Document KzBZBwq7X5jEnN4xGvBB64NY6

FILE NAME: ZW^W^ DATE: DOC#:W^ OCUMENT DESCRIPTION:hZWZDW ZZZ&W Rachel P. Maines, Ph.D. Historian of Technology 26 Dart Drive Ithaca NY 14850 rpmaines@gmail.com 607-351-4012 As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get:" 20th Century Public Health Endorsements ofAsbestos in Filters and Pipe For ACI, Asbestos Claims & Litigation, Chicago, 27 June 2016 Abstract' Asbestos..cement pipe and asbestos filters were only two of many historical uses of the mineral that were originally adopted by public health authorities in the 20th century for their then-perceived public'health benefits, including workplace safety. The quotation in the title, for example, is from industrial hygienists Philip Drinker and Theodore Hatch's 1954 Industrial Dusts, in which the authors recommended crocidolite asbestos filters for workplace air, including for dust masks. Asbestos-cement pipe was approved in 1934 by the V.S. Public Service and the American Water Works Association, and by OSHA in 1971. It remains an approved assembly in 35 states and nearly all large V.S. cities, although International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials standards adopted in 1975 prohibit cutting or grinding a-c pipe with power tools. Maines for ACI June 2016 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get". Table of Contents Abstract.............................................................................................. 1 "As N~ar Perfect as We are Likely to Get:" 20th Century Public Health Endorsements of Asbestos in Filters and Pipe .......................................... 7 Asbestos Filters in the 19th Century....... fj 8 Spontaneous Generation and the Germ Theory ................................. 8 The Gooch Crucible and Chemical Filtration ......................... ........... 12 Asbestos Filters 1900-1945............................................................... 15 Asbestos Filters in the Postwar U.S. .................................................. 20 Asbestos-Cement Water, Sewer and Vent Pipe in U.S. Plumbing and Heating Codes ............................................................................... It 24 Standards and Approvals for Asbestos-Cement Water Pipe ............ 39 Standards and Approvals for Pressure, Process and Sewer Pipe .... 44 Standards and Approvals for Heating Vent Pipe ............................. 47 The PVC Controversy ....................................................................... 50 Maines for ACI June 2016 3 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" !i()t~s ................................. ........................... !)!) Table of Figur~s Figure 1: Pasteur's apparatus for disconfirrning the theory of spontaneous generation, 1862........................................................................................... 10 Figure 2: The Gooch Crucible of 1884, still in use in laboratories today .. 14 Figure 3: Harvard professor of public health, Melvin W. First (1915-2011), who served as an advisor to the U.S. Army Chemical Warfare Service and other U.S. military and nuclear agencies concerned with filtration and air quality.. 17 Figure 4:. Nobellaureate chemist Irving Langmuir (1881-1957) ............... 18 Figure 5: U.S. military gas mask c1943. The cylindrical component in the foreground contained the asbestos filter. ....................................................... 19' Figure 6: The U.S. Army gas mask filter unit of 1958, with pleated asbestos paper filter manufactured by Hollingsworth & Vose ................................ ,...... 21 Figure 7: Cost data for sewer construction, from United States. Public Health Service. Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control. Sewer Construction Cost Index, Construction Cost Trends Municipal Sewers. Washington, 1964......................................................................................... 28 Figure 8: Water pipe main break rates by pipe material, from Folkman, Steven. Water Main Break Rates in the USA and Canada: A Comprehensive Maines for ACI June 2016 4 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Survey. Logan UT: Utah State University Buried Structures Laboratory, 2012 . .......................................................................:............................................. 28 Figure 9: Aggregate Replacement Value of Water Pipes by Pipe Material and Utility Size (millions 2010 $s), from AWWA report Buried No Longer,' 2012 ..... 29 Figure 10: World production of asbestos-cement pipe through 1935 ....... 30 Figure 11: Leakage of sewage from cast iron pipe caused an epidemic of amoebic dysentery in Chicago, Illinois, in 1933, in which 98 persons perished. ................... :................................................................................................. 32 Figure ~2: Electrolytic corrosion of underground steel pipe. In the 20th century, asbestos-cement pipe was often used in underground service because it was not subject to any of the three major typ.es of corrosion. Note caption in original regarding rate of corrosion without cathodic protection. From Wright, John E. Practical Corrosion Control Methods for Gas Utility Piping. K:;msas City, Mo.: Gas Service Co., 1981: 1......................................................................... 33 Figure 13: Corrosion of metal water pipes in Flint, Michigan, 2015, from Edwards, Flint Water Study. Asbestos-cement pipe is highly resistant to chemical corrosion........................................................................................ 34 Figure 14: According to the ~olorado Geological Survey, this cast iron water pipe required replacement after only 8 years in the ground, in an area of . the state with chemically aggressive water and s.oil.. ...................................... 34 Maines for ACI June 2016 5 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Figure 15: Tuberculation of the interior of ductile iron pipe. Asbestoscement pipe is not subject to this type of corrosion, although certain types of "soft" waters will weaken it over time............................................................. 35 Figure 16: Corrosion of carbon steel water pipe after 20 years in service. 35 Figure 17: Corrosion of copper water pipe. Lead in joints in this assembly leaches into drinking water if measures are not taken to control chloride levels in the water.................................................................................................. 36 Figure 18: Tuberculation and corrosion to failure of lead pipe, from http://www.terz.ch/restaur/zinnpesCe.htm.................................. :.............. 36 Figure 19: Vitrified clay pipe is approved only for wastewater (sewage, stormwater, and process waste systems), as its bursting strength is under 50 psi. It is rarely used in diameters under 6 inches. Advantages are very high resistance to. chemicals, including acids, and long service life; disadvantages include weak mortar joints, brittle qualities in shear loading, seismic vulnerability, short lengths that increase installation cost, and high purchase price, especially in the larger diameters. The beaded streams of water at bottom center are indications that this pipe is leaking at the joints. Image from Trelleborg...................................................................................................... 37 Figure 20: Officially-approved asbestos-cement refuse disposal chutes installed in apartment complex in Bondy (Seine), France, in 1964................. 38 Figure 21: IAPMO Installation Standard for Asbestos cement pressure pipe for water service and yard piping, 1981. ........................................................ 43 Maines for ACI June 2016 6 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Figure 22: Brennan and Nemerow's asbestos cement pipe testing apparatus, Syracuse University, 1963........................................................... 46 Figure 23: Asbestos-cement water heater vent, from the 2009 Uniform Plumbing Code: 99 ........................................................................................ 48 Figure 24: French specification for the finial tee of an asbestos-cement smoke vent (conduit de !umee) , from Charlent, Henri. Traite Pratique de Plomberie et d'Installation Sanitaire: Comportant la Reglementation des Installations d'Eau et de Gaz dans les Immeubles d'Habitation. lIe ed. mise a jour. ed. Paris: Garnier freres, Impr. Tardy-Quercy-Auvergne), 1972. Asbestos-cement was the only approved material for this assembly because of concerns about carbon monoxide leakage..................................................... 49 Figure 25: IAPMO's notice of the California Environmental Impact Report on PVC, in the 1985 edition of the Uniform Plumbing Code............................. 52 Maines for ACI June 2016 7 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get:" 20th Century Public Health Endorsements of Asbestos in Filters and Pipe Why discuss asbestos filters and asbestos-cement pipe in the same presentation? Because they have related uses historically in public and occupational health types of service, and because the consensus engineering standards for some historically approved assemblies of each included crocidolite asbestos. Both were included in the decision of the D.S. War Department (later Defense) decision to designate chrysotile a critical material for wartime emergency purposes, and crocidolite a strategic material, the highest category for purposes of wartime priority controls and postwar defense stockpiling. 1 What follows is the historical detail and documentation behind the PowerPoint, which includes only a brief historical overview of both types of asbestos-containing assembly. In this longer version, I go into more detail on how each came to be approved by public and occupational health authorities. Maines for ACI June 2016 8 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Asbestos F.ilters in the 19th Century Asbestos, an expensive and rare material in ~he early 19th century, was prized by scientists in Europe, Britain and the United States as a filtration material because it is chemically and electrically inert, and forms a fine mesh of fibers for separation of particles or microorganisms from fluids and gases. Spontaneous Generation and the Germ Theory In the 19th century, cities all over the world suffered significant annual mortality from water-vectored diseases, especially cholera and typhoid.2 Children and the elderly had the highest death'rates from these ailments; the poor suffered disproportionately because they were the populations most likely to be living next to fecal-polluted bodies of water. There were two competing dominant theories of disease etiology between late 18th and late 19th century: miasmatism and contagion. Miasmatists, including, for example, Florence Nightengale, believed that diseases were more prevalent in areas in which miasmas, vapors rising from the ground, were unhealthy.3 Contagionists believed that persons could be infected by contact with diseased persons, contq.minated goods, and fecal- Maines for ACI June 2016 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" polluted water.4 John Snow's (1813-1858) experiments in 1854 with the Broad Street pump in London lent increased credibility to the contagionisf theory, as did the experiences of cities like Cincinnati, where cholera sickened riverbank communities in droves, but mainly spared those on high ground like Mount Healthy, Ohio, which got its name during the cholera pandemic of 1849-50.5 It was the end of the century, however, before the medical and public health community on both sides of the Atlantic arrived at consensus on the theory of contagion. 