 Malathion........................................................................................................................... 277 Mesityl oxide...................................................................................................................... 278 Methanol................................................... ,....................................................................... 279 Methoxychlor........................................................................................................................ 280 Methyl acetate................................................................................................................... 281 Methylal............................................................................................................................. 282 Methyl bromide.................................................................................................................. 283 Methyl chloride.................................................................................................................. 284 Methylcyclohexane............................................................................................................. 286 Methylcyclohexanol............................................................................................................ 287 S708533I 3 CONTENTS Methylcyclohexanone.......................................................................................................... 288 Methyl formate.................................................................................................................... 288 Methyl iodide....................................................................................................................... 289 Methyl methacrylate........................................................................................................... 290 Methyl-n-propyl ketone (pentanone-2).............................................................................. 292 Metol.................................................................................................................................... 293 Morpholine........................................................................................................................... 294 Naphtha............................................................................................................................... 295 Naphthalene........................................................................................................................ 296 Naphthenic adds..................................................................................................... ........... 297 Naphthylamine.................................................................................................................... 298 ce-Naphthylthiourea............................................................................................................. 300 Nicotine................................................................................................................................ 301 Nitrobenzene........................................................................................................................ 303 Nitro derivatives of aniline..................................................................................... ........... 304 Nitroethane.......................................................................................................................... 305 Nitroglycerin............................................................................................................ ........... 306 Nitromethane........................................................................................................... ........... 307 Nitropropane............................................................................................................ ........... 308 Norisodrine sulfate.............................................................................................................. 310 Oxalic acid........................................................................................................................... 311 Parathion............................................................................................................................. 312 Pentachloroethane............................................................................................................... 313 Pentachlorophenol................................................................................................... ........... 313 p-Phenetidine........................................................................................................... ........... 315 Phenol....................................................................................................................... ........... 316 Phenothiazine...................................................................................................................... 317 Phenylenediamine............................................................................................................... 318 Phenylhydrazine.................................................................................................................. 320 Phenylphenol....................................................................................................................... 321 Phthalic anhydride.............................................................................................................. 322 Picric acid............................................................................................................................ 323 Piperonyl butoxide.............................................................................................................. 325 Propyl acetates................................................................................................................... 325 n-Propyl alcohol................... 326 t'soPropyl alcohol................................................................................................................. 327 woPropyl benzene............................................................................................................... 328 tsoPropyl ether.................................................................................................................... 329 Pyridine............................................................................................................................... 330 Pyrrole................................................................................................................................. 332 Quinone and hydroquinone................................................................................................ 333 Styrene monomer................................................................................................................ 334 Tetrabromoethane.............................................................................................................. 336 Tetrachloroethane............................................................................................................... 336 Tetrachloroethylene............................................................................................................ 338 Tetrahydrofuran................................................................................................................. 339 Tetramethylthiuram disulfide................................ *........................................................... 340 Tetranitromethane.............................................................................................................. 341 Thioglycollic acid................................................................................................................342 Toluene................................................................................................................................ 343 Toluidine............................................................................................................................. 345 Toxaphene........................................................................................................................... 346 Trichloroethane. ........................................................................................................ 347 ST08533I4 xii CONTENTS Trichloroethylene............................................................................................................. 348Tri-o-cresyl phosphate...................................................................................................... 350 Triethanolamine............................................................................................................... 351 Trinitrotoluene (TNT).................................................................................................... 352 Turpentine.......................................................................................................................... 354 Vinyl chloride................................................................................................................... 356 Xylene.............................................................................................................................. 357 Xylidine............................................................................................................................ 358 APPENDIX Table I. Conversion table for gases.......................................................................... 360 Table II. Some end products of detoxification of certain compounds of industrial interest............................................................................................................... 362 Table III. Threshold limit values............................................................................ 364 Table IV. Comparative toxidties of various substances.......................................... 367 INDEX............................................................................................................................. 369 ST08533I 5 INTRODUCTION In an earlier period of our industrial de velopment workmen were exposed to smoke, dust, fumes, and gases without regard to the possible injurious nature of many of these substances. Certain occupations, such as the mining of mercury, were formerly notorious in this respect. Furthermore, this condition was recognised in only very few instances and exposure to fumes or dusts of a deleteri ous type was generally recognised as a some what disagreeable and accepted condition of many occupations. The fact that some work ers in mines, mills, or factories sickened, were forced to leave their occupation, and later died, did not always bring with it the realisation that the nature of their work was a factor. In some occupations wher^Jndustrial disease was prevalent there were"often individuals who had been immersed in such an environment most of their working life and yet remained apparently strong and healthy. Such cases would be cited as indi cating the general harmlessness of their oc cupation and those who sickened were re garded as weaklings. Many industrial diseases, such as phosphorus poisoning, were undetected for years, or, as in the case of manganese poisoning, were undetected for generations. The scrutiny of occupation as a factor in disease, although emphasised long ago by Ramazzini, is a comparatively modem development. Industrial physicians only a generation ago were largely con cerned with the more external factors of em ployment--hernia, lumbago, cataracts in the case of glass workers, deafness in boiler makers--or in incidental disease, such as ankylostomiasis among miners or tubercu losis among cotton spinners. The latter were, of course, related to poor sanitation and poor nutrition, respectively, and were by no means peculiar to the occupation of the worker. Knowledge, however, of the existence of occupational disease became more and more evident and, although locally confined at first, gradually spread. Thus, such terms as "grinder's rot'', "phossy