6 Hippocrates (460 BC-370 BC), who wrote of "Airs, Waters and Places," suggested that some locations were healthier than others. Since this theory was compatible both with contagionism and miasmatism, physicians could not agree on how to interpret the epidemiological data from 18th and 19th century epidemics and pandemics. In part, however, the theory of miasmatism rested on another theory, that of spontaneous generation, which held that disease agents could be generated spontaneously in water and air. Many physicians and scientists, although they were aware that small "animacules" could be observed in' water using a microscope (invented by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, 1632-1723), could not believe that such small entities could cause diseases that decimated urban populations.7 Louis Pasteur was able to show, in an 1859-62 series of what would now seem to be simple experiments, but which were groundbreaking in his day, that filtered water and air, if kept sealed, did not produce the "animacules" Maines for ACI June 2016 10 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" visible in unfiltered water. He argued persuasively that among these "animacules" were the harmful ."germs" of disease. Filtering through asbestos removed the microorganisms and purified the water, eliminating the waterborne disease agents. Pasteur had chosen asbestos paper as the filter medium in his demonstrations to other scientists, as he had found through experimentation that the mineral in filter form removed more organic material from water than any other filtration medium. In 1852, the cholera vibrio was identified by the Italian Filippo Pacini (1812-83) as one of these "germs," although it was not until well after Pacini's death that his work was recognized, after publication of Robert Koch's (1843-1910) work on cholera in 1884.8 The typhoid bacterium was identified in the same decade. Figure 1: Pasteur's apparatus for di~confirming the theory of spontaneous generation, 1862. Maines for ACI June 2016 11 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" In the United States, two marker events brought about paradigmatic change in medical and sanitary engineering policy for prevention and control of waterborne disease.9 The first was the employment of a contagionist strategy by the City of New York in the cholera epidemic of 1866 (known to epidemiologists as the Fifth Pandemic). The second was the disastrous typhoid epidemic of 1885 in Plymouth, Pennsylvania, in which more than 1100 persons of a population of about 8,000 became ill and 114 died. lo When tbe U.S. Public Health Service (US PHS) and the American Water Works Association (AWWA) joined forces to combat water-vectored disease in the United States in the early 20th century, as~estos filters, both in the laboratory and in the field, formed part of the arsenal of sanitation and disease prevention. Since Pasteur's discoveries in 1859, experiments in producing sanitary water filters had been under way in Germany and elsewhere. 11 By the 1920s, US PHS and AWWA were working with the U.S. Bureau of Standards (U.S. Department of Commerce) to develop standards for all aspects of water supply and s.anitation, including filtration methods, pipe, plumbing, reservoirs, and sewage treatment and disposal. Many of these standards specified asbestos in one form or another. 12 Maines for ACI June 2016 12 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" The Gooch Crucible and Chemical Filtration When Yale chemistry . professor Frank Austin Gooch (1852-1929) invented the sintered crucible and test method that still bears his name, asbestos was already, as we have seen, a well-known material for chemical, biological and medical filtration. Dozens of test methods developed by the U.S. Bureau of Standards and other laboratories employed the Gooch crucible, which came to be routinely specified in methods of test. 13 In Professor's Gooch's memorial article in the National Academy of Sciences' Biographical Memoirs, his fellow chemist Ralph Van Name characterizes the invention of the Gooch crucible as follows: The great value of this device lay in the fact that the filtering medium was a mat of asbestos fiber, introduced in suspension in water and compacted by suction. Not only does this supply an efficient filtering surface unattacked by most acids and readily adaptable to the needs of precipitates of different degrees of fineness, but precipitates which could not be heated in contact with pap,er fiber without undergoing decomposition could be collected, ignited, and weighed, in the filtering crucible itself, thus greatly simplifying the procedure. Criticised at first by some who attempted to use it with asbestos of inferior quality, but vindicated by the overwhelming Maines for ACI June 2016 13 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" testimony of others, this device soon became, and still is, one of the indispensable tools of the analytical chemist. 14 U.S. Public Health Service sanitary engineers Jacob Bloomfield (1897-1977) and Joseph Marius DallaValle (1906-1958), for example, co-authored a 1935 U.S. Public Health Service Bulletin now frequently cited in asbestos litigation, The Determination and Control of Industrial Dusts. The authors, however, report the use of the mineral themselves as a filtration agent in gravimetric analysis using a Gooch crucible, on p.43 of the Bulletin. IS The international movement for standardization of tests and measurements had begun in the 19th century, and had by 191~ resulted in the U.S. in the formation of the American Standards Association, now the American National Standards Institute. ANSI's website describes the organization's history as follows: In 1916, the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (now IEEE) invited the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers (AIME) and the American Society for Testing Materials (now ASTM International) to join in"establishing an impartial national body to coordinate standards development, approve national consensus standards, and halt user confusion on acceptability. These five organizations, who were themselves core members of the United Engineering Society Maines for ACI June 2016 14 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" (DES), subsequently invited the D.S. Departments of War, Navy and Commerce to join them as founders. As consensus standards are developed in industrial democracies, test methods must be developed for them to determine whether any given assembly or product complies with the standard. The ANSI (American National Standards Institute) Due Process standard, first. promulgated in 1919 and continuously revised since, requires that every ANSI-accredited standard be testable by an approved standard test. Asbestos played a major role in many of these test methods, because it was chemically, electrically and ther~ally inert. 16 Some types, especially crocidolite, had unequalled properties for filtration. 17 Figure 2: The Gooch Crucible of 1884, still in use in laboratories today \ - Gooch Crucible L---"' Asbestos I" I I . . . . . I sI Perforated Plate -Asbestos Maines for ACI June 2016 15 "As Near, Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Asbestos Filters 1900-1945 Between the time of Frank Gooch and the end of World War II, many new uses for asbestos filters in chemistry, physics, medicine, food science, and industrial filtration of liquids and gases were discovered in the Americas and Europe,I8 Asbestos filters were used to remove impurities from textile dyestuffs, and from the linseed oil used in wood finishing, as well as crude petroleum being prepared for storage, 19 Blast furnaces gases were cleaned with asbestos filters, as were boiler water contaminated with oil, and the intermediate products of sugar refining.20 Most relevant to this discussion of the evolution of the Kent MicroniteTM filter was the development of gas masks, with their requirement for highly sophisticated selective filtration of gases.21 For example, the gas mask filters used in firefighting were required to allow oxygen (02) to enter the ll!ngs, but prevent the passage of carbon monoxide (CO). That this was a scientific challenge may be judged by the fact that neither human lungs nor our red blood corpuscles can make this distinction between the two gases. 22 After decades of military and civilian research and testing, crocidolite asbestos was chosen by the U.S ..Army Chemical Warfare Service as the filter of choice for the American armed forces in World War II.23 Among the scientists Maines for ACI June 2016 16 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" who contributed to the project was Nobe1 prizewinning chemist Irving Langmuir and Harvard sanitary engineer and industrial hygienist Melvin W. First.24 As supplies of the mineral from South Africa were uncertain due to enemy action and to diversion of British shipping into military transport, much of the crocidolite u:;:;ed for this purpose in the D.S. was imported from Bolivia. 25 All asbestos was controlled during the war as a critical material, but certain types of crocidolite had the higher status of "Strategic" before 1945. Of this, U.S. Bureau of Mines geologist Oliver Bowles wrote in 1959: Long blue fibers are exceptionally well adapted for gas filters. Bolivian blue is preferred for this use. This is the only type of blue fiber that was regarded as strategic during World War II and the early postwar period.26 Later in the same report, Bowles notes that, High-grade tremolite and anthophyllite varieties of amphibole asbestos are more resistant to chemical action than chrysotile. Suitable fibers of these varieties are washed, thoroughly fiberized, and acid-treated to remove soluable impurities. The prepared fibers are used in Gooch crucibles or for other filtering processes employing strong acids or alkalis.27 All asbestos was controlled during the war as a critical material; and stockpiled afterwards by the Department of Defense well into the 1980s.28 Of D.S. efforts to find substitutes for asbestos during World War II, Ann and Maines for ACI June 2016 17 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Myron Suttoh wrote in Science Digest in 1958 that "The trouble is that nothing else is like <:tsbestos, and it thus has specialized uses for which no substitutes are available. It is a tough mineral to duplicate.