jaw", "painter's colic", "chrome itch", and "miner's phthisic" gradually appeared in industry and in the literature. Within the past generation in dustrial physicians have been alerted to the danger of much of the smoke, dust, or gases to which workers were exposed, scientists have actively investigated the effects of many of these aerial contaminants on ani mal life, and engineers have instituted con trol measures in industry to reduce the haz ard of exposure. Poisoning familiarly occurs as the result of ingestion of toxic substances and this doubtless influenced much of the earlier in dustrial hygiene thought. As a result, strin gent sanitary measures were advocated and adopted in certain industrial processes in order to prevent possible entrance of indus trial poisons by mouth. These precautionary measures included such matters as a com plete change of clothing on entering a shift, careful scrubbing of the hands and face be fore eating lunch, and a thorough washing and shower at the end of the work period. While excellent in themselves, these meas ures do not include the sanitation of breath ing and instances of industrial poisoning have occurred where workers had observed strict cleanliness yet were exposed to dan gerous concentrations of dust, fumes, or gases. Inhalation is now recognized as one of the most dangerous routes of entrance of industrial poisons. Gases, Fumes, and Dust While the greater part of industrial smoke consists largely of carbon and is relatively harmless, it frequently contains gases which are dangerous if continuously breathed or if breathed in high concentration and, in ad dition, it may contain noxious fumes or toxic dusts from certain processes. From the point of view of industrial hygifene a gas may be considered to be any aeriform or completely elastic fluid which does not become liquid or solid at ordinary temperatures. Fumes or vapors consist of material in the near-gaseous, or extremely fine particulate form which condense to liq uids or solids at room temperature. Dusts, l ST08533I 6 2 INDUSTRIAL TOXICOLOGY on the other hand, oonsist of larger particu late matter suspended in air. It muat be realised that these definitions are not rigid and that they merely indicate somewhat roughly different stages of attenuation of matter. It is possible, for instanoe, to have mercury duet suspended in the air of a work room, due to constant attrition of mercury spilled on the floor and carried into the air as extremely minute droplets following me chanical agitation. At the same time, mer cury fume may be present as the result of heating this substance and finally the vapor tension of mercury is such that true, gaseous mercury may also be present to a slight ex tent. It is important for the industrial hy gienist to keep these distinctions in mind. The detection and estimation of mercury gas in air by means of the photoelectric mer cury detector depends upon th&absorption of ultraviolet light of a wave length of 2537 A and the degree of absorption is a measure of the amount of gateout mercury present. However, this instrument would not indicate the total mercury present in an atmosphere where particulate mercury or dust from any if its compounds was also present. While dusts have been classified as parti cles or aggregates of particles of from 150 microns to 1 micron in diameter, fumes of from 1 micron to 02 micron in size, and smokes as particles less than 0.3 micron in diameter, size alone* represents at best only a rough separation of these three classes. The mode of formation must also be con sidered. Thus, dusts ordinarily result from mechanical attrition and distribution, while fumes and smokes are formed and carried into the air usually as the result of chemical reaction or the sudden dispersion of a chemi cally active substance by release of pres sure or by explosion. The disperse systems, or aerosols, in which the dispersion medium is a gas, differ from other disperse systems in the great disparity that exists between the density and struc ture of the disperse phase and the dispersion medium. The mere fact that two such dis perse systems contain amicroscopic parti cles similar in magnitude does not necessar ily mean that the properties of the two systems are identical, although they may have many points of similarity. In the case of dust, a great deal of work is required in order to reduce a solid to fine dust, is., to overcome the forces of cohesion that origi nally held the particles together in addition to the work required in distributing the par ticles throughout the dispersing medium. Even though a certain degree of uniformity finally is attained by settling or other means, dispersed dust of the finest order of magni tude is less uniform in structure than aero sols produced by the condensation of vapor. These factors have some weight in devising means of sampling and analysis of aerial contaminants. The evaluation of aerial contaminants is very frequently a matter of importance to the industrial hygienist and a knowledge of the properties of such disperse systems as those indicated above, as well as the prop erties of gases and vapors in relatively low concentrations, is of particular value with reference to the analytical detection and determination of the constituent contami nants. The composition of the aerial contami nant to which workmen in a given plant are exposed is of course of paramount impor tance to the industrial hygienist. This is usually known, or information may be ob tainable from the management. In some cases, however, an unknown or unsuspected factor may be present and careful investi gation may be necessary before the culprit is revealed. Cases have occurred, for ex ample, where arsenic, cadmium, or selenium existing as unsuspected impurities in the material being fabricated have caused ill ness and death. An unrecognized by-product of manufacture may cause difficulty, or a change in the formula of basic material used in manufacture may bring about an unhy gienic situation. The industrial hygienist is required not only to ferret out the occupa tional disease hazard but also--very neces sarily--to know its characteristics, a proper method of sampling, and the most reliable method of analytical evaulation in terms of air content. His study includes the weighted or average exposure of employees at various stations and occupations. Furthermore, he INTRODUCTION ST0853317 3 is required to know something regarding the increasing number of carbon atoms is noted toxicity of the aerial contaminant in order with sodium acetate, propionate, butyrate, to define the conditions under which em and valerianate. Many other such relation ployees are to be permitted to work in such ships have been pointed out as more toxico an environment. logical information has become available. The toxic effects of many hasardous ma The replacement of a hydrogen atom with terials in industry are well known and it is chlorine in the saturated hydrocarbons re comparatively easy to define safe working sults in an immediate change in toxicity; the concentrations. There exist many substances entranoe of such a halogen group in the or in common use in industry, however, which ganic sulfur compounds greatly intensifies are toxicologically not well defined. Unfor the toxicity of the resulting compound. When tunately, toxicity cannot be evaluated with one chlorine group is introduced into ethyl the ease with which a chemical constant, sulfide, which is a weak poison, the result such as a boiling point, melting point, or in ing monochloroethyl sulfide is found to be dex of refraction, may be determined. Even markedly toxic, while the introduction of a with arduous investigation extending over second chlorine atom results in dichlorodi- many months, the toxicologist can at best ethyl sulfide, or mustard gas, which is a very give only a very general answer regarding strong poison indeed. However, no such gen the poisonous nature of a given substance. eral rule can be applied in other cases. The It would be of inestimable benefit of course, successive replacement of hydrogens by if one could--knowing the comporiticnband chlorine in the methane molecule, which of molecular structure of such a substance-- itself is not toxic but merely an asphyxiant, predict its physiological properties. results in monochloromethane, CHtCl, di- Constitution and Physiological chloromethane, CH*Clj, trichloromethane, CHCls, and tetrachloromethane, CC1*, re Response spectively. These substances, however, do The possibility of relating chemical con not follow a pattern of increasing toxicity. stitution and physiological activity has long For instance, chloroform with its excellent proved a fascinating field of speculation. narcotic properties, as well as the attendant The advantages of defining the toxicity of a possibilities of liver and heart damage, is substance from its constitution or structural less toxic in general than carbon tetrachlo formula are, as indicated above, obvious. ride on the one hand and much less toxic Unfortunately, however, the matter is not than methyl chloride on the other hand. Yet simple. Certain relations exist, it is true, be dichloromethane, which occupies an inter tween structure and toxicity. For instance, mediate position, is far less toxic than any ethyl and methyl alcohol, although differing of the other members of this group. It does in one important respect, are very similar in not follow therefore that there is any direct many of their other physiological properties, correlation between the number of chloro and propyl, butyl, and amyl alcohols might groups and the toxicity. be assumed to act similarly. These latter The relatively inert and inoffensive hy alcohols do, in fact, resemble the lower mem droxyl group when introduced into an or bers but with a progressive increase in tox ganic molecule frequently results in an in icity. An analogous increasing toxicity might crease in toxicity. Thus, methanol, CHOH, therefore be anticipated in the higher mem has pronounced toxic properties compared bers of the alcohol series. This reasoning, with the parent substance and monohy- however, is nullified by the changing physi drjxybenzene, C*HsOH, or phenol, has cal properties of the higher members. In marked poisonous properties over and above spite of a similar chemical structure, the those of benzene. Increasing the number of higher alcohols become increasingly insolu hydroxyl groups may also increase the tox ble in body fluids and as a result there is an icity of the aromatics. For example, the in overall decreasing toxicity beyond a certain troduction of a second hydroxyl group in the point. A similar increase in toxicity with an benzene ring yields resorcinol, CeH(OH) j, ST08533I8 4 INDUSTRIAL TOXICOLOGY which ia more toxic than phenol, while the introduction of a third group yield* pyrogallol, which ia the moat toxic of the three. The entrance of an alkyl group into the molecule of a aubetance may alao intensify its poiaonoua quality. Dimethyl reaoroinol, C.H4 (OCHa) is more toxic than reaordnol, GH(OH)i. On the other hand, an alkyl group may diminish the toxic effect in other substances. Dichloromethyl arsine, Aa(CH*)Cl*, ia very Unde, while the intro duction of a second methyl group, as in di methyl chloroarsine, As(CHa)sCl, yields a substance of weaker toxicity. While the introduction of a chlorine group in aliphatic hydrocarbons increases the tox icity in general, this is not neoeasarily true in the case of the aromatic hydrocarbons. Thus, monochlorobensene ia less toxic than bensene itself and has been of no particular significance as an industrial pdbon. It appears to be a general rule that uo compounds are somewhat less toxic than normal compounds. woPropyl alcohol has a somewhat lower toxicity rating than normal propyl alcohol; tsobutyl alcohol than nor mal butyl alcohol. A most interesting dif ference in toxicity has been found to ex ist in the bensene hexachlorides which have recently received attention as insecti cides. In this case, the gamma deriva tive of 1,2,3,4,5,6 hexachlorocyclohexane, CHC1, has been found to be especially