~'29 Figure 3: Harvard professor of public health, Melvin W. First (19152011), who served as an advisor to the U.S. Army Chemical Warfare Service and other U.S. military and nuclear agencies concerned with filtration and air quality.30 Dr. First, by then at the Harvard Air Cleaning Laboratory in the,university's School of Public Health, reported to the 1968 Atomic Energy Commission Air Cleaning Conference that: It was found that greatest efficiency could be achieved with either African or Bolivian blue crocidolite which can be reduced to very fine fibers of exceptionalleng~h by mechanical beating.... In the early days of World War n, the British sent to the Maines for ACI June 2016 18. "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get". D.S. Army Chemical Corps Laboratories at Edgewood, Maryland, a piece of this paper that had been removed from a captured German gas mask canister. This was just what the Chemical Corps had been seeking for use as a gas mask smoke filter and they, together with the Naval Research Laboratory, proceeded to duplicate it and haye it manufactured in large quantities on conventional paper-making machinery by the Hollingsworth and Vose Company. The first successful paper for the D.S. Navy, containing Bolivian crocidolite, was called H-60. The D.S. Army paper, containing African crocidolite, was designated H-64 and later was called Type 6 by the Army Chemical Corps.31 Figure 4: Nobellaureate chemist Irving Langmuir (1881-1957) 1 'n~l.:' 1,l'!:fH:1),~_V -- j{, '" '&I'(h ~"'l\'H)S.1 ("jnle!.:;, 1 ,-::rtn~ R('~e r.;': ! ){>t\),;ll~>r\ ~ '~dl '-ohd i'l,.H- \\11'01'" ,,'In jrJ';:- Maines for ACI June 2016 19 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Figure 5: U.S. military gas mask c1943. The cylindrical component in the foreground contained the asbestos filter. Maines for ACI June 2016 . 20 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get". Asbestos Filters in the Postwar U.S. In the decision environment of the early 1950s, crocidolite asbestos was highly regarded as a filtration material for fluids and gases by a broad array of scientists and safety professionals. 32 The Atomic Energy Commission, for example, in its 1952 Handbook on Air Cleaning: Particulate Removal, prepared by Sheldon K. Friedlander, Leslie Silverman, Philip Drinker and Melvin W. First under the auspices of the Harvard School of Public Health's Department of Industrial Hygiene, described its nuclear-facilities air filters for removal of "poisonous and radio-active dusts" (p.28) as follows: Cellulose-Asbestos Paper. At present, the AEC makes great use of CC-6 paper which was originally developed by the Chemical Corps [of-the U.S. Army] for use in gas masks. It consists of fine asbestos fibers mixed with coarser cellulose fibers to give mechanical strength and act as a support for the asbestos. The asbestos mesh does most of the filtering. Efficiency is initially high and increases with use.... Cellulose asbestos paper is expensive and not available in large quantities.33 This assembly was published as a military s~andard in 1954 and revised in . 1955.34 In a 1958 article in the American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, Allan West of the U.S. Army Chemical Warfare Laboratories described the development of the Army's gas mask, including its asbestos filters (see Maines for ACI June 2016 21 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" illustration below).35 The military specification for this type of asbestos filter was still in effect in 1969.36 FiguI:e 6: The U.8. Army gas mask filter unit of 1958, with pleated asbestos paper filter manufactured by Hollingsworth & Vose Industrial lIyg{pne JO"urnal FIGUIII'J 4. E4R& gas IDa$k aerosol Iilter In 1955, British industrial hygienist G. H. Yokes identified the crocidolite/ esparto grass filter then in use in gas masks and radioactiveparticle protection as an "absolute filter," the most effective available at the time. 37 The following year H. E. Seifert and E. G. Callison described the use of this type of filter in bacteriological hoods, used in the production of vaccines, to protect workers from the pathogens from which both live- and killed-virus vaccines were (and are) made. 38 Henry F. Allen M.D., a bacteriologist at Maines for ACI June 2016 22 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Harvard Medical School, wrote in a 1959 issue of JAMA of the efficiency and effectiveness of pleated "glass-asbestos paper" in removing bacteria from hospital air.39 In a U.S. Public Health Service publication in 1962, Herbert M. Decker of the U.S. Army Chemical Corps described the development of crocidolite and esparto-grass filters during World War II for "gas masks and building filtration systems." He too characterized this filter assembly as an "absolute filter," defined as "t~ose that have an efficiency greater than 99.99 per cent for removing bacterial particles having a diameter of one to five microns."4o The Chemical Laboratory of the American Medical Association tested the effectiveness of the filters of both the first Kents .manufactured in 1952 and a later (1953) modification with a more loosely-packed asbestos filter that improved draw, finding in their July 1953 report that The filter of Brand B-1 [the Kent MicroniteTM] is the most effective in removing nicotine and tars from the mainstream smoke. However, the sample of later manufacture, brand B-2, is much less effective as the filter is more loosely packed, apparently in an effort to improve the smoking qualities. 41 The Laboratory found that, while both Kent filters were considerably more effective than any of the competitor filter assemblies, B-1 removed 60 per cent of the nicotine and 55 per cent of the tar, but B-2 removed only 41 and 44 per cent respectively. Their tables of results are reproduced below. Maines for ACI June 2016 23 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Table 1: Results of AMA Chemical Laboratory, "Study of Cigarettes, Cigarette Smoke, and Filters," published in JAMA, 4 July 1954. (lolmun Brand AI flrllndA-Z Braud B1 Ilrand B-2 Brand C-l Brnud C2 Bran<J D TABLE I.-Moisture, Nicotine Content, and Physical Characteristics 01 Four Brands of Cigarelles Type o[ :Fllter PUller ...... " ................... Fiber ........................... Asbestos laminated with paper Asbfsto" laminated with paper cotton .......... , ........ ". Ootton ..... " .... " ......... ~o ruter ....................... I1ate Sample Ohtained May.llJti2 Th!eember, 19ii2 April,l9.52 Octooer,l9j2 May, J9te Angust, 1952 february. 1963 AI'erage Weight of Cigarette, Gm. I.OW 1.123 1.0j9 1.011 1.017 1083 1.0114 t Arerage Welghtot FlIterTiV. Gm. O.lGiJ G.l83 0.1:>9 0.1:.9 1i.l6ll Q 173 Total Length of ('igarette. Mm. 70.1) 69 :; 69 . 69.5 (\9.0 1;'1'.0 70.0 Averago Lenrth 01 Filter-Tip, Mm. 11.0 ,13 10.9 10.9 16.0 10.9 7 Average Cirttllllference of Cigarette, Mm. W.O !!l.a 2(,,7 26.7 2:>3 2:,.3 t6ij Moisture in Tobacco. % 8.f,O 9.75 KSl 9.S! 9.27 10.77 10.71 9 Nicotine In 'I'oha,cco (MoistureFree Basis). % 193 1.9'l 1.8$ I.W 2.:14 2,4. 2.00 - _ .., , - - - - - TABLE 2.-Analysis of Smoke from FOllr Brands of Cigarettes ------....;.-~--.;...------.;;...------ Column Weight 01 Average 'rQbaceo VojuIDe'of Actually .Main,tre.m Smokl'd Smoke per (Dry Weight), t'lgarette, Om. M!. WeiJlhtof :-Ilcotme Found In Main<tream Smolr~ per ejgarett~, lIg. , - __. v..A With FllwrTi!. ReInO\e'(l With FilterTlp 6 7 Redl)t tion of )lleotine in Nicotine In Tooacco Actunlly Smoked WhIch Is Trans/erred to lIaln~tream Smoke, % r _A ~ ____~ lfainFltream With Smoke, Fllter-Tlp With % RemQre.! FllterTlp 9 - Weight ol Tars found In Malflstream Smok~ per Cigarette, ;\(g. r-w- .....A_ _ _ v~ With FllterTip With Remored Fllt~rTlp 10 Reduc tionol Tars In Mainstream Smoke. % JllandAL .............. O.6:!9 340 28" 200 24 21 l.,},!) lfi.1 . ao Brand A2.. ........ ... 0.600 301 2 ~1 243 11 22 19 168 13.9 17 Brand !i.I. ............... 0635 8'28 ~.J:! 1.00 21 8 1~,{! 6.8 6& lIrand B-2.......... ..... 0.:>91 350 249 1.47 ~l 22 13 M.7 94 44 IIrand Cl... ............ 0.681 461 3.91 3.38 14 23 20 18 j 15.6 16 BrandC2.. .............. 0.6.50 4lb j.oo 2.00 21 25 18 HU; 15.1 ~3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - : - - - - - - - - - - _ . _ - - . - - - Brand D ....,...... " ... 0.63:> 3:;(1 2.14' Placed In thIs column lor comparison IIlth lulJ.lengtb cigarctte~. 21 1;.8 Maines for ACI June 2016 24 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" A~bestos-Cement Water, Sewer and Vent Pipe in U.S. Plumbing and Heatin'g Codes Asbestos-cement pipe for carriage of potable water and waterborne sewage was first considered for use in the United States in 1923, when the United States Public Health Service (US PHS) reported on the use of EternitTM for water pipe in ltaly.42 The U.S. search for reliable pipe materials received fresh impetus in 1933 from a serious outbreak of amoebic dysentery in Chicago, with 98 deaths, caused by the corrosion and leakage of cast iron sewage pipe into . the potable .water distribution system in two downtown hotels (see Figure 11).43 Unlike cast-iron and steel pipe, asbestos-cement resisted the "three demons of electrolysis. tuberculation and corrosion" (see figures below.)44 That corrosion and leakage of cast iron and lead water pipes are still public health issues is evident from the current Flint, Michigan water crisis. In Flint, the lead seals used historically in cast iron water mains have been steadily corroding since 2014, contributing to the very high lead levels leaching from corroding lead and copper distribution pipes.45 The AWWA predicts that Flint MI, Jackson MS, and Ithaca NY are only early examples of what has been called an "epidemic of corrosion''.of water infrastructure, which will require a national investment in pipe replacement of about $1.7 trillion by 2050.46 The Maines for ACI June 2016 25 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" figures below depict major types of ferrous-metal, copper, and lead pipe corroslOn. All modern industrial democracies worldwide regulate water, sewer and fire suppression pipe assemblies, permitting the installation of only those that have been tested and approved by the authority having jurisdiction. In most of these nations, including the U.S:, consensus engineering standards for construction were and are adopted and enforceq by a variety of government agencies at all three levels of government: national, state, and local.47 Lower jurisdictions, such as counties and municipalities, may impose more restrictive local standards than those of higher ones. 48 New York City, for exa~ple, has more restrictive construction and public health standards than less urbanized areas of New York State because it is densely populated, with millions of lives, many of them in high-rise structures, at risk from fire, carbon monoxide poisoning, and infectious disease.49 Asbestos was specified in a b!,oad range of assemblies in the first threequarters of the 20th century, approved in accordance with American National Standards Institute (ANSI) due process require~ents for standards development, including but not limited to friction products, pipe, fiber reinforcement of plastics, protective clothing, electrical and thermal insulations, welding and cutting gear, filters, conduit, roofing, millboard, gaskets, packing and seals. 