lethal in action compared with the other four known isomers (1). Woodard and Hagan (2) found the gamma isomer to be as much as 60 times as toxic for certain warmblooded animals as other isomers of bensene hexachloride. In the case of many other optically isomeric substances, great differences may also be found in toxicities. For instance, 1-hyoscyamine is twice as ac tive physiologically as dl-hyoscyamine (at ropine) and moreover the laevo compound is 12 to 20 times as active as the dextro compound (3). Usuallly, but not invariably? the laevo compounds are more active than dextro compounds. Thus, Cushny found 1hyoscine to be 16 to 18 times as active as d-hyoscine and twice as active as dlhyoscine. Similarly 1-adrenaline was 12 to 15 times as active as d-adrenaline in its vasoconstrictor action and twice as active as dl-adrenaline. On the basis of rather in direct evidence, it is possible that the differ ence in physiological behavior of such stereo isomers is due to the ability of one or the other to combine with some protein or other constituent of the cell. However, sufficient quantitative data are not available to define clearly the mechanism of physiological ac tivity and stereochemical configuration. The problem of relating chemical constitution and physiological action is even more con fusing when it is recalled that substances of diverse chemical nature may produce similar physiological effects. The aliphatic narcotics, for example, include a large variety of struc tural type, such as hydrocarbons, alcohols, ethers, amines, and sulfones. According to Ing (4), these substances appear to achieve their effect by modifying the physico chemical conditions of the cells due to certain physical properties shared by all classes of these compounds and not by the presence of certain pharmaco-dynamic groups. It will be apparent therefore that while the temptation to rationalize regarding the prediction of toxicities may be great, the evaluation of toxicities of new substances is fraught with considerable uncertainty. Since no great rational scheme is available to aid, except rather sketchily, in deciding upon the toxicity of a given substance, it is inevitably necessary to carry out experi mental work with animals. Experimental Toxicology Experimental industrial toxicology does not differ widely from that of experimental pharmacology, since they both use the re sources of chemistry, physics, physiology, and pathology to achieve their purpose. However, the pharmacologist is primarily interested in therapy rather than toxicity. Furthermore, he is interested in the effects of administration of a substance by mouth, or by intravenous or subcutaneous injection and rarely in the effects of inhalation, except in the case of inhalation anesthetics. The refinements of approach to certain physio logical reactions adopted by the pharma cologist, however, often yield data of funda mental importance within a relatively short INTRODUCTION ST0853319 5 paoe of time. The toxicologist on the other bnd may be compelled to follow an intricate procedure which is arduous and time con* filming in order to define a given physio logical response. Moreover, toxicological studies frequently depend upon pathological changes following the administration of mull amounts of such toxic materials as gases, fumes, or dusts and these changes usually occur very slowly. Toxicological investigations are in general based upon animal experimentation for hu man experimentation is, of course, inde fensible. It is true that animal experiments provide only indirect evidence of the prob able action of toxic substances on man, yet they are nonetheless of the greatest value. They not only afford information regarding upper toxic limits, but by long-continued study, reveal changes in lower concentra tions which are of the greatest importance. In experimental work of this character, a considerable amount of interpolation is nec essary and evaluation of the experimental results requires both acumen and careful judgment. Moreover, there are many poi sons which produce completely different ef fects in different species of animals. Mice and guinea pigs, for example, are more sensi tive to poisoning by trichloroethylene (acetylene trichloride) than cats, while rabbits are less sensitive than cats. On the other hand, cats are more sensitive to lead poisoning than dogs and the latter more so than rats. Although such qualitative and quantitative differences may exist, never theless there can be no doubt that animal experiments are of value since they give an indication of the type of toxic action, as well as the relative toxicity of the substance under investigation. The great advantage of animal experi mentation iB, first of all, the control of dosage and secondly, the degree to which poisoning can be carried. This yields most useful information in tracing similar effects in hu mans accidentally poisoned and in warning against human exposure beyond a certain degree. Although the effects of exposure by in halation are of paramount importance, ani mal studies also usually include other forms of administration, such as ingestion, intra venous injection, intraperitoneal injection, and subcutaneous injection. The latter form of administration is perhaps the least used as absorption is frequently slow and has less significance than the other forms. Intra venous injection pro\ okes the most imme diate response and is often useful in study ing the immediate effects of substances upon the hemopoietic system. Intraperitoneal in jection is one means of following the slow absorption of relatively insoluble sub stances, but is of particular value in study ing the physiological response of various substances. For instance, when pure silica suspensions are intraperitoneally injected, a reaction occurs which is typical and fairly constant (5). Sayers and Miller found three types of reaction occurred with various dusts--absorptive, inert, and proliferative. The absorptive reaction occurs when fine dusts, such as calcite, limestone, gypsum, and cement, are injected. After sufficient time, this material disappears from the peritoneal cavity without the formation of any scar tissue. In the case of the inert reaction, the dust remains distributed about the perito neum by the action of phagocytes, some times forming flat nodules, which do not tend to progress or form fibrous scar tissue. Soapstone, carborundum, and coal dusts ex hibit this inert reaction. In the proliferative reaction, nodules form which continue to increase in size with the formation of fibrous or scar tissue. Quartz, chert, and flint dust produce this reaction. These three types of reaction correspond very closely with the re sults obtained by the inhalation technique. While this method perhaps requires further exploration, it is useful in the approximate classification of dusts. The inhalation technique with reference to dusts, fumes, and gases is by far the most useful method used in experimental toxi cology. In the case of gases, the various concentrations to which animals are exposed may be regulated with accuracy. Hence, the exposure may be clearly and accurately de fined. With fumes and dusts, the concentra tion of fume or dust in the air may be determined by exact chemical analysis. Whether or not the animals always breathe ST0853320 6 INDUSTRIAL TOXICOLOGY in the amount in the atmosphere may not be part of the dust remaining in suspension is ao accurately defined in many cases as small removed before the air enters deeply into animals, such as guinea pigs, tend to huddle the lungs. The ciliated epithelium found together and may be able to filter out some throughout the extent of the air-passages of the dust or fume to which they are ex and their prolongations constantly sweeps posed. out air-borne particles and only the very For the purpose of exposure, gas-tight or finest material penetrates to the lung alveoli. dust-tight exposure chambers of large sice The evaluation of exposure and the local are usually used and animal cages may be ization of toxic material in the various ani placed directly in the exposure chamber. mal tissues, and the determination of its The gas may be introduced in known excretion metabolites, are of course depend amounts and rapidly distributed throughout ent upon exact analytical procedures. Tox the exposure chamber by means of small icological analysis frequently involves the fans. Substances which are sufficiently vol isolation, identification, and determination atile, such as solvents, may be introduced of quite minute amounts of poison. In cases in known amount into a constant current of metal poisoning the application of emis of air and the breathing concentration may sion spectrography is of invaluable assist be accurately calculated. In addition, of ance. With organic substances, especially course, samples of the exposure atmosphere when only minute amounts may be isolated may be taken in most cases and analyzed and purified, identification may prove more chemically. ''<"v difficult. Indeed the original poison may Fumes, such as metal fumes, may be gen have become metabolized so that it may erated by arcing between electrodes of the no longer be identifiable, and above all the metal carrying 110 a.c. current and an ap metabolic fate or the nature of its break propriate resistance. In order to prevent the down products may be unknown. However, formation of metallic oxide fume, it is usu where this field has been sufficiently ex ally necessary to generate this fume in an plored the determination of the end-products atmosphere of inert gas, such as nitrogen of metabolism has been of great value. Thus, or helium, and "bleed" it into an incoming it is possible to trace benzene poisoning by air current. Oxide fumes are readily formed the urinary excretion of phenol and con by arcing in air or in an atmosphere of jugated ethereal sulfates, picric acid by the oxygen. Fumes of many organic substances urinary excretion of 4,6-dinitro-2-amino- may be formed by heating the material to phenol, methanol by formic acid and form the volatilization temperature in the in aldehyde, acrylonitrile by thiocyanate ex coming air stream. cretion and trichloroethylene by the urinary Dusts must be suspended in air in very excretion of trichloroacetic acid. finely divided form in order that they may Modern methods of detection and identi remain in suspension as long as possible and fication have enormously facilitated this so that the material is of sufficient degree of type of investigation. Just as emission fineness to be carried deeply into the ani spectrography in the ultraviolet region has mals' lungs. An elutriating device is useful proved of great value with reference to in for this purpose (6), since it permits a con organic substances, absorption spectropho stant flow of very finely divided dust of more tometry both in the ultraviolet and the infra or less uniform size. In the case of dust ex red regions has been a most valuable tool posures, it is difficult to control the amount in the hands of the analyst with reference of dust in the exposure atmosphere and to structure as well as identification and de hence it is necessary to draw small samples termination of toxic substances. The de from time to time for analysis. Even though velopment of chromatography and the the dust concentration is accurately known, availability of radioactive tracers have also the amount carried into the animals' lungs served to facilitate analytical investigation. is questionable, as a variable amount is re X-ray diffraction technique presents a par moved by the filtering action of the nose, ticularly useful means of identification, and ST085332 I INTRODUCTION 7 the more reoent type of equipment register* the position and intensity of radiation graphically, so that more rapid examina tion is possible. X-ray diffraction analysis not only has the great advantage of identi fication, but requires only a very small amount of substance. Moreover, this substanoe is not destroyed or changed in any way. Furthermore, as with spectrography, a visual record is obtained. The electron