5o All were tested and approved by Federallyaccredited standards-development organizations, including the U.S. Bureau of Maines for ACI June 2016 26 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Standards (now NIST), the National Fire Protection Association, the American Society for Testing and Materials, and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Assemblies in which asbestos was required by building laws before 1990 include cathodic wrap for underground s~eel gas pipe, hot-air register insulating paper, and electrical insulation for conductors in switchboards. 51 Compliance with these standards was also required for obtaining the insurance necessary for mortgage financing. 52 Asbestos-cement pipe was in demand in industrial nations in the 20th century after 1934 because it was a tested and approved assembly, supported by approvals. from a wide range of government agencies, independent engineering associations and noo-governmental organizations worldwide, including those concerned with public health (see Figure 10, below). Other materials, including fiber glass, did not pass standard engineering tests for fiber-reinforced cement pipe until engineers and scientists had spent many decades seeking to overcome the chemical and regulatory barriers to developing asbestos-free pipe assemblies.53 Mechanical engineers Reno King and Sabin Crocker, writing of asbestos-cement pipe in the 5th edition (1967) of the Piping Handbook, described its "Applications" as follows: Asbestos-cement pipe is essentially immune to corrosion in the ordinary sense. It is not subject to electrolysis or to attack in socalled "hot" soils. It does not tuberculate. This pipe will not cause Maines for ACI June 2016 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get". discolored water. It is highly resistant to chemical attack, particularly that encountered in sulfate soils.54 The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Office of Water wrote of pipe standards and approved assemblies in 2000 that: Pipe manufacturers follow requirements set by the American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) or American Water Works Association (AWWA) for specific pipe materials. Specification standards cover the manufacture of pipes and specify parameters such as internal diameter, loadings (classes), and wall thickness (schedule). The methods of pipe construction vary greatly with the pipe materials. 55 When King and Crocker evaluated asbestos-cement pipe in 1967, it was considerably more expensive to purchase and install than cast iron in equivalent assemblies. The materials and installed-in-trench cost of A-C sewer pipe in 1964, for example, was about 15% higher than that of cast iron, and the price differential was about the same for water pipe. 56 Due to its resistance to corrosion, however, asbestos-cement pipe has proved much less subject to breakage over time in the ground, according to a study by Utah State University Buried Structures Laboratory (see . Maines for ACI June 2016 28 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Figure 7, below).57 The American Water Works Association reported in 2012 that replacement costs for all three types of iron pipe in use in the U.S. will be higher than for any other type ofpipe assembly. 58 Figure 7: Cost data for sewer construction, from United States. Public Health Service. Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control. Sewer Construction Cost Index, Construction Cost Trends Municipal Sewers. Washington, 1964. Table IV.-Materinl Cost Datafot' Category 7 "Pipe in Trench" of a Hypothetical $1 Million Sewer Construotion l'rojeot Type ot materU\l ]'eet of pipe Unit prim Material prIce Vitrified clay ______ . __ " ____ _____ , Con{lrete., ___ ____ ____ . _____ . __ Ctas.t"Jron. __ .- '.r-' - - __.__ - - _. - - _.- AnBstos":ltenu1ht. __ ~.:~. __:. ____ . __ 21, 3Ht 98 18,332.05 3,085.95 3,187,00 $L 700 3.688 2.215 2. lH22 $::;6,431 67,600 6,R35 8,005 118,881 Figure 8: Water pipe main break rates by pipe material, from Folkman, Steven. Water Main Break Rates in the USA and C,anada: A Maines for ACI June 2016 29 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Comprehensive Survey. Logan UT: Utah State University Buried Structures Laboratory, 2012. , 11'1 _if';lVliJ.: Cl 01 PVC CPP Steel AC Other tOTAL ~ill1:M "lDS, 33611.0 332387 268403 2355.3 4300.1 13502.8 3755.3 117603.4, Nl.Umls. CiJ! MltiUlmS 8204 1620 689 128 581 954 787 12963 . 1f11\1111'.'1 ~t{1.mt~I~,1 24.4 49 26 5.4 135 7,1 21.0 1f.O Figure 9: Aggregate Replacement Value of Water Pipes by Pipe Material and Utility Size (millions 2010 $s), from AWWA report Buried No Longer, 2012. . Region Northeast La'rlte Cl 4~;9 a CICL 8,995 DI 15;050 AC 2,30a PV 1,875 Steel 33'5 PCCP 0 Northeast Medium &Small 66,357 61,755 28,777 26,007 16.084 5,533 6,899 Northeast Very Small 14,49'1 15,992 10,661 7,~81 7/J37 329 462 Midwest Large 37,413 9,151 3,077 2,504 1,098 784 512 Midwest Medi.um 8. SlT)all 74,654 92,106 51,577 37,248 30,506 8,682 11,152 Midwest Very Small 37,597 28,943 25,464 12.428 19,720 601 828 SoutheaSt Large 30,425 28,980 29;569 21,22~ 14,936 9,337 7,227 South Medium & Small 54,772 98,608 140,079 103,659 102,804 21,394 17,160 SouthVery Small . 43,183 24,998 49,791 34,529 47,823 1,481 1,244 West Large. 15,448 16,055 28.949 14,774 14,723 7,443 6,215 West Meqlum & Small 15,775 ~O,145 70,355 50,541 48.885 12,.276 9.806 West Very Small 16,344 11,1~9 17,910 13,166 17,245 545 453 Total 455,416 446,927 461,258 325,674 323,637 68,719 61,957 Cl: cast iron; ClCL: cast iron cement lined; 01. ductile iron; AC' asbestos cement; PV. polyvinyl chlof/de, PCCP: prestressed concrete cylmder pipe TOTAL 67,522 211.411 57,152 54,539 305,925 125,581 141,703 538,475 203,028 103,607 257,782 76,862 2,143,589 Maines for ACI June 2016 30 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Figure 10: World production of asbestos-cement pipe through 1935 f '(:1 g f I '-' en ~ :::0 8 co n c (j') n -:-l j o 0 z (j') ;; (n !;;! \J l t' > ,? I~ Z !ij'~7_ 1\\21>,_ Ig~1 I~:;? 1~,-.1 1~3< " w o I I ! I ' I , I I If i Maines for ACI June 2016 31 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Standards development organizations worldwide in the 20th century, including AFNOR in France, the British Standards Institute in the UK, and the member organizations of the American National Standards Institute in the U.S., formed technical committees, which included state authoritie~, academics, scientists from independent testing laboratories, public health professionals, insurers, and minority representation (limited to 30% of membership) from manufacturing industry, to consider and develop technical standards that were adopted into national, state or departmental, and local laws. 59 Building and plumbing codes, and the engineering standards incorporated into them, were developed in Western industrial. nations for the purpose of preventing harm to citizens from defects in, or failures of, the built environment.6o Until the end of the 20th century, and in some cases beyond, asbestos was specified and approved and in code-compliant assemblies in the U.S., Europe and elsewhere that passed inspections by the authorities having jurisdiction (AHJs).61 Asbestos-cement pipe, heating vent and electricalconduit assemblies underwent this process, in essence a form of peer review for technology, in the mid-20th century, after asbestos-cement pipe was first introduced from Europe in 1931, where asbestos-cement was already approved for water, sewer and gas pipe, conduit, roof coverings, vents, and even garbage chutes (see Figures and captions below). Maines for ACI June 2016 32 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Figure 11: Leakage of sewage from cast iron pipe caused an epidemic of amoebic dysentery in Chicago, Illinois, in 1933, in which 98 persons perished. OIAGIiII,II.M $HOwn4. 'POINTS Of" LEAKAGE. F'ROM 5E:WE.R OVE.R THE. COOLED WATE.R TANK t""- HOTE.l... "X" l$.l~ epidemic this lel.lkage, vnlS an imp()l'tnl~t bctol'. 'rho more nnpnrtnnt rNlBOllS are the lrtrge nnmht:l' of infection:; among guests at hotel X on J UIll" 2~ U1l\1 ;;2H. and a l'ehttive luck of inf(~etionB among' guests, alJ hotel Z; Hj;;;Q th() f'x~essrn: l'ainfull DU UW evemug of the Intter <Jut(?; which con~ tributed to flootling of d!i) :-;pw{'r system of hotel X, "iylii{:h i)l'(lb:il~ly ea ,t1 se,d heayv pollntlOt1 of t1n~ !'\ p P ~l i al drinking-water :-:;vst(>{u . The point s of Itakage ill thfl hrunch sew(>t' over t his water tank at'll shown ill figLU'C 22. Tiwy were around rl 'wooden lH a ciean~tlt ,v lUIdi . . in tijl? ~il~',thm; fo. con'osi ])a~b~ill~l :at. . . .' llecft~e i) the rnsulnlii:ug pi~ c"9~rering orr this Se:,Wi?l1, . the'lel:1ik$l dUEl.,to t~o:1'l'o!i~ri' ~:t,'a no*, c0l1J31d:, i,>fed>to h,v~ ~n as se1~i ~ ~ti$ ~st11e t'lne: tlToul1d the W()dt1ell:'plug. . . Appn:l'ently at somf' t Hue th" h.'HWh ~AWA1' oyer the Maines for ACI June 2016 33 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Figure 12: Electrolytic corrosion of unde~ground steel pipe. In the 20th ' century, asbestos-cement pipe was often used in underground service because it was not subject to any of the three major types of corrosion. Note caption in original regarding rate of corrosion without cathodic protection. From Wright, John E. Practical Corrosion Control Methods for Gas Utility Piping. Kansas City, Mo.: Gas Service Co., 1981: 1. FIGURE 1 - One ampere of corrosion current flowing for one year will consume 20 Ib of steel. Maines for ACI June 2016 34 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Figure 13: Corrosion of metal water pipes in Flint, Michigan, 2015, from Edwards, Flint Water Study. Asbestos-cement pipe is highly resistant to chemical corrosion. Figure 14: According to the Colorado Geo1.ogical Survey, this cast iron water pipe required replacement after only 8 years in the ground, in an area of the state with chemically aggressive water and soil. Maines for ACI June 2016 35 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get'" Figure 15:' Tuberculation of the interior of ductile iron pipe. Asbestoscement pipe is not subject t.o this type of corrosion, although certain types of "soft" waters will weaken it over time. Figure 16: Corrosion of carbon steel water pipe after 20 years in service. Maines for ACI June 2016 36 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get". Figure 17: Corrosion of copper water pipe. Lead in joints in this assembly leaches into drinking water if measures are not taken to control chloride levels in the water. Figure 18: Tuberculation and corrosion to failure of lead pipe, from http://www.terz.ch/restaur/zinnpest_e.htm. Maines for ACI June 2016 37 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Figure 19: Vitrified clay pipe is approved only for wastewater (sewage, stormwater, and process waste systems), as its bursting strength is under 50 psi. It is rarely used in diameters under 6 inches. Advantages are very high resistance to chemicals, including apids, and long service life; disadvantages include weak mortar joints, brittle qualities in shear loading, seismic vulnerability, short lengths that increase installation cost, and high purchase price, especially in the larger diamet~rs.62 The beaded streams of water at bottom center are indications that this pipe is leaking at the joints. Image from Trelleborg. Maines for ACI June 2016 38 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Figure 20: Officially-approved asbestos-cement refuse disposal chutes installed in apartment complex in Bondy (Seine), France, in 1964. U1 Maines for ACI June 2016 39 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Standards and Approvals for Asbestos-Cement Water Pipe The approvals process for asbestos-cement water pipe under the British Standards system in the UK was well under way by 1930, with British and American sanitary engineers sharing experiences, test results, and engineering configurations.63 The American Water Works Association (AWWA) began the standards development process for asbestos-cement water pipe in 1934, although the first adopted standard was not p}lblished until close to the completion of a long-term testing program, described below. 