microsoope has proved useful for the analy sis of airborne particulates and in the in vestigation of the role played by quarts particles in initiating fibrotic changes in the lungs. Those who are interested in the field of toxicological analysis will find the publica tions of F&bre (7), of Turfitt (8), and of Kirk (9) of particular value. Description of the means of evaluating the effects of various industrial poisons''will be found given in detail in the various pub lications referred to in the succeeding text. It will be noted that a considerable latitude of experimentation is necessary in order to study the effects of a given industrial poison. The degree of exposure (that is, the total amount of substance to which an animal has been exposed for a given time) is, of course, only preliminary to the evaluation of the toxicity of the substance. The behavior of the animal must be observed for this is an index of the manner in which the poison acts. Some substances may cause death immedi ately or within a few minutes--for example, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, or car bon monoxide. Other substances may act as irritants with symptoms of pain, salivation, vomiting, and purging. Ammonia gas, cad mium oxide fume, and chloropicrin, respec tively, produce these effects. Other sub stances affect the central nervous system and produce characteristic symptoms, such as narcosis, convulsions, and paralysis. The various symptoms, in general, serve at best only as a rough classification of toxic substances. The effects of poisons are often subtle and a variety of symptoms may be displayed. In chronic poisoning, or in the case of a cumulative poison, anatomical changes may be produced in certain organs or tissues which are characteristic for the poison. Blood changes may occur with an in crease or decrease in hemoglobin, in red or white cells, and often with characteristic morphological changes in either or both the erythrocytes and leukocytes. All these and many other effects must be studied with care in the evaluation of the toxicity of a substance. It will be apparent therefore that the term toxicity does not refer to a fixed quantity, such as, say, a constant of nature. On the contrary, it is a descriptive term and is often more clearly understood when ap plied in relation to other analogous sub stances. When the toxicity of a substance is evaluated in the broad sense described above, however, the industrial toxicologist is able to advise somewhat definitely the limitation of possible exposure of human beings to industrial poisons. A further element of caution should be exercised with reference to attempts to eval uate the toxicity of a given substance by any mathematical relationship between the quantities of poison administered and the routes of administration, for it is still nec essary to consider the species of animals used. Furthermore, in attempting to apply such a relationship to man, a number of other factors must be considered, not the least of which are age and physical condi tion. However, in order to satisfy those who must know "how toxic'' a substance is, a table of usual industrial poisons is appended (Table IV) which gives the LDM values for one species of animal (the rat) and one mode of administration (oral), which have been gathered from the literature and to which I have assigned various groupings and des ignations. It affords a rough means of com parison and avoids the confusion experi enced when one is confronted with a variety of species and methods of administration. Even so, it will be recalled that rats are more sensitive to certain toxic substances, for instance alpha-naphthylthiourea, than other animals. However, in the light of acute poisoning the table is presented for what it is worth and disclaims any effort at finality. It should be clearly indicated that, while such procedures as those briefly indicated above serve to establish useful limits with regard to industrial poisons, the more funds- ST0853322 INDUSTRIAL TOXICOLOGY mental aapeeta of toxicology involve far more extensive and difficult physicochemical and physiological investigation. Various physical factors such as surface activity, solubility, dispersibility, polarity, partition coefficient, particle sise, and electrophoretio properties may require study. The mecha nism whereby many substances produce toxic effects in man is important and re quires careful exploration. The fate of these substanoes in the body--the changes which organic compounds undergo and the metabo lites formed--serves to indicate the means by which the body attempts to reduce their toxicity and thus protect itself against their poisonous effects. This is especially true of organic compounds completely foreign to the body. In their passage through the animal organism these substances interact with the normal biochemical systems which they en counter. The ensymic systems^hich carry out the oxidations, reductions, hydrolyses, and syntheses in the body may be variously affected. The metabolic processes involved reflect an attempt to reduce or abolish the toxic action or damage to the organism. However, it is not true that the product or products formed are invariably less toxic than the parent substance. For example, Channon and his associates (10) found that 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene U-TNT) is partly converted in the animal organism to 2,6dinitro-4-hydroxylaminotoluene which is excreted as such in-the urine. Furthermore, the biological reduction product of picric acid is picramic acid. In both these cases the end-products are more toxic than the origi nal substances. Nevertheless in the case of many other poisons the toxic substance is converted to harmless metabolites and elimi nated. Fundamental investigation of the toxicity of a given substance therefore in cludes study of the course of the toxic agent through the body, its effects on various or gans and tissues during its passage, and the changes produced in the substance by the detoxicating mechanism of the body as in dicated by the metabolites formed. Investigation of toxic Bubstances and in particular of the mechanism of detoxica tion may ultimately prove to be one of the most fruitful fields of biochemistry, inas much as it provides specific knowledge of processes that are not obvious nor come to light except as the need for meeting an un usual or critical situation arises. Ensymatic action which can bring about hydraxylation conjugation, acetylation, or methylation of substances foreign to the body is not only interesting per e, but may also give a clearer insight into living processes in general (see Appendix, Table II). The minor metabolic changes which occur with certain toxic sub stances not only follow curious paths, as for instance in the formation of unusual or un expected metabolites--such as the partial transformation of benzene to trant-trans- muconic acid and aniline to ortho-aminophenol in addition to its well-known trans formation product, para-atninophenol--but may have considerable significance. Fur thermore the pattern of biological oxidation is frequently different from that of in vitro experimentation, for apparently biological oxidation and other processes do not in variably attack those portions of the mole cule which are familiar to the chemist as the most reactive centers. Investigation in this field is at best difficult, frequently slow, and occasionally unrewarding, yet a surprisingly large amount of useful information has been accumulated. Interesting as this is, it is beyond the province of this book to discuss the biological significance of the changes which foreign organic substances undergo in the body. The following pages therefore re late to the direct toxic effects of industrial poisons. REFERENCES 1. Slade, R.: The gamma isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane (gammexane). The Hurter Me morial Lecture, Soc. Chem. Ind., March 1946. 2. Woodard, G., and Hagan, E. C.: Toxicological studies on the isomers and mixtures of iso mers of bentene hexachloride. Federation Proc., Soc. Pharm. Exptl. Therap. 6: 386 (1947). 3. Cushny, A, R.: Biological Relations of Opti cally Isomeric Substances. The Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore, 1928, p. 40. 4. Ing, H. R.: Chemical constitution and pharma cological action. Trans. Faraday Soc. 39 : 373 (1943). 5. Miller, J. W., and Sayers, R. R.: Physiological response of the peritoneal tissue to dusts introduced as foreign bodies. U. S. Public Health Service, Public Health Repts. 49: 80 (1934). 6. Fairhall, L. T., and Sayers, R. R.: The relative ST0853323 introduction 9 Uuaa.tr of lead and soma of its common iwmiwwiwMiM- U. 8. Public Health Samos, PubUoHaaith BulL No. 868, p. 7 (1940). , 7. Fabre. R. : La technique an taaootoga. IT dmts probltaas inUrasmat U mMacina UmU I* biMubm da travail. BalL too. phann. Bordeaux 90: 285-361 (1862). . 8. Turfitt, Q. B.: Reseat advances in tomooloeoal uabaa. J. Phann. and PhannaooL 5.* 321-- 887 (1861). .... 8. Kirk, P. L.: Isolation, identification and de- of poisons. Ann. Rot. Med. VoL 6: (1866). 10. Chanson, H. J. Mills, Q. T., and Williams, R. T * Metabolixn of 2:4:ft-trimtrotoluene (^TN.TO. Biocham. J. S8 : 70 (1844). 11 Williaaas, R. T.: Detoxication Machaaima. John Wiley & 8ocs, Inc, New Yorlt, 1848, IS. Fabre, R. and Truhaut, R.: Mitabolfcme das Sotranta. 26* Conar. dc M&L L4*aie, de Mid. goaiala at da Mid. du Travail, Bordeaux (1MB). , ^ 18. Truhaut, R.: Transformations mitaboliquee das toxkmaa. Intirit da leur itude. Ann. phann.frane.il; 46 (1863). ST 0853324 INORGANIC SUBSTANCES 19 of arsine is related to its affinity for the hemoglobin of the red blood corpuscles and the symptoms of acute arsine poisoning re sult from hemolysis of the red blood cells with resulting anemia and jaundice. It has been suggested that arsine is carried un changed to the various tissues by loosely combining with the erythrocytes (13). Fatal termination is frequent. Analysis The great importance of arsenic from a toxicological point of view and the extreme sensitivity of the various methods has re sulted in the accumulation of immense amounts of literature devoted to the analyti cal detection and estimation of this sub stance. The conventional Marsh and Gutzeit methods which depend on the formation of arsine and its detection are convenient and satisfactory within certain limits. The^gold chloride test paper method of Turfitt (14) is a particularly useful test for arsenic. Of the various colorimetric procedures for the micro-determination of arsenic, that of Sandell is both accurate and sensitive (15). In this method, the material, freed from sub stances that prevent complete evolution of arsine, is so treated that the arsenic is quan titatively evolved as arsine. This, in turn, is absorbed in an acid solution of mercuric chloride containing permanganate and the arsenic thus oxidized to arsenate can be de termined by the addition of an excess of am monium molybdate-hydrazine sulfate rea gent which yields molybdenum blue in proportion to the amount of arsenic present. This method is particularly applicable to amounts of arsenic within the range of 1 to 15 micrograms with an accuracy of 5 per cent. Arsenic may also be detected qualita tively by n-ethyl-8-hydroxy-tetrahydroquinoline hydrochloride, which gives a red dish-brown color in spot tests in the presence of ferric chloride (16). The arc spectrum for arsenic is very poor and there are a number of interfering lines. However, the following lines--2860.5, 2780.2, and 2349.8--are use ful for spectrographic identification. REFERENCES 1. Truhaut, R.: L'arsenic en toxicologie rriminelle. M6thodes de recherche, causes d'erreur, interpretation des resultata. Science et Vie, Paris, 1953. 2. Snegireff, L. S, and Lombard, 0. M.: Arsenic and cancer: Observations in the metallurgi cal industry. Arch. Ind. Hyg. and Occupa tional Med. .(.'1M (1911). 3. Fairhall, L. T., and Neal, P. A.: The absorption and excretion of lead arsenate in man. U. S. Public Health Service, Publio Health Repta. 63: 1331 (1938). Reprint No. 1900. 