64 During World War Il, cast-iron pipe was not'available for expansion or repair of existing water and sewer systems, as both iron and steel were on the strategic materials list.65 Asbest9s-cement pipe was therefore in demand, but as in all other wartime manufacturing in combatant nations, the military had priority over civilian uses of pipe. 66 Meanwhile, a number of real-life experiments by both civilian and military authorities suggested that asbestos-cement pipe and conduit had a variety of uses in peace and war.67 Sixty-two thousand feet of asbestos-cement water pipe, for example, were installed in the late 1930s in the cinder-filled (and therefore highly alkaline) salt marsh known as Flushing Meadow for the 1939 "World of Tomorrow" World's Fair in New York City. Tests in 1942 by the Maines for ACI June 2016 40 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Borough of Queens engineer revealed that the pipe remained uncorroded despite the harsh underground conditions. 68 Asbestos MagQ2ine received reports during the war that "Asbestos-Cement pipe used in certain bombed zones has shown little, if any breakage from concussion."69 To conserve strategic steel and iron in the war years, asbestoscement sheet and pipe were used in temporary structures in Britain, Canada and the U.S., including in military training camp construction.70 The constraints of the Great Depression and World War II prevented the formation of a formal AWWA technical committee on A-C pipe until 1949, after which the consensus process of developing, approving and publishing a tentative standard for asbestos-cement water pipe moved rapidly to completion by May 1953, with the release of AWWA C400-53T.71 Selection and installation standards for asbestos-cement water pipe, developed in cooperation with IAPMO, US PHS, FHA, the U.S. Navy, ASTM and ANSI, were approved as tentative standards in 1964 and as adopted standards in 1965.72 Meanwhile, in the four decades between 1930 and 1970, testing, approval and installation of asbestos-cement pipe was progressing in France, Germany, Argentina, Holland, Brazil, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Russia, Hungary, and Sweden as well as Italy and the tJK,73 An installation standard for asbestoscement pipe was developed by AWWA and AST~ by 1964, which by 1978 had been expanded into an AWWA-sponsored manual of safe work practices for Maines for ACI June 2016 41 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" asbestos-cement, which, after 1975, included IAPMO Installation Standard 15 (see Figure 21 below).74 Testing of underground pipe under hundreds of different soil conditions had begun at the U.S. National Bureau of Standards in 1912.75 A new series of tests, including tests of asbestos~cement pipe, was initiated in 1937 in conjunction with US PHS, the Federal Housing Administration, and the AWWA, . which continued until 1957.76 The US PHS specified and approved asbestoscement pipe in the National Plumbing Codes of 1949 and 1962 as well as subsequent editions. 77 The standards for asbestos-cement water, sewer and pressure pipe in force in the U. S. in the 1980s were as follows: ASTM C 296 Standard Specification for asbestos-cement pressure pipe. ASTM C 428 Standard Specifications for asbestos- . cement nonpressure sewer pipe. ASTM C 500 Standard Methods of testing asbestos-cement pipe. ASTM C 508 Standard Specification for asbestos-cement perforated underdrain pipe. ASTM C 644 Standard Specification for asbestos-cement small- diameter nonpressure sewer pipe. AWWA C 401 Standard practice for the selection of asbestos-cement Maines for ACI June 2016 42 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" distribution pipe, 4 in. through 16 in. (100 mm through 400 mm), for water and other liquids. AWWA C 402 Standard for asbestos-cement transmission pipe, 18 in. through 42 in. (450 mm through 1050 mm), for potable water and other liquids. ANSIj AWWA C603 Standard for installation of asbestos cement pressure pipe. IAPMO IS 15 Standard for installation of asbestos cement pipe, which prohibits the use of power tools in the field installation. Hand tools only were approved for cutting and beveling of asbestos-cement pipe. This standard was developed and adopted by the International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials in the early 1970s, and was incorporated into the Uniform Plumbing Code in 1975. A page from the 1981 edition of IS 15 is included below as Figure 21.78 "Hand tools" have been defined in Federallabor law since 1938 as those without a source of power other than that of the human users.79 It was necessary to make this rule early on in Federal occupational safety regulation because workers under 18 years of age were and are prohibited from using most kinds of power tools, inclu~ing power saws, cement mixers, meat slicers and trash compactors.80 Maines for ACI June 2016 43 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get'' Figure 21: IAPMO Installation Standard for Asbestos cement pressure pipe for water service and yard piping, 1981. ASBESTOS CEMENT PRESSURE PIPE FOR 99 WATE~ SERVICE AND YARD PIPING end of the pipe only, never to the rubber gasket or groolle, unless specifically recommended' otherwise by the manufacturer. 802.2.2 The end ot the pipe and the coupling or fitting bell shall be assembled using a bar and wood block or a pipe puller: "Stabbing" or "popping" the pipe into the coupling (pipe 15 suspended and s~ung into the bell) is not recommeflded. 802.3 When a field cut is made, cut the pipe sQuare, using hand pipe-cutters which use a cutting edge, or hand saws. To properly enter the rubber gasketed joint, the end of the pipe must be machined before insertion, usi1lg hand machining tOOlS. 1004 1004.1 1008 Materials location. AC piping shall be installed only outside the foun dation of any building or structU(~ or parts thereof. It shall be buried in the ground for Its entire length with cover as provided in Sec. 317.1. It Shall not be installed within or under any building or structure or mobile home or commer cial coach or parts thereof. The term "Building or structure or parts thereof" shall include structures such as porches and steps, roofed porte-cocheres, roofed patios, carports, covered walks, covered driveways and similar structures or appurtenances. ,nstallation, Testing and Identification 1008.1 Installation 1008.1.1 Altgnment and Delleetion.. Pipe and fittings shall be aligned properly without strain. Pipe may be deflected in accor dance with the manufacturer's recommendations provided that it shall not be permanently staked or blocked to main- tain thls deflection. If 50ft soil conditions exist, deflected joints may be permanently blocked Of staked to maintain the deflection. Tne amount of deflection shall be: 5 for sizes 4 "(101.6 mm) through 12 n (304.& mm); 4" for 1An (355.6 mm) Md 16" (406.4 mm); 31/t" for 1S n (457.2 mm) through 24" (609.6 mm) for pipe belied on the il?b site. For factory. belied couplings, one half (1ft) the above deflections by size shall be allowed. 1008.1.2 Working Pressure. Maximum working. pressure shall be as follows: MATERIALS. SIZES ANt> MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURES PIPE SIZES MAXIMUM PRESSORE Class 100 .. "24 locI. (101 b609-6 mm incl.) 100 psi (689 kPa) Class 150 .. "24' iocl. (101.6-609-6 mm Incl.) 150 psi (1318 kPa) Class 200 .. "24 inct. (101.6.Q(]9.(; mm Incl.) 1200 psi {1378 kPa} 1008.1.3 Laterals and Saddles. Installation of laterals. saddles or tapped couplings in AC piping shall be as required by their listings. Maines for ACI June 2016 44 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Standards and Approvals for Pressure, Process and Sewer Pipe As the name implies, pressure pipe is intended for use with liquid contents that are moved by the action of one or more pumps, rather than that of gravity, which is the motive force of the contents of nonpressure pipe. 81 Process (industrial) and sewer pipe were (and, in some nations, still are) manufactured in both pressure and nonpressure assemblies. Both assemblies are made in Types I and H, in which the latter has chemical requirements that require a different cement/asbestos formulation from Type 1.82 Type I a/c pipe must pass only the four major test arrays enumerateq. in ASTM Standard C 500, Standard Methods of Testing Asbestos-Cement Pipe, for hydrostatic proof (resistance to leakage and weeping in service), flexure (resistance to transverse bending loads), straightness (deviation along the length of the pipe), and crushing strength (resistance to collapse under externa1loading).83 Type II a/ c pipe must also pass a test for uncombined calcium hydroxide, which measures chemical resistance. 84 Over a period of several decades of testing in the 20th century, chrysotile alone in Portland cement did not pass this test; crocidolite, which is one of the most chemically-resistant materials known, was added to the Type II formula in order to comply with the standard Maines'for ACI June 2016 45 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" of chemical test. 8S U.S. Bureau of Mines mineralogist Oliver Bowles (18771958), writing of this in a 1959 strategic defense survey of the mineral, asserted that "Crocidolite (blue asbestos), mined in Africa and Australia, is regarded as a necessary constituent of asbestos-cement pipe."86 The chemical aspects of this use of crocidolite are explained in detail in Professor-Dr.-Ing. Kurt Hunerberg's magisterial study of asbestos-cement pipe, published in German in 1963, 1968 and . 