4. Fairhall, L. T.: The solubility of lead arsenate in body fluids. U. S. Public Health Service, Public Health Repta. Si: 1630 (1939). Re print No. 2097. 5. Fairhall, L. T., and Miller, J. W.: A study of the relative toxicity of the molecular com ponent! of lead arsenate. U. S. Public Health osrviee, Publio Health Repta. 68: 1610 (1941). Reprint No. 2302. 6. Fairhall, L. T,, Miller, J. W,, and Weaver, F. L.: The effect of araanatea on the storage of lead. U. S. Public Health Service, Public Health Repta. 68: 955 (1943). Reprint No. 2485. 7. Watroua, R. M., and McCaughey, M. B.: Oc cupational exposure to arsenic in the manu facture of arsphenamine and related com pounds. Ind. Med. 14 : 639 (1945). 8. Bomford, R. R., and Hunter, D.: Araeniuretted hydrogen poisoning due to the action of wa ter on metallic arsenides. Lancet t: 1446 (1933). 9. Nau, C. A., Anderson, W., and Cone. R. E.: Arsine, stibine, and hydrogen sulfide. Acci dental industrial poisoning by a mixture. Ind. Med. 13 : 308 (1944). 10. Dernehl, C. U., Stead, F. M., and Nau, C. A-.: Arsine, stibine, and hydrogen sulfide. Acci dental generation in a metal refinery. Ind. Med. 13 : 361 (1944). 11. Bulmer, F. M. R., RothweU, H. E,, Polack, S. 8., and Stewart, D. W.: Chronic arsine poisoning among workers employed in the cyanide ex traction of gold: a report of fourteen cases. J. Ind. Hyg. Toxicol, tt: 111 (1940). 12. Hawlick, G. F., and Ley, E. B.: Arsine poison ing. Report of a case. Occupational Med. 1: 388 (1946). 13. Levvy, G. A.: A study of arsine poisoning. Quart. J. Exptl. Physiol. 34 : 47 (1947). 14. Turfitt, G. E.: Recent advances in toxicological analysis. J. Pharm. and Pharmacol. 3: 321 (1951). 15. Sandeli, E.B.: Colorimetric microdetermination of arsenic after evolution as arsine. Ind. Eng. Chem.. Anal. Ed. 14 : 82 (1942). 16. Mellan, I.: Organic Reagents in Inorganic Anal ysis. Blakiston Co., Philadelphia, 1941, p. 250. ASBESTOS Characteristics Asbestos, amianthus, earth flax, stone flax, mountain cork, is a characteristically silky, fibrous mineral, the composition of which varies with its source. The form known as chrysotile is derived from serpentine and is a hydrous magnesium silicate containing from 12.5 to 14 per cent water of crystallization. ST 0853325 20 INDUSTRIAL TOXICOLOGY About 95 per cent of commercial asbestos is cbrysotile. .Chrysotile has the silkiest and strongest, fiber and can be spun. The fibers may be as long as 6 inches in length. Asbestos derived from amphibole occurs aB a variety of minerals consisting of iron, calcium, and magnesium with little water of constitution. The latter type of asbestos consists of short fibers and is usually inferior to that derived from serpentine. Amphibole asbestos (anthophyllite) while not so suitable for spin ning is more stable chemically than chrysotile and more resistant to acids and heat. Canada has been an important source for the chrysotile asbestos used largely in the United States. The Canadian asbestos in dustry is centered in the Thetford Mines area of the Province of Quebec. A new source for chrysotile type asbestos is a large quarry on the eastern shoulder of Belvidere Mountain in Vermont whicfrtoas opened in the summer of 1944. This deposit is of im portance because it represents the only large source of long-fibered chrysotile so far found in the United States. Deposits of amphibole asbestos are mined in Georgia and North Carolina. Industrial Uses Asbestos is an important substance in in dustry and consumption in the United States for 1951 amounted to 796,992 short tons (1). Due to its fibrous nature, flexibility and heat-resistant properties, it is used exten sively for valve packings, gaskets, boiler lagging, and pipe covering in industrial plants and as friction material in the auto motive industry. A considerable market exists in the building industry for asbestoscement products, heat insulation, and fire proofing. The utilization of asbestos for fibers for spinning in the manufacture of asbestos clothing for fire fighting is an im portant use for asbestos. The largest single outlet for asbestos in manufactured products in 1944 was for clutch facings, and next in quantity of output were brake linings. As bestos roofing consumed the third largest amount of asbestos in that year. Industrial Injury The inhalation of asbestos dust produces a condition known as asbestosis. While cer tain other minerals of minor importance have been shown to produce lung fibrosis, asbestos is the only important silicate apart from talc and mica which does not contain free silica and yet produces pulmonary lung fibrotic changes leading to disability and death. Asbestosis occurs chiefly in industrial plants where asbestos is fabricated. The spinning and weaving of asbestos in com bination with other textiles results in ex posure of workmen to asbestos dust. The long-continued inhalation of asbestos dust results in a form of pneumoconiosis. The primary effect of inhalation of asbestos dust is an interstitial pulmonary fibrosis. On an X-ray film the shadows cast by this type of fibrosis resemble ground glass in appearance and usually extend over the lower portions of the lung fields, frequently being heavier on the right side (2). Unlike silicosis, nodu lar fibrosis has not been detected in asbestos workers (3). The fibrogenic action differs from that of silica in that the effects are produced only by long asbestos fibers while the very short asbestos fibers appear to have little or no effect. The long fibers apparently block the finer bronchioles and produce fibrotic changes as a result of irritation. A progressive dyspnea, variable cough, substernal chest pains, decreased chest expan sion, weakness, emaciation, clubbed finger tips, and curved fingernails are the chief symptoms of asbestosis, as in silicosis. A characteristic finding in asbestosis is that of asbestos bodies in the lungs and in the spu tum (4). The so-called asbestos bodies are apparently formed only in the lungs and may be demonstrated microscopically on sectioning lung tissue or in the sputum. The core of the body is an asbestos fiber which is surrounded by protein deposits. Unstained specimens are golden yellow or golden brown. They are not stained with ordinary histological stains but may be demonstrated by the Prussian blue staining procedure. The reaction to the fibrous needle in the tissue which becomes manifest in exudate cell in filtration is accompanied by numerous giant cells containing foreign particles and an in crease of diffuse interstitial connective tissue and fibrosis. While the essential reaction to asbestos particles is considered to be chemi cal by many investigators others consider the 3 TCo53326 INORGANIC SUBSTANCES 21 pathogenesis of the disease to be mechani samples taken from the air of weaving fac cal (5) in nature. For instance, the investi tories. The index of refraction being only gations of Vorwald and hiB associates (6) slightly greater than that of Canada bal indicate that the mode of action of the long sam, the relief is low. Other forms of as asbestos fiber is mechanical rather than bestos than chrysotile have somewhat higher chemical in nature. When the lungs are ex indices of refraction. Extinction is parallel amined by the naked eye after death, they except in the case of tremolite which has are large and densely fibrotic. Often the lung oblique extinction. The birefringence of is completely adherent to the chest wall and, chrysotile is moderate n, -- n = 0.013. The in advanced cases, to the diaphragm with maximum interference color is bright yellow the formation of a thick and extremely dense of the first order. The air sampling of asbes layer of fibrous tissue. Four main complica tos dust both by the impinger method and by tions and sequelae of pulmonary asbestosis the electrostatic precipitator method is dis are purulent bronchitis, bronchial pneumo cussed in detail by Fehnel (13). nia, pulmonary tuberculosis, and emphy sema (7). Several cases of asbestosis have been reported which progressed to a fatal termination with heart failure and without evidence of infection or other complicating disease (8). Any appreciable decrease in the amount of asbestos dust will cause **lecrease in the incidence and severity of asbestosis (9). In a recent study of 40 cases of asbestosis at necropsy, Lynch and Cannon (10) found support for the belief that fibro sis does not progress indefinitely after cessa tion of exposure. It would appear that if the dust concentration in asbestos factories can be kept below 5 million particles per cubic foot, new cases of asbestosis would not arise (2). Cartier (11) has found cases of asbesto sis only in those employed for at least 14 years and exposed to air containing at least 5 million fibrous particles varying in length from 10 to 250 microns per cubic foot of air. Doll (12) has concluded from a study of 105 necropsies of individuals employed at an asbestos works that lung cancer is a spe cific hazard of asbestos workers. Analysis While the analysis of asbestos dust as an aerial contaminant is not of particular im portance, its microscopy and above all the evaluation of the number of particles per REFERENCES 1. Bowles, O., and Barsigian, F. M.: Asbestos. Minerals Yearbook 1051. U. S. Bur. Mines, Washington, D.C., 1954, p. 167. 2. Dreeseen, W. C., DallaV&Ue, J. M., Edwards, T. 1., Miller, J. W., and Sayers, R. R.: A study of asbestosis in the asbestos textile industry. U. S. Public Health Service, Public Health Bull. No. 241 (1938). 3. Sayers, R. R., and Dreessen, W. C.: Asbestosis. Am. J. Public Health t9: 205 (1939). 4. Lanxa. A. J.: Silicosis and Asbestosis. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 1938. 5. Noro, L.: Histology of asbestosis. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand., Kobenh. 13: 53 (1946). 0. Vorwald. A. J., Durkan, T. M., and Prat, P. C.: Experimental studies of asbestosis. Arch Ind. Hyg. and Occupational Med. 3: 1 (1951). 7. Gloyne, S. R., and Merewether, E. R. A.: As bestos. Occupation and Health Suppl. In ternational Labour Office, Geneva, 1938. 8. Lanza, A. J., and Goldberg, J. A.: Industrial . Hygiene. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 1939, p.387. 9. Page, R. T., and Bloomfield, J. J.: A study of dust control methods in an asbestos fabri cating plant. U. S. Public Health Service, Public Health Repts. St: 1713 (1937). 10. Lynch, K. M., and Cannon, W. M., Asbestosis. Analysis o( forty necropsied cases. Diseases of the Chest U: 874 (1948). 11. Cartier, P.: A contribution to the study of asbestosis. Arch, maladies profess. 10: 689 (1949). 12. Doll, R.: Mortality from lung cancer in as bestos workers. Brit. J. Ind. Med. It: 81 (1955). 