1977, in Russian in 1968, and in French in 1971.87 Type II asbestos-cement pipe was used for underground service in which corrosion by pipe contents (including sewage) and/ or by aggressive waters, salinity, or "hot" (alkaline) soils are significant issues.BB It was also used extensively for electrical and telephone line conduit and heating equipment vents (see next section). Maines for ACI June 2016 46 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Figure 22: Brennan and Nemerow's asbestos cement pipe testing apparatus, Syracuse University, 1963. Maines for ACI June 2016 47 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get'; Standards and Approvals for Heating Vent Pipe Asbestos-cement vent pipe for heat-producing equipment was and is approved by the Uniform Plumbing Code, and by European codes until the midto-late 1990s. 89 These assemblies are still code-compliant under the current (2012) International Plumbing Code, the successor to the Uniform Plumbing Code. Historically, these assemblies were also compliant with heating codes such as those of the American Gas Association, that of the former National Board of . Fire Underwriters (now the American Insurance Association), and that of ASHVEjASHRAE.9o The purpose of the asbestos in asbestos-cement heating equipment vents was to prevent thermal cracking of the cement, which would have allowed leakage of carbon monoxide, produced by incomplete combustion of fuels, through the fissures into living spaces.91 Asbestos fabric or rope seals were used as vibration isolation connectors in heating duct systems for the same reason.92 Maines for ACI June 2016 48 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Figure 23: Asbestos-cement water heater vent, from the 2009 Uniform Plumbing Code: 99. Vent cap H Asbestos cement Type B or single-wall metal vent serving a single draft-hood-equipped appliance. (See Table 5-12) nGURE G.I(e) Asbe$tOS Ce. . .t 1)rpe B or Single-wan Metal Vent System Serving a Single Draft~H()od-Equipped . Appliance. Maines for ACI June 2016 49 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Figure 24: French specification for th:e finial tee of an asbestoscement smoke vent (conduit de !umee), fr~m Charlent, Henri. Traite Pratique de Plomberie et d'Installation' Sanitaire: Comportant la Reglementation des Installations d'Eau et de Gaz dans les Immeubles d'Habitation. lie ed. mise ajour. ed. Paris: Garnier freres, Impr. Tardy- Quercy-Auvergne), 1972. Asbestos-cement was the only approved material for this assembly because of concerns about carbon monoxide leakage. CondUit de fUr'nee I Sortie de; fumees \ Venl B,m _ _'__' tcron ---~ rica W - v,e: :\ -"---.~ -~ Vent ?LA N ... ceror vertico\ COUPE VnmCAlE FIG. ~H)(J. .- T('' e,n .an.u'anle-cl.ment. Maines for ACI June 2016 50 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" The PVC Controversy . Polyvinyl'chloride (pvC) for pipe is first attested in American engineering literature i~ 1950, when Gas Age published an article about a recentlyintroduced anticorrosion PVC-film tape for underground pipe.93 The American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) was, in thG~.t" year, testing various types of plastic pipe for possible use in industrial processes involving hydrofluoric acid; similar research was undertaken in Germany and reported in 1951.:4 Testing of PVC for water and sewer pipe was underway in the U.S., Europe and elsewhere by 1954, and continued through the 1960s.95 Britain approved PVC for cold water pipe in 1962, and revised the standard in 1968.96 In-service and fire toxicity of PVC were explicitly addressed in some (but not all) of these test.ing programs.97 The U.S. Bureau of Standards (Department of Commerce) published a standard for PVC "drain, waste and vent pipe" in 1965, and the American Water Wo~ks Association issued a standard for PVC pressure pipe ten years later.98 Some jurisdictions had approved the use of PVC in a few types of process, water, and sewer service by the time of publication of the International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials' (IAPMO) 1979 Uniform Plumbing Code fllustrated Training Manual. 99 The adoption of PVC in the 1980s, however, was controversial. Donald Maines for ACI June 2016 . 51 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Goodman et al. reported in 1987 on the opposition to PVC in California that had resulted in the limitation of state approvals: In California, the plumbers union and others alleged that plastic potable water pipe (PVC, CPVC, and PB) poses health risks. They have blocked the expanded use of plastic pipe by forcing an environmental impact report (EIR) to be completed. The EIR is now in its s.eventh year, and the California Department of Housing and Community Development (CA DHCD) is acting as the lead agency. As part of the EIR, Stanford Research International (SRI) completed a literature survey in 1983 on the public health effects of plastic pipe on potable water. That report identified four issues which need to be addressed in the EIR process: leaching, permeation, worker health and safety (exposure to solvent cements), and fire safety. 100 Because the issue remained unresolved at the time of publication of the 1985 Uniform Plumbing Code, the publisher, IAPMO, affIxed a notice to the inside cover of the code, shown below. 10 1 Maines for ACI June 2016 52 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Figure 25: IAPMO's notice of the California Environmental Impact Report on PVC, in the 1985 edition of the Uniform Plumbing Code. been!'1 "gU'.; NOTICE- .For $j:t~t yeats art Envftorvoent-al ~mA pact A!l~:Qrt,ha. 11\" \>1 pr<>pa'etlQn ul,CalltorQl1>to 1lE>1<!,'lIJnll'whethqr Ill"" "SeG. CI"Vc, PVC, or 1"8, plaQ!H:; j:>if?~ fG( tr<iil"l'<lflj!19 polatlle ,water P4%jl$ a <tallQlwtO"pullti<::, Health QI Ihe (Invlmnm~nt At the Ume of Ihis prinltng of Hle 1985 Edition ollhe Uniform PIJ!Ylbil'll Code, the Califor- nia State Plumbln9 Code does not permit any e)l> pans!on in the use ot &l1ch pIpe hey<Jod those apv plicalj()"s permHted Ir the 1979 Editioe of the Uniform PIJmbmg Code. For' mformation on CaUt('J(l,ta ras1rictICf!s. contact the Stail) Housing Law Sechon of the Calif{)rnia "ousing and Community Dev"lopme~t Dopa(tment International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials UNIFORM PLUMBING CO 0E DON'ttIONPSONASSOCIATES,INC. 1'10 Tamalpals Dr.. Sulle 206 Coli. Madera. CA 9Ml:!5 1985 EDITION Adopted at the Fifty-Fourth Annual Conference SEPTEMBER, 1983 INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF PLUMBING - AND MECHANICAL OFFICIALS (A Non-Profit ()'gonl:tllIIOl1) As of 1987, the United Association of Journeyman and Apprenti,ces of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers were still actively opposing plumbing and electrical code approvals of PVC pipe and conduit on both environmental and occupational health grounds. 102 Some jurisdictions, including Chicago, had imposed bans on PVC pipe in response to these ca!llpaigns by organized labor.lo3 Maines for ACI June 2016 53 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" By the mid-1990s, however, PVC was widely accepted and adopted for water and sewer service by code authorities worldwide. 104 Writing of this transition from the 1950s in the Journal ofASTM International in 2011, engineer Bob Walker observed that As a substitute for the well-established pipe mainstays of that era-iron, steel reinforced concrete, asbestos cement, and vitrified clay; PVC pipe was initially viewed as having insufficient strength and stiffness to be a viable contender. All these early views had to be . changed.... the questions and doubts surrounding PVC pipe's performance capabilities were overcome..... PVC pipes now account for the majority of all new water and sanitary sewer installations." Walker goes on to assert that "By 2004, PVC accounted for 78 % of the combined U.S. and Canadian buried water pipe market for pipe diq.meter 4 in. and larger."lOS The PVC pipe controversy, unsurprisingly, passed in 1985 into the hands of the National Sanitation Foundation (NSF), a nonprofit testing and standards development organization that has, since 1944, worked closely with Federal and state public health agencies .to develop materials, equipment, and safepractices standards for food, water, and sanitation. After three years of research and testing, the NSF published its revi~ed Standard 61 Drinking Water System Components in 1988, which promulgated a list of maximum allowable contaminant leachate levels from PVC and CPVC water system pipe and its Maines for ACI June 2016 54 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" solvent cements, adhesives and sealants, and a battery of tests required for NSF certification, which was required for AHJ approval under the Uniform Plumbing Code. 106 More than 90 potential contaminants of drinking water are currently regulated under NSF standard 61 and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulations. lo7 Performance-in-service (as opposed to health) standards for plastic pipe were and are incorporated into revisions of NSF/ ANSI Standard 14 Plumbing System Components. lOB Maines for ACI June 2016 55 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Notes 1 On asbestos as a critical material in North America during World War I1, see Bowles, Oliver, and K. G. Warner. "Asbestos." In Minerals Yearbook, edited by H. Herbert Hughes, 1363-72. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, 1940; Bromfie1d, C. S., and A. F. Shride. Mineral Resources of San Carlos Indian Reservation, Arizona. 613-91. Washington, DC, United States: United States Geological Survey, 1956; Ransom, Jay Ellis. "Arizona's Salt River Asbestos." Asbestos 36, no. 3 (1954): 2-10; Stewart, L. A. "Chrysotile-Asbestos Deposits of Arizona [1]." U.S. Bureau of Mines Information Circular 7706 (1955): 1-124; the same author's "Chrysotile-Asbestos Deposits of Arizona [2]." U.S. Bureau of Mines Information Circular 7745 (1956): 1-41; Stewart, L. A., and P. S. Haury. "Arizona Asbestos Deposits, Gila County, Ariz.". U.S Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations 4100 (1947): 1-28; History of Cork, Asbestos and Fibrous Glass Division, War Production Board. Washington DC: War Production Board, 1945; Bowles, Oliver. "Asbestos, a Strategic Mineral; Has the United States Adequate Sources of Supply?" Mining & Metallurgy 19 (October 1938): 442-45; Holmes, Harry N. Strategic Materials and National Strength. New York,: Macmillan, 1942; Josephson, G. W., and F. M Barsigian. "Asbestos." In Minerals Yearbook, edited by Allan F. Matthews. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, 1949: 139-149; Timm, W. B. Industrial Minerals and War Effort. Montreal, Canada: Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 1942: 181-191; United States. Army and Navy Munitions Board. The Strategic and Critical Materials. Washington,1940 and 1945; United States. Congress. House. Committee on Armed Services. To Amend the Act of July 23, 1946 (60 Stat. 596), Entitled "Strategic and Critical Materials Stock Piling Act" (H.R. 4136). Mr. Andrews of New York. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1947; United States. Congress. House. Committee on Banking and Currency. Amend the R. F. C. Act, as Amended. Hearings before the Committee on Banking and Currency, House of Representatives, Seventy-Seventh Congress, First Session, on H.R. 5667 (Superseding H.R. 5642), a Bill to Exempt Strategic and Critical Materials from Customs Duties in Certain Instances and for Other Purposes. Revised September 16,.1941. Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1941; United States. Congress. House. Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs. Stock Piling of Strategic and Critical Materials and Metals. Hearings before the Subcommittee on Mines and Mining olthe Committee on Public Lands, House of Representatives, Eightieth Congress, First Session. Washington,: U. S. Govt. Print. Off., 1947; United States. Congress. House. Committee on Military Affairs. Strategic and Critical Raw Materials. Hearings before the Committee on Military Affairs, House of Representatives, Seventy-Sixth Congress, First Session, on H.R. 2969, 3320, 2556, 2643, 1987, 987, and 4373, to Provide for the Maines for ACI June 2016 56 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Common Defense by Acquiring Stocks of Strategic and Critical Raw Materials in Time of National Emergency, and for Other Purposes. Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1939; United States. Congress. House. Committee on Naval Affairs. To Provide for the Naval Defense by Acquiring Stocks of Strategic and Critical Raw Materials, Concentrates, and Alloys Essential to the Needs of Industry for the Manufacture of Supplies for t,!e Naval Forces and the Civilian Population in Time of a NC!tional Emergency, and for Other Purposes (H.R. 3376). Mr. Vinson. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1939; S. 572 Act to Provide for the Common Defense by Acquiring Stocks of Strategic and Critical Materials ... June 7, 1939 (Public 117, 76th Congress, Chapter 190, 1st Session). 117; United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Military Affairs. Stock-Pi?ing. Hearing before the Subcommittee on Surplus Property of the Committee on Military Affairs, United States Senate, Seventy-Ninth Congress, First Session, on S. 752 and S. 1481, Bills to Amend the Act of June 7, 1939 (53 Stat. 811), as Amended, Relating to the Acquisition of Stocks of Strategic and Critical Materials for Nation,al Defense Purposes, and S. 1522, a Bill to Regulate the Disposition of Accumulations of Strategic and Critical Materials. October 30, 1945. Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1945; Strategic and Critical Materials. Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Military Affairs, United States Senate, Seventy-Seventh Congress, First Session, Relative to Strategic and Critical Materials and Minerals May 15, 19,21,26,June 4; 11, 16, and July 1, 1941. Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1941; United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Military Affairs., and Elbert Duncan Thomas. Strategic and Critical Matenals Essential to National Defense ... Report to Accompany S. 572. Washington,: U. S. Govt. print. off., 1939; United States. Congress. Senate. Committee 9n Mines and Mining. Stock Piles of-Strategic Minerals. Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Mines and Mining, United States Senate, Seventy-Eighth Congress, First Session, on S. 1160, a Bill to Stimulate Production of Strategic and Critical Minerals for t~e Present War Effort and to Assure an Adequate Supply of Such Minerals for Any Future Emergency by Continuance, Intact, in the Post-War Period of All Stock Piles Surviving the Present War and by Necessary Augmentation Thereof Primarily from Domestic Sources, and for Other Purposes. Washington,: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1943; Stock Piles of Strategic Minerals. Part 1 Hearings before the United States Senate Committee on Mines and Mining, Subcommittee on S. 1160, Seventy-Eighth Congress, First Session, on June 24, July 1, 2, 1943. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1943; Stock Piles of Strategic Minerals. Part 2 Hearings before the United States Senate Committee on Mines and Mining, Seventy-Eighth Congress, First Session, on July 14,1943. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1943; Kennedy, Donald 0., and James M. Foley. "Asbestos." In Minerals Yearbook, 199-209. Washington DC: G.P.O., 1959; May, Timothy C. "Asbestos." In Minerals Yearbook. Washington DC: GPO, 1965: 201-211; Snyder, Gary. Stockpiling Strategic Materials. San Francisco, CA: Chandler, 1964: 140-149; United States. Bureau of Mines., and Maines for ACI June 2016 57 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" United States. National Security Resources Board. Materials Office. Materials Survey, Asbestos, 1950. Washington: National Security Resources Board, 1952; United States. Congress. House. Committee on Armed Services. Subcommittee on Seapower and Strategic and Critical Materials. Hearing on Shipbuilding Programs before the Seapower and Strategic and Critical Materials Subcommittee of the Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, Ninety-Fifth Congress, First Session, May 25, 1977. Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1977; United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Armed Services. Inquiry into the Strategic and Critical Material Stockpiles of the United States. Draft Report of the National Stockpile and Naval Petroleum Reserves Subcommittee ... On the National Stockpile. Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1963; Inquiry into the Strategic and Critical Material Stockpiles of the United States. Hearings before the National Stockpile and Naval Petroleum Reserves Subcommittee of the Committee on Armed Services, United States Senate, EightySeventh Congress, Second Session. Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1962; National Stockpile: Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Armed Services, United States Senate, Eighty-Fifth Congress, First Session ... July 24 and August. 13, 1957. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1957; United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs. Accessibility of Strategic and Critical Materials to the United States in Time of War and for Our Expanding Economy. Washington,: U. S. Govt. Print. Off., 1954; Extension of Purchase Programs of Strategic and Critical Minerals: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Minerals, Materials, and Fuels of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, United States Senate, Eighty-Fourth Congress, Second Session, on S. 2876 [and Other] Bills to Encourage the Discovery, Development, and Production of Tungsten, Manganese, Chromite, Mica, Asbestos, Beryl; Columbium-Tantalum-bearing Ore or Concentrate, Antimony, Mercury, and Flourspar in the United States, Its Territories, and Possessions. Washington: G.P.O., 1956; United States. Executive Office of the President. Office of Emergency Planning, and United States. Office of Defense Mobilization. Stockpile Report to the Congress. Washington: ~956; West, J. M., and Victoria R. Schreck. "Asbestos." In Minerals Yearbook, 281-94. Washington DC: GPO, 1961; and Knight, F., and L. A. Smith. "Arizona Low Iron Chrysotile Asbestos Situation." Asbestos 42, no. 9 (1961). 2 On typhoid in the United States, see Dublin, Louis I., and American Public Health Association. Section on Vital Statistics. Typhoid Fever and Its Sequelae. New York: Metropolitan Life Insurance, 1914; Gay, Frederick P. Typhoid Fever Considered as a Problem of Scientific Medicine. New York: Macmillan, 1918; and McCarthy, Michae1 P. Typhoid and the Politics of Public Health in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1987. On cholera worldwide, see Kudlick, Catherine Jean. Cholera in post-revolutionary Pans: a cultural history. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1996; Maines for ACI June 2016 58 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" Rosenberg, Charles E. The cholera years, the United States in 1832, 1849, and 1866. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962; Castro, A. F. Pestana de, W. F. Almeida, and ILSI Brazil. Cholera on the American continents. Washington, D.C.: ILSI Press, 1993; and Echenberg, Myron J. Africa in the time of cholera: a history ofpandemicsfrom 1815 to the present. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. 3 Eyler, J'ohn M. Victorian Social Medicine: The Ideas and Methods of William Farr. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979. 4 Rutten, Thomas, and Martina King. Contagionism and Contagious Diseases: Medicine and Literature, 1880-1933. Spectrum Literaturwissenschaft 0 = Spectrum Literature,. Berlin; Boston: De Gruyter, 2013. 5 Hempel, Sandra. The strange case of the Broad Street pump: John Snow and the mystery of cholera. Berkeley: University 'of California Press, 2007. 6 McGuire, Michael J. The Chlorine Revolution: Water Disinfection and the Fight to Save Lives. Denver: American Water Works Association, 2013. 7 Gest, Howard. Microbes: An Invisible Universe. Rev. ed. Washington, DC: ASM Press, 2003. . 8 Koch, Robert. Cholera and Its Bacillus. New York: New York Medical Abstract, 1884. 9 Paradigmatic or Kuhnian change is the historical framework accepted as explanatory by the majority of modern historians of science, technology and medicine. The hypothesis was first defined and described in Kuhn, Thomas S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964. 10 French, Morris S., and Edward O. Shakespeare. Report Upon the Epidemic of Typhoid Fever at Plymouth, Luzerne County, Pa. Philadelphia: Ledger job print, 1885; Sedgwick, W. T. Principles of Sanitary Science and the Public Health with Special Reference to the Causation and Prevention of Infectious Diseases. New York: The Macmillan company; London, Macmillan and co., ltd., 1902; and Whipple, George Chandler, and W. T. Sedgwick. Typhoid Fever; Its Causation, Transmission and Prevention. New York: J. Wiley & Sons,1908. . 11 "Breyvis' micromembrane filter," Journaljur Gasbeleuchtung und Wasserversorgung (1886): 412-416; "Pietke's filter," in the same volume of this journal, pp.781-788; "The German Trials of Water Filters," The British Medical Journal 2, no. 1812 (1895): 725-26; Woodhead, G. Sims, and G. E. ~artwright Wood. "An Inquiry into the Relative Efficiency of Water Filters in the Prevention of Infective Disease," The British Medical Journal 2, no. 1767 (1894): 1053-59; and their "An Inquiry into the Relative Efficiency of Water Filters in the Prevention of Infective Disease," The British Medical Journal 1, no. 1934 (1898): 261-84. See also Zigerli, P. "Das "Z-Verfahren" Als Neuer Beitrag Zur Abwasser-Reinigung," Schweizerische Bauzeitung 108, no. 6 (1936): 59-62, on the use of asbestos filters for sewage treatment. Maines for ACI June 2016 59 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" 12 Conn~lly, J. 1. "The Apulian Aqueduct," Public Health Engineering Abstracts, no. J-238 (13 October 1923): 56-57; Uniform Plumbing Code Committee. Uniform Plumbing Code, Report. DC--13. Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1949; Design and Construction of General Hospitals. New York: Dodge Corp., 1953; Joint Committee on Rural ~fmitation (U.S.)