13. Fehnel, J. W.: Air sampling of asbestos dust: comparison of impinger and electrostatic pre cipitator methods. Ind. Med. 9: Ind. Hyg. Sect. 1: 5 (1940). cubic foot of air is of paramount importance. Air samples may be secured by the impinger method using 25 to 50 per cent alcohol as a BARIUM collecting medium and dust counts made by Characteristics the usual method. Microscopic examination of the dust reveals typical asbestos fibrous particles which may be accompanied also by cotton or other textile fibrous materials in Barium, Ba, atomic weight 137.36, density 3.5, melting point 850 C., and boiling point 1140 C., is a yellowish-white, slightly lus trous, soft metal which is somewhat malle- INORGANIC SUBSTANCES ST 0853327 105 SILICA industry and the number of workers in volved, many surveys have been made and Silica (SiOj) or silicon dioxide, is the most these investigations have resulted in the abundant of all the minerals and rocks that setting up of efficient protective measures in form the earth's crust. It is characterized by working establishments. Dust control meas its hardness and chemical resistance to re ures, taking into consideration the chemical agents. It is slightly soluble in alkalies but composition of the durt and the size of the the finely particulate material is only very silica particles, as well as the concentration slightly soluble in water (1, 2). Silica frac of the dust in the air, have been instituted. tures into very minute particles. In the There is more or less general agreement that crystalline from it occurs as quartz but two it is desirable to avoid concentrations of other forms are known. These are tridymite more than 5 million particles per cubic foot and cristobalite, and each of these exists in of air in working places where the dust con a number of modifications. Sand, flint, and tains a high percentage of free silica. Granite agate are familiar forms of silica and diato- dust, which contains about 35 per cent free maceouB earth, which is occasionally found silica, when in concentrations of 10 to 20 in nature in large deposits, is composed of million particles per cubic foot has been the silicious skeletons of diatoms. In view of found not to cause disabling silicosis in a what is known about the disease called working lifetime, while anthracite dust, con "silicosis'', it is important to distinguish be taining less than 5 per cent free silica, has tween silica in the free state, as SiO^'&nd been found not to cause anthracosilicosis in silica in the combined state, such as the var concentrations of less than 50 million par ious silicates. The silicates are still con ticles per cubic foot (3). Because airborne sidered innocuous when inhaled as dust, with dust may differ markedly from that of the the exception of talc, mica, and the fibrous source material from which it arises, it is silicates which are known as asbestos (3). common practice in appraising dust hazards The percentage of free silica in the various to determine the free silica content of sam dusts which have been analyzed in connec ples. Furthermore, it has been indicated that tion with health studies of workers in dusty toxicity increases sharply with silica dust trades has been shown to range from 54 per below 3 microns in size (7). Since particles cent to a trace (4). Silicosis is a chronic dis too large to be significant in silicosis pro ease caused by the inhalation of particulate duction often contain a much higher per matter containing free or uncombined silica. centage of free silica than fine particles of It is characterized anatomically by general significant size, Holden and his associates ized fibrotic changes with miliary nodula- (8) describe a procedure to eliminate the tion in the lungs. Clinical signs are shortness oversize particles before analysis. of breath, a lowered vital capacity, a lowered Silicosis is occasionally found to occur capacity for work, increased susceptibility under unusual or unexpected circumstances. to tuberculosis, and a characteristic X-ray While workers at the face in coal mines may appearance of the lungs. be much less affected, silicosis has been Silicosis is found to occur in such occupa found to be more prevalent among the mine tions as mining, the cutting of sandstone and locomotive operators in certain mines. This granite, the coal industry, the smelting, re has been attributed to sand used as traction fining, and grinding of metals, the manu material. The spinning and grinding action facture of certain abrasives, the pottery in of the wheels produces dust which, in the dustry, and the processing of the various confined space of entries or tunnels, may forms of free silica. The number of workers rise to high atmospheric concentration. exposed to dangerous amounts of silica dust Laboratory study of substitute materials by has been estimated at more than 1 million Fairhall, Highman, and Perone (9) showed (5) . that iron ore tailings, metallurgical slags, Because of the disabling nature of silicosis and trap rock produce far less peritoneal (6) , the extent to which exposure occurs in reaction in guinea pigs that sand or quartz, ST0853328 106 INDUSTRIAL TOXICOLOGY yet possess the requisite hardness to serve oxide. However, this theory has been vigor as traction material. ously criticized by Wright (14), who has The mechanism and pathology of silicosis attacked the various hypotheses on which have been very adequately described. It is this theory is based. Moreover, comparative well recognized that very fine particulate animal experiments by Rfittner (15) have silica is carried to the air sac or alveolus demonstrated that pure, freshly fractured which represents the terminal dilatation of quartz is no more active that "old" quartz. the bronchioles in the lungs. The alveoli are Vigliani et al. (16) have stated that meas in intimate contact with blood vesseU urement of the blood serum globulins can through which the oxygen-carbon dioxide in assist in both the diagnosis and the prognosis terchange phenomena of respiration occur of silicosis. More recent experimental work and they are also in contact tVith lymphatics by Bald: and Boselli (17) and by Proyard which are important for the removal of for and Nizet (18) has failed to substantiate eign or irritant material. This defense mech this finding. The application of the electron anism is motivated by the activity of phago microscope to the examination of particulate cytic cells which carry off the minute silica quartz obtained from the lungs of workers particles to the lymph nodes. There an in has revealed a process of disintegration, ac effective accumulation of this material oc cording to Beintker and Meldau (19). These curs and fibrotic changes take place resulting investigators state that the disintegration of in areas which constitute the silicotic lung the particle is revealed in the form of very marking revealed by the cfest roentgeno minute droplets on the surface of the particle gram. Just why the phagocytio cell is af and that these droplets appear to be silicic fected by the silica--whether, in fact, silica acid in colloidal form. It is thought that has a direct toxic action, or whether it initi this colloidal material may play an essen ates other effects--is still in the realm of tial role in initiating silicosis. The more speculation. recent piezoelectric theory of fibrogenic ac Certain substances, such as aluminum, tivity of quartz has been disproved by the iron and magnesium dusts, as well as coal experimental work of Pratt and his associ and cement dust^ when used with quartz ates (20) who found that highly piezoelectric have been found to decrease the pulmonary substances other than quartz do not produce changes associated with free silica itself. fibrosis or silicosis in guinea pigs, while tri- HiiS has been attributed to a decreased dymite and vitreaus silica, both of which solubility of the particulate silica and are not piezoelectric, do produce fibrosis. Denny, Robson, abd Irwin (10) have shown Since free silica or quartz is the important that small quantities of metallic aluminum factor in causing silicosis, the identification powder almost completely inhibit the solu of this substance and its quantitative evalu bility of siliceous material. While aluminum ation as a dust constituent are of prime con dust therapy has represented an interesting sideration. The microscopic examination of pha|e of the silicosis problem, it should be such dust yields especially valuable infor mentioned that Rlittner and Willy (11) mation. Of the six distinct silica minerals, havfc found aluminum dust itself to be quartz, chalcedony, and opal are the more fibfkgenic and state that caution should be common. Tridymite and cristobalite are e$4r$ised in regarding it as antidotal. Fur more or less of volcanic origin and are also thermore, King (12) reports that, while a found as constituents of silica bricks, while mixture of aluminpm hydroxide with silica lecbatellierite is exceedingly rare. Quartz lowers its solubility, it does not prevent and chalcedony have refractive indices near fibrosis in animals. Heffeman (13) proposed that of Canada balsam and a birefringence the theory that only freshly fractured quartz of about 0.009. The other silica minerals is biologically active and that the surface have lower indices of refraction and weaker attiVity of the silica particles is the impor birefringence. The microscopic examination tant factor in the production of silicosis of such industrial dusts as are known to con rather than the solubility of the silicon di tain free silica can only be satisfactorily ST0853329 INORGANIC SUBSTANCES 107 accomplished by the use of the petrographic microscope and a considerable amount of experience is necessary. Quantitative evalu ation of the quartz content of a dust may be made microscopically by examining the dust and counting the dust particles in two different immersion media (21) having dif ferent indices of refraction. In one of these media all the particles are visible; in the other, having the same index of refraction as quartz, only the nonquartz particles are visible. The difference between these two estimations gives some approximation of the silica content of the dust. The method is not suitable for very fine particles and estima tion based on particles of less than 10 microns in size is not good petrographic practice. Chemical methods for the estima tion of free silica, 6uch as the hydrofluo- silicic acid method (22) and the fluoboric acid method (23), are tedious, time-con suming, and frequently yield information of no more quantitative value than less lengthy procedures. The X-ray diffraction method of dust analysis has become of increasing im portance and is especially commendable from the point of view of speed, while it appears to yield results of as great accuracy as is obtainable by other methods of analy sis. Fraser (24) has presented a method that permits for the first time an absolute pro cedure for the analysis of airborne solid particulates. The method makes use of the combined high efficiency of the molecular filter membrane for sampling and of the electron microscope for measurement. REFERENCES 1. Titus, A. C.: Silica and silicate solubilities. J. Ind. Hyg. Toxicol. 19: 138 (1937). 2. Kitto, P. 3., and Patterson, H. 8.: The rate of solution of particles of quartz and certain silicates. J. Ind. Hyg. Toxicol, tt,: 59 (1942). 3. Meller. H. B.: Silicosis and allied disorders. Air Hyg. Foundation of America, Pittsburgh Med. Ser. Bull. No. 1 (1937). 4. Bloomfield, J. J., and DallaValle, J. M.: The determination and control of industrial dust. U. S. Public Health Service, Public Health Bull. No. 217, p. 62 (1935). 5. Bloomfield, J. J., Trasko, V. M., Sayers, R. R., Page, R. T., and Peyton, M. F.: A preliminary survey of the industrial hygiene problem in the United States. U. S. Public Health Service, Public Health Bull. No. 259 (1940). 6. Gardner, L. U., and Wright, G.: Disability in silicosis. Ind. Hyg. Foundation Amer, Proc. Eighth Annual Meeting, Pittsburgh, p. 47 (1943). 7. Tebbens, B. D., Schulz, R. Z., and Drinker, P.: The potency of silica particles of different aise. J. Hid. Hyg. Toxicol, tl: 199 (1945). 8. Holden, F. R., Hemeon, W. C. L., and Hyatt, E. C.: Appraising exposures to silica dust. J. Ind. Hyg. Toxicol. 69: 265 (1947). 9. Fairhall. L. T., Highman, B., and Perone, V. B.: The physiological response to dust from mine locomotive traction material. U. S. Public Health Service, Public Health Repts. 65: 1003(1950). 10. Denny, J. J., Robson, W. D., and Irwin, D. A.: The prevention of silicosis by metallic alumi num. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 37; 1 (1937); Ind. Med. 8: 133 (1939). 11. Rlittner, J. R., and Willy, W.: The effect of aluminum in intraperitoneal injection tests. Schweis. Z. allgem. Pathol, u. Bakteriol. 16: 216 (1953). 12. King, E. J.: Solubility theory of silicosis. Oc cupational Med. 4: 26 (1947). 13. Heffernan, P.: Tubercle 16 : 397 (1935); Alu minum dust for silicosis. Brit. Med. J. 1: 928 (1946). 14. Wright, B. M.: "Freshly fractured surface" theory of silicosis. Nature 166 : 538 (1950). 15. Ruttner, J. R.: Comparative animal experi ments on the effect of freshly fractured and so-called "old" quartz from silicotic lungs. Zeitschr. Unfallmed. Berufakrankh. 45: 66 (1950). 16. Vigliani, E., Bostelli, A., and Pecchiai, L.: Med. lavoro 41: 33 (1950). 17. Baldi, G., and Boselli, A.: Analysis of the gamma globulins in the prognosis of silico sis. Med. lavoro 44 : 501 (1953). 