., and United States. Public Health Service. Division of Engineering Services. Manual of Septic Tank Practice. Public Health Service Publication. Washington: U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, Bureau of State Services, Division of Sanitary Engineering Services: For sale by the. Supt. of Docs., V.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1959; General Standards of Construction and Equipment: Nurses' Residence, School of Nursing, Public Health Center, State Public Health Laboratory, Diagnostic or Treatment Center. Hospital and Medical Facilities Series (the Hill- Burton Program): Regulations; Public Health Service Regulations. Washington, D.C.: U.S. G.P.O., 1962; United States. Public Health Service. Technical Committee on Plumbing Standards. Report of Public Health Service Technical Committee on Plumbing Standards: A Proposed Revision of the National Plumbing Code ASA A40. 8-1955. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health ServiQe, 1962; and United States. Public Health Service. Div:ision of Environmental Engineering and Food Protection. Manual of Individual Water Supply Systems. Rev. ed. Washington,: U. S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, Division of Environmental Engineering & Food Protection, 1962. , 13 Van Name, Ralph G. "Biographical Memqir of Frank Austin Gooch 1852- 1929, Presented to the Academy at the Annual Meeting, 1931," National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoirs 15 (1931): 104-135. 14 Van Name, "Gooch," 114. 15 Bloomfield, John Jacob, and Joseph Marius DallaValle. The Determination and Contral of Industrial Dust. United States Public Health Service Public Health Bulletin. Washington: U.S. Govt. print. off., 1935: 43. 16 See, for example, Cain, J. R. The Determination of Chromium, and Its Separationfram Vanadium, in Steels. U.S. Bureau of Standards. Technologic Papers. Washington: Govt. Print. Off., 1911; Wesson, Laurence Goddard. Combustion Method for the Direct Determination of Rubber. U.S. Bureau of Standards. Technologic Papers. Washington: Govt. Print. Off., 1914; and Tuttle, John .B., and Louis Yurow. Direct Determination of India Rubber by the Nitrasite Method. United States Bureau of Standards. Technologic Papers. Washington: Govt. Print. Off., 1919. 17 Bowles, Oliver, and A. C. Petron. "Asbestos," in Minerals Yearbook, edited by F. M. Shore. Washington, D.e.: Superintendent of Documents, 1941: 1427. 18 "New Equipment for Filtration Problems: Utilising Asbestos Filtering Films," Chemical Age 27 (August 27 1932): 195; ,Belani, V. D. I. "Asbest- Kunstharz-Massen," Kunststoffe 22, no. 2 (1932): 30-31; Kaspin, B. L. Maines for ACI June 2016 60 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" "Preparing Asbestos for Filtering Mats," Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Analytical Edition 12 (Sep 15 1940): 517; Langmuir, Irving. "Report on Smokes and Filters, for the U.S. Office of Technical Services, OSRD Report No. 865, 1942," in The Collected Works of Irving Langmuir; with Contributions in Memoriam, Including a Complete Bibliography of His Works, edited by C. Guy Suits. New York: Published with the editorial assistance of the General Electric Co. by Pergamon Press, 1942 (Reprint, 1960), v.10: 394-436; Madall, E. "Separation t>etween Liquids and Solids/ Separacao Entre Solidos E Liquidos," Ordem dos Engenheiros -- Boletim 4, no. 46 (1940): 377-403; Perruche, L. "Filter Aids / Les Adjuvants De Filtratioh." Nature (Paris), no. 3067 (1941): 70-72; Schepp, R. "Determination of Sulphuric Acid in' Presence of S02 in Calcining Gases / Bestimmung Der Schwefelsaeure Nebe~ S02 in Den Roestgasen." Papier-Fabrikant 36, no. 21 (1938): 178-80; and Jacobs, Morris B. War Gases, Their Identification and Decontamination. New York, N.Y.: Interscience Publishers Inc., 1942: 108. 19 Juergen, R. "Linseed-Oil Purification /Zur Frage Der Leinoel-Veredelung." Farben-Zeitung 34, no. 19 (1929): 1124-25; Rawson, Christopher, WaIter Myers Gardner, and W. F. Laycock. A Dictionary of Dyes, Mordants, and Other Compounds Used in Dyeing and Calico Printing. London: C. Griffin, '1918: 46, 188, 189, 191, 194-195, and 199; and Cozzens, F. R. "Improving Crude Oi1." Asbestos 23, no. 9 (1942): 810. 20 Kling, F. E. "Dry-Hot Cleaning of Blast Furnace Gas -- Revolution in Gas Cleaning," Blast Furnace and Steel Plant 34, no. 10 (1946): 1257-64; Plummer, I. L., and J. H. Peebles. "Low-Cost Filters Chase, Oil from Condensate." Power 95, no. 5 (1951); Liu, T. "Asbestos as Filter Aid in Sugar Refining," Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 38 (May 1946): 521-24; and Fee, R. G. "Improving Filtration of Beet Sugar Liquor," Sugar y Azucar 53, no. 12 (1958): 25-27. 21 West, Allan, L. Goldfield. and Joseph Mitchell James. History of Research and Development of the Chemical Warfare Service through 1945. Antigas Collective Protection Equipment [Report No: EA-SP-300-4]. Ft Belvoir Defense Technical Information Center, 1969; and "Speci~l Filter Paper Shows Excellent Performance in Cleaning Air," Paper Industry 35, no. 8 (1953): 882-84. 22 Johnson, Joseph, E. Poinsett, and James Lynah. An Experimental Inquiry into the Properties of Carbonic Acid Gas or Fixed Air, Its Mode of Operation, Use in Diseases, and Most Effectual Method of Relieving Animals Affected by It. Being an Inaugural Thesis, Submitted to the Examination of the Rev. John Ewing, S. T.P. Provost; the Trustees and Medical Faculty of the University of Pennsylvania, on the 12th Day of May, 1 797, For the Degree of Doctor of Medicine. Philadelphia: Printed for the author by Stephen C. Ustick, 1797; Downing, A. J., George William Curtis, and Fredrika Bremer. "The Favorite poision of America,"Rural Essays. New York: G.A. Leavitt, 1869; "Poisoning by Charcoal Fumes." Harper's New Monthly Magazine 43, no. 256 (September 1871): 627; Cailletet, L. "Carbon Monoxide and Oxygen." Comptes Rendus Maines for ACI June 2016 61 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" hebdomadaires des Seances de l'Academie des Sciences 85 (1877): 1213+; Haddon, J. "Poisoning by Coal Fumes and Smoke," British Medical Journal 1 (1890): 178; Haldane, John Scott. "The Action of Carbonic Oxide on Man," Journal of Physiology 18 (1895): 430; "How Gas Asphyxiates," New York Times (Feb 20, 1904 1904): 8; Burrell, George Arthur, and Alfred William Gauger. Vitiation of Garage Air by Automobile Exhaust Gases. Washington: Govt. print. off., 1919; and Callaway, H. R. "Deadly Monoxide," Power 37 (March 18 1913): 385-86. 23 Brophy, Leo P., Wyndham D. Miles, and Rexmond C. Cochrane. The Chemical Warfare Service: From Laboratory to Field. United States Army in World War 11: The Technical Services. Washington: Office of the Chief of Military History, Dept. of the Army, 1959: 81. 24 Langmuir, Irving. "Report on Smokes and Filters, for the U.S. Office of Technical Services, OSRD Report No. 865, 1942," in The Collected Works of Irving Langmuir; with Contributions in Memoriam, Including a Complete Bibliography of His Works, edited by C. Guy Suits, 394-436. New York.: Published with the editorial assistance of the General Electric Co. by Pergamon Press, 1942. Reprint, 1960 edition of collected works. 25 "Carbon Monoxide Gas Defied in Army Mask," The Washington Post (Oct 7 1928): MI6; "Special Filter Pap.er Shows Excellent Performance in Cleaning Air," Paper Industry 35, no. 8 (1953): 882-84; Burrell, G. H. "Gas Mask, Developed by Bureau of Mines, Absorbs Carbon Monoxide from Inspired Air." Coal Age 20 (October 20 1921): 635-36; Katz, Sidney H. Bloomfield J. J., and Arno Carl Fieldner. The Universal and the FiremC!n's Gas Masks. Washington: Govt. Print. Off., 1923; Knappen, Theodore M. "Effective Carbon Monoxide Gas Mask." Gas Age-Record 48, no. 23 (December 24 1921): 841-44; Knudson, H. W., and R. D. Parsons. Filter Paper Studies VIII: Effect of Asbestos Fiber Treatment, Contract N7-0NR-430. United States: Office of Naval Research, 1952; and National Safety Council. "Personal Protection," Industrial Supervisor 18, no. 1 (January 1950): 11. On the offshore sourcing concerns, see 26 Bowles, Oliver. Materials Survey, Asbestos, 1950. Washington: Bureau of Mines and United States. National Security Resources Board. Materials Office, 1952: 56. 27 Bowles, Asbestos, 1959: 6l. 28 United States. Congress. House. Committee on Military Affairs. Strategic and Critical Raw Materials. Hearings before the Committee on Military Affairs, House of Representatives, Seventy-Sixth Congress, First Session, on H.R. 2969, 3320, 2556, 2643, 1987, 987, and 4373, to Provide for the Common Defense by Acquiring Stocks of Strategic and.Critical Raw Materials in Time of National Emergency,. and for Other Purposes. Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1939; United States. Army and Navy Munitions Board. The Strategic and Critical Materials. Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1940; United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Military Affairs. Strategic and Critical Maines for ACI June 2016 63 "As Near Perfect as We are Likely to Get" 29 Sutton, Ann, and Myron Sutton. "Asbestos: Miracle Mineral," Science Digest 43 (January 1958): 10-14. 30 Leith, David, and Stephen N. Rudnick. "Melvin W. First, 1914-2011," Aerosol Science and Technology 46, no. 1 (2012): 124-25. 31 First, Melvin W. "Filters: Prefilters, High Capacity Filters, and'High Efficiency Filters; Review and Projection," in Tenth AEC Air Cleaning Conference, edited by U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. New York: AEC, 1968: 65-78. The quotations are from pp.66-67. 32 "The Absolute Filter," Industrial Bulletin ofArthur D. Little Inc. no. 265 (May 1950): 1; and "Ganger Reveals Lorillard's Research on Kent Cigarette." United States Tobacco Journal (1952): 10 and 30. 33 Friedlander, Sheldon K., Leslie Silverman, Philip Drinker, and Melvin W, First. Handbook on Air Cleaning; Particulate Removal, prepared by the Harvard School of Public Health, Department of Industrial Hygiene. Washington: United States Atomic Energy Commission, 1952: 36, See also Haxel, O. "Simple Method of Measuring Radioactive Substances Contained in Air jEine Einfache Methode Zur Messung Des Gehaltes Der Luft an, Radioaktiven Substanzen," Zeitschriftfuer Angewandte Physik 5, no. 7 (1954): 241-42; and Palmer, J. H. "Developing Fire-Resistant High-Efficiency Air Filters," Fire Engineering 113, no. 5 (1960): 397-98. 34 V.S. Army. Military Specification: Filter Material; MIL-F-13785a, 30 November 1965, Superseding Mil-F-13785 of MIL-F-13785 (CmlC) 12 November 1954. Washington DC: Goverment Printing Office, 1955. 35 West, A. L. "Respiratory Protection Equipment Developments by the V.S, Army Chemical Corps," Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 19, no. 2 (Apr 1958): 140-8. 36 V.S. Army. Edgewood Arsenal. Military Specification: Filter Material; MILF-0013785b (MU), 24 November 1969, Used in Lieu of MIL-F-13785a, 30 November 1955, FSC 4240. Washington DC: Goverment Printing Office, 1969. 37 Yokes, G. H. "Filtration of Very Fine Dusts," Engineering 179, no. 4659