18. Proyard, G., and Nizet, A.; Electrophoretic analysis of serum proteins in silicosis. Arch, maladies profess. 16: 20 (1955). 19. Beintker, E,, and Meldau, R.: Electron micros copy in silicosis. Beitr. Silikose-Forschung. No. 5 (1944). 20. Pratt, P. C., Bailey, D., Delahant, A. B., and Vorwald, A. J.: Relation between the piesoelectric property and the fibrogenic capacity of dust. Arch. Ind. Hyg. and Occupational Med. 8: 109 (1953). 21. Ross, H. L., and Sehl, F. W.: Determination of free silica. Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed. 7: 30(1935). 22. Knopf, A.: The quantitative determination of quartz ("free silica") in dusts. U. 8. Public Health Service, Public Health Repts. Ifi: 183 (1933). 23. Line, W. R,, and Aradine, P. W.: Determination of quartz in the presence of silicates. Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed. 9 : 60 (1937). 24. Fraser, D. A.: Absolute method of sampling and measurement of solid air-bome particu- * lates. Arch. Ind. Hyg. and Occupational Med. 8 : 412(1953). Dautrebande, L., Cartry, D., Van Kerkom, J., and Cereghetti, A.: Essai de Prevention de la Silicose. Union Miniere du Haut-Katanga, 1954, 177 pp., 81 figs. ST0853330 TABLE IV Comparative ToxicUiea of Various Substances Based upon the LDu Value for Oral Administration to Rats Matsars His./K. Toxidtr* Msa/Kt. Texidty* Aostio acid Aeetio anhydride Aoetanilide Acetone Acetonitrile Aoetosalicylie acid Acridine Acrolein Acrylonitrile Aldrin Ally! aloohol m-Aminophenol Aminothiasole Ammonium sulfamate tcrt-Amyl alcohol Aniline Antabuse Arsenic trioxide Bentene hexachloride Bensoio acid Benxyl alcohol Biphenyl Boric acid Butyl acrylate n-Butyl alcohol n-Butylamine Butyl ether p-Ur<-Butyltoluene Butyric acid Carbitol Chloroacetamide Chloral hydrate Chlordane Chloroaoetio acid, monoChloroacetio acid, tri1-Chloronitropropane p-Cresol Crotonaldehyde 2,4-D DDD DDT Dehydroacetic acid Dicumarol Dieldrin Dimetan Diethylamine Diethyl sulfate Dimethyl phthalate Dimethyl sulfate 4,6-Dinitrobutylphenol 4,6-Dinitro-o-cresol 4,6-Dinitrocyclohexyl- phenol 3310 1780 800 0760 3800 1360 2140 46 03 67 64 1000 480 3000 1000 460 8600 138 126 1714 3100 3280 2660 3730 4360 600 7400 1643 2040 6500 3100 800 470 76 3320 50 1800 300 666 3400 420 570 541 87 150 540 880 8200 440 60 30 180 IV IV III IV IV IV IV I II II II IV III IV IV III II II IV IV IV IV IV IV III IV IV IV IV IV 111 111 II IV 1 IV III III IV hi hi HI II II III III IV III II I I! 2,4-Dinitrophenol 1,4-Dioxane Ethanol Ethylaerylate Ethylamine EthyleDediamine Ethylene glycol Formaldehyde Furfuryl alcohol Hexanal 1-Hexanol 2-Hexanone Hexylamine Hydroquinone Hydroxyethyleneimine isoBomylthiocyanoace- tate uoPropyl alcohol Lead arsenate Malathion Mercuric chloride Methoxychlor Methyl carbitol Methyl iodide Methylmethacrylate Morpholine a-Naphthylthiourea Nicotine Parathion Pentachlorophenol Phenol Phenothiasine o-Phenylphenol Phenylthiourea o-Phthalic acid Piperonyl butoxide Propanol-1 Propionaldehyde 1 Pyrethrins JJ Pyridine Pyrolen | Quinoline 1 Rotenone j Salicylamide Sodium aside Sodium fluoride Sodium fluoroacetate Strychnine Tetraethylpyrophoephate Thiourea 1 Toxaphene I Triethylamine Thallium sulfate 30 5326 13600 1020 400 1160 6122 800 275 4520 4870 2500 670 320 74 1000 6840 825 1400 37 6000 0210 150 9360 1600 6.9 50 6 125 530 5000 2700 20 7500 11500 1870 1410 1500 1580 90 460 132 1400 46 200 2.5 16.2 2 1830 69 460 15 I IV IV IV III nr IV hi in IV nr nr in in ii IV nr ill nr i IV nr ii IV IV i i i ii hi IV IV I IV IV IV IV IV IV II III II IV I II I I I IV II III I I, extremely toxic; II, very toxic; III, moderately toxic; IV, slightly to nearly nontoxic. 387 ST085333I INDEX Detailed dieeu--iorai shown by boldface pages numbers Abrasives, 12 Acetaldehyde, 1U Aoetaldehyde phenylhydrasone, 128 Aoetio acid, 140 Acetic anhydride, 141 Acetie ether, 236 Aoetooe, 142 Acetonyl chloride, 190 Acetophenone, 144 Aoetylbemene, 144 Acetyl chloride, 140 Acetylene, 269 Acetylene dichloride, 21S Acetylene tetrabromide, 836 Acetylene tetrachloride, 336 AoetTlaalicylio acid, 141 Acridine, 14S Acridine orange NO, 145 Acridine yellow, 145 Acrolein, 146 Acrylaldehyde, 146 Acrylic aldehyde, 146 Acrylonitrile, 143 Adenosine triphosphate inhibition, 42 Adipic acid, 202 Aerosola, 2 Agate, 105 Ahaarin, 11, 82, 127 Alkylbensenes, 149 Allanite, 33 Allyl alcohol, ISO Allyl bromide, 151 Allyl chloride, 151 Alnico alloy, 39 Aloxite, 12 Alumina abrasives, 11 Aluminon, 11 Aluminosis, 11 Aluminum, 10 Alundum, 12 Aminobetnene, 1S9 Aminocyclohexane, 203 p-Aminodimethylaniline, 80 Aminodimethyloensene. 338 Aminoethoxybensene, 315 1-Amino-4-hydroxyanthraquinone, 25 4-Aminopbenetole, SIS o~, m-, and p-Aminophenol, 152 4-Aminophenolethyl ether, 315 2-Aminopyridine, 154 Ammonia, 13 Ammonium molybdate procedure, 58 Ammonium picrate, 323, 324 Ammonium thiocyanate, 148 Amphibole, 20 Amyl acetate, 155 Amyl alcohol, 157 Amylene, 271 Anglesite, 68 Aniline, 159 Anthophyllite, 20 Anthracosilicosis, 105 Antimony, 14 Antu, 300 Apatite, 92 Are welding, 85 Amnia, ICO Anetol, 83 Aroehlor, 188 Amnio, 17 Anna, 17 Asbeatoa, 19 Aabeatoe bodies, 20 Asbeatoa dust, microscopy of, 21 AibMtoaii, 20 Aiparyillm fvmaricm, 264 Asphaltum, 168 Aspirin, 141 Atebrin, 145 Aurintricarboxylic acid, 11 Asimethylene, 207 Aso dyes, 359 Asoimide, 54 Asole, 352 Asophenol dyes, 317 Baalim ac*toatkyUaim,.10 Badlhu clottridium aeatobuiyUam, 175 Baalim macaroni, 142, 175 Baddeleyite, 138 Bakelite, 365 BAL, 89, 110 Barite, 22 Baritoais, 22 Barium, 21 Bauxite, 10 Bensal chloride, 344 Bensene, 161 Bensene hexachloride, 4, 163 Bensene monochloride, 191 Bensidine, 35, 38, 117, 123, 160, 165, 273 a-Benril dioxime, 82 Bensoflavine, 145 Bensol, 161 Bensoyl peroxide, 166 Bensil aniline. 145 Bensyl chloride, 167 Bensylpyridine, 330 Beryllium, 23 Beryllium copper, 23, 43 Beryllium fluoride, 24 Beryllium potassium sulfate, 24 Beryllium sulfate, 24 Biotite, 78 Biamarlc brown, 320 Biamuth, 26 Bismuth nephritis, 28 Bituminous substances, 168 Bladder tumors, 160, 186 Blood, vanadium in, 132 Boletic acid, 263 Borax, 28 Boric acid, 27 Boron, 27 Boron carbide, 28 Boron fluoride etherate, 46 Boron hydrides, 28 Boron trifluoride, 28 389 ST 0853332 370 INDEX Bromallylene, 151 Bromine, 29 Bromobenaene, 161 p-Bromobenxohydnaicle, 14S Bromoform, i.70 3-Bromo-l-propene, 151 Brucine iooocadmate, 33 Buah eickneee, 39 1,3-Butadiene, 171 Butene, 267 2-Butanone, 172 2-Butenni, 199 n-Butyl sceUte, 175 Butyl alcohol. 174 ButyUmine, 176 Butyl Celloaolve, 246 Butylene, 371 n-Butyl-i-hydroxyetkyl ether, 246 1 frri flntrl 1 mnthjrlhmereie, 177 uoButyl methyl ketone, 178 n-Butyi methyl ketone, 178 p-lert-Butyltoluene, 177 Cable raah, 188 Caootheline, 128 Cadion, 33 Cadmium, 50 Cadmium allova, 30 Cadmium oxide duet, 33 Cadmium oxide fume, 30 Carbinoi, 279 Carbitol, 220 Carbolic acid, 516 Carbomethane, 276 Carbon dichloride, 558 Carbon dioxide, 179 Carbon dieulfide, ISO Carbon monoxide, 182 Carbon monoxide detector. 183 Carbon monoxide, poyloytnemia from, 183 Carbon suboxide, 376 Carbon tetrachloride, 185 Carbonyl chloride, 185 Carbeadde, 253 Carcinoma, bladder, 299 Camallite, 101 Cataracts, 210 Celestite, 110 Celloaolve, 247 Cement, hexavalent chromium in, 38 Cerirouge, 34 Cerite, 33 Cerium, 33 Ceruasite, 68 Cesium, 101 Chemical contitution and physiological action, 3 Chloracne, 189 Chlorallylene, 151 Chloramine, 36 Chloramine T, 166 Chlordane, 187 Chlorex, 216 Chlorinated diphenyl, 158 Chlorinated mononitroparaffbs, 189 Chlorine, 35 Chlorine dioxide, 36 Chloracetone, 190 Chlorobenzene, 191 2-Chloro-l, 3-butadiene, 192 2-Chloro-2-butane, 172 l-Chloro-2-(^-chloroetboxy)ethane, 216 4-Chloro-l ,2-dimercaptobensene, 126 Chloroethane, 240 Chloretbyl alcohoL 242 Chloroetnylene, 356 Chloroform, 193 ChloronOphthaiane, 155 Ghloronitrohsaecne, 195 Chioropierin, 196 Chloroprene, 192 l-Chloro-2-propaaone, 190 3-Chloropropene, 151 a-Chlorotoluene, 167 Chromic acid mist, 37, 38 Chromite, 37 Chromium, 37 Chromium carbide, 37 Chromium, hexavalent in cement, 99 Chromium picrate, 323 P.hmtnium piltlDJ, 37 Chromotropic acid, 127, 219 Chiyeanilina, 145 Chiyeotile, 19 Chryeotile, birefringence of, 21 Cobalt, 59 Cobalt metal dust, 40 Cobalt oleate, 341 Cobalt trifluoride, 39 Codeine sulfate, 104 Coffee oil, 266 Collidine, 330 Colonial spirits, 279 Columbian spirits, 279 Columbium, 41 Contact acid, 116 Copper, 42 Copper fever, 43 Cotton boll weevil, 163 Crane fly, 210 Creed, 198 Cresylic acid, 198 Crotonaldehyde, 199 Cryolite, 45 Cnstobaiite, 105 Cumene, 328 Cupferron, 66 Cyclohexane, 200 Cyclohexanol, 202 Cyclohexanone, 203 Cyclohexene, 204 Cydohexylamine. 205 Cyclopropane, 206 Cysteine, in cobalt poisoning, 40 2,4-D, 218 Darmous, 47 Decaborane, 44 Decaboron tetradecabydride, 44 Dental cariea, 46 p-Diaminobensaldehyde, 158 Diaminobensene. 318 4,4'-Diaminobiphenyl, 165 p-Diaminodiphenyl, 165 1,2-Dianunoethane, 243 Dianunophenoi (Amidol), 293 Diatoms, 105, 290 Diasomethane, 207 Dibensoyl peroxide, 166 Dibenxthiazine, 317 Dibutyl phthalate, 208 Dicarboxyiic acid, 310 Dichloraacetic acid, 140 Dichlorobenzene, 209 ST 0853333 INDEX 371 Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), 211 Earth flax, 19 Dichloroethane, 21S Elan, 295 Dichloroethylene, 215 Ensootic marasmus, 39 Diehloroethyl ether, 216 Eosin, 30 S.l'-Dichloroethyl ether, 216 Eannoe d'Orient, 337 Dichloromethane, 217 Ethane, 267 2.4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 218 Ethane diacid, 310 1.2-Dichloropropana, 219 Ethanol, 237 Diethyldithiocarbamate, 181 Ethanone, 276 1.4-Diethylene dioxide, 222 Ethoxyaniline, 515 Diethylene glycol monoethyl ether, 220 2-Ethoxy-6,9-dieminoacridine, 145 Diethyl ethanedioate, 255 Ethyl aeetate, 236 Diethyl ether, 222 Ethyl alcohol, 257 Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthaiate, 225 Ethyibeasene, 150, 239 o,o-Diethyl o-p-nitrophenylthiophaephete, 312 Ethylhnene (Dow process), 239 Diethyloxnlete, 255 Ethyl bromide, 259 Diethyl oxide, 222 Ethyl chloride, 240 1.4-Dihydroxyanthraquinone-2-sulfonic acid, 25 Ethyl diethylene glycol, 220 1.4-Dihydroxybensene, SSS Ethylene, 271 1,8-Dihydroxynaphthalene 3,6-disulfonic acid, 219 Ethylene bromhydrin, 252 Dilead-o-areenate, 18 Ethylene chlorohydrin, 242 2.3-Dimercaptopropanol, 89 Ethylene cyanohydrin, 148 Dimethoxymetnane, 282 Ethylenediomme, 243 P-Dimethylaminobentaidehyde, 54, 158, 188, 197, Ethylenediamine tetraacetic add, 70 333 Ethylene glycol, 244 p-Dimethylaminobenxalrhodanine, 90, 110 Ethylene glycol mono-n-butyl ether, 246 p-Dimethylaminophenylasobensenearaonic acid, Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether, 247 137 ^ Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether acetate, 248 Dimethylaniline, 197, 224 Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether, 249 Dimethyl beneene, 557 Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether acetate, 250 Dimethylene imine, 251 Ethyleneimine, 251 Dimethyl gallium borohydride, 48 Ethylene oxide, 252 Dimethylglyoxime, 82, 110 Ethylaoe tetranuoride, 255 Dimethylnitroaamine, 225 Ethylene trichloride, 348 Dimethylphenylamine, 224 Ethyl formate, 254 Dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine hydrochloride, 35,64 n-Ethyl-8-hydroxytetrahydroquinoline hydrochlo Dimethyl sulfate, 226 ride, 19 4,6-Dinitro-2-aminophenol, 8, 324 Ethyl oxalate, 255 Dinitrobensene, 162, 227 Ethyl silicate, 256 m-Dinitrobensene, 204 Ethyl sulfide, 3 2.4- Dinitrochlorobenzene, 331 Explosive stabilizer, 235 Dinitro-o-cresol, 228 Dinitrophenol, 230 Fatigue resistant metal, 23 2.4- Dinitrophenylhydraaine, 143, 145, 204, 266 Feldspar, 66 Dioctyl phthaiate, 223 Dioform, 215 Ferron, 124 Fiber gl&s, 52 1.4- Dioxane, 252 Dipentene, 355 Diphenyl, 234 Fischer-Tropech process, 39 Flexol plasticizer DOP, 223 Flour, bleaching of, 166 Diphenylamine, 186, 235 Fluorescein, 171, 323 Diphenylearbazide, 38 Fluorine, 45 Diphenyline, 165 Fluorite, 45 Diphenyithiocarbazone, 27, 32, 44, 70, 110, 135 Di-wo-propyl ether, 329 a.a-Dipyridyl, 66 Discoids, HCN, 272 D-8toff, 226 Fluoroacetic acid, 257 Fluocarbons, 259 Formal, 282 Formaldehyde, 260 Formaldehyde dimethyl acetal, 282 Dithizone, (tee diphenylthiocarbaxone) Formic acid, 262 Dithymolduodide, 63 Divinylenimine, 332 Dolomite, 72 Formic aldehyde, 260 Formic ether, 254 Fonnylic acid, 262 Dowicide, 322 Freon, 259 Dowicide G, 314 Fruit, ripening of, 272 Dow metal, 73 Fuchsin, basic, 30, 90, 147 Dowtherm A, 234 Fuel tablets, 138 Dry ice, 179 Fumaric acid, 263 Duprene, 192 Duralumin, 10 Dust, definition of, 2 Dust, classification of, 5, 6 Dynamite, 306 Fumaris officinalis, 283 Fume, definition of, 1 Fume, generation of, 6 Furfural, 160, 265 Furfuraldehyde, 265 Furfuryl alcohol, 266 ST 0853334 372 Furoie acid, 906 Furol, MS 3-Furylcarfatnol, 266 Ful oil. 168 Galena, 08 Galana miner*, 89 Gallium. 48 Gaaaa, definition of, 1 Gelignite, 300 Germanium, 50 Germanium hydride, 60 Germanium caridaa, 60 Germanium aulfide, 61 Gilaonita, 163 Glanoe pitch, 158 Glaaa fiber, 52 Glyceryl trinitrate, 800 Glyptal, 333, 366 Goethite, 00 Golf green*, 310 Qrahamite. 16S Grain aloonol, 937 Granite duet, 106 Griea^ reagent, 80 TTe/niiim 137 Hair dye, 310 . Halowax, 188 Hematite, 04 Hematoxylin, 11 Hemochromatoaie, 43 Heptane, 968 Hexachloroeyelohexane, 4, 163 Hexahydroaniline, 906 Hexahydrobensol, 906 Hexahydrocreeol, 937 Hexahydromathylphenol, 937 Hexahydrophenol, 909 Hexahydrotoluene, 9M Hexalin, 209 Hexamethylene, 200 Hexamethylenetetramine, 131 Hexane, 268 Hexanone-2, 178 Hexone, 178 Hexylene, 271 Hycar O.R., 180 Hydraaine, 53 Hydraaine hydrate, 63 Hydraainobenaene, 390 Hydraaoic acid, 54 Hydrocarbon*, aaturated 367 Hydrocarbon*, aaturated pandBna. 968 Hydrocarbon*, unaeturatea, acetylene, 269 Hydrocarbon*, unaaturated, olefin*, 27l Hydrochloric acid, 55 Hydrocyanic acid, 279 Hydrogen aaide, 54 Hydrogen cyanide, 972 Hydrogen fluoride, 56 Hydrogen peroxide, 53 Hydrogen eelenide, 103 Hydrogen sulfate, 116 Hydrogen aulfide, 59 Hydroquinone, 333 Hydroxyaminobensenes, 159 p-Hydroxybenxaldehyde, 168 Hydroxybenaene, 316 p-Hydroxybiphenyl, 139 l-Hydroxy-2-chloroethane, 242 Hydroxylamine, 60 INDEX 3-Hydroxrmethylfuran. 966 8-Hydroxyquinoline, 11, 27, 33, 42, 40, 63, 88, 134, 136 Hyoeeme, 4 Hyoecyamine, 4 Hypnone, 144 Ilmenite, 136 Imidola, 833 Indigo, 160, 370, 333 Indium, 61 Indium aulfide, 83 Indophanol reaction, 163 Induiaae dy.ee, rm~ Inaaet repellent, 333 Iodine, 63 7-Iodo-8-Hydroxyquinoline-6-eulfonie acid (fer> ran), 134 Iron, 64 Iron carbontrl, 66 Iron, chilled, 131 Iron picrate, 333 Iaatin, 333 Ieoaoetophorane, 274 Isophorone, 274 Iaoprene rubber, 387 Jamaica ginger, 361 Jet-propelled airplane*, 43 Kaolin, 66 Kelene, 240 Kerosene, 275 Ketene, 141, 276 Ketoethylene. 276 Ketohexametnylene, 203 Lanthanum, 67 Lanthanum oxide, 67 Lead, 68 Lead aaide, 64 Lead phthalate, 323 Lead picrate, 323 Lead tetraethyl, 70 Lechatellierite, 106 Lepidolite, 78 Limonite, 64, 66 Lithium, 71 Lithium hydride, 71 Lithium stearate, 72 Lithopone, 22, 135 Lucidol, 166 Lucite, 201 Lutidine, 330 Magnalium, 10 Magnesium, 72 Magnetite, 64 Maleic add, 263 Maleic anhydride, 263 Manganese, 74 Mannitol, 29 Marcaaite, 64 Marsh gas, 267 Mercaptoacetic add, 342 Mercury, 2, 76 Mercury detector, 2, 77 Mercury, electrodeposition of, 77 Mercury, organic compounds of, 77 Meaityl oxide, 278 Mesothorium, 100, 123 Metaldehyde, 138 ST 08 53335 INDEX 373 Metal fume fever, 185 S-Naphthoquinoline, 32 Metanil yellow, 236 Naphthylamine, 298 Metaatyrene, 334 fl-Naphthylamina, 100 Methane, 267 Naphthylenediamine aulfate, 104 Methanoic acid, 262 n-(l-Naphthyl)-ethylenedlainine dihydrochloride, Methanol, 279 86 Methemoglobinuria, 190, 299 a-Naphthylthiocarbamida, 800 Methionine, 40, 194 ' l-< l-Naphthyl)-2-thiourea, 800 Methoxychlor, 280 Neoprene, 192, 201 2,2-bia(p-Methoxyphenyl)*l, 1,1-trichloroethane, Nessler's reagent, 14 280 Nickel, 81 Methyl aoetate, 281 Nidtel carbonyl, 81 p-Methylacrolein, 199 Nickel picrate, 323 Methylal, 282 Nicotine, 801 Methyl p-aminophenol aulfate, 298 Nieotinic acid, 331 Methyl anone, 288 Nigroaine, 324 Methylbensene, 848 Nitric acid, 88 Methyl bromide, 288 Nitric acid fume pneumonia, 83 Methyl ttobutenyl ketone, 278 Nitric oxide, 84 1 -Methyl-3-carbohydraaidopyridinium-p-toluene Nitroanilines, 804 eulfonate, 204 p-Nitroaniline, 199 Methyl Celloaolve, 249 Nitrobensene, 808 Methyl Celloaolve acetate, 250 p-Nitroben*ene~a*o-chromotropic acid, 28, 61 Methyl chloride, 284 Nltrobruciquinone, 126 Methyl chloroform, 347 Nitrochloroform, 196 Methyicyclohexane, 286 0-Nitrocreaol, 41 Methylcyclohexanol, 287 Nitroethane, 305 Methylcyclohexanone, 288 Nitroform, 341 4-Methyi-l ,2-dimercaptobeniene, 120 Nitrogen dioxide, 84 Methylene chloride, 217 Nitrogen oxides, 84 Methylene dimethyl ether, 282 Nitroglycerin, 806 Methyl ethyl ketone, 172 Nitromethane, 807 Methyl formate, 288 p-Nitrophenylhydrasine, 145, 200 l-MethyU3-hydroxy-4*nitrosobensene, 41 Nitropropane, 808 Methyl iodide, 289 Nitroaamine teat, 228 Methyl methacrylate, 290 Nitroaodimethylamina, 22S Methyl orange, 36 p-Nitroaodimethylanihne, 225 4-Methyl-3-pentenone-2, 278 a-Nitroao-0-niphthol, 40. 41 Methyl n-propyl ketone, 292 1-Nitroao-2-hydroxynapnthalene-< ,8-diaulfonate, l-Methyl-2(3-pyridyl)pyrrolidine, 301 40 a-Methylatyrene, 150 Nitroaophenylhydroxylamina, 66 9-Methyl-2,3,7-trihydroxy-6-fluorone, 17 Nitroso-R-ealt, 40 Metol, 298 Nitrous oxide, 84 Mica, 78 Nordhauaen acid, 116 Mineral pitch, 168 Noriaodrine aulfate, 310 Michler'a ketone, 225 Novadelox, 166 Mineral wool, 52 Miachmet&l, 34 Ochre, 66 Molybdenum, 80 Octane, 268 Molybdic oxide fume, 80 Oil of ants, 265 Mon&site, 67 Oil of mirbane, 503 Monaxite sand, 33 Opal, 106 Monobromoethane, 289 Orange IV, 235 Monobromomethane, 288 Orcinol, 266 a-Monobromopropylene, 151 Oamic acid, 87 Monochloroacetic acid, 140 Oamiridium, 87 Monochloroacetone, 190 Osmium, 87 Monochlorobenzene, 191 Oxalic acid, 310 Monochloromethane, 284 Ozone, 88 a-Monochloropropylene, 151 3>Monohydroxybeniidine, 165 Palladium, 90 Morpholine, 294 Moth balla, 296 Paint remover, 217 Papillomatori* of the bladder, 299 Mothproofing, 210 Paraformaldehyde, 261 Muscovite, 78, 118 Mustard gas, 3, 272 Paraldehyde, 138 Parathion, 312 Naphtha, 295 Paris green, 18 Pariaite, 67 Naphthalene, 296 Parvoline, 330 Naphthalene-4-sulfonic acid-l-aio-6-o-hydroxy* Patronite, 132 quinoline, 90 Naphthenic acid, 297 fl-Naphthol, 194 Peach tree borer, 210 Pearls, artificial, 337 Pentachloroethane, SIS 374 Pentachlorophenol, SIS Pentane, 268 Pentanone-2, 292 Peracetic aoid. 140 Perchloroethylene, SS8 Peremesin, 34 Permanganic acid, 75 Peraulfuric add, 58 p-Phenetidine, SIS Phenol, 3, 316 Phenoldisulfonic acid, 83, 86 Phenol red, 30 Phenothiasine, 317 Phenoxur, 317 Pbenylamina, 159 Phenylenediamine, 318 Phenylethane, 239 Phenylethylene, 334 Phenylhydrasine, 190, 320 Phenyl isocyanide, 160, 184, 193 Phenylmetfaiane, 343 Phenylmethyl ketone, 144 Phenylphenol. 321 Phenylpyrasoiine, 146 Phlogopite, 78 Phloroglucinol, 334 Phoagene, 185 Phosphine, 91, 93 Phosphorus, 92 Phosphorus chlorides, 93 Phosphorus trisulfide, 93 Phosphuretted hydrogen, 91 Phthalanil, 323 Phthalic acid, 322 uoPhthalic acid, 358 Phthalic anhydride, 322 Piccoline, 330 Pickling of metals, 18, 56 Picramic acid, 8, 334 Picric acid, 316, 323 Picrolonic acid, 124 Picryl chloride, 324 Pimelic ketone, 203 a-Pinene, 355 Piperonyl butoxide, 325 Platinum, 94 Platinum, black, 94 Platinum, sponge, 94, 95 Plexiglass, 291 Plutonium, 95 Plutonium, excretion of, 97 Plutonium, personnel protection, 100 Polytetrafluoroethylene, 46 Portland cement, 98 Potassium di-thio-oxalate, 82 Potassium picrate, 323 Potato spirit, 157 Potstone, 117 Propane, 267 Propenal, 146 Propene nitrile, 148 2-Propen-l-ol, ISO l-Propenol-3, 150 Propyl acetates, 32S uoPropyl alcohol, 327 n-Propyl alcohol, 326 ttoPropylbensene, 150, 328 Propylene, 271 Propylene aldehyde, 199 Propylene dichloride, 219 iioPropyl ether, 329 ST0853336 INDEX tsoPropylideneaoetone, 278 Proetigmin bromide, 307 Prussic acid. 272 Pyridine, 330 o-Pyridylamine, 154 ^-Pyridyl-a-n-methylpyrrolidine, SOI Pyrite, 64 Pyrogallol, 4, 42 Pyroligneous add, 140 Pyrolusite, 74 Pyromucic aldehyde, 265 Pyrophoric alloy, 34 Pyrophyllite, 118 Pyrrole, 104, 332 Quarts, 106 Quinacrine, 145 Quinalisarin, 11, 28, 51, 62 Quinine-potassium iodide test, 27 Quinol, 333 8-Quinolinol, 133 Quinone, 155, 333 Radioactive cobalt, 40 Radioactive metals, 96 Radiostrontium, 111 Radioactive substances, 97, 99 Radon, 100 Rationite, 226 Resorcinol, 3, 42, 190, 261 Resorufin, 35 Rhisoput mgricaru, 284 Rhodamine B, 17 Rivanol, 145 Rocket fuel, 53 Rotenone, 118 Rouge, 65 Rubber, synthetic, 171 Rubidium, 101 Rutile, 126 Safety glass, 236, 337, 357 Salicylic aldehyde, 158 Salt sickness, 39 Saran, 215 Sarcoidosis, 24 Scheele's green, 18 Schiff's reagent, 30, 139 Seekay, 188 Selenium, 103 Serpentine, 19, 118 Shale, 98 Ships, fumigation of, 273 Siderite, 64 Silane, 108 Silica, 105 Silicone rubbers, 109 Silicones, 108 Silicosis, 105 Silver, 109 Silver fulminate, 109 Soapstone, 117 Sodamide, 54 Sodium aside, 54, 112 Sodium diethyldithiocarbamate, 44 Sodium diphenylamine sulfonate, 83 Sodium fluoroacetate, 258 Sodium hypophosphite, 42 Sodium nitropruaside, 60, 112 Sodium rhodisonate. 111, 117 Soil disinfectants, 164, 216 S"0853331 INDEX 375 Sphalerite, 13S Spotting fluids, 309 Steatite, 117 Steel, alloy, 42 Stellite eteela, 39 Stibine, IS Stoddard solvent, 295 Stone flax, 19 Strontianite, 110 Strontium, 110 Strontium, radioactive, 111 Styrene, 150, SS4 Sugar cane (rub, 210 Sufianilio acid, 317 Sulfur, 111 Sulfur chlorides, 112 Sulfur dichloride, 113 Sulfur dioxide, 114 Sulfur fluorides, 115 Sulfur hexafluoride, 115 Sulfuric acid, 116 Sulfur monochloride, 113 Sulfur pentafluoride, 110 Sulfuryl chloride, 113 Sylvestrene, 354 Talc, 117 Tantalum, 42, 119 Tantalum carbide, 119 Tantalum oxide, 11 Tar camphor, 296 Teeth, mottled, 46 Teflon, 254 Tellurium, 120 TerephthsJic acid, 358 Tetrachloroethane, 556 Tetrachloroethylene, 558 Tetrabromomethane, 556 Tetraethylenepentamine, 44 Tetraethylrhodamine, 17 Tetraethyl-o-silicate, 256 Tetrahydrobensene, 204 Tetrahydrofuran, 339 Tetrahydro-4-oxasine, 294 Tetralin, 290 4,4'-Tetramethyldiaminotriphenylmethane, 75 Tetramethylene oxide, 559 Tetnunethylthiuram disulfide, 540 Tetranitromethane, 341 Tetryl, 225 Thallium, 122 Thermometry, high temperature, 48 Thermometry, precision, 90 Thetford mines, 20 Thiocarbamide, 121 Thiodiphenylamine, 317 Thioglycollic acid, 342 Thiokol, 347 Thionyl chloride, 113 Thorium, 125 Thorium nitrate method for fluorine, 47 Thoron, 100 Thorotrast, 123 Thylox process, 69 Thymol, 128 Tin, 125 Tinkal, 27 Tin tetrahydride, 126 Tin tetramethyl, 126 Titanium, 126 Titanium carbide, 127 TNT, 552 Titan yellow, 73 Tobacco reaction, 186 Tobacco, thiocyanate excretion from, 149 o-Tolidine, 35, 36, 64 Toluene, 345 Toluidine, 345 p-Toluidine, 142 Toluidine blue, 345 Toxaphene, 546 Toxicological analysis, 7 Toxilic acid, 265 Toxilic anhydride, 264 Tracer bullets, 22 Tremolite, 118 Tribromomethane, 170 Trichloroacetic acid, 140 Trichloroethane, 347 Trichloroethylene, 548 Trichloromethane, 195 Trichloronitromethane, 196 Tri-o-cresyl phosphate, 550 Tridymite. 105 Triethanolamine, 351 ,0"-Trihydroxytriethylamine, 851 3.5.5- Trimethyl-2-cyclohexene-l-one, 274 Trimethylene, 206 Trinidaa asphalt, 168 2.4.6- Trinitrophenol, 325 Trinitrotoluene, 352 Tropfoel, 195 Trypaflavine, 145 Tumors, bladder, 299 Tungsten, 128 Tungsten carbide, 39, 128 Turpentine, 354 Uranium, 129 Uranium isotopes, 129 Ursol D, 319 Ursol asthma, 319 Vanadium, 131 Vanadium, catalytic, 132 Vanillin, 356 Vinegar naphtha, 236 VinyLamine, 251 Vinyl benzene, 334 Vinyl carbinol, 150 Vinyl chloride, 356 Vinyl cyanide, 148 Vinylite, 357 Vinyl resins, 305 Vinyl toluene, 150 Viscose, 148, 181 Vomiting gas, 197 Watch dial painting, 124 Welding rod coating, 127 Welder's siderosis, 65 Welsbach mantle, 34 Wire worms, 216 Witherite, 22 Wood alcohol, 279 Wood spirit, 279 Xanthate reaction, 327 X-rays, 99 Xylene, 357 1,3-Xylen-4-ol method, 83 Xylidine, 358 376 Yttrium, 153 Yttrium, radioactive, 134 Zapon lacquer, 168 Zinc, 134 Zinc blende, 136 Zinc chille, 135 Zinc chromate, 88 ST0853338 INDEX Zinc nephtbenete, 136 Zircon, 138 Ziroomum, 133 Ziroonium carbide, 136 Zirconium dioxide, 136 Zirconium phoephate, 137 Zirconium ailicate, 136 Zyklon, 273 ST0853339 'J39 '730306 '*# ^ 'i J *<_* I. , >4 'Iu9 THE DOW CHEMICAL COMPANY TOXICOLOGY LIBRARY 1803 BUILDING.